Lattice Boltzmann methods

Lattice Boltzmann methods (LBM) (or thermal Lat-
tice Boltzmann methods (TLBM)) is a class of
computational uid dynamics (CFD) methods for uid
simulation. Instead of solving the NavierStokes equa-
tions, the discrete Boltzmann equation is solved to simu-
late the ow of a Newtonian uid with collision models
such as BhatnagarGrossKrook (BGK). By simulating
streaming and collision processes across a limited num-
ber of particles, the intrinsic particle interactions evince
a microcosm of viscous ow behavior applicable across
the greater mass.
work). It enables complex physics and sophisticated
algorithms. Eciency leads to a qualitatively new
level of understanding, since it allows solving prob-
lems that previously could not be approached (or
only with insucient accuracy).
The method originates from a molecular description
of a uid and can directly incorporate physical terms
stemming from a knowledge of the interaction be-
tween molecules. Hence it is an indispensable in-
strument in fundamental research, as it keeps the cy-
cle between the elaboration of a theory and the for-
mulation of a corresponding numerical model short.

1 Algorithm Automated data pre-processing and mesh generation

in a time that accounts for a small fraction of the
LBM is a relatively new simulation technique for com- total simulation.
plex uid systems and has attracted interest from re-
Parallel data analysis, post-processing and evalua-
searchers in computational physics. Unlike the traditional
tion.
CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of
macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and en- Fully resolved multi-phase ow with small droplets
ergy) numerically, LBM models the uid consisting of and bubbles.
ctive particles, and such particles perform consecutive
propagation and collision processes over a discrete lat- Fully resolved ow through complex geometries and
tice mesh. Due to its particulate nature and local dynam- porous media.
ics, LBM has several advantages over other conventional
CFD methods, especially in dealing with complex bound- Complex, coupled ow with heat transfer and chem-
aries, incorporating microscopic interactions, and par- ical reactions.
allelization of the algorithm. A dierent interpretation
of the Lattice Boltzmann equation is that of a discrete-
velocity Boltzmann equation. The numerical methods 3 Limitations
of solution of the system of partial dierential equations
then gives rise to a discrete map, which can be interpreted Despite the increasing popularity of LBM in simulat-
as the propagation and collision of ctitious particles. ing complex uid systems, this novel approach has some
In the computer algorithm, the collision and streaming limitations. At present, high-Mach number ows in
step are dened as follows: aerodynamics are still dicult for LBM, and a consis-
eq tent thermo-hydrodynamic scheme is absent. However,
Collision step: fit (x, t + t ) = fi (x, t) + f (fi fi )
1
as with NavierStokes based CFD, LBM methods have
Streaming step: fi (x + ei t , t + t ) = fit (x, t + t ) been successfully coupled to thermal-specic solutions
to enable heat transfer (solids-based conduction, con-
Here i are the directions of momentum.
vection and radiation) simulation capability. For mul-
tiphase/multicomponent models, the interface thickness
is usually large and the density ratio across the interface
2 Advantages is small when compared with real uids. Recently this
problem has been resolved by Yuan and Schaefer who
The LBM method was designed from scratch to run improved on models by Shan and Chen, Swift, and He,
eciently on massively parallel architectures, rang- Chen, and Zhang. They were able to reach density ratios
ing from inexpensive embedded FPGAs and DSPs of 1000:1 by simply changing the equation of state.
up to GPUs and heterogeneous clusters and super- Nevertheless, the wide applications and fast advance-
computers (even with a slow interconnection net- ments of this method during the past twenty years have

1
2 7 SIMULATION OF MIXTURES

proven its potential in computational physics, including 5 Lattices and the DnQm classica-
microuidics: LBM demonstrates promising results in
the area of high Knudsen number ows.
tion
Lattice Boltzmann models can be operated on a number
of dierent lattices, both cubic and triangular, and with or
without rest particles in the discrete distribution function.
A popular way of classifying the dierent methods by
lattice is the DnQm scheme. Here Dn" stands for "n di-
mensions, while Qm" stands for "m speeds. For exam-
ple, D3Q15 is a 3-dimensional Lattice Boltzmann model
4 Development from the LGA on a cubic grid, with rest particles present. Each node
has a crystal shape and can deliver particles to 15 nodes:
method each of the 6 neighboring nodes that share a surface, the
8 neighboring nodes sharing a corner, and itself.[1] (The
D3Q15 model does not contain particles moving to the 12
LBM originated from the lattice gas automata (LGA) neighboring nodes that share an edge; adding those would
method, which can be considered as a simplied cti- create a D3Q27 model.)
tious molecular dynamics model in which space, time,
Real quantities as space and time need to be converted to
and particle velocities are all discrete. For example, in
lattice units prior to simulation. Nondimensional quanti-
the 2-dimensional FHP Model each lattice node is con-
ties, like the Reynolds number, remain the same.
nected to its neighbors by 6 lattice velocities on a trian-
gular lattice; there can be either 0 or 1 particles at a lat-
tice node moving with a given lattice velocity. After a
time interval, each particle will move to the neighboring 6 Lattice units conversion
node in its direction; this process is called the propagation
or streaming step. When more than one particle arrives In most Lattice Boltzmann simulations x is the basic unit
at the same node from dierent directions, they collide for lattice spacing, so if the domain of length L has N
and change their velocities according to a set of collision lattice units along its entire length, the space unit is simply
rules. Streaming steps and collision steps alternate. Suit- dened as x = L/N . Speeds in Lattice Boltzmann
able collision rules should conserve the particle number simulations are typically given in terms of the speed of
(mass), momentum, and energy before and after the col- sound. The discrete time unit can therefore be given as
lision. LGA suer from several innate defects for use in t = x , where the denominator Cs is the physical speed
Cs
hydrodynamic simulations: lack of Galilean invariance of sound.[2]
for fast ows, statistical noise and poor Reynolds number
scaling with lattice size. LGA are, however, well suited For small-scale ows (such as those seen in porous media
to simplify and extend the reach of reaction diusion and mechanics), operating with the true speed of sound can
molecular dynamics models. lead to unacceptably short time steps. It is therefore com-
mon to raise the lattice Mach number to something much
The main motivation for the transition from LGA to LBM larger than the real Mach number, and compensating for
was the desire to remove the statistical noise by replacing this by raising the viscosity as well in order to preserve
the Boolean particle number in a lattice direction with its the Reynolds number.[3]
ensemble average, the so-called density distribution func-
tion. Accompanying this replacement, the discrete colli-
sion rule is also replaced by a continuous function known
as the collision operator. In the LBM development, an 7 Simulation of mixtures
important simplication is to approximate the collision
operator with the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) relax- Simulating multiphase/multicomponent ows has always
ation term. This lattice BGK (LBGK) model makes sim- been a challenge to conventional CFD because of the
ulations more ecient and allows exibility of the trans- moving and deformable interfaces. More fundamentally,
port coecients. On the other hand, it has been shown the interfaces between dierent phases (liquid and vapor)
that the LBM scheme can also be considered as a special or components (e.g., oil and water) originate from the
discretized form of the continuous Boltzmann equation. specic interactions among uid molecules. Therefore,
From Chapman-Enskog theory, one can recover the gov- it is dicult to implement such microscopic interactions
erning continuity and NavierStokes equations from the into the macroscopic NavierStokes equation. However,
LBM algorithm. In addition, th also directly available in LBM, the particulate kinetics provides a relatively easy
from the density distributions and hence there is no ex- and consistent way to incorporate the underlying micro-
tra Poisson equation to be solved as in traditional CFD scopic interactions by modifying the collision operator.
methods. Several LBM multiphase/multicomponent models have
 3

been developed. Here phase separations are generated By expanding the particle distribution function into equi-
automatically from the particle dynamics and no special librium and non-equilibrium components and using the
treatment is needed to manipulate the interfaces as in tra- Chapman-Enskog expansion, where K is the Knudsen
ditional CFD methods. Successful applications of multi- number, the Taylor-expanded LBE can be decomposed
phase/multicomponent LBM models can be found in var- into dierent magnitudes of order for the Knudsen num-
ious complex uid systems, including interface instabil- ber in order to obtain the proper continuum equations:
ity, bubble/droplet dynamics, wetting on solid surfaces,
interfacial slip, and droplet electrohydrodynamic defor-
mations. fi = fieq + Kfineq ,
A Lattice Boltzmann model for simulation of gas mix- neq (1) (2) 2
ture combustion capable of accommodating signicant fi = fi + Kfi + O(K ).
density variations at low-Mach number regime has been The equilibrium and non-equilibrium distributions sat-
recently proposed.[4] isfy the following relations to their macroscopic variables
To this respect, it is worth to notice that, since LBM deals (these will be used later, once the particle distributions
with a larger set of elds (as compared to conventional are in the correct form in order to scale from the parti-
CFD), the simulation of reactive gas mixtures presents cle to macroscopic level):
some additional challenges in terms of memory demand
as far as large detailed combustion mechanisms are con- eq
cerned. Those issues may be addressed, though, by re- = fi ,
sorting to systematic model reduction techniques.[5][6][7] i
eq
u = fi ei ,
i
8 Thermal lattice-Boltzmann (k)
0= fi fork = 1, 2,
method i
(k)
0= fi ei .
Currently (2009), a thermal lattice-Boltzmann method i
(TLBM) falls into one of three categories: the multi-
The Chapman-Enskog expansion is then:
speed approach,[8] the passive scalar approach,[9] and the
[10]
thermal energy distribution.

=K +K 2 fort2 (time-scale diusive) t1 (time-scale co
t t1 t2
9 Derivation of NavierStokes

equation from discrete LBE x
=K
x1
.

By substituting the expanded equilibrium and non-

Starting with the discrete Lattice Boltzmann equation equilibrium into the Taylor expansion and separating into
(also referred to as LBGK equation due to the collision dierent orders of K , the continuum equations are
operator used). We rst do a 2nd-order Taylor series ex- nearly derived.
pansion about the left side of the LBE. This is chosen over
0
a simpler 1st-order Taylor expansion as the discrete LBE For order K :
cannot be recovered. When doing the 2nd-order Taylor
series expansion, the zero derivative term and the rst
eq (1)
term on the right will cancel, leaving only the rst and fi + e f eq = fi .
i 1 i
second derivative terms of the Taylor expansion and the t1
collision operator:
For order K 1 :

1 eq
fi (x + ei t , t + t ) = fi (x, t) + (f fi ). fi
(1)
f eq (1) 1 f eq 1 2 fieq f
(2)
f i + i +ei fi + eiei : fieq +ei i + = i .
t1 t2 2 t1 2 t21
For simplicity, write fi (x, t) as fi . The slightly simpli-
ed Taylor series expansion is then as follows, where ":" Then, the second equation can be simplied with some
is the colon product between dyads: algebra and the rst equation into the following:

( ) f eq ( ) [ (1) ]
(2)
fi 1 fi 1 2 fi 1i eq 1 fi (1) fi
+ei fi + eiei : fi + ei + + 1
= t(fi fi ). 2 +
e i 1 f i = .
t 2 t 2 t2 2 t1
4 10 MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS FOR SIMULATIONS

Applying the relations between the particle distribution where g(x, ei , t) is related to f (x, ei , t) by
functions and the macroscopic properties from above, the
mass and momentum equations are achieved:
(e u)2
g(x, ei , t) = f (x, ei , t),
2

+ u = 0, F is an external force, is a collision integral, and e (also

t
labeled by in literature) is the microscopic velocity. The
u external force F is related to temperature external force
+ = 0.
t G by the relation below. A typical test for ones model is
The momentum ux tensor has the following form the RayleighBnard convection for G .
then:
(e u)
G
[ ( ) ] F = f eq ,
1 (1) RT
xy = eixeiy fieq + 1 fi ,
2 = g0 (T Tavg )k.
i G
where eixeiy is shorthand for the square of the sum of all Macroscopic variables such as density , velocity u , and
2
the components of ei (i. e. ( x eix ) = x y eixeiy temperature T can be calculated as the moments of the
), and the equilibrium particle distribution with second density distribution function:
order to be comparable to the NavierStokes equation is:

( ) = f de,
ei u (ei u)2 u2
fieq = i 1 + 2 + .
cs 2c4s 2c2s
u = ef de,
The equilibrium distribution is only valid for small veloc-

ities or small Mach numbers. Inserting the equilibrium DRT
distribution back into the ux tensor leads to: = = g de.
2
The Lattice Boltzmann method discretizes this equa-
tion by limiting space to a lattice and the velocity
(0)
xy = eixeiy fieq = pxy + ux uy , space to a discrete set of microscopic velocities (i. e.
i ei = (eix , eiy ) ). The microscopic velocities in D2Q9,
( )
1 (1)
D3Q15, and D3Q19 for example are given as:
xy = 1
(1)
eixeiy fi = (x (uy ) + y (ux )) .
2 i

Finally, the NavierStokes equation is recovered under
(0, 0) i=0
the assumption that density variation is small: ei = c (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1) i = 1, 2, 3, 4


(1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1) i = 5, 6, 7, 8
( )
ux
+ y ux uy = x p+y (x (uy ) + y (ux )) . (0, 0, 0) i=0
t
ei = c (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) i = 1, 2, ..., 5, 6


This derivation follows the work of Chen and Doolen.[11] (1, 1, 1) i = 7, 8, ..., 13, 14


(0, 0, 0) i=0
10 Mathematical equations for i e = c (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) i = 1, 2, ..., 5, 6


(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1) i = 7, 8, ..., 17, 18
simulations
The single-phase discretized Boltzmann equation for
The continuous Boltzmann equation is an evolution equa- mass density and internal energy density are:
tion for a single particle probability distribution func-
tion f (x, ei , t) and the internal energy density distribu-
tion function g(x, ei , t) (He et al.) are each respectively: fi (x + ei t , t + t ) fi (x, t) + Fi = (f ),
gi (x + ei t , t + t ) gi (x, t) + Gi = (g).

t f + (e )f + F v f = (f ), The collision operator is often approximated by a BGK

collision operator under the condition it also satises the
t g + (e )g + Gv f = (g), conservation laws:
 5

The moments of the fi give the local conserved quantities.

The density is given by
1 eq
(f ) = (f fi ),
f i

1 = fi
(g) = (gieq gi ). i
g

In the collision operator fieq is the discrete, equilibrium = gi
particle probability distribution function. In D2Q9 and i
D3Q19, it is shown below for an incompressible ow in
= fi
continuous and discrete form where D, R, and T are the
i
dimension, universal gas constant, and absolute tempera-
ture respectively. The partial derivation for the continu- and the weighted average velocity, u , and the local mo-
ous to discrete form is provided through a simple deriva- mentum are given by
tion to second order accuracy.
( ) ( )
u)2
e
(
u
2RT u =
f eq = e /
(2RT )D/2

f
f
e)2
( 2
e 2RT e RT 2RT

eu
u
= D/2
u = fi ei .
(2RT )
i
( 2 2
)
e)2
(
2RT
eu (
eu)
u
= e 1 + + + ...
v
=
u + f F
(2RT )D/2 RT 2(RT )2 2RT
In the above equation for the equilibrium velocity v ,
Letting c = 3RT yields the nal result: the F term is the interaction force between a compo-
nent and the other components. It is still the subject of
( ) much discussion as it is typically a tuning parameter that
3ei u 9(ei u)2 3(u)2 determines how uid-uid, uid-gas, etc. interact. Frank
fieq = i 1 + 2 +
c 2c4 2c2 et al. list current models for this force term. The com-
monly used derivations are Gunstensen chromodynamic
(e u)2 (eu)2 model, Swifts free energy-based approach for both liq-
g eq = e 2RT
2(2RT )D/2 uid/vapor systems and binary uids, Hes intermolecular
interaction-based model, the Inamuro approach, and the

4/9 i=0 Lee and Lin approach.[12]
i = 1/9 i = 1, 2, 3, 4

The following is the general description for F as given
1/36 i = 5, 6, 7, 8
by several authors.[13][14]
j

1/3 i=0 F = (x) H j (x, x )
j (x + ei )ei
i
i = 1/18 i = 1, 2, ..., 5, 6

(x) is the eective mass and H(x, x ) is Greens func-
1/36 i = 7, 8, ..., 17, 18 tion representing the interparticle interaction with x as

As much work has already been done on a single- the neighboring site. Satisfying H(x, x ) = H(x , x)

component ow, the following TLBM will be discussed. and where H(x ,
x ) > 0 represents repulsive forces. For
The multicomponent/multiphase TLBM is also more in- D2Q9 and D3Q19, this leads to
{
triguing and useful than simply one component. To be hj |x x | c

in line with current research, dene the set of all compo- H j (x, x ) =
0 |x x | > c
nents of the system (i. e. walls of porous media, multiple

uids/gases, etc.) with elements j . j
|x x | = c
h

H (x, x ) = hj /2 |x x | = 2c
j


1 ,eq 0 otherwise

fi (x+ei t , t+t )fi (x, t)+Fi = (fi ( , v )fi )
f The eective mass as proposed by Shan and Chen uses
the following eective mass for a single-component, mul-

The relaxation parameter, f j , is related to the kinematic tiphase system. The equation of state is also given under

viscosity, f j , by the following relationship: the condition of a single component and multiphase.

[
]

f j = (f j 0.5)c2s t . (x) = ( ) = 0 1 e( /0 )
6 13 NOTES
p = c2s + c0 h[(x)]2
So far, it appears that 0
and h j
are free constants
to tune but once plugged into the systems equation of
state(EOS), they must satisfy the thermodynamic rela-
tionships at the critical point such that (P /)T =
( 2 P /2 )T = 0 and p = pc . For the EOS, c0 is 3.0
for D2Q9 and D3Q19 while it equals 10.0 for D3Q15.[15]
It was later shown by Yuan and Schaefer[16] that the ef-
fective mass density needs to be changed to simulate mul-
tiphase ow more accurately. They compared the Shan
and Chen (SC), Carnahan-Starling (CS), van der Waals
(vdW), RedlichKwong (RK), RedlichKwong Soave
(RKS), and PengRobinson (PR) EOS. Their results re-
vealed that the SC EOS was insucient and that CS,
PR, RK, and RKS EOS are all more accurate in mod-
eling multiphase ow of a single component.
For the popular isothermal Lattice Boltzmann methods
these are the only conserved quantities. Thermal mod-
els also conserve energy and therefore have an additional
conserved quantity:
+ uu = fieiei .
i tions. EPL. 98: 34001. Bibcode:2012EL.....9834001D.
11 Applications
During the last years, the LBM has proven to be a pow-
erful tool for solving problems at dierent length scales.
The behavior of uid ow through porous media can be
analyzed using the Lattice Boltzmann method. LBM has
been applied to: - Earth sciences (Soil ltration). - En-
ergy Sciences (Fuel Cells[17] ).
12 Further reading
Deutsch, Andreas; Sabine Dormann (2004). Cellu-
lar Automaton Modeling of Biological Pattern For-
mation. Birkhuser Verlag. ISBN 978-0-8176-
4281-5.
Succi, Sauro (2001). The Lattice Boltzmann Equa-
tion for Fluid Dynamics and Beyond. Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-850398-9.
Wolf-Gladrow, Dieter (2000). Lattice-Gas Cellular
Automata and Lattice Boltzmann Models. Springer
Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-66973-9.
Sukop, Michael C.; Daniel T. Thorne, Jr. (2007).
Lattice Boltzmann Modeling: An Introduction for
Geoscientists and Engineers. Springer. ISBN 978-
3-540-27981-5.
Jian Guo Zhou (2004). Lattice Boltzmann Methods
for Shallow Water Flows. Springer. ISBN 3-540-
40746-4.
He,X., Chen, S., Doolen, G. (1998). A Novel Ther-
mal Model for the Lattice Boltzmann Method in In-
compressible Limit. Academic Press.
Guo, Z. L.; Shu, C (2013). Lattice Boltzmann
Method and Its Applications in Engineering. World
Scientic Publishing.
Huang, H.; M.C. Sukop,; X-Y. Lu (2015). Mul-
tiphase Lattice Boltzmann Methods: Theory and
Application. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-
97133-8.
13 Notes
[1] Succi, p. 68
[2] Succi, Appendix D (p. 261-262)
[3] Succi, chapter 8.3, p. 117-119
[4] Di Rienzo, A. Fabio; Asinari, Pietro; Chiavazzo,
Eliodoro; Prasianakis, Nikolaos; Mantzaras, John (2012).
Lattice Boltzmann model for reactive ow simula-
doi:10.1209/0295-5075/98/34001.
[5] Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexan-
der; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2010). Coupling
of the model reduction technique with the Lat-
tice Boltzmann method for combustion simu-
lations. Combust. Flame. 157: 18331849.
doi:10.1016/j.combustame.2010.06.009.
[6] Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexan-
der; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2012). Ecient sim-
ulations of detailed combustion elds via the Lattice
Boltzmann method. International Journal of Numer-
ical Methods for Heat & Fluid Flow. 21: 494517.
doi:10.1108/09615531111135792.
[7] Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander;
Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2009). Combustion simula-
tion via Lattice Boltzmann and reduced chemical kinet-
ics. Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Exper-
iment. 2009: P06013. Bibcode:2009JSMTE..06..013C.
doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2009/06/P06013.
[8] McNamara, G., Garcia, A., and Alder, B., A hydrody-
namically correct thermal lattice boltzmann model, Jour-
nal of Statistical Physics, vol. 87, no. 5, pp. 1111-1121,
1997.
[9] Shan, X., Simulation of rayleigh-b'enard convection us-
ing a lattice boltzmann method, Physical Review E, vol.
55, pp. 2780-2788, The American Physical Society,
1997.
[10] He, X., Chen, S., and Doolen, G.D., A novel thermal
model for the lattice boltzmann method in incompressible
limit, Journal of Computational Physics, vol. 146, pp.
282-300, 1998.
 7

[11] Chen, S., and Doolen, G. D., Lattice Boltzmann Method

for Fluid Flows, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, vol.
30, p. 329364, 1998.
[12] Frank, X., Almeida, G., Perre, P., Multiphase ow in
the vascular system of wood: From microscopic explo-
ration to 3-D Lattice Boltzmann experiments, Interna-
tional Journal of Multiphase Flow, vol. 36, pp. 599-607,
2010.
[13] Yuan, P., Schaefer, L., Equations of State in a Lattice
Boltzmann model, Physics of Fluids, vol. 18, 2006.
[14] Harting, J., Chin, J., Maddalena, V., Coveney, P., Large-
scale Lattice Boltzmann simulations of complex uids:
advances through the advent of computational Grids,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol.
363, pp. 18951915 2005.
[15] Yuan, P., Schaefer, L., A Thermal Lattice Boltzmann
Two-Phase Flow Model and its Application to Heat Trans-
fer Problems-Part 1. Theoretical Foundation, Journal of
Fluid Engineering 142-150, vol. 128, 2006.
[16] Yuan, P.; Schaefer, L. (2006). Equations of State
in a Lattice Boltzmann model. Physics of Flu-
ids. 18: 042101. Bibcode:2006PhFl...18d2101Y.
doi:10.1063/1.2187070.
[17] Link text, Espinoza, M., Andersson, M., Yuan, J., and
Sundn, B. (2015) Compress eects on porosity, gas-
phase tortuosity, and gas permeability in a simulated PEM
gas diusion layer. Int. J. Energy Res., 39: 15281536.
doi: 10.1002/er.3348..

14 External links
OpenLB: LBM community forum for discussions
on research, implementation, open positions and up-
coming conferences, ..
palabos.org: A site with various resources related to
LBM, including a forum.
LBM Method
Lattice Boltzmann summary
Erlangen Lattice Boltzmann mailing list
Entropic Lattice Boltzmann Method (ELBM)
DSFD mailing list: sends information about DSFD
and related conferences, opportunities for doctoral,
postdoctoral, faculty and industry positions for ap-
plicants who have experience with Lattice Boltz-
mann or other related methods.
dsfd.org: Website of the annual DSFD conference
series (1986 -- now) where advances in theory and
application of the Lattice Boltzmann method are
discussed
Website of the annual ICMMES conference on Lat-
tice Boltzmann methods and their applications
8 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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