Counseling Techniques: The Best

Techniques for Being the Most Effective

Counselor
APRIL 30, 2014 BY FLORENCE NG

Tackling the ups, downs, and all around

issues that come along with living a healthy life is no easy bulls eye to hit.
Every week can bring family emergencies, health problems, relationship
issues, and career concerns. With all of these things that we cannot ignore
how do we go about facing them head-on with strength, self-assurance, and a
clear mind? If you are a counselor, or have been to a counselor before, you
would know the benefits that being able to speak with someone one-on-one
about your issues have to offer. There is no shame in asking for help, and
there are plenty of people that are qualified professionals that are here to
service your personal, career, or family needs. Today, we are going to go over
some helpful counseling techniques that, if you are a counselor, you are likely
to put into play, and, if you are a patient, you can look forward to engaging in.
So get ready to open up to make the best use of counseling techniques.
Benefits of Counseling
Before we get into the techniques used in counseling, lets first go over the
benefits of counseling. These are helpful to know whether you are a counselor
or wanting to be counseled as you will see why counseling is so important.
Counseling can help you

Feel better about yourself.

 Feel more at peace, at ease in your daily activities, more comfortable,
and more secure in the world.

Feel more successful and more joyful on a more regular basis.

Feel more connected to others, especially those who are close to

you, such as your family, spouse, or best friends.

Reduce stress at home, in the workplace, or in relationships.

Help with your physical health by reducing emotional worries or

stressors.

Work through your problems with a skilled and compassionate

professional counselor.

Identify the goals that you have in life, as well make new goals that you
want to achieve.

Learn new behaviors or responses to situations that can help you better
achieve your goals.

Establish healthy and efficient ways and techniques for reaching your
goals.

Understand your own thoughts, feelings, and responses.

Understand your loved ones and your relationships with them.

Develop a safe and friendly listening ear.

Speak with a skilled professional about your fears and perceptions of the
world, and others.

Feel safe about expressing any personal troubles or private concerns.

Work towards greater self-fulfillment.

Counseling Techniques Used by Counselors

 There are many different techniques
that counselors can use with their clients. Lets take a look at some of the
techniques that we feel to be most effective during a counseling session:

Spheres of Influence: This assessment tool will get the individual to

look at areas of their life and see which areas may be impacting and
influencing them. The persons job is to figure out which systems in
their life give them strength, and which ones give them stress. Some
spheres of influence to consider are: themselves, immediate family,
friends, husband or wife, extended family, job or school, community,
culture or religion, and any external influences.

Clarification: A counselor should often ask their client to clarify what

they are telling them to make sure they understand the situation
correctly. This will help the counselor avoid any misconceptions or
avoid them having to make any assumptions that could hinder their
feedback.

Client Expectations: When a person enters therapy, they should voice

their opinions about counseling and their beliefs about treatment. In
the beginning, they should be able to communicate with their
counselor as to what they expect to get out of counseling. This can
help the counselor guide and direct their counseling accordingly.

Confrontation: We do not mean the client confronting the therapist, or

vice versa. The confrontation that should happen here is within the
client. The client should be able to self-examine themselves during
counseling. However, the speed at which they do this should be
discussed between the counselor and the client.

Congruence: This has to do with the counselor being genuine with their
feedback and beliefs about their clients situation and progress. The
 more authentic and true they are with their counseling, the more that
their client and work to grow and benefit from their help.

Core Conditions: This technique in counseling goes over some essential

traits that the counselor needs to integrate for effective counseling,
which are: positive regard, empathy, congruence or genuineness, and
warmth.

Encouraging: Being encouraging as a counselor for your client is an

essential technique that will help facilitate confidence and respect
between both parties. This technique asks that the counselor focus on
the clients strengths and assets to help them see themselves in a
positive light. This will help with the clients progression.

Engagement: As a therapist, having a good, yet professional

relationship with your client is essential. However, there are bound to
be difficult moments in counseling sessions, which will require
influential engagement on the counselors behalf.

Focusing: This technique involves the counselor demonstrating that

they understand what their client is experiencing by using non-
judgmental attention without any words. Focusing can help the
counselor determine what the client needs to obtain next from their
services.

Immediacy: The technique of the counselor speaking openly about

something that is occurring in the present moment. This helps the
client learn from their real life experiences and apply this to their
reactions for other past situations.

Listening Skills: With any relationship, listening skills are needed to

show that the counselor understands and interprets the information that
their client gives them correctly. The counselor should do this by
showing attentiveness in non-verbal ways, such as: summarizing,
capping, or matching the body language of their clients.

Open-Ended Questions: Open ended questions encourage people in a

counseling session to give more details on their discussion. Therefore,
these types of questions are used as a technique by counselors to help
their clients answer how, why, and what.
 Paraphrasing: This technique will show clients that the counselor is
listening to their information and processing what they have been telling
them. Paraphrasing is also good to reiterate or clarify any
misinformation that might have occurred.

Positive Asset Search: A positive technique used by counselors helps

clients think up their positive strengths and attributes to get them into a
strong mindset about themselves.

Reflection of Feeling: Counselors use this technique to show their

clients that they are fully aware of the feelings that their client is
experiencing. They can do this by using exact words and phrases that
their client is expressing to them.

Miracle Question: The technique of asking a question of this sort will

help the client see the world in a different way or perspective. A miracle
question could be something along the lines of: What would your world
look like if a miracle occurred? What would that miracle be and how
would it change things?

Stages of Change: By assessing a clients needs, a counselor can

determine the changes that need to occur for their client, and when they
should take place. This can be determined by what they believe to be
most important.

Trustworthiness: The counselor must create an environment for their

client as such that their client feels that they have the capacity to trust
their counselor. A therapist must be: congruent, warm, empathetic, and
speak with positive regard to their client.

Capping: A lot of counselors use the technique of capping during their

sessions. Capping involves changing a conversations direction from
emotional to cognitive if the counselor feels their clients emotions need
to be calmed or regulated.

Working Alliance: Creating a working alliance between a counselor and

their client is essential for a successful counseling environment that will
work to achieve the clients needs. This technique involves the client
and therapist being active collaborators during counseling and agreeing
upon goals of treatment that are necessary, as well as how to achieve
those goals.
 Proxemics: This technique has the counselor study the spatial
movements and conditions of communication that their client exhibits.
By studying their clients body orientation, the counselor can determine
mood, feelings, and reactions.

Self-Disclosure: The counselor will make note when personal

information is disclosed at certain points of therapy. This technique will
help the counselor learn more about the client and use this information
only to benefit them.

Structuring: When the individual enters counseling, the counselor

should discuss the agenda for the day with their client, the activities, and
the processes that they will go through. This technique in counseling
will help the client understand their counselors train of thought into
determining how this routine will work for them. Soon enough, the
client will get used to the routine, and this establishes comfort and trust
in counseling.

Hierarchy of Needs: This technique involves the counselor assessing

their clients level of needs as based on the progress that they are
making. The needs that they will factor in are: physiological needs,
safety needs, love and belonging needs, self esteem needs, and self-
actualization needs. All these will determine if change needs to take
place in counseling.

https://blog.udemy.com/counseling-techniques/

Approaches to Counselling

See Also Mediation Skills

This page provides an overview of three of the main approaches

used by professional counsellors, psychodynamic, humanistic and
behavioural there are many more approaches but these three
are the most commonly practised.
While some professional counsellors use only one approach,
others are more flexible and might use techniques from more than
one method.
Although untrained people may possess and develop some skills that are desirable to a
counsellor, if counselling plays a role in your work or personal life then you should undertake a
recognised professional counselling course. You may also be interested in our introductory
page What is Counselling?

Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling

Psychodynamic counselling evolved from the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). During his
career as a medical doctor, Freud came across many patients who suffered from medical
conditions which appeared to have no physical cause. This led him to believe that the origin of
such illnesses lay in the unconscious mind of the patient. Freud's work investigated the
unconscious mind in order to understand his patients and assist in their healing.

Over time many of Freud's original ideas have been adapted, developed, disregarded or even
discredited, bringing about many different schools of thought and practice. However, psychodynamic
counselling is based on Freuds idea that true knowledge of people and their problems is possible
through an understanding of particular areas of the human mind, these areas are:

The Conscious things that we are aware of, these could be feelings or emotions, anger, sadness,
grief, delight, surprise, happiness, etc.

The Subconscious these are things that are below our conscious awareness but fairly easily
accessible. For example with appropriate questioning a past event which a client had forgotten
about may be brought back into the conscious mind.

The Unconscious is the area of the mind where memories have been suppressed and is usually
very difficult to access. Such memories may include extremely traumatic events that have been
blocked off and require a highly skilled practitioner to help recover.

Freud's main interest and aim was to bring things from the unconscious into the conscious. This
practice is known as psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is used to encourage the client to examine
childhood or early memory trauma to gain a deeper understanding this in turn may help the client
to release negativities that they still hold, associated with earlier events. Psychoanalysis is based
upon the assumption that only by becoming aware of earlier dilemmas, which have been repressed
into our unconscious because of painful associations, can we progress psychologically.

Freud also maintained that the personality consists of three related elements:

Id, Ego and Superego

Id - The Id is the part of our personality concerned with satisfying instinctual basic needs of
food, comfort and pleasure the Id is present from (or possibly before) birth.

Ego Defined as The realistic awareness of self. The Ego is the logical and commonsense
side to our personality. Freud believed that the Ego develops as the infant becomes aware that
it is a separate being from its parents.

Superego The Superego develops later in a childs life from about the age of three, according
to Freud. Superego curbs and controls the basic instincts of the Id, which may be socially
unacceptable. The Superego acts as our conscience.

Freud believed that everybody experiences tension and conflict between the three elements of
their personalities. For example, desire for pleasure (from the Id) is restrained by the moral
sense of right and wrong (from the Superego). The Ego balances up the tension between the Id
wanting to be satisfied and the Superego being over strict. The main goal of psychodynamic
counselling, therefore, is to help people to balance the three elements of their personality so
that neither the Id nor the Superego is dominant.

Humanistic Approach to Counselling

In contrast to the psychodynamic approach to counselling, childhood events and difficulties
are not given the same importance in the humanistic counselling process. Humanistic
counselling recognises the uniqueness of every individual. Humanistic counselling
assumes that everyone has an innate capacity to grow emotionally and psychologically
towards the goals of self-actualisation and personal fulfilment.

Humanistic counsellors work with the belief that it is not life events that cause problems,
but how the individual experiences life events. How we experience life events will in turn relate
to how we feel about ourselves, influencing self-esteem and confidence. The Humanistic
approach to counselling encourages the client to learn to understand how negative responses
to life events can lead to psychological discomfort. The approach aims for acceptance of both
the negative and positive aspects of oneself.

Humanistic counsellors aim to help clients to explore their own thoughts and feelings and to
work out their own solutions to their problems. The American psychologist, Carl Rogers (1902-
1987) developed one of the most commonly used humanistic therapies, Client-Centred
Counselling, which encourages the client to concentrate on how they feel at the present
moment.

Client-Centred Counselling
The central theme of client-centred counselling is the belief that we all have inherent
resources that enable us to deal with whatever life brings.

Client-centred therapy focuses on the belief that the client - and not the counsellor - is the best
expert on their own thoughts, feelings, experiences and problems. It is therefore the client
who is most capable of finding the most appropriate solutions. The counsellor does not
suggest any course of action, make recommendations, ask probing questions or try to interpret
anything the client says. The responsibility for working out problems rests wholly with the
client. When the counsellor does respond, their aim is to reflect and clarify what the client has
been saying.

A trained client-centred counsellor aims to show empathy, warmth and genuineness, which
they believe will enable the client's self-understanding and psychological growth.

Empathy involves being able to understand the clients issues from their own frame of
reference. The counsellor should be able to accurately reflect this understanding back to the
client. You may also be interested in our page: What is Empathy?

Warmth is to show the client that they are valued, regardless of anything that happens during
the counselling session. The counsellor must be non-judgmental, accepting whatever the
client says or does, without imposing evaluations.

Genuineness (sometimes termed congruence) refers to the counsellor's ability to be open and
honest and not to act in a superior manner or hide behind a 'professional' facade.

Behavioural Approach to Counselling

The Behavioural Approach to Counselling focuses on the assumption that the environment
determines an individual's behaviour. How an individual responds to a given situation is
due to behaviour that has been reinforced as a child. For example, someone who suffers
from arachnophobia will probably run away screaming (response) at the sight of a spider
(stimulus). Behavioural therapies evolved from psychological research and theories of
learning concerned with observable behaviour, i.e. behaviour that can be objectively
viewed and measured.

Behaviourists believe that that behaviour is 'learned' and, therefore, it can be unlearned. This is
in contrast to the psychodynamic approach, which emphasises that behaviour is determined by
instinctual drives.

Behaviour therapy focuses on the behaviour of the individual and aims to help him/her to
modify unwanted behaviours. According to this approach unwanted behaviour is an undesired
response to something or someone in a person's environment. Using this approach a
counsellor would identify the unwanted behaviour with a client and together they would work
to change or adapt the behaviour. For example, a client who feels anxious around dogs would
learn a more appropriate response to these animals. Problems which respond well to this type
of therapy include phobias, anxiety attacks and eating disorders. Behavioural counsellors or
therapists use a range of behaviour modification techniques.

Once the unwanted behaviour is identified, the client and counsellor might continue the
process by drawing up an action plan of realistic, attainable goals. The aim would be that the
unwanted behaviour stops altogether or is changed in such a way that it is no longer a problem.

Clients might be taught skills to help them manage their lives more effectively. For example,
they may be taught how to relax in situations that produce an anxiety response and rewarded
or positively reinforced when desirable behaviour occurs. Another method used involves
learning desirable behaviour by watching and copying others who already behave in the
desired way. In general, the behavioural approach is concerned with the outcome rather than
the process of change.

The behavioural counsellor uses the skills of listening, reflection and clarification, but rather
than use them as a process of revealing and clarifying the client's thoughts and feelings, the
skills would be used to enable the counsellor to make an assessment of all the factors relating
to the undesirable behaviour.

Find more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/counselling-

approaches.html#ixzz4XdWFo1Cx
 about ICF

International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, also known as ICF, is a

classification of the health components of functioning and disability. The World Health
Assembly on May 22, 2001, approved the International Classification of Functioning,
Disability and Health and its abbreviation of "ICF." This classification was first created in
1980 and then called the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and
Handicaps, or ICIDH by WHO to provide a unifying framework for classifying the health
components of functioning and disability.

The ICF is structured around:

Body functions and structure.

Additional information on severity and environmental factors.

Activities (related to tasks and actions by an individual) and participation

(involvement in a life situation).

Main Document

What is a Disability? A disability is defined as a condition or function judged to be

significantly impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group. The term is
used to refer to individual functioning, including physical impairment, sensory impairment,
cognitive impairment, intellectual impairment mental illness, and various types of chronic
disease.

Disability is conceptualized as being a multidimensional experience for the person involved.

There may be effects on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a person's
participation in areas of life. Correspondingly, three dimensions of disability are recognized
in ICF: body structure and function (and impairment thereof), activity (and activity
restrictions) and participation (and participation restrictions). The classification also
recognizes the role of physical and social environmental factors in affecting disability
outcomes.

Classifications of Disabilities
 Types of disabilities include various physical and mental impairments that can hamper or
reduce a person's ability to carry out his day to day activities. These impairments can be
termed as disability of the person to do his or her day to day activities.

These impairments can be termed as disability of the person to do his day to day activities
as previously. "Disability" can be broken down into a number of broad sub-categories, which
include the following:

Mobility and Physical Impairments

This category of disability includes people with varying types of physical disabilities
including:

Upper limb(s) disability

Lower limb(s) disability

Manual dexterity

Disability in co-ordination with different organs of the body

Disability in mobility can be either an in-born or acquired with age problem. It could also be
the effect of a disease. People who have a broken bone also fall into this category of
disability.

Spinal Cord Disability:

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can sometimes lead to lifelong disabilities. This kind of injury mostly
occurs due to severe accidents. The injury can be either complete or incomplete. In an
incomplete injury, the messages conveyed by the spinal cord is not completely lost.
Whereas a complete injury results in a total dis-functioning of the sensory organs. In some
cases spinal cord disability can be a birth defect.

Head Injuries - Brain Disability

A disability in the brain occurs due to a brain injury. The magnitude of the brain injury can
range from mild, moderate and severe. There are two types of brain injuries:

Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

ABI is not a hereditary type defect but is the degeneration that occurs after birth.

The causes of such cases of injury are many and are mainly because of external forces
applied to the body parts. TBI results in emotional dysfunctioning and behavioral
disturbance.

Vision Disability

There are hundreds of thousands of people that suffer from minor to various serious vision
disability or impairments. These injuries can also result into some serious problems or
diseases like blindness and ocular trauma, to name a few. Some of the common vision
impairment includes scratched cornea, scratches on the sclera, diabetes related eye
conditions, dry eyes and corneal graft.

Hearing Disability

Hearing disabilities includes people that are completely or partially deaf, (Deaf is the
politically correct term for a person with hearing impairment).

People who are partially deaf can often use hearing aids to assist their hearing. Deafness
can be evident at birth or occur later in life from several biologic causes, for example
Meningitis can damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea.

Deaf people use sign language as a means of communication. Hundreds of sign languages
are in use around the world. In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as
any oral language, despite the common misconception that they are not "real languages".

Cognitive or Learning Disabilities

Cognitive Disabilities are kind of impairment present in people who are suffering from
dyslexia and various other learning difficulties and includes speech disorders.

Psychological Disorders

Affective Disorders:

Disorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term.

Mental Health Impairment is the term used to describe people who have experienced
psychiatric problems or illness such as:
 Personality Disorders - Defined as deeply inadequate patterns of behavior and
thought of sufficient severity to cause significant impairment to day-to-day activities.

Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thinking, mood,

and behavior.

Invisible Disabilities

Invisible Disabilities are disabilities that are not immediately apparent to others. It is
estimated that 10% of people in the U.S. have a medical condition considered a type of
invisible disability.

Quick Facts: Disability Classification

Disabilities can affect people in different ways, even when one person has the same type of
disability as another person. Some disabilities may be hidden, known as invisible disability.
There are many types of disabilities, such as those that affect a person's:

Vision

Hearing

Thinking

Learning

Movement

Mental health

Remembering

Communicating

Social relationships

The World Health Organization (WHO) published the International Classification of

Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) in 2001 that covers;

Activity

Participation
 Body Structures

Body Functions

Personal Factors

Health Conditions

Activity Limitations

Functional Limitations

Environmental Factors

Participation Restrictions

Statistics: Prevalence

In the year 2011, an estimated 8.1 percent (plus or minus 0.2 percentage points) of civilian
non-institutionalized, men and women, aged 18-64 in the United States reported a work
limitation.

In other words, 15,479,000 out of 191,096,000 (or about one in 12) civilian non-
institutionalized, men and women, aged 18-64 in the United States reported a work
limitation.

The estimated percentage above is based on a sample of 124,163 persons who

participated in the Current Population Survey (CPS).

(Nazarov, Z, Lee, C. G. (2012). Disability Statistics from the Current Population Survey
(CPS). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on
Disability Demographics and Statistics (StatsRRTC). Retrieved March 2, 2015 from
www.disabilitystatistics.org)

https://www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/
Physical Disabilities
Includes physiological, functional and/or mobility impairments
Can be fluctuating or intermittent, chronic, progressive or stable,
visible or invisible
Some involve extreme pain, some less, some none at all
Characteristics of Progressive conditions and examples:

These disabilities get worse over time but can fluctuate.

Multiple Sclerosis neurological deterioration

Muscular Dystrophy muscular disorders
Chronic Arthritis inflammation of the joints
Characteristics of Non-Progressive conditions and examples:

These disabilities are non-progressive and remain stable.

 Cerebral Palsy neurological condition
Spina Bifida congenital malformation of the spinal cord
Spinal Cord Injury neurological damage resulting from trauma
These disabilities are non-progressive but can fluctuate.

Fibromyalgia chronic pain condition

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome chronic fatigue condition
Visual Disabilities
Legally Blind describes an individual who has 10% or less of normal vision.

Only 10% of people with a visual disability are actually totally blind. The other 90% are
described as having a Visual Impairment.

Common causes of vision loss include:

Cataracts (cloudy vision treatable)

Diabetes (progressive blindness)
Glaucoma (loss of peripheral vision)
Macular Degeneration (blurred central vision)
Retinal Detachment (loss of vision)
Retinitis Pigmentosa (progressive blindness)
Hearing Disabilities
Deaf describes an individual who has severe to profound hearing
loss.
Deafened describes an individual who has acquired a hearing loss in
adulthood.
DeafBlind describes an individual who has both a sight and hearing
loss.
Hard of Hearing describes an individual who uses their residual
hearing and speech to communicate.
The Canadian Hearing Society Awareness Survey of 2001 states that almost 1 in 4
(23%) of Adult Canadians report having a hearing loss.

Mental Health Disabilities

Mental health disabilities can take many forms, just as physical disabilities do.

Unlike many physical illnesses though, all mental illnesses can be treated.

They are generally classified into six categories:

 Schizophrenia The most serious mental illness, schizophrenia affects
about 1% of Canadians.
Mood Disorders (Depression and Manic Depression) These illnesses
affect about 10% of the population. Depression is the most common mood
disorder.
Anxiety Disorders These affect about 12% of Canadians. They include
phobias and panic disorder as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Eating Disorders They include anorexia nervosa and bulimia and are
most common in men and women under the age of 30.
Personality Disorders There are many different personality disorders.
People with these disorders usually have a hard time getting along with
other people. They are the most difficult disorders to treat.
Organic Brain Disorders These disorders affect about 1% of people.
They are the result of physical disease or injury to the brain (i.e.,
Alzheimers, Stroke, Dementia).
Intellectual Disabilities
Characterized by intellectual development and capacity that is
significantly below average.
Involves a permanent limitation in a persons ability to learn.
Causes of Intellectual (or Developmental) Disabilities include:

Any condition that impairs development of the brain before birth,

during birth, or in childhood years
Genetic conditions
Illness affecting the mother during pregnancy
Use of alcohol or drugs by pregnant mothers
Childhood diseases
Poverty Children in poor families may become intellectually disabled
because of malnutrition, disease-producing conditions, inadequate medical
care, and environmental health hazards.
Learning Disabilities
A learning disability is essentially a specific and persistent disorder of a
persons central nervous system affecting the learning process.
This impacts a persons ability to either interpret what they see and
hear, or to link information from different parts of the brain.
One of the most common indicators of a learning disability is a
discrepancy between the individuals potential (aptitudes and intellectual
capacity) and his or her actual level of achievement.
Having a learning disability does not mean a person is incapable of
learning; rather that they learn in a different way.
Many people with a learning disability develop strategies to
compensate for or to circumvent their difficulties.
 http://www.peoplefirst4aoda.com/6-general-types-of-disabilities/

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Highlights
1. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive, neurological
disease that can affect the central nervous system
(CNS).

2. The exact cause of MS is unknown. However,

scientists believe that four factors may play a role in
development of the disease.

3. Immunologic, genetic, environmental, and viral

causes are all considered to play a factor in MS.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive neurological disease

that can affect the central nervous system (CNS). Millions of
nerve cells in the brain send signals throughout the body to
control movement, sensation, memory, cognition, and
speech. Every time you take a step, blink, or move your arm,
your CNS is at work.

Nerve cells communicate by sending electrical signals via

nerve fibers. A layer called the myelin sheath covers and
 protects these fibers. It ensures that each nerve cell properly
reaches its intended target.

Immune cells mistakenly attack and damage the myelin

sheath in people with MS. This damage results in the
disruption of nerve signals.

Part 2 of 10
What Causes MS?
Damaged nerve signals can cause debilitating symptoms,
including:

walking and coordination problems

muscle weakness
fatigue
vision problems
MS affects everyone differently. The severity of the disease
and the types of symptoms vary from person to person. The
exact cause of MS is unknown. However, scientists believe
that four factors may play a role in the development of the
disease.

Part 3 of 10
Cause 1: Immunologic
MS is considered an immune-mediated disease. That is, the
immune system malfunctions and attacks the CNS.
Researchers know that the myelin sheath is directly affected,
but they dont know what triggers the immune system to
attack the myelin.

Research about which immune cells are responsible for the

attack is ongoing. Scientists are seeking to uncover what
causes these cells to attack. Theyre also searching for
methods to control or stop the progression of the disease.

Part 4 of 10
Cause 2: Genetic
Several genes are believed to play a role in MS. Your chance
of developing MS is slightly higher if a close relative, such as
a parent or sibling, has the disease.

According to the Multiple Sclerosis Foundation, if one parent

has MS, the risk of their children getting the disease is
estimated to be between 2 and 5 percent.
Scientists believe that people with MS are born with a genetic
susceptibility to react to certain (unknown) environmental
agents. An autoimmune response is triggered when they
encounter these agents.

Part 5 of 10
Cause 3:
Environmental
 Epidemiologists have seen an increased pattern of MS cases
in countries located farthest from the equator. This
correlation causes some to believe that vitamin D may play a
role.

Vitamin D benefits the function of the immune system. People

who live near the equator are exposed to more sunlight. As a
result, their bodies produce more vitamin D.

The longer your skin is exposed to sunlight, the more your

body naturally produces the vitamin. Since MS is considered
an immune-mediated disease, vitamin D and sunlight
exposure may be linked.

Part 6 of 10
Cause 4: Infections
Researchers are considering the possibility that viruses and
bacteria may cause MS. Viruses are known to cause
inflammation and a breakdown of myelin (called
demyelination). Therefore, its possible that a virus could
trigger MS.

Several viruses and bacteria are being investigated to

determine if theyre involved in the development of MS.
These include:

measles virus
human herpes virus-6 (HHV-6)
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
 Part 7 of 10
Other Risk Factors
In addition to genetics, the environment, infections, and the
immune system, other risk factors may increase your
chances of developing MS. For example:

Sex: Women are two to three times more likely to

develop MS than men are.
Age: According to the Mayo Clinic, MS usually strikes
between the ages of 20 and 40.
Ethnicity: People of northern European descent are at
highest risk of developing MS.
Part 8 of 10
What Can Trigger MS
Symptoms?
There are several triggers that people with MS should avoid.
These include:

Stress
Stress can trigger and worsen MS symptoms. Practices that
help reduce and cope with stress can be helpful for people
with MS. Add destressing rituals to your day, such as yoga or
meditation.

Smoking
Cigarette smoke can add to the progression of MS. If youre a
smoker, look into effective methods of quitting. Avoid being
around secondhand smoke.

Heat
Not everyone sees a difference in symptoms due to heat, but
avoid direct sun or hot tubs if you find you react to them.

Medication
There are several ways that medication can worsen
symptoms. If you are taking many drugs and they interact
poorly, talk to your doctor about which drugs are vital and
which ones you may be able to stop.

Some people stop taking their MS medicines because they

have too many side effects or they believe they are not
effective. However, these medicines are critical to help
prevent relapses and new lesions, so its important to stay on
them.

Lack of Sleep
Fatigue is a common symptom of MS. If youre not getting
enough sleep, this can decrease your energy even more.

Infections
From urinary tract infections to the cold or flu, infections can
cause your symptoms to worsen. In fact, infections cause
approximately one-third of all flare-ups of MS symptoms,
according to the Cleveland Clinic.
Part 9 of 10
Treatment for MS
Although there is no cure for MS, there are treatment options
to help manage MS symptoms.

The most common treatment category is corticosteroids, such

as oral prednisone and intravenous methylprednisolone,
which reduce nerve inflammation. In cases that dont respond
to steroids, some doctors prescribe plasma exchange. In this
treatment, the liquid portion of your blood (plasma) is
removed and separated from your blood cells, which are then
mixed with a protein solution (albumin) and put back into
your body.

There are currently no therapies proven to slow the

progression of primary-progressive MS. For relapsing-
remitting MS, several disease-modifying therapies are
available but they all entail significant health risks. Talk to
your doctor about whether any are right for you.

Part 10 of 10
Takeaway
While much of what causes and prevents MS is a mystery,
what is known is that those with MS are living increasingly full
lives due to treatment options and overall improvements in
lifestyle and health choices. With continued research, strides
are being made every day to help stop the advance of MS.

http://www.healthline.com/health/multiple-sclerosis/possible-
causes#Treatment9

Causes of muscular dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy is caused by mutations on the X chromosome. Each version of

muscular dystrophy is due to a different set of mutations, but all prevent the body
from producing dystrophin. Dystrophin is a protein essential for building and
repairing muscles.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by specific mutations in the gene that

encodes the cytoskeletal protein dystrophin. Dystrophin makes up just 0.002 percent
of the total proteins in striated muscle, but it is an essential molecule for the general
functioning of muscles.

Dystrophin is part of an incredibly complex group of proteins that allow muscles to

work correctly. The protein helps anchor various components within muscle cells
together and links them all to the sarcolemma - the outer membrane.

If dystrophin is absent or deformed, this process does not work correctly, and
disruptions occur in the outer membrane. This weakens the muscles and can also
actively damage the muscle cells themselves.

In Duchenne muscular dystrophy, dystrophin is almost totally absent; the less

dystrophin that is produced, the worse the symptoms and etiology of the disease. In
Becker muscular dystrophy, there is a reduction in the amount or size of the
dystrophin protein.

The gene coding for dystrophin is the largest known gene in humans. More than 1,000
mutations in this gene have been identified in Duchenne and Becker muscular
dystrophy.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/187618.php
What causes arthritis?
There is no single cause of all types of arthritis; the cause or causes in any given case
vary according to the type or form of arthritis. Potential causes for arthritis may
include:

Potential causes for arthritis may include:

Injury - leading to degenerative arthritis

Abnormal metabolism - leading to gout and pseudogout

Inheritance - such as in osteoarthritis

Infections - such as in the arthritis of Lyme disease

Immune system dysfunction - such as in RA and SLE.

Most types of arthritis are caused by a combination of many factors working together,
although some arthritis conditions have no obvious cause and appear to be
unpredictable in their emergence.

Some people may be more susceptible to certain arthritic conditions due to their
genetic makeup. Additional factors, such as previous injury, infection, smoking and
physically demanding occupations, can interact with a person's genes to further
increase the risk of arthritis.
Osteoarthritis is caused by a reduction in the normal amount of cartilage tissue
through wear and tear throughout life.

Diet and nutrition can play a role in managing arthritis and the risk of arthritis,
although specific foods, food sensitivities or intolerances are not known to cause
arthritis. Foods that increase inflammation, particularly animal-derived foods and
diets high in refined sugar, can exacerbate arthritis. Similarly, eating foods that
provoke an immune system response can exacerbate arthritis symptoms.

Gout is one type of arthritis that is closely linked to diet as it is caused by elevated
levels of uric acid which can be a result of a diet high in purines. As such, diets that
contain high-purine foods, such as seafood, red wine and meats can trigger a gout
flare-up. Vegetables and other plant foods that contain high levels of purines do not
appear to exacerbate gout symptoms, however.

Cartilage is a flexible, connective tissue in joints that absorb the pressure and shock
created from movement like running and walking. It also protects the joints and
allows for smooth movement.34
Rheumatoid arthritis occurs when the body's immune system attacks the tissues of the
body, specifically connective tissue, leading to joint inflammation and pain and
degeneration of the joint tissue.

Recent developments on arthritis causes from MNT news

Why do knuckles and joints crack? Can cracking joints cause arthritis?

The joints that "crack" are often the knuckles, knees, ankles, back and neck, and there
are numerous reasons why these joints "sound off." However, can your knuckle-
cracking habit that aggravates the masses give you arthritis? Or is it just another
harmless habit?

Child antibiotic exposure linked to juvenile arthritis

Children prescribed courses of antibiotics were found to have twice the risk of
developing juvenile arthritis than children who did not receive antibiotics, according
to the findings of a new study published in Pediatrics.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/7621.php

Muscle control takes place in a part of the brain called the cerebrum. The cerebrum is
the upper part of the brain. Damage to the cerebrum before, during, or within 5 years of
birth can cause cerebral palsy.
 The cerebrum is the upper part of the human brain.

The cerebrum is also responsible for memory, ability to learn, and communication skills.
This is why some people with cerebral palsy have problems with communication and
learning. Cerebrum damage can sometimes affect vision and hearing.

Some newborns are deprived of oxygen during labor and delivery.

In the past, it was thought that this lack of oxygen during birth led to the brain damage.

However, during the 1980s, research showed that fewer than 1 in 10 cases of cerebral
palsy cases stem from oxygen deprivation during birth.

Most often, the damage occurs before birth, probably during the first 6 months of
pregnancy.
There are at least three possible reasons for this.

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL)

PVL is a kind of damage that affects the brain's white matter because of a lack of
oxygen in the womb.

It may occur if the mother has an infection during pregnancy, such as rubella or
German measles, low blood pressure, preterm delivery, or if she uses an illegal drug.

Abnormal development of the brain

Disruption of brain development can affect the way the brain communicates with the
body's muscles and other functions.

During the first 6 months of pregnancy, the brain of the embryo or fetus is particularly
vulnerable.

Damage can stem from mutations in the genes responsible for brain development,
certain infections such as toxoplasmosis, a parasite infection, herpes and herpes-like
viruses, and head trauma.

Intracranial hemorrhage
Sometimes, bleeding inside the brain happens when a fetus experiences a stroke.

Bleeding in the brain can stop the supply of blood to vital brain tissue, and this tissue
can become damaged or die. The escaped blood can clot and damage surrounding
tissue.

Several factors can cause a stroke in a fetus during pregnancy:

A blood clot in the placenta that blocks the flow of blood

A clotting disorder in the fetus

Interruptions in arterial blood flow to the fetal brain

Untreated pre-eclampsia in the mother

 Inflammation of the placenta

Pelvic inflammatory infection in the mother

During delivery, the risk is increased by the following factors:

Emergency cesarean

The second stage of labor is prolonged

Vacuum extraction is used during delivery

Fetal or neonatal heart anomalies

Umbilical cord abnormalities

Anything that increases the risk of a preterm birth or low birth weight also raises the risk
of cerebral palsy.

Factors that may contribute to a higher risk of cerebral palsy include:

Multiple births, for example, twins

Damaged placenta

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

Consumption of alcohol, illegal drugs, or toxic substances during pregnancy

Malnourishment during pregnancy

Random malformation of the fetal brain

Small pelvis in the mother

Breech delivery

Brain damage after birth

A small proportion of cases happen because of damage after birth. This can happen
because of an infection such as meningitis, a head injury, a drowning accident, or
poisoning.

When damage happens, it will do so soon after the birth. With age, the human brain
becomes more resilient and able withstand more damage.
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/152712.php

Causes of spina bifida

Nobody is completely sure what causes spina bifida. Scientists say it is most likely due
to a combination of inherited (genetic), environmental and nutritional factors.

There is some evidence that low intake of plant proteins and folic acid play a role in spina bifida.

Women who do not have enough folic acid during the pregnancy have a higher chance
of giving birth to a baby with spina bifida. Experts say that women of reproductive age
should make sure their folic acid intake is adequate. Nobody is sure how folic acid
intake prevents spina bifida from developing.

A study reported in the Journal of Nutrition concluded that "Low preconceptional intakes
of plant proteins, iron, magnesium, and niacin are associated with a 2- to 5-fold
increased risk of spina bifida." 1

If a woman gives birth to a baby with spina bifida, she has a higher-than-normal risk of
having another baby with spina bifida too (about 5% risk).

Some medications, such as some for treating epilepsy or bipolar disorder have been
associated with a higher risk of giving birth to babies with congenital defects, such as
spina bifida.

Women with diabetes are more likely to have a baby with spina bifida, compared to
other females.

Obese women, those whose BMI (body mass index) is 30 or more have a higher risk of
having a baby with spina bifida. The higher the woman's BMI is over 30, the higher the
risk.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/220424.php

Causes
By Mayo Clinic Staff
Multimedia

Central nervous system

Spinal cord injuries result from damage to the vertebrae, ligaments or disks of the spinal
column or to the spinal cord itself.

A traumatic spinal cord injury may stem from a sudden, traumatic blow to your spine that
fractures, dislocates, crushes, or compresses one or more of your vertebrae. It also may
result from a gunshot or knife wound that penetrates and cuts your spinal cord.

Additional damage usually occurs over days or weeks because of bleeding, swelling,
inflammation and fluid accumulation in and around your spinal cord.

A nontraumatic spinal cord injury may be caused by arthritis, cancer, inflammation,

infections or disk degeneration of the spine.

Your brain and central nervous system

The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord, made
of soft tissue and surrounded by bones (vertebrae), extends downward from the base of
your brain and is made up of nerve cells and groups of nerves called tracts, which go to
different parts of your body.

The lower end of your spinal cord stops a little above your waist in the region called the
conus medullaris. Below this region is a group of nerve roots called the cauda equina.

Tracts in your spinal cord carry messages between the brain and the rest of the body.
Motor tracts carry signals from the brain to control muscle movement. Sensory tracts
carry signals from body parts to the brain relating to heat, cold, pressure, pain and the
position of your limbs.

Damage to nerve fibers

Whether the cause is traumatic or nontraumatic, the damage affects the nerve fibers
passing through the injured area and may impair part or all of your corresponding
muscles and nerves below the injury site.
A chest (thoracic) or lower back (lumbar) injury can affect your torso, legs, bowel and
bladder control, and sexual function. In addition, a neck (cervical) injury affects
movements of your arms and, possibly, your ability to breathe.

Common causes of spinal cord injury

The most common causes of spinal cord injuries in the United States are:

Motor vehicle accidents. Auto and motorcycle accidents are the leading cause
of spinal cord injuries, accounting for more than 35 percent of new spinal cord
injuries each year.

Falls. Spinal cord injury after age 65 is most often caused by a fall. Overall, falls
cause more than one-quarter of spinal cord injuries.

Acts of violence. Around 15 percent of spinal cord injuries result from violent
encounters, often involving gunshot and knife wounds, according to the National
Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center.

Sports and recreation injuries. Athletic activities, such as impact sports and
diving in shallow water, cause about 9 percent of spinal cord injuries.

Alcohol. Alcohol use is a factor in about 1 out of every 4 spinal cord injuries.

Diseases. Cancer, arthritis, osteoporosis and inflammation of the spinal cord

also can cause spinal cord injuries.

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/spinal-cord-injury/basics/causes/con-
20023837
Causes of fibromyalgia
Experts say there are probably a number of factors. However, nobody is really sure
what causes fibromyalgia. Factors such as a traumatic, stressful, or emotional event
may be linked to developing fibromyalgia. Possible causal factors currently include:

A stressful, traumatic physical or emotional event (e.g. Post-traumatic stress

disorder, a car accident)
Repetitive injuries

Rheumatoid arthritis

Lupus

CNS (central nervous system) problems

The way our genes regulate how we process painful stimuli.

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/147083.php

Causes of chronic fatigue

syndrome
Exactly what causes chronic fatigue syndrome
(CFS) is unknown, but there are several
theories.
Some experts think a viral infection such
as glandular fever can trigger the condition. Certain
bacteria have also been suggested as a cause of
CFS in some people, including types of bacteria
responsible for pneumonia.
However, while tiredness is normal after a viral
infection, this doesn't explain why symptoms
persist and get worse in CFS. Also, many cases of
CFS don't start after an infection, and this theory
doesn't explain why the condition sometimes
develops gradually.
Other suggested causes of CFS include:
problems with the immune system
a hormone imbalance
psychiatric problems some cases have been linked to mental
exhaustion, stress, depression and emotional trauma
genes some people may have an inherited tendency to develop CFS as
it's more common in some families
traumatic events some cases have been linked to events such as
surgery or a serious accident
It's possible CFS is caused by a combination of
factors. Further research is necessary to confirm
what causes the condition.
http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Chronic-fatigue-syndrome/Pages/Causes.aspx

cataract Causes

Most cataracts develop when aging or injury changes the tissue that makes up your
eye's lens.

Some inherited genetic disorders that cause other health problems can increase your
risk of cataracts. Cataracts can also be caused by other eye conditions, past eye
surgery or medical conditions such as diabetes. Long-term use of steroid medications,
too, can cause cataracts to develop.
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-
conditions/cataracts/symptoms-causes/dxc-20215129

What causes type 1 diabetes?

Type 1 diabetes occurs when your immune system, the bodys system for fighting infection, attacks
and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Scientists think type 1 diabetes is
caused by genes and environmental factors, such as viruses, that might trigger the disease. Studies
such as TrialNet are working to pinpoint causes of type 1 diabetes and possible ways to prevent or
slow the disease.

What causes type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetesthe most common form of diabetesis caused by several factors, including lifestyle
factors and genes.

Overweight, obesity, and physical inactivity

You are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if you are not physically active and
are overweight or obese. Extra weight sometimes causes insulin resistance and is common in people
with type 2 diabetes. The location of body fat also makes a difference. Extra belly fat is linked to
insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and heart and blood vessel disease. To see if your weight puts you
at risk for type 2 diabetes, check out these Body Mass Index (BMI) charts.

Insulin resistance

Type 2 diabetes usually begins with insulin resistance, a condition in which muscle, liver, and fat
cells do not use insulin well. As a result, your body needs more insulin to help glucoseenter cells. At
first, the pancreas makes more insulin to keep up with the added demand. Over time, the pancreas
cant make enough insulin, and blood glucose levels rise.

https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/diabetes/overview/symptoms-causes

The cause of glaucoma generally is a failure of the eye to maintain an appropriate balance between
the amount of internal (intraocular) fluid produced and the amount that drains away.
Underlying reasons for this imbalance usually relate to the type of glaucoma you have.

Just as a basketball or football requires air pressure to maintain its shape, the eyeball needs internal
fluid pressure to retain its globe-like shape and ability to see.
But when something affects the ability of internal eye structures to regulate intraocular
pressure (IOP), eye pressure can rise to dangerously high levels causing glaucoma.
Unlike a ball or balloon, the eye can't relieve pressure by springing a leak and "deflating" when
pressure is too high. Instead, high eye pressure just keeps building and pushing against the optic
nerve until nerve fibers are permanently damaged and vision is lost.
http://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/glaucoma-2-cause.htm

Causes of macular
degeneration
The exact cause of macular degeneration isn't
known, but the condition develops as the eye
ages.
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is caused
by a problem with part of the eye called the
macula. The macula is the spot at the centre of
your retina (the nerve tissue that lines the back of
your eye).
The macula is where incoming rays of light are
focused. It helps you see things directly in front of
you and is used for close, detailed activities, such
as reading and writing.
http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Macular-degeneration/Pages/Causes.aspx

What Causes Retinal Detachments?

An injury to the eye or face can cause a detached retina, as can very high levels of nearsightedness.

Extremely nearsighted people have longer eyeballs with thinner retinas that are more prone to
detaching.
On rare occasions, a detached retina may occur after LASIK surgery in highly nearsighted people. In
a study of more than 1,500 LASIK patients, just four suffered retinal detachment; their pre-LASIK
prescriptions ranged from -8.00 D to -27.50 D.

Cataract surgery, tumors, eye disease and systemic diseases such as diabetes and sickle cell
disease also may cause retinal detachments.

New blood vessels growing under the retina which can happen in diseases such as diabetic
retinopathy may push the retina away from its support network as well.

Sometimes fluid movement in the eye pulls the retina away.

http://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/retinadetach.htm

Symptoms Of Retinitis Pigmentosa

The first signs of retinitis pigmentosa usually occur in early childhood, when both eyes typically are
affected. Night vision can be poor, and the field of vision may begin to narrow.

Pigmentation in the retina is a sign that light-sensing cells are deteriorating, so it becomes
very difficult to see in dim light.

When RP first starts to appear, the light-sensing cells that are responsible for vision in dim light
(rods) gradually deteriorate and seeing at night becomes more difficult.

During later stages of retinitis pigmentosa, only a small area of central vision remains, along with
slight peripheral vision.

It's very difficult to predict the extent of vision loss or how fast it will progress when you have retinitis
pigmentosa. Your eye doctor will monitor the health of your retinal cells and administer tests to
determine how well you can see.

At some point, you may be advised to drive only during the daytime or on well-lighted streets at
night. Eventually you may be unable to see well enough to drive at all.

http://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/retinapigment.htm

Causes of hearing loss

Some of the many causes of deafness include:

 Hereditary disorders - some types of deafness are hereditary, which means
parents pass on flawed genes to their children. In most cases, hereditary deafness is
caused by malformations of the inner ear.

Genetic disorders - genetic mutations may happen: for example, at the moment
of conception when the fathers sperm joins with the mothers egg. Some of the many
genetic disorders that can cause deafness include osteogenesis imperfecta, Trisomy 13
S and multiple lentigines syndrome.

Prenatal exposure to disease - a baby will be born deaf or with hearing

problems if they are exposed to certain diseases in utero, including rubella (German
measles), influenza and mumps. Other factors that are thought to cause congenital
deafness include exposure to methyl mercury and drugs such as quinine.

Noise - loud noises (such as gun shots, firecrackers, explosions and rock
concerts), particularly prolonged exposure either in the workplace or recreationally, can
damage the delicate mechanisms inside the ear. If you are standing next to someone,
yet have to shout to be heard, you can be sure that the noise is loud enough to be
damaging your ears. You can protect your hearing by reducing your exposure to loud
noise or wearing suitable protection such as ear muffs or ear plugs.

Trauma - such as perforation of the eardrum, fractured skull or changes in air

pressure (barotrauma).

Disease - certain diseases can cause deafness, including meningitis, mumps,

cytomegalovirus and chicken pox. A severe case of jaundice is also known to cause
deafness.

Other causes - other causes of deafness include Menieres disease and

exposure to certain chemicals.

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/deafness-a-range-of-causes

What causes sudden deafness?

Only 10 to 15 percent of the people diagnosed with SSHL have an identifiable
cause. The most common causes are:

Infectious diseases
Trauma, such as a head injury
 Autoimmune diseases such as Cogans syndrome
Ototoxic drugs (drugs that harm the sensory cells in the inner ear)
Blood circulation problems
A tumor on the nerve that connects the ear to the brain
Neurologic diseases and disorders, such as multiple sclerosis
Disorders of the inner ear, such as Mnires disease

https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/sudden-deafness

What causes deafblindness?

There are many potential causes of deafblindness.
Some babies are born deafblind, but in many cases
the hearing and/or vision loss occurs later in life.
Causes of deafblindness include:
age-related hearing loss
genetic conditions, such as Usher syndrome
an infection picked up during pregnancy, such as rubella (German
measles)
cerebral palsy a problem with the brain and nervous system that mainly
affects movement and co-ordination
eye problems associated with increasing age, such as cataracts

http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/deafblindness/pages/introduction.aspx

Symptoms

Schizophrenia involves a range of problems with thinking (cognition), behavior or

emotions. Signs and symptoms may vary, but usually involve delusions, hallucinations
or disorganized speech, and reflect an impaired ability to function. Symptoms may
include:

Delusions. These are false beliefs that are not based in reality. For example, you
think that you're being harmed or harassed; certain gestures or comments are
directed at you; you have exceptional ability or fame; another person is in love with
 you; or a major catastrophe is about to occur. Delusions occur in most people with
schizophrenia.

Hallucinations. These usually involve seeing or hearing things that don't exist.
Yet for the person with schizophrenia, they have the full force and impact of a
normal experience. Hallucinations can be in any of the senses, but hearing voices
is the most common hallucination.

Disorganized thinking (speech). Disorganized thinking is inferred from

disorganized speech. Effective communication can be impaired, and answers to
questions may be partially or completely unrelated. Rarely, speech may include
putting together meaningless words that can't be understood, sometimes known as
word salad.

Extremely disorganized or abnormal motor behavior. This may show in a

number of ways, from childlike silliness to unpredictable agitation. Behavior isn't
focused on a goal, so it's hard to do tasks. Behavior can include resistance to
instructions, inappropriate or bizarre posture, a complete lack of response, or
useless and excessive movement.

Negative symptoms. This refers to reduced or lack of ability to function

normally. For example, the person may neglect personal hygiene or appear to lack
emotion (doesn't make eye contact, doesn't change facial expressions or speaks in
a monotone). Also, the person may have lose interest in everyday activities,
socially withdraw or lack the ability to experience pleasure.
Symptoms can vary in type and severity over time, with periods of worsening and
remission of symptoms. Some symptoms may always be present.

In men, schizophrenia symptoms typically start in the early to mid-20s. In women,

symptoms typically begin in the late 20s. It's uncommon for children to be diagnosed
with schizophrenia and rare for those older than age 45.

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/symptoms-causes/dxc-20253198

What Causes Mood Imbalances?

What causes mood imbalances is difficult to
pinpoint. Depression is thought to be caused by a
combination of environmental, psychological, biological and
genetic factors. The most enduring theories involve
neurotransmitters, which are chemicals in the brain, causing
an imbalance that leads to depression. So far, this theory has
been difficult to verify.

Scientists are still studying the causes of bipolar disorder, but

the consensus is that bipolar disorder is caused by several
factors working together. As bipolar disorder tends to be
hereditary, researchers are currently trying to find a gene
that may increase the risk of developing the disorder. Brain
imaging studies show that the brains of people with bipolar
disorder and depression differ from healthy brains, which
suggests that brain structure and functioning may play a role
in the development of mood disorders.
http://www.psychguides.com/guides/mood-disorder-symptoms-causes-and-effect/

anxiety disorders Causes

The causes of anxiety disorders aren't fully understood. Life experiences such as
traumatic events appear to trigger anxiety disorders in people who are already prone to
anxiety. Inherited traits also can be a factor.

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/dxc-20168124

Symptoms

Symptoms vary, depending on the type of eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia
nervosa and binge-eating disorder are the most common eating disorders.
Anorexia nervosa

Anorexia (an-o-REK-see-uh) nervosa often simply called anorexia is a potentially

life-threatening eating disorder characterized by an abnormally low body weight, intense
fear of gaining weight, and a distorted perception of weight or shape. People with
anorexia use extreme efforts to control their weight and shape, which often significantly
interferes with their health and life activities.

When you have anorexia, you excessively limit calories or use other methods to lose
weight, such as excessive exercise, using laxatives or diet aids, or vomiting after eating.
Efforts to reduce your weight, even when underweight, can cause severe health
problems, sometimes to the point of deadly self-starvation.

Bulimia nervosa

Bulimia (boo-LEE-me-uh) nervosa commonly called bulimia is a serious,

potentially life-threatening eating disorder. When you have bulimia, you have episodes
of bingeing and purging that involve feeling a lack of control over your eating. Many
people with bulimia also restrict their eating during the day, which often leads to more
binge eating and purging.

During these episodes, you typically eat a large amount of food in a short time, and then
try to rid yourself of the extra calories in an unhealthy way. Because of guilt, shame and
an intense fear of weight gain from overeating, you may force vomiting (purging
bulimia), exercise too much, or use other methods, such as laxatives, to get rid of the
calories (nonpurging bulimia).

If you have bulimia, you're probably preoccupied with your weight and body shape, and
may judge yourself severely and harshly for your self-perceived flaws. You may be at a
normal weight or even a bit overweight.

Binge-eating disorder

When you have binge-eating disorder, you regularly eat too much food (binge) and feel
a lack of control over your eating. You may eat quickly or eat more food than intended,
even when you're not hungry, and you may continue eating even long after you're
uncomfortably full.
After a binge, you may feel guilty, disgusted or ashamed by your behavior and the
amount of food eaten. But you don't try to compensate for this behavior with excessive
exercise or purging, as someone with bulimia or anorexia might. Embarrassment can
lead to eating alone to hide your bingeing.

A new round of bingeing usually occurs at least once a week. You may be normal
weight, overweight or obese.

Other eating disorders

Other eating disorders include pica, rumination disorder and avoidant/restrictive food
intake disorder.

Pica

Pica is persistently eating nonfood items, such as soap, cloth, talcum powder or dirt,
over a period of at least one month. Eating such substances is not appropriate for the
person's developmental level and not part of a specific cultural or social practice.

Persistently eating these nonfood items can result in medical complications such as
poisoning, intestinal problems or infections. Pica often occurs along with other disorders
such as autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disability.

Rumination disorder

Rumination disorder is repeatedly and persistently regurgitating food after eating, but it's
not due to a medical condition or another eating disorder such as anorexia, bulimia or
binge-eating disorder. Food is brought back up into the mouth without nausea or
gagging. Sometimes regurgitated food is rechewed and reswallowed or spit out.

The disorder may result in malnutrition if the food is spit out or if the person eats
significantly less to prevent the behavior. The occurrence of rumination disorder may be
more common in infancy or in people who have an intellectual disability.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder

This disorder is characterized by failing to meet your minimum daily nutrition

requirements because you don't have an interest in eating; you avoid food with certain
sensory characteristics, such as color, texture, smell or taste; or you're concerned about
the consequences of eating, such as fear of choking. Food is not avoided because of
fear of gaining weight.

The disorder can result in significant weight loss or failure to gain weight in childhood,
as well as nutritional deficiencies that can cause health problems.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder is not diagnosed when symptoms are part of
another eating disorder, such as anorexia, or part of a medical problem or other mental
disorder.

When to see a doctor

Because of its powerful pull, an eating disorder can be difficult to manage or overcome
by yourself. Eating disorders can virtually take over your life. If you're experiencing any
of these problems, or if you think you may have an eating disorder, seek medical help.

Urging a loved one to seek treatment

Unfortunately, many people with eating disorders may not think they need treatment. If
you're worried about a loved one, urge him or her to talk to a doctor. Even if your loved
one isn't ready to acknowledge having an issue with food, you can open the door by
expressing concern and a desire to listen.

Be alert for eating patterns and beliefs that may signal unhealthy behavior, as well as
peer pressure that may trigger eating disorders. Red flags that may indicate an eating
disorder include:

Skipping meals or making excuses for not eating

Adopting an overly restrictive vegetarian diet

Excessive focus on healthy eating

Making own meals rather than eating what the family eats

Withdrawing from normal social activities

Persistent worry or complaining about being fat and talk of losing weight
 Frequent checking in the mirror for perceived flaws

Repeatedly eating large amounts of sweets or high-fat foods

Use of dietary supplements, laxatives or herbal products for weight loss

Excessive exercise

Calluses on the knuckles from inducing vomiting

Problems with loss of tooth enamel that may be a sign of repeated vomiting

Leaving during meals to use the toilet

Eating much more food in a meal or snack than is considered normal

Expressing depression, disgust, shame or guilt about eating habits

Eating in secret

If you're worried that your child may have an eating disorder, contact his or her doctor to
discuss your concerns. If needed, you can get a referral to a qualified mental health
provider for treatment.

Causes

The exact cause of eating disorders is unknown. As with other mental illnesses, there
may be many causes, such as:

Genetics. Certain people may have genes that increase their risk of developing eating
disorders. People with first-degree relatives siblings or parents with an eating
disorder may be more likely to develop an eating disorder, too.

Psychological and emotional health. People with eating disorders may have
psychological and emotional problems that contribute to the disorder. They may have low
self-esteem, perfectionism, impulsive behavior and troubled relationships.

Society. Success and worth are often equated with being thin in popular culture. Peer
pressure and what people see in the media may fuel this desire to be thin.

Risk factors
Certain situations and events might increase the risk of developing an eating disorder.
These risk factors may include:

Being female. Teenage girls and young women are more likely than teenage boys and
young men to have anorexia or bulimia, but males can have eating disorders, too.

Age. Although eating disorders can occur across a broad age range including
childhood, the teenage years and older adulthood they are much more common during
the teens and early 20s.

Family history. Eating disorders are significantly more likely to occur in people who
have parents or siblings who've had an eating disorder.

Mental health disorders. People with depression, anxiety disorder or obsessive-

compulsive disorder are more likely to have an eating disorder.

Dieting. People who lose weight are often reinforced by positive comments from others
and by their changing appearance. This may cause some people to take dieting too far,
leading to an eating disorder.

Stress. Whether it's heading off to college, moving, landing a new job, or a family or
relationship issue, change can bring stress, which may increase your risk of an eating
disorder.

Sports, work and artistic activities. Athletes, actors, dancers and models may be at
higher risk of eating disorders. Coaches and parents may unwittingly contribute to eating
disorders by encouraging young athletes to lose weight.

Complications

Eating disorders cause a wide variety of complications, some of them life-threatening.

The more severe or long lasting the eating disorder, the more likely you are to
experience serious complications, such as:

Significant medical problems

Depression and anxiety

Suicidal thoughts or behavior

 Problems with growth and development

Social and relationship problems

Substance use disorders

Work and school issues

Death

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/eating-disorders/symptoms-causes/dxc-
20182875

What causes personality disorders?

Research suggests that genetics, abuse and other factors contribute to the development
of obsessive-compulsive, narcissistic or other personality disorders.

In the past, some believed that people with personality disorders were just lazy or even
evil. But new research has begun to explore such potential causes as genetics,
parenting and peer influences:

Genetics. Researchers are beginning to identify some possible genetic factors

behind personality disorders.

o One team, for instance, has identified a malfunctioning gene that may be a
factor in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

o Other researchers are exploring genetic links to aggression, anxiety and

fear traits that can play a role in personality disorders.

b. Childhood trauma. Findings from one of the largest studies of personality disorders,
the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study, offer clues about the role of
childhood experiences.
 o One study found a link between the number and type of childhood traumas
and the development of personality disorders. People with borderline personality
disorder, for example, had especially high rates of childhood sexual trauma.

b. Verbal abuse. Even verbal abuse can have an impact. In a study of 793
mothers and children, researchers asked mothers if they had screamed at their children,
told them they didnt love them or threatened to send them away. Children who had
experienced such verbal abuse were three times as likely as other children to have
borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive or paranoid personality disorders in
adulthood.

c. High reactivity. Sensitivity to light, noise, texture and other stimuli may
also play a role.

o Overly sensitive children, who have what researchers call high reactivity,
are more likely to develop shy, timid or anxious personalities.

o However, high reactivitys role is still far from clear-cut. Twenty percent of
infants are highly reactive, but less than 10 percent go on to develop social phobias.

b. Peers. Certain factors can help prevent children from developing

personality disorders.

o Even a single strong relationship with a relative, teacher or friend can

offset negative influences, say psychologists

http://www.apa.org/topics/personality/disorders-causes.aspx
 What Causes
Neurocognitive
Disorders?

The most common cause of neurocognitive disorders is a

neurodegenerative disease. Neurodegenerative diseases that
can lead to the development of neurocognitive
disorders include:

Alzheimers disease
Parkinsons disease
Huntingtons disease
dementia
prion disease
multiple sclerosis
In people under age 60, however, neurocognitive
disorders are more likely to occur after an injury or infection.
Nondegenerative conditions that may cause neurocognitive
disorders include:
 a concussion
traumatic brain injury that causes bleeding in the brain
or space around the brain
blood clots
meningitis
encephalitis
septicemia
drug or alcohol abuse
vitamin deficiency

http://www.healthline.com/health/organic-brain-syndrome#Causes3

Top 100 Phobia List

These are the top 100 phobias in the world, with the most common ones listed from the
top. You can click on each phobia to learn about causes, symptoms and treatments.

1. Arachnophobia The fear of spiders affects women four times more (48%
women and 12% men).

2. Ophidiophobia The fear of snakes. Phobics avoid certain cities because they
have more snakes.

3. Acrophobia The fear of heights. Five percent of the general population suffer
from this phobia.

4. Agoraphobia The fear of open or crowded spaces. People with this fear often
wont leave home.

5. Cynophobia The fear of dogs. This includes everything from small Poodles to
large Great Danes.

6. Astraphobia The fear of thunder/lightning AKA Brontophobia,

Tonitrophobia, Ceraunophobia.

7. Claustrophobia The fear of small spaces like elevators, small rooms and other
enclosed spaces.
8. Mysophobia The fear of germs. It is also rightly termed as Germophobia or

Bacterophobia.

9. Aerophobia The fear of flying. 25 million Americans share a fear of flying.

10. Trypophobia The fear of holes is an unusual but pretty common phobia.

11. Carcinophobia The fear of cancer. People with this develop extreme diets.

12. Thanatophobia The fear of death. Even talking about death can be hard.

13. Glossophobia The fear of public speaking. Not being able to do speeches.

14. Monophobia The fear of being alone. Even while eating and/or sleeping.

15. Atychiphobia The fear of failure. It is the single greatest barrier to success.

16. Ornithophobia The fear of birds. Individuals suffering from this may only fear
certain species.

17. Alektorophobia The fear of chickens. You may have this phobia if
chickens make you panic.

18. Enochlophobia The fear of crowds is closely related to Ochlophobia and

Demophobia.

19. Aphenphosmphobia The fear of intimacy. Fear of being touched and love.

20. Trypanophobia The fear of needles. I used to fear needles (that and death).

21. Anthropophobia The fear of people. Being afraid of people in all situations.
22. Aquaphobia The fear of water. Being afraid of water or being near water.

23. Autophobia The fear of abandonment and being abandoned by someone.

24. Hemophobia The fear of blood. Even the sight of blood can cause fainting.

25. Gamophobia The fear of commitment or sticking with someone to the end.

26. Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia The fear of long words. Believe it or

not, its real.

27. Xenophobia The fear of the unknown. Fearing anything or anyone that is

strange or foreign.

28. Vehophobia The fear of driving. This phobia affects personal and work life.

29. Basiphobia The fear of falling. Some may even refuse to walk or stand up.

30. Achievemephobia The fear of success. The opposite to the fear of failure.

31. Theophobia The fear of God causes an irrational fear of God or religion.

32. Ailurophobia The fear of cats. This phobia is also known as Gatophobia.

33. Metathesiophobia The fear of change. Sometimes change is a good thing.

34. Globophobia The fear of balloons. They should be fun, but not for phobics.

35. Nyctophobia The fear of darkness. Being afraid of the dark or the night is
common for kids.

36. Androphobia The fear of men. Usually seen in younger females, but it can also
affect adults.
37. Phobophobia The fear of fear. The thought of being afraid of objects/situations.

38. Philophobia The fear of love. Being scared of falling in love or emotions.

39. Triskaidekaphobia The fear of the number 13 or the bad luck that follows.

40. Emetophobia The fear of vomiting and the fear of loss of your self control.

41. Gephyrophobia The fear of bridges and crossing even the smallest bridge.

42. Entomophobia The fear of bugs and insects, also related to Acarophobia.

43. Lepidopterophobia The fear of butterflies and often most winged insects.

44. Panophobia The fear of everything or fear that terrible things will happen.

45. Podophobia The fear of feet. Some people fear touching or looking at feet,
even their own.

46. Paraskevidekatriaphobia The fear of Friday the 13th. About 8% of Americans

have this phobia.

47. Somniphobia The fear of sleep. Being terrified of what might happen right
after you fall asleep.

48. Gynophobia The fear of women. May occur if you have unresolved mother

issues.

49. Apiphobia The fear of bees. Many people fear being stung by angry bees.

50. Koumpounophobia The fear of buttons. Clothes with buttons are avoided.
51. Anatidaephobia The fear of ducks. Somewhere, a duck is watching you.

52. Pyrophobia The fear of fire. A natural/primal fear that can be debilitating.

53. Ranidaphobia The fear of frogs. Often caused by episodes from childhood.

54. Galeophobia The fear of sharks in the ocean or even in swimming pools.

55. Athazagoraphobia The fear of being forgotten or not remembering things.

56. Katsaridaphobia The fear of cockroaches. This can easily lead to an excessive
cleaning disorder.

57. Iatrophobia The fear of doctors. Do you delay doctor visits? You may have this.

58. Pediophobia The fear of dolls. This phobia could well be Chucky-induced.

59. Ichthyophobia The fear of fish. Includes small, large, dead and living fish.

60. Achondroplasiaphobia The fear of midgets. Because they look differently.

61. Mottephobia The fear of moths. These insects are only beautiful to some.

62. Zoophobia The fear of animals. Applies to both vile and harmless animals.

63. Bananaphobia The fear of bananas. If you have this phobia, they are scary.

64. Sidonglobophobia The fear of cotton balls or plastic foams. Oh that sound.

65. Scelerophobia The fear of crime involves being afraid of burglars, attackers or
crime in general.

66. Cibophobia The fear of food. The phobia may come from a bad episode while
eating, like choking.

67. Phasmophobia The fear of ghosts. AKA Spectrophobia. Who you gonna call?
Ghostbusters!
68. Equinophobia The fear of horses. Animal phobias are pretty common,
especially for women.

69. Musophobia The fear of mice. Some people find mice cute, but phobics dont.

70. Catoptrophobia The fear of mirrors. Being afraid of what you might see.

71. Agliophobia The fear of pain. Being afraid something painful will happen.

72. Tokophobia The fear of pregnancy involves giving birth or having children.

73. Telephonophobia The fear of talking on the phone. Phobics prefer texting.

74. Pogonophobia The fear of beards or being scared of/around bearded men.

75. Omphalophobia The fear of belly buttons. Touching and looking at navels.

76. Pseudodysphagia The fear of choking often after a bad eating experience.

77. Bathophobia The fear of depths can be anything associated with depth (lakes,
tunnels, caves).

78. Cacomorphobia The fear of fat people. Induced by the media. Affects some
anorexics/bulimics.

79. Gerascophobia The fear of getting old. Aging is the most natural thing, yet
many of us fear it.

80. Chaetophobia The fear of hair. Phobics tend to be afraid of other peoples hair.
81. Nosocomephobia The fear of hospitals. Lets face it, no one likes hospitals.

82. Ligyrophobia The fear of loud noises. More than the instinctive noise fear.

83. Didaskaleinophobia The fear of school. This phobia affects kids mostly.

84. Technophobia The fear of technology is often induced by culture/religion.

85. Chronophobia The fear of the future. A persistent fear of what is to come.

86. Spheksophobia The fear of wasps. You panic and fear getting stung by it.

87. Ergophobia The fear of work. Often due to social or performance anxiety.

88. Coulrophobia The fear of clowns. Some people find clowns funny,
coulrophobics certainly dont.

89. Allodoxaphobia The fear of opinions. Being afraid of hearing what others are
thinking of you.

90. Samhainophobia The fear of Halloween affects children/superstitious people.

91. Photophobia The fear of light caused by something medical or traumatic.

92. Disposophobia The fear of getting rid of stuff triggers extreme hoarding.

93. Numerophobia The fear of numbers and the mere thought of calculations.

94. Ombrophobia The fear of rain. Many fear the rain due to stormy weather.

95. Coasterphobia The fear of roller coasters. Ever seen Final Destination 3?

96. Thalassophobia The fear of the ocean. Water, waves and unknown spaces.

97. Scoleciphobia The fear of worms. Often because of unhygienic conditions.

98. Kinemortophobia The fear of zombies. Being afraid that zombies attack and
turn you into them.
 99. Myrmecophobia The fear of ants. Not as common as Arachnophobia, but
may feel just as intense.

100.Taphophobia The fear of being buried alive by mistake and waking up in a

coffin underground.

http://www.fearof.net/