THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS
THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN
WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS
Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel
Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the
Witwatersand, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Due to the relatively thin walls required to resist internal
pressures from stored materials, circular steel silos are highly
susceptible to buckling failure from vertical compression
forces caused by accumulated wall friction. Finite element
analysis was used to simulate the buckling behaviour of silos,
including the effect of initial imperfections, internal pressures
and boundary conditions. It is shown that both local and
axisymmetric imperfections reduce the buckling strength
dramatically, giving similar results for the range of
imperfection magnitudes expected in reality. Internal
pressures are shown to increase the buckling strength
substantially, until inelastic buckling occurs, after which
strengths may decrease. All the elastic buckling modes can
be expressed in a dimensionless form independent of
material properties and silo dimensions. The inelastic buckling
modes are shown to be dependent on these factors. Non-
uniform pressure distributions are shown to reduce the
buckling strength even further by increasing the radius of
curvature in certain regions of the silo wall. Comparisons with
currently available design aids show that under certain
conditions, some are unsafe.
Keywords: Steel, silo, buckling, imperfections, internal
pressure, non-uniform pressure, asymmetric, axisymmetric
1. INTRODUCTION
Circular steel silos are used to store a wide range of granular
materials. Much of their popularity can be attributed to the
efficient resistance of internal pressures exerted on the silo
walls by the stored material. Generally the walls are thin for
the size of structure being constructed. The range of radius-
to-thickness ratios for most silos constructed varies from
about 500 to 2000. High axial compressive forces in the silo
wall arise primarily due to friction between the bulk solid and
the silo wall. The thin walls used for resisting the internal
pressures are thus susceptible to buckling and there have
been many catastrophic collapses of silos in the past due to
buckling.
The problem of cylindrical shell buckling is highly complex.
This paper describes a parametric study of some of these
factors, most notably the effect of imperfections (local and
axisymmetric), and the effect of internal pressures. Eccentric
outlets have been shown to produce pressure distributions
that vary around the circumference of the silo. The effects of
these pressure distributions on the buckling strength have
also been investigated. The study was carried out using finite
element analysis.
Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 Buckling of unpressurised cylinders under axial
compression
Cylindrical shells can be divided into three categories
according to their buckling behaviour: Long cylinders, in which
the cylinder buckles as an Euler strut; short cylinders, in
which one or two wavelengths form down the cylinder length;
and medium cylinders, in which the cylinder buckles in an
asymmetric pattern. Most silo structures are categorised
according to the above as medium cylinders.
Buckling strengths are often related to the classical critical
elastic buckling stress, derived from small deflection, elastic
theory for axial compression of medium length cylinders:
E t
cr = . (1)
(
3 1 2
) R
where E = elastic modulus of shell wall material, =
Poissons ratio of shell wall material, R = radius of shell and t
= thickness of shell wall. Classical solutions show the linear
meridional bending half wavelength of a buckle as:
R
t
cr = (2)
4
(
3 1 2 )
Experimentally observed buckling loads of axially compressed
cylinders are much lower than those predicted by equation (1)
and tend to have substantial scatter as shown in figure 2. This
has led to further research being done revealing that the
buckling strength of cylindrical shells is highly sensitive to the
magnitude and type of initial imperfections in the shell wall.
2.2 Buckling of unpressurised cylinders with initial
imperfections
The major cause of imperfections in large steel tanks and
silos is circumferential weld depressions. Hutchinson,
Tennyson and Muggeridge [1] adopted a local sinusoidal
axisymmetric imperfection in the form of an inward depression
to model this depression. Using measurements taken from
existing silos, Rotter and Teng [2] derived a formula to
approximate the shape of a circumferential weld depression:
x x
cos
x
= sym e + sin (3)
where is the half wavelength of the imperfection, x is the
distance from the centre of the weld depression and sym is
the maximum amplitude of the imperfection. When the
cylinder is loaded with an axial force, the centre of the
depression displaces inward. Compatible with the reduced
radius of this depression, high circumferential compressive
stresses are developed at the point of maximum deviation.
This typically results in the asymmetric diamond back
buckling mode as shown in figure 1.
Page 1 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

It is not easy for the designer to predict the level of

imperfections that may be found in a structure and as a result
most design codes have empirically related the imperfection
magnitude to the radius-to-thickness ratio. The horizontal
dashed lines in figure 2 reflect predictions from equation (4)
for sym/t = 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0. The solid line in this figure
represents Rotters proposed imperfection of:

sym / t = 0.06 ( R / t ) (5)

This provides a lower bound solution based on the available

experimental data. Other design formulae for the buckling
stress of unpressurised cylinders are given by:
(a) The Guidelines for Buckling of Shells [5] issued by the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
(ECCS) as:
Figure 1: Asymmetric diamond back buckling of an experimental silo. cr
b = (6a)
(P. E. Trinchero, University of the Witwatersrand)

where is a safety factor required to account for the

large scatter in experimental results and is equal to
1.33 and is given by:
0.7
= (6b)
0.1 + 0.01R
t

(b) The Australian Institute of Steel Constructions (AISC)

design guidelines prepared by Trahair et al [6] suggest
using a combination of equations to account for
yielding (7a) and buckling (7b & c) behaviour of the
shell, depending on the slenderness R/t. These are:
B
= 1.0 for R t 55 (7a)
fy

B 110 3025
= for 55 < R t < 1030 (7b)
Figure 2: Experimental results of cylinders under axial compression
(Rotter [9]). fy R
t R
t
(
2
)
By plotting experimentally observed axial buckling stresses of
axially compressed cylinders as a proportion of the critical B 484 0.0625 ( R t )
= 1 0.9 1 e
elastic buckling stress (cr in equation (1)), researchers have fy R
t
been able to show (refer to figure 2) that actual buckling loads
are much lower than the elastic critical value and are subject for 1030 R t (7c)
to great scatter. Rotter and Teng [2] found that the
wavelength of the initial imperfection that causes the greatest where = fy / 250 is a correction factor accounting for
reduction in strength for small-amplitude imperfections is different yield stresses.
equal to approximately cl/2. Using test data, Koiter [3]
produced an empirical equation relating the imperfect 2.3 Effects of internal pressurisation
buckling stress b to the classical buckling stress cr and the
Granular solids stored in circular silos apply an internal
magnitude of an axisymmetric imperfection sym. This
pressure to the walls of the silo. The presence of the resulting
equation has been rearranged by Rotter [4] into the following
circumferential tension has a beneficial effect on the buckling
form:
strength of cylinders. In 1965, Hutchinson [7] conducted
sym t studies on the effects of pressurisation on the buckling of
1+ 2
dv = cr 1 1.239 1 (4) imperfect cylinders. He states: In effect, the asymmetric
t 1.239 sym
imperfections are ironed out by the pressure, whereas the
axisymmetric ones are not. Twenty years later, Rotter and
Teng [8], observing similar trends to Hutchinson, noted that
the tension induced by the internal pressure counteracts

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 2 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

some of the circumferential compression formed during axial

where p = + ( 1 ) and is defined
loading. An elastic normalised pressure parameter, pe, is + 0.007
used to present the results of the analyses, and is defined as:
in equation (6b) (9b)
PR
pe = (8a)
cr t PR R
= (9c)
where P is the magnitude of the internal pressure. At a value Et t
of pe = 1, the circumferential tension produced by the internal
pressure is equal to the critical elastic buckling stress, cr. and the factor of safety = 1.33 (9d)
Teng and Rotter [8] showed that the buckling strength
approaches the critical buckling strength for values of pe in
excess of approximately 5. (b) The Australian Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
While investigating buckling due to local bending at the silo proposes the following formula (expressed in the
supports, Rotter [9] expressed the magnitude of the internal same symbols):
pressure using the normalised inelastic pressure parameter,
p
2 2
py, which is defined as: bp
= 1 1 e 1 b for pe < 5 (10a)
cl 5 cl
PR pe E t
py = = (8b)
fy t 2 f R
3( 1 ) y bp
and = 1 for pe > 5 (10b)
cl
At a value of py = 1, the circumferential tensile stress
produced by the internal pressure is equal to the yield stress in which pe is the dimensionless internal pressure
fy. Internal pressures cause local bending at the support of the parameter, bp is the pressurised buckling stress and
silo where radial displacement is restricted resulting in
b is the unpressurised buckling stress of the same
yielding of the extreme fibres. This loss of stiffness causes an
silo (equation (7)).
asymmetric buckling mode (commonly referred to as
elephants foot buckling) to occur at much lower stresses Rotter [9] provides one of the few proposals which considers
than those predicted for asymmetric buckling. Rotter [9] found the axisymmetric buckling mode. This proposal was
that the elasto-plastic axisymmetric mode becomes critical for empirically fitted to failure predictions obtained using the finite
values of py in excess of approximately 0.5, with the buckling difference energy method for axisymmetric buckling at a
strength decreasing to zero as py increases to 1. The typical simple support. The design rule is expressed in the following
trend of behaviour is shown in figure 3. equation in terms of = R / 400t:
f

2
+ 250
y

PR 1 (11)
= 1 1
bp
f t 1.12 + 1 5
cr
.
+1

y

2.4 Effects of non-uniform pressures

Figure 3: Axisymmetric elephants foot buckling of experimental silo.
(P. E. Trinchero, University of the Witwatersrand)
Other design formulae for the asymmetric buckling strength of
a pressurised cylinder are given by:
(a) The ECCS, in which the design approach is based on
fitting a curve to a lower bound of experimental results
and is expressed in the following equations:
cl
B =
Using finite element analysis, Rotter [10] investigated the
structural consequences of a non-uniform pressure
distribution caused by an eccentric outlet. His results showed
buckling occurs at considerably lower levels of stored material
due to the development of high local compressive stresses
adjacent to the flow channel. This has two effects: firstly, local
inward denting occurs, which increases the radius of
curvature of that portion of the wall and, secondly, the
buckling resistance of a cylinder is reduced by the lower
internal pressure.
Measurements made by Blight [11, 12] on full-scale silos
show that, even in silos with concentric discharge points, non-
uniform pressure distributions can be caused by eccentric
flow during filling or emptying, sequential opening and closing
(9a) of multiple outlets or differential solar heating of one side of
the silo relative to the other.

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 3 of 11

3. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
The entire study described in this paper was conducted using
the ABAQUS finite element system and compared to
experimental results and previous studies conducted by other
researchers. Due to the wide variety of behaviour being
modelled, several different types of finite element models are
needed. Initially, quarter-cylinder models of perfect cylinders
with eight-noded shell elements are used to confirm the
accuracy of the finite element models compared to linear
elastic theory. An appropriate length of the cylinder is
modelled to ensure that a sufficient number of buckles could
form without any boundary effects influencing the behaviour
of the cylinder. Element sizes are kept relatively small so as
to ensure there are enough elements within each buckle to
model its behaviour correctly. Thus, the elements have a size
of about of the expected half-buckle wavelength.
Symmetrical boundary conditions are applied to the vertical
edges of the quarter cylinder to simulate the effect of the rest
of the cylinder. The bottom edge is simply supported (i.e.
restrained from translation in all directions, but not from
rotation), and the loading boundary is only supported in the
radial and circumferential directions in order to prevent local
collapse of the cylinder at this boundary. These boundary
conditions have minimal effect on the buckling stress. Loading
is applied to the cylinders by means of equal axial
compressive forces at the boundary nodal points. The model
is shown to simulate correctly the deflected shape of a perfect
cylinder as a series of axisymmetric buckles.
Two types of imperfections were considered, namely an
axisymmetric imperfection (representing a weld depression)
and a local imperfection. The shape of the axisymmetric
imperfection is based on equation (3), proposed by Rotter and
Teng [2] on the basis of measurements of existing silos. The
formula expresses the deviation from the original centreline of
the wall in terms of the maximum deviation, sym, the distance
from the centre of the depression in the axial direction and the
linear meridional bending half wavelength .
For the local imperfection, the same quarter-cylinder model
was used, with horizontal and vertical axes of symmetry
passing through the centre of the imperfection. Two local
imperfection shapes are introduced into this model. The first
consists of a portion of two sinusoidal curves in the meridional
and circumferential directions, forming one small depression
in an otherwise perfect wall. The imperfection is represented
as the ratio between the maximum radial displacement loc to
the wall thickness t. The wavelengths of the imperfection (
and z) are assumed to be the same in both the meridional
and circumferential directions and equal to the half
wavelength of the imperfection, .
The shape of the imperfection is represented by the following
equations:
loc 1 1 1 1 z this model is axisymmetric. This type of behaviour is not
= Cos Cos
t t 2 2 2 2
z normally expected to occur in practice, but its importance
for and z z
t = 0 if the above condition is not satisfied.
Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS
The second local imperfection is derived from the deformed
shape of the above double-sinusoidal imperfection. The post
buckling displacements from the double-sinusoidal
imperfection are scaled so that the maximum deviation of the
cylinder is equal to the desired imperfectionto-thickness ratio
loc/t for any specific analysis. This imperfection is modelled in
order to determine whether it would cause greater strength
reductions than the double-sinusoidal imperfection.
The analyses are divided in two categories based on the
asymmetric or axisymmetric modes of buckling. Since the
finite element model of geometry and loading is axisymmetric,
the finite element simulation would produce an axisymmetric
deflected shape, unless asymmetric behaviour is induced.
The asymmetric buckling behaviour evident in real silos is due
to small local imperfections present in the silo wall. Thus a
small type of local imperfection is modelled in addition to the
axisymmetric imperfection in order to induce the asymmetric
mode. This is in the form a small circumferential, sinusoidal
wave representing the very small local imperfections in real
silos. The magnitude of these imperfections are much smaller
than the dominating axisymmetric imperfection, with circ/t
ratios of less than 0.01, compared to between 1 and 2 for the
axisymmetric imperfection ratio sym/t. The magnitude of the
circumferential imperfection is so small that its effect on silos
in isolation would not have a significant influence on the
buckling strength of the cylinder. It is only when combined
with a relatively large axisymmetric imperfection that its effect
becomes significant by changing the buckling behaviour to an
asymmetric mode. Thus it is inherently different to the local
imperfections considered before. The equation used for the
circumferential imperfection is:
x
= circ e Cos (f ) (13)
Where circ = maximum amplitude of the circumferential
imperfection, f = frequency of waves in the circumferential
direction and = angle around the circumference. The
exponential term was included in the imperfection in the
vertical direction so that the imperfection reduces with
distance away from the centre of the buckle. It is important
that it dies out at a distance less than half the wavelength of
the expected buckle, so that it does not conflict with the
buckling mode and strengthen the silo.
The wavelength of the small circumferential imperfection has
a direct effect on the number of circumferential wavelengths
formed in the buckling mode, and as a result, on the buckling
stress. Thus several iterations are required to converge on
the wavelength that causes the critical buckling mode for
each particular analysis. For this purpose, a 1 Buckle
model was developed, where only one circumferential buckle
was modelled with symmetrical boundary conditions.
The second category of analyses contains only the
axisymmetric imperfection, so that the buckling behaviour of
becomes relevant later. The imperfections are included
(12a) directly in the nodal definitions. Again, the length of cylinder
(12b) considered in the analysis is approximately 3 times the radius,
to ensure no boundary effects influence the results.
Page 4 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

A sensitivity analysis was performed on the models to judge
their sensitivity to a change in element size. Results from this
sensitivity analysis show a maximum variation of only 2% in
the results after halving the element size, which is an
acceptable level of accuracy. At the time of this study, very
little information regarding the magnitude and distribution of
residual stresses in shells was available. As such, no attempt
was made to include residual stresses in the finite element
modelling. Subsequent to the completion of this study, a
critical elastic buckling stress. The number of circumferential
buckles formed in the buckling mode however increases as
the radius-to-thickness ratio increases. The material
properties of the silo wall (elastic modulus and yield stress)
also have no effect on the normalised buckling stress as the
mode of buckling is elastic. Thus by normalising the buckling
stress, the effect of initial imperfections on the behaviour of
any silo can be expressed using one formula.
1.0

limited study of the effect of residual stresses was conducted Local Imperfection
0.9

by Holst et. al. [19] which found that the presence of residual Combined Axisymmetric and
0.8
circumferential Imperfections
stresses tends to increase the buckling strength of cylinders ss Rotter (1989)
with imperfections, rendering present design formulae etr 0.7

s
gn Koiter (1945)
somewhat conservative. More research is required in this lik
0.6

cu
area to fully understand this behaviour and quantify the b 0.5

eds
effects. il
a
0.4

m
ro
N
0.3

4. RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT STUDIES 0.2

0.1

4.1 Buckling behaviour of perfect cylinders 0.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Although perfect cylinders do not exist in practice, the critical Combined

elastic buckling strength is used as a datum to which the
buckling strengths of imperfect cylinders are related. It was
important to verify that the finite element model accurately
predicts the critical elastic buckling load of the cylinders. The
results obtained from these models show less than 0.5
percent difference to predictions from equation (1). For
reasons given above these cylinders buckle in the
axisymmetric mode. The buckling wavelengths obtained
tended to be slightly longer (ranging from 2.2 to 4.7 % longer)
than those predicted by equation (2).
4.2 Asymmetric buckling of imperfect cylinders
4.2.1. Combined axisymmetric and circumferential
imperfections
The first imperfection discussed is the axisymmetric
imperfection combined with a small circumferential
imperfection required to induce an asymmetric buckling
mode. When a load is applied, the centre of the imperfection
displaces radially inwards, inducing compressive stresses in
the circumferential direction, causing instability in the
circumferential direction. This mode of buckling is the most
critical mode of failure for the vast majority of silos.
The buckling load is also dependent on the wavelength
assumed for the circumferential imperfection, with the same
number of circumferential buckling wavelengths being formed
in the buckling mode as the frequency of the assumed
imperfection. As shown in figure 4, for a practical range of
silos with R/t in the range 500 to 2000 and the axisymmetric
imperfection sym/t in the range 1 to 2, little change occurs in
the buckling strength as the magnitude of the imperfection is
increased, although the critical number of circumferential
wavelengths reduces.
Consistent with results of other researchers [2, 3, 8], by
expressing these results in terms of the Normalised Buckling
Stress (b/cl) the dependence on the radius-to-thickness
ratio is removed as this is included in the calculation of the
Combined axisymmetric
axisymmetric or localimperfection
or local imperfection magnitude,
magnitude, sym/t or /tlocor
sym
/t loc/t
Figure 4: Variation of normalised buckling stress with imperfection
magnitude for the asymmetric mode
4.2.2. Local imperfections
Asymmetric buckling modes may alternatively be induced by
a local double-sinusoidal imperfection given by equation (12)
with equal wavelengths in the vertical and circumferential
directions. The results also show a significant reduction in
buckling strength as the magnitude of this local imperfection
increases. For loc/t in the practical range of imperfection
ratios between 1 and 2, the normalised buckling stresses are
very close to those obtained for the combined axisymmetric
and circumferential imperfections. On the basis of these
analyses it is recommended that over the practical range of
imperfection ratios the critical local imperfection wavelength
for any radius-to-thickness ratio be given by:
loc
= 2 1.5 loc + 1.1 (14)
cl t
where cl is the classical solution buckling wavelength from
equation (2). This enables the critical imperfection shape to
be calculated directly rather than using a trial and error
iterative solution. The local imperfection derived from the
buckled shape of the double sinusoidal imperfection gives
very similar buckling stresses with negligible differences.
4.2.3. Comparison with design formulae
The results of the finite element study are compared in figure
5 with some of the more common design formulae (equations
(6) and (7)). It may appear anomalous that the asymmetric
normalised buckling stress, which has been shown to be
independent of the radius-to-thickness ratio for a given
imperfection, varies with the radius-to-thickness ratios in the
design formulae. This is because, in the design relationships,
the magnitude of the imperfection is commonly related to the
radius-to-thickness ratio. For radius-to-thickness ratios of less
than about 500, the ECCS formula (equation (6))

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 5 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

overestimates the buckling strength for large imperfections 1.0

close to twice the wall thickness, while becoming more and 0.9

ht
more conservative as the radius-to-thickness ratio increases gn 0.8

ert
above 500. This curve is derived from a lower bound of s 0.7

gn
experimental data which tends to show an increase in il 0.6

kc
ub 0.5

buckling stress at low radius-to-thickness ratios due to the de 0.4

E=73 GPa, f y =104 MPa, E/f y=700

more pronounced effect of the boundary conditions of test isl E=150 GPa, f y=214 MPa, E/f y=700

a
m
0.3

ro E=210 GPa, f y=300 MPa, E/f y=700

specimens. The series of formulae proposed by the AISC N

0.2 E=73 GPa, f y =300 MPa, E/f y=243

(equation. (7)) predict the buckling strength quite well for R/t < 0.1 E=210 GPa, f y=350 MPa, E/f y=600

1000, but are conservative at higher values. Because of their 0.0

500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

reliance on the apparent relationship between R/t and /t, it is Radius-to-thickness ratio, R/t

apparent that any optimisation of these design formulae

would require an in-depth study on the relationship between Figure 6: Dependence of the axisymmetric mode of buckling on the E/fy
the expected imperfection magnitude and the radius-to- ratio.
thickness ratio.
0.5
Asymmetric mode, sym /t = 1
4.4 Effects of uniform internal pressure
Asymmetric mode, sym /t = 2
0.4 AISC 4.4.1. Buckling of perfect cylinders
ECCS
ht
gn Rotter Internal pressures are applied to the walls of silos by the
etr
s 0.3 materials stored in them. These pressures have been shown
gn
lik
cu to dramatically increase the buckling strength of practical silos
b
de 0.2 with imperfections, approaching the critical elastic buckling
isl
a
m
ro stress for very high pressures. In a study of the pressures
N measured in full-scale silos [14 - 18], it was found that the
0.1
normalised elastic pressure parameter, pe in equation (8a),
rarely exceeds 1 in all these silos. Thus the range that should
0.0
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 be considered is from 0 to approximately 2. The results of
analyses performed on perfect cylinders in this study show
Radius -to-thicknes s ratio, R/t
that there is negligible increase in the buckling stress as
Figure 5: Comparison of results with design formulae for unpressurised
cylinders
internal pressures increase. The reason for these differences
in behaviour will become evident in the next section.
4.3 Axisymmetric buckling of imperfect cylinders
4.4.2. Buckling of pressurised cylinders in an
Past experimental research has shown that the asymmetric asymmetric mode
buckling modes are critical in unpressurised cylinders. The
results of this research confirm this, showing that Normalised buckling strengths for unpressurised cylinders
axisymmetric buckling in unpressurised cylinders occurs at with axisymmetric imperfections combined with a small
higher stresses than asymmetric buckling. However, the circumferential imperfection can be as low as 0.24, with the
axisymmetric mode of buckling should be considered under cylinder buckling in the asymmetric mode. This mode has
high internal pressures and low R/t ratios, where the small some dependence on the instability derived from
non-axisymmetric imperfections that induce asymmetric circumferential compressive stresses induced at the centre of
buckling tend to be ironed out easily. Therefore, some the imperfection. These compressive stresses are induced by
discussion of their behaviour in unpressurised cylinders is the inward displacement of the centre of the imperfection on
warranted, with the significance becoming clear later. application of the axial load. The effect of an internal
pressure, as shown in figure 7a, is therefore to increase the
The normalised buckling stress for axisymmetric buckling buckling strength by producing circumferential tensions which
decreases as the imperfection ratio sym/t increases and as counteract the circumferential compression. Many
the radius-to-thickness ratio reduces. In this mode, failure researchers [7, 8, 13] have produced similar graphs showing
occurs when the stresses in the extreme fibres of the wall at this increase in buckling strength.
the centre of the buckle exceed the yield stress fy. Thus this
As the magnitude of the internal pressure increases, the
mode is therefore an inelastic mode of buckling and
magnitude of the small circumferential imperfection used in
dependent on the yield stress and elastic modulus E.
the finite element models has to be increased to maintain the
However, as with inelastic strut buckling, the normalised
asymmetric mode of buckling. This is due to the fact that the
buckling stress is a function of the ratio of E/fy as shown in
internal pressure has the effect of ironing out the
figure 6.
circumferential imperfection. As an indication, for an
axisymmetric imperfection sym of 2 times the wall thickness,
the magnitude of the circumferential imperfection required to
induce asymmetric buckling was increased from 0.005 times
the wall thickness for an unpressurised cylinder to 0.1 for a
normalised elastic pressure parameter pe of 1.5. As the

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 6 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

asymmetric mode remains an elastic mode of buckling under 4.4.3. Buckling of pressurised cylinders in an
internal pressure, the normalised buckling stress remains axisymmetric mode
independent of the radius-to-thickness ratio and the material
Whereas the normalised buckling stress of pressurised
properties, as concluded by other researchers [7, 8]. As
cylinders failing in asymmetric modes increases with
shown in figure 7a, there is still a reduction in the normalised
increasing internal pressure, the strength of cylinders buckling
buckling stress at any pressure magnitude if the magnitude of
in axisymmetric modes reduces with increasing pressure.
the axisymmetric imperfection is increased. This figure also
This is due to the increased stresses around the imperfection
shows the ECCS prediction from equation (9) and the AISC
resulting from local bending under pressure. Theoretically an
design prediction from equation (10), as well as some of
internal pressure is reached at which axisymmetric buckling
Rotters results. The results of this study compare favourably
can be expected to be the critical mode. As with
Rotters findings, and show the ECCS proposal to be
unpressurised cylinders, axisymmetric buckling of pressurised
somewhat unsafe for higher imperfections, and the AISC
cylinders is highly complex, with the buckling mode being
formulae based on lower bound experimental data to be
associated with yielding and being dependent on the radius-
conservative at low pressures, becoming unsafe at higher
pressures. to-thickness ratio, the imperfection ratio sym/t, and the ratio of
the elastic modulus to the yield stress E/fy. The internal
1.0
pressure causes considerable local bending to occur at the
0.9
imperfection with the extreme fibres yielding at a lower axial
0.8
load than an unpressurised cylinder. Buckling stress data
ht
gn 0.7
plotted against the normalised inelastic pressure parameter py
etr ECCS
s
gn
0.6 from equation (8b) shows considerable scatter. However, by
lik AISC
cu 0.5 plotting the ratio of the pressurised buckling stress to the
b Rotter, /t = 1
eds 0.4
normalised buckling stress for the same cylinder against the
lia
m
ro
0.3
Rotter, /t = 2 normalised inelastic pressure parameter (figure 8), much of
N Asymmetric mode, sy m /t = 1 the scatter derived from imperfection magnitudes and radius
0.2

0.1
Asymmetric mode, sy m /t = 2 to thickness ratios disappears, although there is still some
0.0
dependence on material properties. The data for cylinders
0 1 2 3 4
with aluminium material properties tend to plot slightly higher.
Normalised elastic pressure parameter, p e
For design purposes, a conservative lower bound to this data
Figure 7a: Asymmetric buckling strength of pressurised cylinders with has been included with the data for steel cylinders in figure 8
combined axisymmetric and circumferential imperfections. and is expressed as follows:
bp
The asymmetric buckling behaviour of cylinders containing
local imperfections with internal pressure is very similar. The nbs
(
= 1 y2 ) (15)
same double-sinusoidal local asymmetric imperfection given
in equation (12) is used in place of the axisymmetric and 1

circumferential imperfections. The results in figure 7b show a ss

0.9
Aluminium
etr Steel
more rapid increase in the buckling strength as the pressure S
gn
0.8

lik
increases than in the case of cylinders with combined cu
B
0.7

axisymmetric and circumferential imperfections. The buckling eds

lia 0.6

m
mode shapes became more localised (in both the or
N
/
ss 0.5

circumferential and meridional directions) with the application etr

S
gn 0.4

of a relatively small internal pressure, becoming nearly lik

cu
B
axisymmetric as the pressure becomes large. 0.3

eds
riu
0.2ss
er
1.0 P
0.1

0.9

ht 0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

gn Normalised inelastic pressure parameter, ry

etr 0.7

s
gn Combined axisymetric &
lik
0.6

Figure 8: Buckling strength of pressurised cylinders failing in the

cu circumferential imperfection, sym/t = 1
b
0.5
axisymmetric mode
eds Combined axisymetric &
il
0.4

a circumferential imperfection, sym/t = 2

m
ro Local imperfection, loc/t = 1
0.3

N 4.4.4. Buckling in an axisymmetric mode adjacent to

0.2

0.1
Local imperfection, loc/t = 2 supports
0.0

0 1 2 3 4
Generally, a silo is assumed to be either simply supported or
Normalised elastic pressure parameter, pe fixed at the base, or in the case of column supported silos, to
possess a ring beam with a radial stiffness much greater than
Figure 7b: Asymmetric buckling strength of pressurised cylinders with the silo wall. Thus, on the application of an internal pressure,
different types of imperfections
local bending stresses are induced adjacent to the support,
caused by differential radial deflections between the retained
support and the wall that is free to deflect radially at some

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 7 of 11

distance from the support. This effectively creates an
axisymmetric imperfection which reduces the buckling
strength of the silo, and produces the classic elephant-foot
buckle that has been observed in many cases. The buckling
behaviour of cylinders due to this local bending is similar to
that of cylinders buckling in the axisymmetric mode, showing
a decrease in buckling stress with an increase in internal
pressure. In this study, analyses were performed on both the
simply supported and the fixed end conditions, with the simply
supported condition seemingly producing consistently greater
reductions than the fixed support.
4.5 Differences between asymmetric and
axisymmetric buckling
The preceding three sections of the paper demonstrate the
considerable differences in behaviour of cylinders depending
on the buckling mode. On the one hand, cylinders buckling in
the elastic asymmetric mode gain strength with internal
pressure, with the circumferential imperfection required to
induce asymmetric buckling becoming unreasonably large at
high pressures, making this mode of buckling unlikely at these
pressures. The asymmetric mode of buckling is represented
in a form independent of the radius-to-thickness ratio and
material properties. On the other hand, cylinders buckling in
the inelastic, axisymmetric mode loose strength as the
internal pressure increases, and could become the critical
mode at high pressures. This buckling mode can also be
represented in a form independent of radius to thickness ratio
with slight variance with material properties. In the common
range of pressures the critical buckling mode is most likely to
be asymmetric, but can switch to the axisymmetric mode as
the pressure increases beyond a certain value. The following
equations are proposed to calculate the internal pressure at
which this switch occurs for any particular silo. The equations
have been derived from the finite element data gathered in
this study for common steel material properties.
The asymmetric mode can be described by a modified
version of the ECCS equation:
asym p asym asym pe
= + 1
p + 0.65
cr cr cr e as opposed to the axisymmetric buckling of a silo with an
and the axisymmetric mode conservatively as shown in figure
8 by:
sym p
= ( 1 p y2 )
sym
Where
sym-p = pressurised axisymmetric buckling stress
asym-p = pressurised asymmetric buckling stress
sym = axisymmetric buckling stress with no internal
pressure
asym = asymmetric buckling stress with no internal
pressure
cr = critical elastic buckling stress (equation (1))
Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS
pe = normalised elastic pressure parameter (equation (8a))
py = normalised inelastic pressure parameter (equation
(8b))
4.6 Comparison with design formulae
Some of the more common design formulae (equations (9),
(10) and (11)) are compared in figures 9a and 9b with the
finite element results of this study for steel silos. Figure 9a
refers to imperfections of loc/t = 2 or sym/t = 2, whereas
figure 9b refers to loc/t = 1 or sym/t = 1. The results in
cylinders with local imperfections gain strength rapidly with
internal pressure and are never critical. The ECCS and AISC
proposals predict the general trend of the asymmetric mode
of behaviour of a cylinder with combined axisymmetric and
circumferential imperfections, but do not allow adequately for
the imperfections. For example, in figure 9a with sym/t = 2,
ECCS over predicts the buckling strength for pressures above
a normalised elastic pressure parameter of 0.25, but provides
a good fit in figure 9b. This code therefore overestimates the
strength for most practical imperfection magnitudes. The
AISC proposal on the other hand, tends to underestimate the
buckling strength for both imperfection magnitudes.
In an axisymmetric mode of buckling with a pure axisymmetric
imperfection the behaviour is inelastic and the strength
reduces at lower radius-to-thickness ratios. Rotters proposal
(equation (11)) is the only formulation which accounts for the
reduction in buckling strength in an axisymmetric mode as the
internal pressure increases. Theoretically, the transition from
asymmetric buckling to axisymmetric buckling could occur at
normalised elastic pressure parameter values as low as 0.25
for cylinders with a radius-to-thickness ratio of 500, although
normally it would only occur at high internal pressures or in
the vicinity of the supports. This axisymmetric mode should
be modelled as a transition from asymmetric buckling,
depending primarily on the values of R/t, sym/t and material
properties. Rotters proposal is based on local bending at the
support of a silo and is thus an axisymmetric mode. This
behaviour requires a relatively high internal pressure to
develop this local bending at the support and initiate buckling,
(16a)
initial imperfection where the imperfection is not dependent on
the pressure. Therefore, these equations result in higher
buckling strengths at low pressures, but decrease rapidly with
increasing pressure.
(16b)
Page 8 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

R/t = 1000, sym/t = 2, E = 210 GPa, fy = 300 MPa, E/fy = 700 where hj = nominal horizontal pressure derived using the
1.0
Janssen formula, = the angle around the circumference, Pf
0.9
= pressure variation factor, and and are factors chosen to
thg 0.8 be 8 and 10 respectively so as to fit the equation to the
ne 0.7
rt expected distribution. The resulting distribution of pressure
s
gn 0.6
lik around the circumference is shown in figure 10a. Full-scale
cu 0.5 measurements seem to indicate that, in most cases, the
b ECCS
de 0.4 pressure variation factor varies between 1 and 2, depending
isl AISC
a 0.3 Rotter on the extent of the eccentricity, the latter value representing
rm
o Local imperfection, loc/t = 2
N0.2 zero pressure at the flow channel.
Asymmetric mode, combined imperfection, sym/t = 2
0.1
Axisymmetric mode, axisymetric imperfection only sym/t = 2 The effect of the non-uniform pressure distribution is to distort
0.0 the original circular shape of the silo. This causes the wall to
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Normalised elastic internal pressure parameter, pe flatten in the areas of low pressure which effectively
increases the radius-to-thickness ratio of the wall locally in
Figure 9a: Comparison of results with design formulae sym/t = 2
these areas, resulting in a lower buckling stress. For a perfect
(Note: Axisymmetric mode is dependent on R/t and E/fy). cylinder the reduction in normalised buckling stress is, as
before, independent of the nominal pressure hj and is only
dependent on the pressure variation factor (PF).
1.0
R/t = 1000, sym/t = 1, E = 210 GPa, fy = 300 MPa, E/fy = 700
Imperfect cylinders subject to this non-uniform internal
0.9 pressure distribution exhibit an asymmetric buckling mode
0.8 similar to that of imperfect cylinders subject to uniform
thg pressures. As before, the trend is for the buckling strength to
ne 0.7
rt increase as the internal pressure increases. The asymmetric
s 0.6
gn
lik buckling mode remains an elastic mode of buckling, thus the
cu 0.5
b normalised buckling stress is independent of the radius-to-
de 0.4 ECCS
lisa thickness ratio and material properties.
AISC
m
ro 0.3
N
Rotter A comparison is made in figure 10b between the following
0.2 Local imperfection, loc/t = 1 three steel silos with an R/t = 1000 subject to asymmetric
Asymmetric mode, combined imperfection, sym/t = 1
0.1
Axisymmetric mode, axisymetric imperfection only sym/t = 1
buckling caused by:
0.0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 1. Combined circumferential and axisymmetric
Normalised elastic internal pressure parameter, pe imperfections with sym/t = 1.
Figure 9b: Comparison of results with design formulae sym/t = 1 2. Combined circumferential and axisymmetric
(Note: Axisymmetric mode is dependent on R/t and E/fy).
imperfections with sym/t = 2.
3. Axisymmetric imperfection of sym/t = 1, plus eccentric
4.7 Effects of non-uniform internal pressures discharge with Pf = 1.5.
An analysis of pressure measurements on full-scale silos It is interesting to note that the effect of eccentric discharge
indicates that pressures vary considerably from theoretical on a silo with an imperfection ratio of 1 is more severe than
predictions, in both the vertical and circumferential directions. an increase in the imperfection ratio from 1 to 2 something
Circumferential pressure distributions are rarely uniform at vary rarely taken into account during design.
any given level [12], mainly due to eccentric filling and
emptying, multiple outlets and differential solar heating of the For imperfect cylinders, the percentage reduction from the
silo wall. The effect of a non-uniform pressure distribution in uniform to the non-uniform pressure distributions seems to be
the circumferential direction was investigated in this study fairly constant for the range of pressures considered. Due to
based on observations of pressures in circular silos with one the limited amount of data available from the study, a
eccentric discharge flow channel. Pressures adjacent to flow tentative conclusion can be reached that the percentage
channels have been observed to be significantly lower than reduction caused by a non-uniform pressure distribution is
the Janssen pressure, and at the boundaries of the flow dependent on the pressure variation factor rather than the
channel, areas of high pressure exist, returning back to the nominal internal pressure. Furthermore, it is difficult to see
Janssen pressure as one moves further away from the how a silo could buckle in the axisymmetric mode under the
discharge point. The distribution is expressed as follows: action of these non-uniform distributions, thus the buckling
mode can be relied upon to be asymmetric. Additional

90 180 research should be done on this subject, to fully quantify the
h = hj + (Pf 1) hj Sin e (17)
buckling behaviour of cylinders subject to non-uniform
pressure distributions.

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 9 of 11
 THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS

Results were presented for cylinders with axisymmetric

imperfections buckling in the axisymmetric mode. It was
shown that this mode is never critical in unpressurised
cylinders, however as internal pressures increase the
buckling strength of this mode decreases, dropping below that
of the asymmetric mode. This typically occurs at relatively
high internal pressures, whereas full scale tests on silos
indicate a practical range of internal pressures well below this
level. This indicates that these modes can become critical
under certain conditions, however, no experimental or full
scale evidence of this mode was found in literature,
questioning whether these modes are required to be
considered in design.
The behaviour of axisymmetric buckling of silos under
pressure at supports was shown to confirm previous
(a) Theoretical (Rotter [10])
research. Again these modes show a decrease in strength
with increasing pressure, also becoming critical at high
PF = 2 pressures. Ample evidence of this failure mode is available
from previous research and structural failures.

Nominal
The results of the study confirm that the buckling strength of
Pressure cylinders buckling in the asymmetric mode can be expressed
in a form independent of geometric and material properties.
The study also shows that asymmetric buckling modes are
dependent on these properties due to their elasto-plastic
behaviour.
A brief investigation of the effect of eccentric discharge
PF = 1
confirms the buckling strength decreases significantly due to
the local reduction of the radius of curvature of the silo wall
due to circumferentially non-uniform pressure distributions.
(b) FEA Model
More research in this field is required as this condition is
Figure 10a: Pressure distribution around circumference due to rarely included in design procedures, with many failures
eccentric discharge
having been caused by this.
1 Results show that buckling behaviour is not adequately
0.9 considered by existing design equations. Separate lower
ss 0.8 bound solutions are required for asymmetric and
ret 0.7
s
gn
axisymmetric buckling of different materials, considering the
lik 0.6 effects of imperfections, internal pressures and
cu
b 0.5 circumferentially non-uniform pressure distributions.
de
sli 0.4 Uniform Delta/t = 1
a
rm
o
0.3
Uniform Delta/t = 2 6. REFERENCES
N0.2
Non-Uniform Delta/t = 1, Pf = 1.5
0.1 [1] Tennyson, R. C. and Muggeridge, D. B. (1969)
0 Buckling of axisymmetric imperfect circular cylindrical
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Dimentionless internal pressure parameter, e shells under axial compression, AIAA Journal, Vol. 7,
No. 11, November, pp 48-53
Figure 10b: Effect of eccentric discharge on asymmetric buckling of
cylinder [2] Rotter, J. M. and Teng, J. (1989) Elastic stability of
cylindrical shells with weld depressions, Journal of
5. CONCLUSIONS Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 5, May,
pp 1244-1262
The buckling behaviour of circular steel silos has been
investigated using the finite element method. Results [3] Koiter, W. T. (1963) The effect of axisymmetric
obtained for unpressurised and pressurised cylinders with imperfections on the buckling of cylindrical shells
axisymmetric imperfections buckling in the asymmetric mode under axial compression, Koninklijke Nedelandse
correlate well with previous research. The effect of local Akademie van Wetenschappen, Proc. B66, pp 265-
imperfections was shown to be similar to that of axisymmetric 279
imperfections in unpressurised cylinders, however they show
better strength gains under internal pressure, indicating that
they are rarely critical.

Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Page 10 of 11

[4] Rotter, J. M. (1985) Buckling under axial compression,
Short Course on the Design of Steel Bins for the
Storage of Bulk Solids, University of Sydney, March
1985, pp 71-81
[5] ECCS (1983), Recommendations for Steel
Construction: Buckling of Shells, Second ed.,
European Convention for Constructional steelwork
[6] Trahair, N. S., Abel, A., Ansourian, P., Irvine, H. M.
and Rotter, J. M. (1983) Structural Design of Steel
Bins for Bulk Solids, Australian Institute of Steel
Construction
[7] Hutchinson, J. (1965) Axial buckling of pressurised
imperfect cylindrical shells, AIAA Journal, Vol. 3, No.
8, August, pp 1461-1466
[8] Teng, J and Rotter, J. M. (1992) Buckling of
pressurised axisymmetrically imperfect cylinders
under axial loads, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol. 118, No. 2, February, pp 229-247
[9] Rotter, J. M. (1989) Local collapse of axially
compressed pressurised thin steel cylinders, Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 7, July,
pp 1955-1969
[10] Rotter, J. M. (1986) The analysis of steel bins subject
to eccentric discharge, Second International
Conference on Bulk Materials Storage Handling and
Transportation, Wollongong, 7-9 July
[11] Blight, G. E. (1991) Eccentric emptying of a large coal
bin with six outlets, Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 11, No.
2, May, pp 451-457
Mr Kimon Comninos, Arup; Mr Paolo Trinchero, Macsteel Trading and Professor Alan Kemp, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
THE BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN WALLED, CIRCULAR STEEL SILOS
[12] Blight, G. E. and Gohnert, M. (1993) Effects of varying
horizontal pressure in cylindrical silos, Powder
Handling and Processing, Vol. 5, No. 4, November, pp
337 - 340
[13] Weingarten, V. I., Morgan, E. J. and Seide, P (1965)
Elastic stability of thin-walled cylindrical and conical
shells under combined internal pressure and axial
compression, AIAA Journal, Vol. 3, No. 6, June, pp
1118-1125
[14] Blight, G. E. (1988) A comparison of measured
pressures in silos with code recommendations, Bulk
Solids Handling, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp 145-153
[15] Blight, G. E. (1988) Strains measured in a 7,500 t
sugar silo, Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp 413-
419
[16] Blight, G. E. (1986) Pressures exerted by materials
stored in silos: part I, coarse materials, Geotechnique,
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp 33-46
[17] Blight, G. E. (1986) Pressures exerted by materials
stored in silos: part II, fine powders, Geotechnique,
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp 47-56
[18] Blight, G. E. (1988) Response to loading of three
similar grain silos, Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 12, No.
2, pp 241-243
[19] Holst, J. M. F. G., Rotter, J. M., Calladine, C. R.,
(1999) Imperfections and Buckling in Cylindrical Shells
with Consistent Residual Stresses, Journal of
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Page 11 of 11