UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

CENTRE FOR FOUNDATION STUDIES

LABORATORY MANUAL

FHSC1014
MECHANICS

FOUNDATION IN SCIENCE (P)

TRIMESTER 1
Version201701
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Introduction

1. Making measurements

Physics is a field of science, which is quantitative in nature. In any quantitative

study, measurements are made and these measurements should always be regarded as
estimations. The precision of the final result of an experiment cannot be better than the
precision of the measurement made during the experiment, so the aim of the experiment
is to make estimations as good as possible. Therefore, measurement should be repeated
at least once to increase its precision and accuracy.

There are many factors that contribute to the accuracy of a measurement. The
accuracy in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument
used, or to a combination of both.

Errors have a special meaning in science. Errors have a different meaning from
mistakes where errors cannot be avoided in measurements. Students doing experiments
MUST record the uncertainties and errors in their measurement. Students MUST take
errors and uncertainties into account when calculating and presenting their results in
laboratory reports.

2. Scrutinize and inscribe the readings

(i) Vernier caliper

Parts of a vernier caliper:

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external lengths

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal lengths
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths
4. Main scale (cm)
5. Main scale (inch)
6. Vernier (cm)
7. Vernier (inch)
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a
measurement

Both the main scale and the vernier scale readings are taken into account while
making measurement. The main scale is the first reading on the main scale immediately

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to the left of the zero of the vernier scale while the vernier scale reading is mark on the
vernier scale which exactly coincides or aligns with a mark on the main scale.

Example:

2.4 cm + 0.07 cm = 2.47

cm

(ii) Micrometer screw gauge

In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the anvil and spindle
(jaws). The thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is lightly gripped.
DO NOT OVER TIGHTEN! Note that the ratchet (NOT THE THIMBLE) should
be used to secure the object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the instrument
could be damaged or give an inconsistent reading. It is recommended 3 clicks of
the ratchet are obtained before taking the reading.

Procedure on how to read the scale on micrometer screw gauge is shown in the figure
below.

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3. Data and error analysis

Performing the experiment and collecting data is only the beginning of the
process of completing an experiment in science. Understanding the results of any given
experiment is always the central goal of the experiment. Presenting those results in a
clear concise manner completes the experiment. This overview of the complete process
is as valid in an instructional laboratory course as in a research environment. You will
not have learned any physics if you did not understand the experiment.

Data analysis should not be delayed until all of the data is recorded. Try to do a
quick analysis and plot as the data is being collected. This will help to avoid the problem
of spending a long time collecting bad data because of a mistake in experimental
procedure or an equipment failure.

Data analysis means understanding what your results mean. When you analyze
the data, try to think through the physical processes which have occurred. Write your
train of thought down. Ultimately, the goal is for you to understand physics and the
world a bit better. Your understanding of your results probably occurs in stages, with
each stage being a refinement.

Sometimes your results will not support and may even contradict the physical
explanations suggested. Accept the results but with a few suggestions to the reasons for
this apparent failure of the physical laws. Do NOT simply blame the equipments. Try
to explain what went wrong or what competing effects have come into play.

The quality of the data, determines to a great extent, what conclusions can be
reached from them. If you are looking for a small effect, say a total change of 1 mm,
and the uncertainties in your data is 2 mm then you really cannot make any solid
conclusion. A measurement of experimental results is of little value if nothing is known
about the probable size of its error.

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The quality of a measurement depends on the precision and accuracy of the

measurement. A good measurement must be close to the true value and be
reproducible.

(i) Quantifying the uncertainty

All measurements have uncertainties or errors. The uncertainty given in any

measurement indicates the type of instrument used for the measurement as well as the
possible range of value measured. Basically, for analogue measuring instruments,
except for vernier caliper and micrometer screw gauge, the uncertainty is half of the
smallest division of the scale. For digital instruments, the uncertainty is given by the
smallest different in the reading.

(ii) Error propagation rules

The Absolute Error of a quantity Z is given by (Z), always 0.

Z
The Relative Error of a quantity Z is given by , always 0.
Z

To determine the error in a quantity Z that is the sum of other quantities, add the
absolute errors of those quantities (Rules 2 below). To determine the error in a
quantity Z that is the product of other quantities, add the relative errors of those
quantities (Rules 3, 4, 5 below).

Relation Error
1. Z = cA Z c A (Use only is A is a single term, i.e. Z = 3x)
2. Z=ABC Z A B C ...

3. Z=ABC A B C
Z ... Z
A B C
4. AB A B C
Z Z ... Z
C A B C
5. Z Ax B yC z A B C
Z x y z ... Z
A B C
a, b, c, ..., z represent constants.
A, B, C, ..., Z represent measured or calculated quantities
(A), (B), (C), , (Z) represent the errors in A, B, C, ..., Z respectively.
(iii) Percentage error and percentage difference

In several of the laboratory exercises, the true value of the quantity being
measured will be considered to be known. In those cases, the accuracy of the experiment
will be determined by comparing the experimental result with the known value.
Normally this will be done by calculating the percentage error of your measurement

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compared to the given known value. If E stands for the experimental value, and K stands
for the known value, then the percentage error is given by

EK
Percentage error 100 %
K

In other cases we will measure a given quantity by two different methods. There
will then be two different experimental values, E1 and E2, but the true value may not be
known. For this case, we will calculate the percentage difference between the two
experimental values. Note that this tells nothing about the accuracy of the experiment,
but will be a measure of the precision. The percentage difference between the two
measurements is defined as

E2 E1
Percentage difference 100 %
E1 E2 2

4. Graphical representation and analysis of uncertainties in slopes and

intercepts

In the physical sciences, it is helpful to represent data in the form of a graph

when interpreting the overall trend of the data. Data analysis graphs are useful to
determine the relationships exist between various quantities, how the data is distributed,
and so forth, which may be hard to figure out merely by speculating the tabulated values
only.

There are a few essential aspects when plotting a graph:

Choice of scale
Choose a scale for each of the axes with the main divisions on the graph paper
that are easily subdivided and such that the entire range of values may be in included.
If the values to be plotted are exceptionally large or small, use some multiplying factor
that permits using a maximum of two or three digits to indicate the value of the main
division.

Label the title, and naming the abscissa scale (X-axis) and the ordinate scale
(Y-axis)
After you have decided which variable is to be plotted on which axis, neatly
letter the name of the quantity being plotted together with the proper unit. Abbreviate
units in standard form, e.g. meters (m). Students should always ensure that the correct
units are used in the experimental work.

(i) Plotting and drawing the graph the best-fit line

In drawing the graph, it is not always possible to make all the points lie on a
smooth curve. In such cases, a smooth curve should be drawn through the series of
points to follow the general trend and thus represent an average.

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Before plotting a linear graph, its important to determine the centroid point of
the data set. Centroid is the point, which shows the mean of X-values and Y-values. The
function of centroid is to reduce the effect of data scattering.

X X 2 ... X N Y1 Y2 ... YN
Centroid, x , y 1 ,
N N
Add centroid point to linear graph and circle the centroid so as to differentiate it
from other points. Then, draw the best straight line which must pass through the centroid.

(ii) Linear Least Squares Fits

Often measurements are taken by changing one variable (call it x) and measuring
how second variable (call it y) changes as a function of thr first variable. In many case
of interest it is assumed that there exists a linear relationship between the two variables.
In mathematical terms one can say that the variables obey an equation of the form

y mx c (Eq. 1)

where m and c are constants. This also implies that if a graph is made with x as the
horizontal axis and y as the vertical axis, it will be a straight line with m equal to the
slope (y/x) and c equal to the y intercept (the value of y at x = 0).

The question is how to best verify that the data do indeed obey Equation 1. One
way is to make a graph of the data, and then try to draw the best straight line possible
through the data points. This will give a qualitative answer to the question, it is possible
to give a quantitative answer to the question by process described below.

The measurements are repeated measurements in the sense that they are to be
considered together in the attempt to determine to what extent the data obey Equation
1. It is possible to generalize the idea of minimizing the sum of squares of the deviations.
The result of the generalization to two-variable linear data is called a linear least squares
fit to the data. It is also sometimes referred to as a linear regression.

The aim of the process is to determine the values of m and c that produce the
best straight-line fit to the data. Any choice of the values for m and c will produce a
straight line, with values y determined by the choice of x. For any such straight line
(determined by a given m and c) there will be a deviation between each of the measured
ys and the ys from the straight-line fit at the value of the measured xs. The least
squares fit is that m and c for which the sum of the squares of these deviations is a
minimum sum of the squares of the deviations are given by the following equations:
n
n n
n xi y i xi y i
m 1 1 1 (Eq. 2)
2
n
n

n xi xi
2

1 1

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n n 2 n n
y i xi xi y i xi
c 1 1 1
2
1 (Eq. 3)
n
n

n xi xi
2

1 1

n
Here n is the number of data points, xi and yi are the measured values, and the 1
stands for the summation from i = 1 to i = n.

We can find the best values for the gradient and the intercept of a line through a
set of x-y data using Equations 2 and 3. However, it is not possible to decide how many
figures m and c should be quoted to until the uncertainties in m and c, which we will
write as m and c respectively, have been calculated.

There are a number of mathematical steps required before we can arrive at

explicit equations for m and c. We will not go through the steps here, but simply quote
the results:

1
n 2
m 1
(Eq. 4)
n
n 2
2

n xi xi
2

1 1

1
n

xi 2
2

c 1
1
(Eq. 5)
n 2 n 2
2

n xi xi
1 1

where is the uncertainty in each y-value of the data point. It is usual, when fitting a
line to data in which the uncertainty in each point is constant, to make this uncertainty
to be standard deviation of the distribution of the y-value about the fitted line. This is
given by
1
1 n 2

n 2 1
( yi mxi c) 2

(Eq. 6)

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Example

In an experiment to study the behavior of the silicon diodes when cooled, the voltage
across a diode was measured as a function of the diode temperature. Table 1 shows the
data gathered for the application of linear square fits method in plotting a straight-line
graph.

Table 1: Columns required for fitting a line to data using the method of least squares.

xi (K) yi (V) xi yi (KV) xi2 (K2)

300 0.630 189.00 90000
290 0.653 189.37 84100
280 0.670 187.60 78400
270 0.678 183.06 72900
260 0.695 180.70 67600
250 0.705 176.25 62500
240 0.735 176.40 57600
230 0.748 172.40 52900

xi = 2120 yi = 5.514 xi yi = 1454.42 (xi2) = 566000

Now use Equation 2 to find the gradient of the line

8(1454.42) (2120)(5.514) 54.32

m 1.616 10 3 VK 1
8(566000) (2120) 2
33600

and use Equation 3 to find the intercept of the line on the y-axis

566000(5.514) (2120)(1454.42) 37553.6

c 1.1176 V
8(566000) (2120) 2 33600

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Table of Content

Practical Title

1 The Use of Vernier Caliper and the Micrometer Screw Gauge.

2 To investigate the vector addition.

3 To investigate the trajectory of a small ball as it rolls off a

surface which is inclined to the horizontal.

4 To find the force constant of a spring.

5 To determine the coefficient of static friction between two

surfaces.

6 To verify the conservation of spring and gravitational potential

energy.

7 To Design a Roller Coaster via PhET Energy Skate Park

(Simulations) Simulation.

8 To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel.

9 Archimedes Principle on buoyancy of fluids.

10 To investigate the effect of buoyancy via PhET Buoyancy

(Simulations) simulation.

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Practical 1
_____________________________________________________________________
The Use of Vernier Caliper and the Micrometer Screw Gauge

Objective:
To determine the density of oil, copper and PVC.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Measuring cylinder
2. Copper wire
3. PVC tube
4. Micrometer screw gauge
5. Vernier caliper
6. Oil

Equipment:
1. Electronic balance

Part 1: Determination of the density of oil

Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of an empty measuring cylinder.
2. Fill the measuring cylinder with 100 cm oil.
3. Measure the mass of the measuring cylinder filled with oil.
4. Calculate the density of oil.

Part 2: Determination of the density of copper

Procedure:
1. Measure the length of a copper wire provided.
2. Using a micrometer screw gauge, measure the diameter of the copper wire at
several places. Determine the average diameter of the copper wire.
3. Measure the mass of the copper wire using an electronic balance.
4. Calculate the volume of the copper wire.
5. Calculate the density of copper.

Part 3: Determination of the density of PVC

Procedure:
1. Measure the external and internal diameter of the PVC tube.
2. Measure the length of the PVC tube.
3. Calculate the volume of the PVC tube.
4. Measure the mass of the PVC tube using an electronic balance.
5. Calculate the density of PVC.

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Practical 2
_____________________________________________________________________
To investigate vector addition

Objective: To verify the parallelogram law of forces.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Pulley
2. 3 clamp-on pulleys
3. Slotted masses
4. Ruler
5. Force table
6. Protractor

Setup:

Figure 2.1
Theory:
Forces are vector quantities as they possess both magnitude and direction. When two or
more forces are added together, they issue in a resultant force. The magnitude and
direction of the resultant force can be obtained using the parallelogram law as shown in
Figure 2.2.

If P and Q are two forces added together and is the angle between them, then the

resultant R obtained is the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed by P and Q .

P


R PQ

Q

Figure 2.2
Using the cosine rule:
2 2 2 2 2 2

P Q P Q 2 P Q cos 180 o R P Q 2 P Q cos

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From the equations above, if the angle between two forces is known, then the magnitude
of the resultant can be determined.
Procedure:

1. Make sure the force table top is horizontal and balanced. Arrange three pulleys with
strings on the force table as shown in Figure 2.3. Two of these will be forces P and
Q and the third, or equilibrant, will be force R. The magnitude of the equilibrant
will be chosen to balance the forces P and Q, creating a total force of zero.

R
x

Figure 2.3 Force Table, Top View

2. Use masses (slotted masses plus the mass of each hanger) to create the forces P and
Q. Place P and Q with a small angle of about 40o between them (that is, at +20o
and 20o), and balance them with a suitable amount of mass at R. The system is
balanced when the central ring released without touching the center post. Record
the magnitudes for P, Q, and R in Table 1.
3. Repeat step 2 with an angle of 60o, 90, 140 and any 2 angles between them.
4. Using an appropriate scale, draw a parallelogram on a graph paper to represent
each set of forces P, Q, R and the angle .
5. For each set of forces P and Q, the magnitude of the resultant R can be obtained
by three methods. First, directly from Table 1; second from the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by P and Q; and third, using the Cosine Rule.
6. Record the results from all the three methods in Table 2.
7. From the Table 2, compare the results of the three methods and give your
comments.
8. Does your result verify the parallelogram law of forces? Comment on your
answer.
9. When will P2 + Q2 = P + Q2 ?

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Practical 3
_____________________________________________________________________
To investigate the trajectory of a small ball as it rolls off a surface which is inclined
to the horizontal

Objective:
To investigate the trajectory of a two dimensional motion.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Ramp
2. Wooden block
3. Pendulum bob
4. Plumb line
5. Steel ball
6. Wooden board
7. Carbon paper
8. Meter rule
9. Plasticine
Figure 3.1

Setup:
1. A ramp has been set up at the edge of a bench as shown in the Figure 3.1.
1. Suspend a plum-line from the edge of the bench as shown in Figure 3.2.
2. Mount a wooden board horizontally using two clamps so that the board is
situated about the bottom of the ramp.
3. Place a sheet of blank paper on top of the board.
4. Place a piece of carbon paper on the top of the blank paper. The ink-side of the
carbon paper should be facing down.
5. When a ball is released at the top of the ramp, the ball will travel through a
trajectory as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2

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Theory:
Let:
g = 9.80 ms-2
u = speed of the ball as it leaves the ramp
k = constant
y = vertical distance (between the bottom of the ramp and the top of the board)
x = horizontal distance (between the plum-line and mark on the paper]

The equation which relates x and y is

y g (1 k ) x
k
x 2u

Procedure:
1. Position the ball at the top of the ramp. Release the ball so that it rolls down the
ramp and onto the board below.
2. Remove the carbon paper and observe that the ball makes a small mark on the
blank paper.
3. Measure and record the vertical distance y and the horizontal distance x.
4. Reduce the value of y and repeat the steps above to obtain eight (8) sets of values
of x and y.
y
5. Tabulate: y, x, and .
x
6. Plot a graph of y/x against x.
7. Determine the gradient and y- intercept of the graph.
8. Use your answer from [7] to determine values of k and u.

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Practical 4
_____________________________________________________________________
To find the force constant of a spring

Objectives:
To study the application of Hookes Law.
To study the forces in equilibrium.
To study the resolution of vector quantities.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Spring
2. Plumb-line
3. Protractor
4. Slotted masses 200g with hanger
5. Thread
6. Retort stand
7. Nail or pin

Setup:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.1 below.
2. Adjust the spring, so that it stretches horizontally.
3. The angle between the plumb-line and the section AB is .
4. The mass of the load is m, its weight is mg.

m=200g

Figure 4.1

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Theory
Let:
g = 9.80 ms-2
m = mass of the load
= angle between the plumb-line and the section AB
x = extension of the spring
k = force constant of the spring
l = stretched length of the spring
lo = unstretched length of the spring

When the system is in equilibrium, the forces acting at the point B are in equilibrium

Vertically:
mg = T cos . (1)

Horizontally:
kx = T sin ... (2)

Therefore:
kx = mg tan

mg tan
x
k

A graph of x against tan will yield a straight line.

mg
The gradient is equal to .
k

Procedure:
1. Measure the unstretched length, lo of the spring before setting up the apparatus.
2. Adjust the spring, so that it stretches horizontally.
3. Measure the angle between the plumb-line and the section AB.
4. Measure the new length, l of the spring.
5. Calculate the extension, x of the spring. [where x = l lo]
6. Pull the spring side way to vary the length l to obtain six (6) sets of values of
and x. {Note: before taking the value of the angle , make sure that the spring is
horizontal.}
7. Tabulate: x, , tan .
8. Determine the gradient of the graph.
9. Determine the force constant, k of the spring.

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Practical 5
_____________________________________________________________________
To determine the coefficient of static friction between two surfaces

Objectives:
To determine the relationship between the mass of load and the length of spring.
To determine the coefficient of static friction between two surface.

Part 1: The relationship between the mass of load and the length of spring

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Retort stand
2. Spring
3. Slotted masses with hanger
4. Meter rule

Setup:

Figure 5.1

Procedure:
1. Hook one end of the spring on the retort stand.
2. Hang the hanger with a 20g slotted mass at the other end.
3. Measure the length l1 of the spring, record the mass m1 of the load.
4. Increase the mass m1, measure the corresponding length l1 of the spring.
5. Tabulate l1 and m1.
6. Plot a graph of l1 against m1.

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Part 2: The coefficient of friction between two surfaces

Apparatus and Materials:

1. A smooth plank as inclined plane
2. Retort stand
3. Wooden blocks
4. Electronic balance
5. Spring
6. Protractor
7. Pendulum bob
8. Thread
9. Plasticine

Setup:

Figure: 5.2

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Theory:
If the wooden block is being displaced down the inclined plane, the block will return to
its original position when released because the net force up the plane exceeds the
limiting friction down the plane. The downward displacement is being reduced
gradually until a stage where the block stays stationary when released. At this point, the
force up the plane equalized the limiting friction down the plane.

If T is the tension of the spring, F is the limiting friction, and is the coefficient
of static friction, then

T- mg sin = F
T- mg sin = mg cos

If T = mg, where m = mass equivalent to tension T, then

mg mg sin = mg cos
m = m( cos + sin )

Procedure:
1. Weigh the mass of wooden block with a smooth surface. Record down the mass.
2. Adjust the retort stand, to adjust the angle of inclination of the plank, such that
the wooden block can slide down the plane freely.
3. Measure and record the angle of inclination of the plank.
4. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.2.
5. Start with one wooden block attached to the lower end of the spring.
6. Displace the block downward and released, so that the block will be pulled up
by the tension in the spring.
7. Repeat step [6] with a smaller displacement until a stage that the wooden block
stays stationary upon released. Measure and record the length l2 of the spring.
8. From the graph of l1 against m1 in Part 1, obtain the corresponding mass, m for
the length l2.
9. The mass of the wooden block could be increased by adding another wooden
block on top of the first, weigh the new combined mass of the block. Repeat
steps [6] to [8].
10. Tabulate: m, l2 and m.
11. Plot a graph of m against m.
12. Calculate the gradient of the graph of m against m.
13. Hence, determine the coefficient of static friction, .

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Practical 6
_____________________________________________________________________
To verify the conservation of spring and gravitational potential energy

Objective:
To verify the law of conservation.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Spring
2. plastic / rubber ball
3. Spring holder
4. Metre rule

Equipment:
1. Electronic balance

Setup:

Metre ruler

h
Compress
Release

Figure 6.1

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Theory:

When spring is compress, the spring store potential energy:

1 2
PE spring kx
2

The total energy E of a simple mechanical system is the sum of the potential energy PE
and the kinetic energy KE. In the absence of friction the total energy E of the system is
a conserved quantity so that E = KE + PE. In the absence of friction, if the KE and PE
change, they must change so that their sum is equal to the total energy E. In this
experiment several simple mechanical systems will be examined for this property.

As the spring been release, the potential energy of the spring is converted to kinetic
energy and after the ball reach the maximum high, the kinetic energy is equal to zero
and transform to Gravitational Potential Energy.

PE spring KE PE

at maximum height:
1 2
kx 0 mgh
2

Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of the ball, m.
2. Compress the spring downward, record the vertical distance of spring as x and
let it go.
3. Measure the maximum height, h the ball can achieve.
4. Repeat the step [2] and [3] to obtain eight (8) sets of data.
5. Tabulate: x, h and x2.
6. Plot a graph of x2 against h.
7. Determine the gradient of the graph.
8. Use your answer from [7] to determine values of spring constant, k.

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Practical 7
_____________________________________________________________________
To Design a Roller Coaster via PhET Energy Skate Park Simulation

Objectives:
To understand the conservation of energy in real-world applications
To design a roller coaster (via simulation) and observe the physics concepts
used in the design

Apparatus and Materials:

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/energy-skate-park

Online Simulation Lab ROLLER COASTER PHYSICS

Purpose: The purpose of this simulation lab is to strengthen your understanding of
energy conservation in real-world applications. You will use a skateboarder and his
park to represent the roller coaster and its track. You will observe many other physics
concepts at work as well.

Exploration Questions

1. What is conservation of Mechanical Energy?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. Set the skater into motion by clicking the start button. Observe the motion. Do you
think the mechanical energy of the system is conserved in the system? Explain.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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3. Use the symbols to fill in the data table:

Skaters Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Total Energy
Movement/ ( = M m) ( = M m) ( = M m)
Position
Down the
track

Up the track

Lowest point
of the ramp

( increases, decreases, = remains the same, M for maximum, m for

minimum)

4. Predict the ratio of the potential energy to the kinetic energy of the skater when the
skater is at the halfway between the highest and the lowest point of the track.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. Turn on the Bar Graph/Pie Chart and the Grid features. Does your prediction match
with the distribution of energies shown? If not, try to explain why your prediction
failed?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

6. Sketch the Potential Energy graph, the Kinetic Energy graph and the Total Energy
graph of the skater in the common Energy-Position axes below.
Energy (J)

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7. Turn on the Energy vs. Position graph feature in the simulation and compare your
sketch above with the graph shown. Does your sketch resemble the graph shown?
If not, what are the possible causes of the differences?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. What is/are the changes required in order to change the total energy of the skater?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

9. Turn on the Show Path feature, what can you conclude from the path shown in terms
of velocity and acceleration?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

10. Now, turn on the Bar Graph and drag the skater slightly above the track somewhere
near the midpoint and release. It is observed that thermal energy exists. Explain
what actually happened? (You might want to repeat the instruction at different
positions.)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

11. Is the thermal energy equivalent to the change in potential energy of the skater?
Justify.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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12. What are the possible changes if the skater is replaced with other skater of different
mass?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

13. Verify your answer in above by changing the skater (click on Choose Skate button)
and turn on the Bar Graph. Discuss the discrepancy of your answer/idea.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

14. Predict the changes to the skating when it is performed on Space, Moon, and Jupiter.
Space:
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Moon:
_______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Jupiter:
________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

15. Verify your predictions through the simulation. Discuss with friends if you could
not understand the reasons of the changes.

Build Your Roller Coaster

Use the simulation to build and test your roller coaster design.

1. If you made any changes during the Exploration Questions, click Reset again.
2. Right-click the track and select Roller Coaster Mode. This keeps the skater
attached.
3. Notice that you can zoom out to give yourself a wider view. You may want to
do this as you build your coaster.

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4. Drag in new pieces of track and manipulate the curves. Make at least 2 loops for
the rider to go through.
5. Drag and drop the rider to the location of the beginning and observe. DO NOT
MAKE CHANGES YET.

a. The ride probably was not successful on the first attempt. If not, what
physics concept(s) was violated?

b. Identify several adjustments you need to make.

6. After making the initial adjustments, try the ride again. Continue making
adjustments until the ride becomes successful (rider makes it from one end to
the other completely does not have to make it back through).
7. Draw a side-view sketch of your successful design below.

8. Click the Track Friction >> button and adjust the setting.
9. Run the rider through your track again and observe the changes.

a. Did the rider make it to the end?

b. What do you notice differently about the pie chart and/or bar graph?

10. Make the necessary adjustments until you achieve a successful ride with friction.
11. Draw a side-view sketch of your friction-savvy coaster below.

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Post-Lab Questions:

1. At the top of a hill on the ride, most of the energy is _______________ and at
the bottom of the hill, most of the energy is converted into
_________________.

2. What are the equations for potential and kinetic energy?

3. If you were an engineer of an actual roller coaster, what information would

you need to know in order to ensure that your coaster would be safe?

4. Would it be possible to predict the speeds that a coaster will reach before its
ever placed on the track? How?

5. The most thrilling roller coasters usually contain vertical loops. What keeps
the riders in their seats when they go upside-down?

6. Consider going around a horizontal turn to the right. If the coaster suddenly
slipped off the track, what path would it follow? Draw a top-view sketch
below.

7. You should have drawn the coaster following a straight line after it slipped off
the track. Since that is the path it would take without the track, there must be
an unbalanced force causing it to accelerate (turn) around the bend. What
direction is that force pointing? Draw a top-view sketch of the force vectors
below.

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Practical 8
_____________________________________________________________________
To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel

Objective:
To study the moment inertia of a flywheel.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. Flywheel
2. Digital stop watch
3. Slotted masses with hanger
4. Meter rule
5. G clamp
6. Thread
7. A soft board to absorb the impact when the slotted masses hit the ground
8. Vernier caliper

Setup:
1. Clamp the flywheel to the side of the bench.
2. One end of the thread is fixed to the flywheel. The other end is tied to the mass
hanger.
3. Roll the thread round the axle of the flywheel.
4. The distance between the base of the hanger and the floor is, h.
5. When you release the masses, the masses will accelerate downward, and
flywheel will have an angular acceleration.

Figure 8.1

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Theory:
Let:
T = tension in the string
m = mass of the load
a = acceleration of the load
= angular acceleration of the flywheel
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 ms-2
R = radius of the axle
I = moment of inertia of the flywheel
h = initial distance between load and floor
t = time taken for the load to touch the floor
= friction torque on the flywheel

2h
Acceleration of load: a ............... (1)
t
a
Angular acceleration of wheel: (2)
R
For the load: mg T = ma... (3)
T = m(g - a)... (4)

Using equation (1) to find the value of a.

Using equation (2) and the calculated value of a to find the value of .
Using equation (4) and the calculated value of a to find the value of T.

For the wheel: TR I ... (5)

R
T
I I
R
Graph of against T is a straight line, the gradient is s and s .
I
R
Moment of inertia of the flywheel is: I .
s

Procedure:
1. Measure the initial height of the load. This height is fixed.
2. Put mass onto the hanger.
3. Release the load, and start the stop-watch simultaneously.
4. Take the time for the load to touch the floor.
5. Vary the mass of the load, m. Repeat the above steps, and obtain a total of eight
(8) sets of values of m and t.
6. Tabulate: m, t, a, and T.
7. Plot a graph of against T.
8. From the graph, determine the moment of inertia of the flywheel.

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Practical 9

Archimedes Principle on buoyancy of fluids.

Objective:
To determine the density of several substances in fluid and to study Archimedes
Principle on the buoyancy of water.

Apparatus and Materials:

1. One medium-sized measuring cylinder and one large measuring cylinder
2. Various objects: stone, plasticine, small block of wood, metal ball, slotted
masses.
3. Spring
4. Retort stand

Apparatus: weighing scale, spring scale.

Setup:
Setup the apparatus as shown in Figure 7-1.

Figure 7-1

Theory:
The density of an object is the mass of the object per unit volume. Hence, by measuring
the increase in mass and the corresponding increase in the volume of water, we can
calculate the density of each substance that was lowered into the water.

The Archimedes principle states that the magnitude of the buoyant force exerted upon
an object that is partially or completely immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid that the object displaces.

For a floating object in part 2, the buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the
liquid displaced, is also equal to the weight of the object.

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By noting the increase in volume in part 3, we can calculate the weight of the water that
was displaced. Compare this value to the decrease in the weight of the object as it was
lowered into the water.
Spring scales work by the principle of Hookes Law where the weight measured is
proportional to the extension of the spring of the scale.
Fspring kx , where x is the extension of the spring.
Hence, mg = kx.

Procedure:
Part 1: (for submerged object)
1. Weigh an empty measuring cylinder.
2. Fill a measuring cylinder with water to about 70% and weigh it and measure its
volume.
3. Add a piece of plasticine to the water until it is completely submerged. Measure
its weight and the total volume.
4. Repeat the above procedure with a piece of stone, slotted masses and metal ball.

Part 2: Repeat part 1 with a block of wood. However because the wood floats in the
water, only measure the volume of the water and the weight of the wood. Then calculate
the weight of the water displaced by the wood: density of water x volume of water
displaced. Compare this reading with the weight of the wood.

Part 3:
1. Weigh a set of slotted masses using a spring scale.
2. Add water to a small measuring cylinder and weigh. Measure the volume of
water.
3. Lower the slotted masses into the measuring cylinder of water so that it is
immersed in the water but does not touch the bottom of the measuring cylinder.
Note the increase in volume as well as the reading on the scale.
4. Note: if spring scales are not available, a normal spring is used but the length is
measured instead for different values of slotted masses to obtain the spring
constant before the weights are lowered into the water.

5. Alternatively, weigh the container with the mass immersed in it. The increase
in weight should be equal to that of the water displaced by it.

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Results:

Part 1: Submerged Object

Stone Plasticine Slotted Metal ball

masses
Mass of cylinder, m1
Mass of cylinder with water, m2
Mass of water, m2 m1
Mass of cylinder, water and
object, m3
Mass of object, m3 m2
Volume of liquid, V1
Volume of liquid and object, V2
Volume of object, V2 V1
Density of object =
m m2
3 kg / m 3
V2 V1

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Part 2: Floating Object.

For wooden block, measure as above but calculate as follows:
m m1
water 2
V1
Mass of water displaced water (V2 V1 )
Compare this value with m3 m2

1. Determine what forces act on an object when the object is placed in a fluid.
How are the forces similar and different when the object sinks, floats
immersed in the fluid, and when it is only partially submerged.

2. Give specific examples that you could use to explain what buoyancy is and
how an objects weight can appear to change when in a fluid. Make sure to
include situations where the object sinks, floats immersed in the fluid, and
when it is only partially submerged.

Playground Tab:

3. Explain how you can use the information about the block and the fluid to
determine if the block will sinks, floats immersed in the fluid, and when it is
only partially submerged.

4. How can you determine the apparent mass of an object if you know the density
of the object and the density of the fluid?

5. Challenge: Explain how an object that is more dense than water can be kept
afloat by placing it on an object that is less dense than water

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Practical 10

To investigate the effect of buoyancy via PhET Buoyancy simulation

Objectives:
To understand the meaning of buoyancy.
To study the effect of buoyancy to a submerged object in liquid.

Apparatus and Materials:

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/buoyancy

Buoyancy and Density Activity

Directions: Go to the following website to use an interactive simulation to work with

buoyancy and density.

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/3350

Procedure:
Getting Familiar
1. On the Intro screen, mess with the apparatus, changing the blocks, observing
what happens when the mass, volume and densities are held constant.
2. Check and uncheck the boxes under Show Forces to see where they act.
Intro: Give a brief description of what the relationship is between mass, volume and
density of each object and how it affects whether the object will sink or float.

Lab Setup
1. Click over to the Buoyancy Playground and begin the lab.
2. There are 5 different fluids to choose from in the lab and five different types of
materials. (Styrofoam, wood, ice, brick and aluminum)
3. Use the table supplied to organize your work.
Lab Procedure: Part 1
1. In each of the scenarios below, determine first, by predicting, whether the object
will sink or float. Use a mass of 2.5 kg.
2. Test each object once you have predicted and record the results.

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Part 1: Write an S for sink or an F for float. Predictions first!!

Air Gasoline Olive Oil Water Honey
Pred. Act. Pred. Act. Pred. Act. Pred. Act. Pred. Act.
Styrofoam
Wood
Ice
Brick
Aluminum

Lab Procedure: Part 2

1. Determine the volume of the fluid when an object is placed in that fluid.
2. Use a mass of 2.5 kg.
3. Record all values for different sets of combinations in the table below.

Air Gasoline Olive Oil Water Honey

Styrofoam
Wood
Ice
Brick
Aluminum

Lab Procedure: Part 3

1. In this part of the lab, determine the amount of buoyant force that is acting on
each block of mass 2.5 kg.
2. Determine how you will find the amount of buoyant force or buoyancy.
Perhaps try using the two scales given in the lab.
3. Record these values in the table below.

Air Gasoline Olive Oil Water Honey

Styrofoam
Wood
Ice
Brick
Aluminum

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Conclusions:
1. In the part 1 of the lab, what happened when the ice was placed in olive oil?

2. In part 2 of the lab, which of the objects had the greatest density?

3. From part 3, what is the relationship between the buoyant force and the weight
of an object when the object:

a. Sinks

b. Floats

4. How is it possible to have two objects of the same mass where one object sinks
and the other object floats? Use your observations from the Intro part of the lab
to answer this question.

Additional Questions:

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/3408
Directions:
Intro Tab:
6. How can you use a block and the other tools on the Intro tab to determine the
density of the Oil?

7. Determine what forces act on an object when the object is placed in a fluid. How
are the forces similar and different when the object sinks, floats immersed in the
fluid, and when it is only partially submerged.

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8. Give specific examples that you could use to explain what buoyancy is and how
an objects weight can appear to change when in a fluid. Make sure to include
situations where the object sinks, floats immersed in the fluid, and when it is
only partially submerged.

Playground Tab:

9. Explain how you can use the information about the block and the fluid to
determine if the block will sinks, floats immersed in the fluid, and when it is
only partially submerged.

10. How can you determine the apparent mass of an object if you know the density
of the object and the density of the fluid?

11. Challenge: Explain how an object that is more dense than water can be kept
afloat by placing it on an object that is less dense than water

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