Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly

The Canadian Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science

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Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel

composites: processing, microstructure and
properties

F. Akhtar

To cite this article: F. Akhtar (2014) Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites:
processing, microstructure and properties, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 53:3, 253-263,
DOI: 10.1179/1879139514Y.0000000135

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1879139514Y.0000000135

Published online: 12 Jun 2014.

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Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel
composites: processing, microstructure and
properties
F. Akhtar*1,2
Ceramic reinforced steel matrix composites are materials for automotive, aerospace, wear and
cutting applications. Such metal matrix composites (MMCs) combine attractive physical,
mechanical and wear properties with ease of fabrication and low cost. The review focuses on
the current state of the art of producing these metal matrix composites, ceramics reinforcements,
composition of steel matrix, microstructure evolution and parameters influencing the mechanical
and wear properties. Processing methods to fabricate ceramic reinforced steel matrix composites
are discussed to produce these composites with low number of defects, homogeneous
microstructure and high mechanical and wear performance. The influence of chemical nature
of ceramic reinforcements and composition of steel matrix on the microstructure, mechanical and
wear properties is presented. The strengthening mechanisms and parameters controlling wear
performance of steel MMCs are described as a function of the content of ceramic reinforcements,
microstructural design and structure of the steel matrix. Keeping in view the stability of ceramics
in steels, suitable ceramic reinforcements and steel matrix materials are discussed. Moreover, the
importance of microstructure and interface between ceramic reinforcement and steel matrix in
controlling the mechanical properties of steel MMCs is highlighted. The review identifies area of
research for development to fully appreciate and tailor the properties of these industrially
important composites.

Les materiaux composites a` matrice dacier, renforces de ceramique, sont des materiaux pour
application dans lindustrie automobile, aerospatiale, de lusure et du decoupage. Les materiaux
composites a` matrice metallique (MMCs) en acier et ceramique combinent des proprietes
attrayantes physiques, mecaniques et dusure, a` la facilite de fabrication et au cout faible. Cette
revue se concentre sur letat de la technique courante de production des materiaux composites a`
matrice dacier, renforces de ceramique, sur les renforcements en ceramique, sur la composition
de la matrice dacier, sur levolution de la microstructure, sur les proprietes mecaniques et sur les
parame`tres importants qui controlent les proprietes mecaniques et dusure. On discute des
methodes de traitement pour la fabrication des materiaux composites a` matrice dacier, renforces
de ceramique afin de produire des MMCs avec peu de defauts, une microstructure homoge`ne et
un rendement eleve des proprietes mecaniques et dusure. On decrit linfluence de la nature
chimique des renforcements et de la composition de la matrice en acier sur le developpement de
la microstructure et sur les proprietes mecaniques et dusure. On decrit les mecanismes de

1
Division of Material Science, Lulea University of Technology, Lulea 971 87, Lulea, Sweden
2
Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden

*Corresponding author, email farid.akhtar@ltu.se

2014 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 8 December 2013; accepted 20 March 2014
DOI 10.1179/1879139514Y.0000000135 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3 253
Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites

renforcement et les parame`tres controlant le rendement a` lusure des MMCs en acier en fonction
de la teneur en renforcement de ceramique, de la conception de la microstructure et de la
structure de la matrice en acier. Gardant en vue la stabilite des ceramiques dans les aciers, on
discute des materiaux appropries de renforcements ceramiques et de matrice dacier. De plus,
on souligne limportance de la conception de la microstructure et de linterface dans le controle
des proprietes mecaniques des MMCs en acier. Cette revue identifie des sujets de recherche a`
developper afin de comprendre comple`tement et de creer sur mesure les proprietes de ces
materiaux composites dimportance industrielle.
Keywords: Metal matrix composites, High modulus steels, Ceramics, Mechanical properties, Microstructure

This paper is part of a special issue on High Modulus Steels

Introduction reaction of reinforcements with the steel matrix results

Ceramic reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs),
in general, combine certain properties of ceramic
reinforcements and the metallic matrix and have been
produced in a variety of combinations of ceramic rein-
forcements and metallic matrices with unique proper-
ties.13 MMCs show attractive physical and mechanical
properties, e.g. high specific modulus, strength, hard-
ness, thermal stability and wear resistance.4 In general,
metals and alloys as matrix materials are expected to
provide high ductility and toughness to the MMCs.
Commonly used metals and alloys for MMCs are
aluminium,5,6 magnesium,7,8 titanium,9 copper,10,11 su-
peralloys,12 steels1317 and intermetallic alloys.18 The
desired characteristics of ceramic reinforcements em-
bedded in a metallic matrix are high strength, elastic
modulus, wear resistance, high melting point and low
density. Oxide and non-oxide ceramics, e.g. TiC,15,16
TiB2,19,20 SiC,7,8 carbon nanotubes,21,22 B4C,23 dia-
mond,24 Al2O3,25 SiO2,26 NbC,27 Cr3C2,28 MoSi229 and
WC,30 have been incorporated in to metals and alloys
matrices to produce MMCs with superior physical and
mechanical properties. There is a significant interest to
produce lightweight high modulus materials for aero-
space and automobile industry in order to achieve lower
fuel consumption, hazardous emissions and to enhance
safety.31
The elastic/Youngs modulus of plain medium
carbon steel (AISI 1045) is between 190 and 210
GPa. The elastic modulus of steel changes with its
chemical composition, microstructure, type of crystal
structure/phases and thickness of the steel test speci-
men.32 For instance, reports have shown that a high
strength low alloy steels exhibits Youngs modulus
of 350700 MPa33 and a ultrahigh strength steel
exhibits a modulus of 1000 MPa.34 The elastic
modulus of steel is highest among the structural
metallic materials and the specific Youngs modulus,
i.e. Youngs modulus per specific gravity is close to
light metals and their alloys (Table 1). A high specific
Youngs modulus is potentially obtained with the
addition of lighter ceramic reinforcements of high elastic
modulus to the steels. The light ceramic reinforcements
reduce the density of steel MMCs and react with the steel
matrix to form necessary metalceramic bonding. Excessive
in formation of undesired components and can adversely
affect the mechanical properties of the composite.35
Steel MMCs are typically produced with low volume
fraction of reinforcements ranging from 5 to 30% for
structural applications, otherwise the ductility and
toughness may go lower than required.3640 Ceramic
reinforced steel MMCs with high volume fraction of
reinforcements such as 5080% are of interest for appli-
cations where high hardness and wear resistance are
required.13,15,41,42 Increase in the properties of steel
MMCs such as hardness, wear and corrosion resistance,
specific modulus, ductility and fracture toughness
depends on interplay of several processing and micro-
structural parameters. These microstructural parameters
include volume fraction of ceramic reinforcements,
shape and size of reinforcements, interface between
ceramic reinforcement and matrix material, composi-
tion of steel matrix, defects, cracks and the distribution
of reinforcements in the steel matrix.1,4,37,39,43 The choice
of the steel matrix is vital for the microstructure
development and properties of steel MMCs. Moreover,
steels gives the possibility to tune the microstructure and
properties of the matrix, e.g. by heat treatment.13 The
replacement of austenitic matrix by harder and stronger
martensitic matrix is reported to increase the mechanical
properties and performance of the steel MMCs.27,44
Steel MMCs have demonstrated superior physical,
mechanical and wear properties in comparison to
conventional steels and have been extensively investi-
gated to produce new materials with attractive proper-
ties for automotive, aerospace and wear industry.2,3 In
this review, the processing, microstructure, composi-
tion and mechanical properties of steel MMCs are
critically reviewed. The important parameters that
influence the microstructure and properties of the steel
MMCs are discussed. Important ceramic reinforce-
ments for the fabrication of steel MMCs with superior
properties are described from thermodynamic pro-
spective. The role of interface, strengthening mechan-
isms and tailoring of the microstructure to tune the
properties of this class of materials is highlighted. The
microstructure and design of steel MMCs are dis-
cussed for structural and wear applications. Finally,
an outlook is provided to produce steel matrix
composites with novel properties.

254 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3

 Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites

Processing of ceramic reinforced steel
matrix composites
MMCs are fabricated by several processing routes such as
powder metallurgy,15,39 spray deposition,48,49 mechanical
alloying,50 infiltration51 and casting techniques.52 The
reinforcements are incorporated in to metal matrix either
in situ by a solidsolid, solidliquid, liquidliquid or solid
gas reaction between the elemental components and/or
between compounds3,43 or ex situ by adding the presynthe-
sised ceramics in form of fibres, whiskers or particulates.1 It
is widely accepted that the properties of MMCs depend on
the size, shape, volume fraction of ceramic reinforcements,
composition of metal matrix as well as the nature of the
ceramic/matrix interfaces.15,36,42,43
Powder metallurgy has been widely researched meth-
od to produce steel MMCs because of its inherent
simplicity. It involves powder blending, cold pressing
and conventional sintering, hot pressing or spark plasma
sintering. First, the reinforcements or precursors powder
for the in situ synthesis of reinforcements and metal
powder is blended to get a homogeneous mixture. The
powder mixture is then pressed in a die by uniaxial/
isostatic pressing or it is injection moulded through a
die to prepare a green body of desired shape. The green
body is sintered pressureless or in combination with
an applied compressive pressure to a temperature
necessary to activate sintering mechanisms to obtain
nearly dense metal matrix composite. The sintering
conditions are chosen to achieve a dense MMC while
keeping the properties of reinforcements and metallic
matrix intact. Akhtar et al.20 reported powder metal-
lurgy processing method to produce steel MMCs with
TiB2TiC reinforcements. The TiB2TiC reinforcements
were produced in situ by reactive sintering of Ti, C and
FeB powders in steel matrix at 1400uC. X-ray diffraction
data confirmed the completion of the reaction during
sintering. The resulting composite showed spherical TiC
and hexagonal prismatic TiB2 reinforcements in the
steel matrix with a broad particle size distribution. A
patent53 reported combination of powder metallurgy,
self-propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) and
casting to in situ produce TiB2 and TiC reinforcements
in steel matrix using Ti, Fe and B4C powder mixture.
The particulate TiB2 and TiC reinforcements showed
regular shape, clean surfaces and good bonding with
the steel matrix. The formation/reaction mechanisms
reported for in situ synthesis of ceramic reinforcements
in the metal matrix include solution precipitation, solid/
liquid interface reaction, combination of solution pre-
cipitation and solid/liquid interface reaction, solid/solid
interfacial reaction in molten metal and solid diffusion
reaction.3,43 Readers interested in the in situ synthesis of
ceramic reinforcements in metal and alloys can refer to
the review by Tjong and Ma.3
As synthesised reinforcements, such as TiC,14,15,54
TiB2,17,55 WC56 and TiCN,57 in form of particulates, are
added to the steel matrix to fabricate ex situ MMCs by
powder metallurgy. Hussainova54 reported the TiC
reinforced steel matrix composites fabricated by powder
blending, pressing of green bodies and liquid phase
sintering. He reported that it was possible to incorporate
low and high volume fraction of particulate ceramic
reinforcements in the steel matrix and achieve dense
composite material by optimising sintering parameters.
Increase in the sintering temperature than optimum to
obtain high density could result in the dissolution of
reinforcements in the steel matrix and/or severe reaction
between reinforcements and the steel matrix.14 In order to
reduce the sintering temperature considerably and reduce
the reaction between ceramic reinforcements and steel
matrix, hot isostatic pressing58,59 or spark plasma sinter-
ing55 have been employed to sinter metal matrix compo-
sites. Such processing approaches provide several
advantages over conventional processing, i.e. achieving
high density of the composite at lower sintering tempera-
tures, short sintering cycle and less or no grain coarsening.
Liquid phase processing routes are used to produce
steel MMCs and include conventional casting, liquid
infiltration, squeeze casting and spray codeposition
(Fig. 1). In the casting route, the metal is heated to its
molten state and reinforcements are then added and

Table 1 Properties of commonly used ceramic reinforcements45 and metallic matrix materials46,47

Materials Density r/6103 kg m23 Elastic modulus/6109 N m22 Elastic modulus over density (E/r) Melting point/uC

AlN (hex) 3.05 315 103 2200

Al2O3 (hex) 3.99 400 100 2063
B4C (rhom) 2.52 450 179 2450
BN (hex) 3.48 720 207 2300
NbC (cub-B1) 7.6 580 76 3500
SiC (a-hex) 3.2 480 150 2200
Si3N4 (hex) 3.44 210 61 1750
SiO2 (quartz) 2.33 100 43 1729
TiC (fcc) 4.93 400 81 3067
TiB2 (hex) 4.50 370 82 2900
TiN (fcc) 5.21 250 48 2950
VC (fcc) 5.5 280 51 2950
ZrC (fcc) 6.5 380 58 3535
Al 2.7 69 26 660
Mg 1.74 45 26 650
Steel (AISI 1045) 7.9 205 26 1500

Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3 255

Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites
1 Ceramic reinforcements, steel matrix materials and schematic diagrams of commonly used processing routes to pro-
duce ceramic reinforced steel matrix composites: (I) powder metallurgy; (II) casting; (III) inltration and (IV) spray
codeposition
stirred to avoid settling of reinforcements and cast into a
mould. The distribution of reinforcements in the metal
matrix is significantly influenced by the cooling rate of
the casting.60,61 Infiltration process to produce MMCs
include preparation of porous scaffold of reinforcing
phase and infiltration of a liquid metal or alloy with the
help of wetting aids in nitrogen atmosphere or with the
assistance of pressure to push liquid metal to fill the pore
space in the scaffold.62,63 Spray codeposition uses soli-
dification of molten metal droplets containing the rein-
forcement particles. The resultant MMC particles are
collected on a rotating substrate where the particles are
amalgamated and solidified. Typically, a consolidation
step is required to prepare dense metal matrix compo-
sites.60 Cold spray codeposition process is used to produce
MMC coatings.48 Moghaddam et al.52 reported the
processing of VC reinforced stainless steel composite by
conventional melting. The microstructure of the composite
showed homogeneous distribution of VC reinforcements
and improved the mechanical properties. Peterson et al.49
fabricated Al2O3 reinforced steel matrix composites by
spray codeposition. They studied the effect of reinforce-
ment size on the mechanical and wear properties of the
composite. They found that MMC prepared by spray
codeposition route showed improved wear resistance and
showed good ductility. Moreover, it was possible to forge
the MMC for shaping. Schematics of various processing
routes to fabricate steel MMCs are given in Fig. 1.
Microstructure evolution of ceramic
reinforced steel matrix composites
The microstructure of MMCs basically consists of
ceramic reinforcements, interfaces and metallic matrix.
256 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO
Other microstructural features, e.g. reinforcement seg-
regation, microcracks, interface debonding, corerim
morphology of reinforcements and pores, may appear
during processing. These microstructural features sig-
nificantly influence the physical, mechanical and wear
properties of steel MMCs.54 For instance, clustering or
segregation of reinforcements due to inhomogeneous
mixing of reinforcement and steel matrix, electrostatic
phenomenon and defects lead to a MMC with lower
mechanical properties.14 Uniform distribution of cera-
mic reinforcements in the steel matrix ensures the
isotropic microstructure, uniform distribution of ther-
mal stresses and superior properties of MMCs.39
The microstructure of steel MMCs changes with the
volume fraction of reinforcements, composition of steel,
difference between thermal expansion of ceramic rein-
forcements and steel matrix and wettability of reinforce-
ments with the steel matrix. The difference in the
thermal expansion causes thermal stresses in the com-
posite and can lead to the formation of defects like
microcracks and interface debonding. The presence of
such defects degrades the mechanical properties of the
composite material. Good wettability between the
ceramic reinforcement and the metal matrix reduces
microcracks and interface debondings and improves
mechanical properties.60
Generally, liquid metals wet carbide, nitride and
boride ceramics of transition metals.64 The carbides of
transition metals are wetted better than covalent
carbides.62 The interfacial reactions at ceramic metal
interface could possibly remove wetting barriers existing
at the interface. Steels as matrix material are complex as
they contain alloying elements, e.g. Cr and Ni in
stainless steels, which affect the wetting phenomenon.
3

Kivio et al.65 reported wetting of TiC in stainless steel
matrix and studied the effect of alloying elements on
the wetting of TiC in a casting process. They reported
that the wettability of TiC with steel did not improve
with the addition of Ni and Cr. However, TiC dis-
solution in steel containing Cr was observed with the
formation of chromium carbides at the interface.
Pagounis et al.39 reviewed the literature on the
wettability of TiC by iron alloys. They reported that
increase of Ni content to 12 wt-% in FeNi alloys did
not affect the wetting of TiC, while increase in
wettability was observed on increase in Ni content to
15 wt-%. Addition of Cr to Fe alloys had little influence
on wetting of TiC, while Si addition reduced the
wettability. Carbon and aluminium additions resulted
in worsening of the wetting.
TiC reinforcements show good wetting and thermo-
dynamic stability in iron alloys at relevant sintering
or HIPing temperatures to produce steel MMCs.
Kubarsepp66 reported that the solubility of TiC in
Fe during sintering could be up to 2%. This little
dissolution resulted in formation of the (Fe,Cr) rich
precipitates or mixed carbide at the interface.65 Akhtar
et al.67 studied the composition of steel matrix of
sintered TiC reinforced 465 steel composites contain-
ing 5070 vol.-%TiC by energy dispersive spectro-
scopy. They found a shift in the composition of the
steel after sintering of MMC. The Ti content increased
in the steel matrix depicting the dissolution of TiC in
the steel matrix whereas Mo was removed from the
steel matrix depicting the formation of Mo2C or
(Ti,Mo)C mixed carbide possibly around the TiC
particles.
TiB2 ceramic is widely used reinforcement material
to fabricate steel MMCs due to its high stability in
steels.20,36,38,40,51 Shurin and Panarin69 developed Fe
TiB2 phase diagram, which shows direct equilibrium
between TiB2 and ferrite and austenite phases. The
phase diagram did not show formation of Fe2B phase.
However, Sigl and Schwetz70 in their study found Fe2B
phase in the steel MMCs and attributed its presence to
the impurities in TiB2 particles. Tanaka and Saito40
calculated the equilibria in FeTiB2 system and reported
the effect of alloying elements on the equilibria. Their
calculation showed that oxygen played an important
role in the formation of Fe2B phase in pseudobinary
system. They found that the addition of alloying
elements to iron did not affect the TiB2 stability in the
matrix and therefore, suggested the modification of iron
matrix with the addition of alloying elements to improve
the mechanical properties. The studies on the in situ
processing of TiB2TiC reinforced metal matrix compo-
sites have not reported the presence of Fe2B phase in the
steel composite.20,51 Wang et al.51 reported the SHS of
TiCTiB2 reinforcements from NiTiB4C reactants.
The SHS synthesised preform was infiltrated with
medium carbon and high speed steels. The infiltrated
steel MMCs did not show the formation of Fe2B phase.
Akhtar et al.20 reported the formation of TiB2TiC
reinforced steel matrix composite by reactive sintering of
Ti, C and Fe2B powders and no residual Fe2B was
Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites
detected by X-ray diffraction analysis. It has been
also reported that the solubility of boron (B) in steel
in negligible; therefore, there might be formation
of Fe2B phases on the boron rich stoichiometry of
TiB2.40 Overall, more investigations are required to
draw conclusive results. The typical microstructure of
TiCsteel, TiB2steel and TiCTiB2steel MMCs are
shown in Fig. 2.
Oxide reinforcements in the steel matrix, e.g. Al2O3,
have been reported to show a clean interface.39 A good
wetting of Al2O3 was observed due to the presence of
alloying elements in the steel. Studies71 have found that
the wetting of Al2O3 reinforcements with steels increases
with the addition of Cr, Ni, Mo and Mn to the steel. As
discussed earlier, there are numerous possibilities to
modify the ceramic/steel interface and the microstruc-
ture. A good understanding of the chemical composition
of steel MMCs could lead to tailoring the microstructure
and interfaces to obtain composites with superior
mechanical properties.
Mechanical properties of ceramic
reinforced steel matrix composites
The addition of ceramic reinforcements to steel matrix is
expected to produce composites with high elastic
modulus, ultimate tensile strength, hardness, corrosion
and wear resistance. The choice of reinforcement and
steel matrix, shape and size of reinforcements, proces-
sing parameters and microstructural control are impor-
tant factors to produce steel MMCs with optimised
properties. In the following sections, the mechanical and
wear properties of steel MMCs and the parameters
influencing these properties are discussed.
Elastic modulus
In designing of automobile parts, the elastic strength
is considered vital than the ultimate tensile strength
because such mechanical parts should have high
resistance to yielding. Furthermore, the requirement to
reduce energy consumption for environmental protec-
tion imparts a stringent demand to reduce the weight
of these mechanical parts without compromising their
mechanical properties. It has been shown that steel
matrix composites have promise for the applications
demanding high specific elastic modulus.15,19,36,40
Tanaka and Saito40 reported increase in the elastic
modulus of AISI 430 steel on the addition of TiB2
reinforcements (Fig. 3a). They used 26 wt-%Ti in
access in the steel matrix to avoid unwanted formation
of metal borides. Increase in the modulus of elasticity
was accompanied with increase in the specific modulus
of steel MMCs (Fig. 3a). Furthermore, they compared
their experimental results with the models, elastic
behaviour of multiphase materials72 and particulate two
phase composites,73 and found a good agreement
between experimental and calculated values. Tjong and
Lau36 prepared TiB2 reinforced 304 stainless steel
composite by powder metallurgy. The yield strength of
the steel increased from 273 to 452 MPa with 20 vol.-
%TiB2 reinforcements in the steel matrix. Such increase
in the modulus of elasticity of steel MMCs with
Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3 257
Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites

2 a contact angle h shows wettability in system and is given by interaction among solidliquid (csl), solidvapour (csv)
and liquidvapour (clv) surface energies; b solubility of transition metal carbides in iron group metals and wetting
angle with these metals, reprinted with permission from G. S. Upadhyaya,68 (1998) Elsevier; c important parameters
that determine microstructure of steel MMCs; d scanning electron micrograph of TiC465 steel composite, reprinted
with permission from Akhtar et al.,15 (2007) Elsevier; e scanning electron micrograph of TiB2304 stainless steel
composite reprinted with permission from Tjong et al.,37 (1999) Elsevier; f scanning electron micrograph of TiC
TiB2465 steel composite, reprinted with permission from Akhtar et al.,20 (2007) Elsevier

TiB2 reinforcements has been reported in other studies
too.17,19,37
Srivatsan et al.74 reported increase in the elastic
modulus of TiC reinforced tool steel composites
incorporating 0, 35 and 45 vol.-%TiC. They observed
that the yield strength at room temperature of 45 vol.-
TiC steel composite was higher than 35 vol.-%TiC
steel composite. Galgali et al.75 added FeTiC master
alloy to steel and produced TiCsteel MMCs with
different TiC contents. They reported a significant
increase in the ultimate tensile strength of steel MMCs
with increasing volume fraction of TiC reinforcements
in the steel matrix. In addition to TiB2 and TiC which
are mainly studied reinforcements for steel MMCs, VC

3 a Youngs modulus and specic modulus of AISI 430 steel on addition of TiB2 reinforcements, reprinted with permis-
sion from Tanaka and Saito,40 (1999) Springer; b effect of addition of TiB2 reinforcements to 304 stainless steel
matrix on sliding wear loss, reprinted with permission from Tjong and Lau,37 (1999) Elsevier

258 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3


and NbC have been reported as reinforcements
for steels to produce steel MMCs with high elastic
modulus.27,52
The properties of particle reinforced MMCs such
as density, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity and elastic modulus can be estimated by
using the properties of the individual constituents. The
elastic modulus of a composite can be estimated using
the following expression proposed by Hashin and
Shtrikman2,72
Ec ~Em Em Vr zEr Vr z1=Er Vm zEm Vr z1 (1) varies inversely with the hardness of materials, e.g.
where E and V are Youngs modulus and volume
fraction of reinforcements, respectively, and c, m and r
represents composite, matrix and reinforcements,
respectively. Similar models for the estimation of elastic
modulus of composites are isostress model and isostrain
model76 and are given below
Ec ~Er Em =Em Vr zEr Vm  (2)
Ec ~Vr Er zVm Er (3)
E, V, c, m and r are the same as defined above. These
models are suitable to estimate the Youngs modulus of
the composite. However, there are studies reporting
increase in the Youngs modulus independent of the type
of reinforcements used.77 In the case of steels, it is
possible to use heat treatments to modify the properties
of steel MMCs.13 Furthermore, these models does not
account for the shape of the reinforcing phase. Halpin
Tsai model76,78 takes into account the aspect ratio of the
reinforcements in addition to the volume fraction and
elastic modulus of the reinforcements and matrix to
estimate the Youngs modulus of the composite and is
written as
Ec ~Em 1z2sqVr =1{qVr (4) tural parameters of steel MMCs on their wear properties
where q is
q~(Er =Em {1)=(Er =Em z2s) (5)
and s is the aspect ratio of the reinforcements. Kroner79
and Budiansky80 developed a self-consistent model
to estimate the effective Youngs modulus of MMCs
containing particulate reinforcement greater than 50
vol.-%. In general, the elastic modulus of steel MMCs
can be estimated from the models given above. Readers
interested in the modelling of mechanical properties
of MMCs are referred to the review by Chawla and
Shen.4
Hardness and wear resistance
Other major aims of adding ceramic reinforcements to
steels are to enhance their hardness and wear properties.
Hussainova54 and Akhtar and Guo41 showed that the
hardness of steel MMCs increased with increasing
volume fraction of TiC. In their studies, hardness of
steel MMCs was influenced by the volume fraction of
reinforcements and the choice of steel matrix. For
example, keeping the reinforcement content constant,
the hardness of the steel composite increased when the
Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites
steel matrix was changed from austenite to martensite.
Other reports using TiB2,20,36,37 NbC,27 VC,52 Al2O339
and Si3N481 reinforcements in steels have shown increase
in the hardness of the composite with increasing volume
fraction of reinforcements.
The addition of ceramic reinforcements to steel
increases its hardness and the wear resistance (Fig. 3b).
The wear resistance increases with increasing volume
fraction of reinforcements in steel composites. Hardness
has been considered a primary parameter to estimate the
wear resistance of a material. Classically, wear loss
Archards equation for abrasive wear shows that the
volume loss per sliding distance is linearly proportional
to the applied normal load and inversely proportional to
the hardness of the material.82 It is true for steel MMCs
where the increase in the volume fraction of reinforce-
ments increases their wear resistance.42,54 However, in
the literature researchers have shown that materials
could show better wear performance even with lower
hardness.8385 Ni et al.85 showed that the ratio of elastic
modulus to the hardness is an important parameter to
determine the coefficient of friction and the wear
resistance of materials. Akhtar and Guo41,86 analysed
the microstructural parameters of steel MMCs and
reported that microstructural parameters such as
volume fraction of reinforcements, steel matrix content,
mean free path of the steel matrix and ratio of the
reinforcement particle size to the matrix mean free path
influenced the wear performance of steel MMCs.
Furthermore, studies of Hussainova54 and Akhtar
et al.13 on the modification of steel binder showed that
with constant volume fraction of ceramic reinforce-
ments, it was possible to tune the mechanical properties,
hardness and strength, by changing or modifying the
steel matrix. However, systematic investigations on the
effect of Youngs modulus, hardness and microstruc-
are required to identify parameters controlling the wear
performance of steel MMCs in addition to hardness.
Reinforcing mechanisms in steelMMCs
The improvement in the mechanical properties of steels
with the addition of ceramic reinforcements can be
explained by (1) load transfer mechanism,87 (2) matrix
strengthening,88 (3) Orowan strengthening89 and (4)
increased work hardening rate90 mechanisms. The load
transfer mechanism is based on the load carrying
capability of reinforcements in comparison to the steel
matrix. The load transfer is significant in the case of fibre
reinforced composites and its effect decreases with the
aspect ratio of the reinforcement, but still significantly
contributes to the strength.76 In the matrix strengthening
mechanism, dislocations are created in the matrix phase
during thermal treatment due to the difference in the
coefficient of thermal expansion of ceramic reinforce-
ments and the steel matrix and causes increase in the
strength of steel MMCs. Dislocation density in the
matrix phase depends on the reinforcement size,
difference in coefficient of thermal expansion and
volume fraction of reinforcements. Load transfer and
Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3 259
Akhtar Ceramic reinforced high modulus steel composites

a interface formed by dissolution and precipitation mechanism in TiC reinforced steel matrix composite fabricated by
powder metallurgy, reprinted with permission from Akhtar et al.41 (2008) Elsevier; b clean interface formed during reac-
tive sintering in TiB2TiC reinforced steel matrix composite, reprinted with permission from Akhtar et al.20 (2007)
Elsevier; c interface in Al2O3 reinforced steel matrix composite prepared by HIP sintering shows a clean interface; d inter-
face in TiC reinforced steel matrix composite prepared by HIP shows presence of Cr23C6 carbides at the interface; e
interface in Cr3C2 reinforced steel matrix composite prepared by HIP shows excessive reaction, reprinted (c, d and e)
with permission from Pagounis et al.39 (1998) Elsevier
4 Effect of processing and ceramic reinforcement kind on formation of interface in ceramic reinforced steel MMCs

matrix strengthening models rest on the transfer of load
at the interface of reinforcement phase and metal
matrix. The interface between ceramic reinforcements
and steel matrix is generally formed at high tempera-
tures due to chemical reaction and atomic transport by
diffusion.39 The defect free and strong interfacial zone is
important in achieving strengthening by load transfer and
matrix strengthening mechanisms. Orowan strengthening
occurs due to an artificial reduction in spacing between
the particulate reinforcements as a result of creation of
Orowan loops.39,89 The initial work hardening rate
increases in MMCs due to the presence of ceramic
reinforcements and it contributes to the strength of
composites. Although different mechanisms contribute
to the enhancement of strength of a MMC, the interface
between the reinforcement phase and metal matrix plays
a key role to achieve composite strengthening.
The interface between reinforcing and matrix is
classified based on the interaction between them.
Typically, a mechanical bond, dissolution and wetting
bond and reaction bond can be formed between
reinforcing and matrix phase.39,76 Different types of
interfaces (Fig. 4) have been reported for steel matrix
composites, e.g. steel matrix composites reinforced
with Al2O3 exhibited a clean interface with no evi-
dence of chemical reaction.39 In situ synthesised TiC,
TiB2 reinforced steel matrix composites prepared by
powder metallurgy did not show reaction at the inter-
face and formed a clean interface without defects.42,51
TiC reinforced steel metal composites prepared by
powder metallurgy and casting route have shown
the dissolution and precipitation mechanism for the
interface formation.15,41,54 Steel matrix composites
prepared by reaction of Ti and C in molten steel may
develop an interface with the in situ produced carbides
and the steel matrix.91 The literature suggests that defect
free interfaces developed in steel MMCs show superior
mechanical and wear properties.15,54,76 However, the
literature on the interface characterisation of steel
MMCs is sparse and therefore warrants investigations
to understand the effect of the interface structure on the
composite properties.
Outlook
In this contribution, literature on ceramic reinforced
steel matrix composites is reviewed. Steel MMCs
containing TiB2, TiC, TiB2TiC, NbC, VC, Al2O3 and
Si3N4 reinforcements are produced with low and high
volume fraction of reinforcements with attarctive me-
chanical and wear properties. Important processing
methods for the production of ceramic reinforced

260 Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 2014 VOL 53 NO 3


MMCs are discussed. The influence of processing
method, chemical nature of reinforcements and steel
matrix on the mechanical and wear properties of steel
MMCs is highlighted. The steel MMCs display attrac-
tive mechanical and wear properties and have potential
to be used for mechanical components in aerospace and
wear industry for superior performance. Although the
steel MMCs have shown improved properties, there is a
significant interest to develop new processing
approaches to produce steel MMCs with high specific
strength, e.g. nanostructured steel MMCs with tailored
microstructure and explore newly developed rapid
processing appraoches to avoid grain coarsening.
Furthermore, till date, little attention has been paid to
investigate the relationship between the interface micro-
structure and properties of these MMCs. In this regard,
characterization of interfaces between the ceramic
reinforcement and steels is required by high resolution
electron microscopy. Steels contain alloying elements
and use of ceramic reinforcements with such steels needs
to be investigated to understand the effect of alloying
elements on microstructure, interfaces and the proper-
ties of steel MMCs. A modelling effort is required to
develop models for microstructural evolution to describe
the properties satisfactorily. Most of the work on steel
MMCs is dedicated to particulate reinforced steel matrix
composites. It will be interesting to use reinforcements
with different aspect ratio and studying their influence
on the properties. Finally, the composite design is
important to produce new composites with new proper-
ties, e.g. functionally gradient composites, layered
composites, composites with tailored interfaces, opti-
mised microstructure, new combination of matrix and
reinforcements to fully realise the potential of these
novel materials.
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