International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

An epistemological view of consumer experiences

Andrew R. Walls a, , Fevzi Okumus b , Youcheng (Raymond) Wang b , David Joon-Wuk Kwun b
a
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway St, San Francisco, CA 94132, United States
b
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This paper discusses the theoretical underpinnings of consumer experience by examining the deni-
Consumer experience tions of experience and the contextual nature of consumer experiences. It offers a framework to better
Consumption experience understand this construct in a hospitality and tourism context. The proposed framework demonstrates
Experiential marketing
the multidimensional facets of the consumer experience. An extensive review of the literature identi-
Hospitality and tourism marketing
ed three stream of empirical research. The paper suggests that the perception of consumer experience
has numerous foundational origins that have complicated its growth as a viable and valued concept.
This study proposes a number of emerging themes that give credence and direction to the concept of
consumer experiences.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction setting, practically everything a tourist goes through at a destina-

More and more companies in the hospitality and tourism
industry are focusing on creating and managing experiences
for their customers. It is not sufcient to offer a functional level
of products and services, and offerings must be accompanied
by experiences to differentiate themselves in the increasingly
commoditized and competitive business environment (Pine and
Gilmore, 1999; Schwartz, 1990). As the economy offers more and
more commoditized products and services, hospitality companies
should nd ways to differentiate themselves from their respec-
tive competitors. One way this can be achieved is by focusing
on the design and delivery of service experiences in an effort to
increase satisfaction and loyalty. Authors have insisted that the
service sector has been transformed into a dream society (Jensen,
1999), entertainment economy (Wolf, 1999), attention economy
(Davenport and Beck, 2002), and experience economy (Pine and
Gilmore, 1998, 1999; Schmitt, 1999).
From a marketing perspective, consumers want more than just
the delivery and consumption of products and services. Instead,
they seek unique consumption encounters to accompany the prod-
ucts and services that create memorable experiences. Therefore,
businesses need to shift their focus from a delivery-focused ser-
vice economy to one that emphasizes high-quality products and
services and staged experiences that create memorable consumer
experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1999). In a hospitality and tourism
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: arwalls@sfsu.edu, arwalls99@gmail.com (A.R. Walls),
fokumus@mail.ucf.edu (F. Okumus), raywang@mail.ucf.edu (Y. Wang),
dkwun@mail.ucf.edu (D.J.-W. Kwun).
tion is an experience, be it behavioral or perceptual, cognitive or
emotional, expressed or implied (Oh et al., 2007, p. 120). Carbone
and Haeckel (1994) argued that customers always get more than
they bargain for, because a product or service always comes with an
experience. That experience may be good or bad, lasting or eeting,
a random phenomenon or an engineered perception (p. 9).
Despite the enthusiastic movement toward the experience
economy and its particular relevance to the hospitality and tourism
industry (Gilmore and Pine, 2002; Titz, 2007), the literature has
demonstrated a wide-ranging and perplexing set of denitions and
theoretical meanings. Though this is explained partially by the
multidisciplinary use and application of the experience concept,
it appears that there is a need to move cautiously and succinctly
toward a better understanding of this important construct distinc-
tively in the eld of hospitality and tourism. To this end, this paper
seeks to (1) examine various approaches and denitions of experi-
ence and discuss the contextual nature of consumer experiences;
(2) discuss the diverse theoretical underpinnings of consumer
experience in the hospitality and tourism industry; and (3) propose
a new set of denitions supported by a conceptual framework to
better understand the composition of the hospitality and tourism
consumer experience.
2. Dening the family of experiences
The theoretical origins of consumer experience may be traced
back to several specialized elds of behavioral science. These elds
include cultural industry systems (Hirsch, 1972), esthetics (Jaeger,
1945; Kaplan, 1987), psycholinguistics affective response (Osgood
et al., 1957), and fantasy, imagery, and multi-sensory within psy-
chology (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Singer, 1966; Swanson,

0278-4319/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.03.008
 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021 11

Table 1
Summary of experience denitions.

Author (year) Denition

Ray (2008) Experiences interrupt people from their lives and expectations to provide something of interest
that demands attention; experiences themselves are incredibly involving.
Lashley (2008) Discusses tourism experiences from the perspective of creating hospitable relationships between
the host and guest; these experiences engage emotions, which is essential to creating a memory.
Titz (2007) No single model of experiential consumption has emerged; experiential consumption is central to
a comprehensive understanding of consumer behavior in the hospitality and tourism context.
Mossberg (2007) A blend of many elements coming together and involve the consumer emotionally, physically,
intellectually and spiritually.
Oh et al. (2007) From a consumers perspective experiences are enjoyable, engaging, memorable encounters for
those consuming these events.
Andersson (2007) The tourist experience is proposed as the moment when tourism consumption and tourism
production meet.
Uriely (2005) The tourist experience is currently depicted as an obscure and diverse phenomenon, which is
mostly constituted by the individual consumer.
Berry et al. (2002) The means of orchestrating all the clues that people detect in the buying process.
Lewis and Chambers (2000) The total outcome to the customer from the combination of environment, goods, and services
purchased.
McLellan (2000) The goal of experience design is to orchestrate experiences that are functional, purposeful,
engaging, compelling, and memorable.
Schmitt (1999) Experiences are private events that are not self-generated but rather occur in response to some
staged situation and involve the entire being.
Gupta and Vajic (1999) An experience occurs when a customer has any sensation or knowledge acquisition resulting from
some level of interaction with different elements of a context created by a service provider.
Pine and Gilmore (1998, 1999) A distinct economic offering that are as different from services as services are from goods;
successful experiences are those that the customer nds unique, memorable and sustainable over
time, would want to repeat and build upon, and enthusiastically promotes via word of mouth.
OSullivan and Spangler (1998) Involves the participation and involvement of the individual in the consumption and the state of
being physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, or spiritually engaged found that experience.
Carlson (1997) An experience can be dened as a constant ow of thoughts and feelings that occur during
moments of consciousness.
Merriam-Webster (1993) The fact or state of having been affected by or gained knowledge through a direct observation or
participation.
Arnould and Price (1993) Extraordinary experiences are those characterized by high levels of emotional intensity.
Denzin (1992) Extra ordinary experiences rupture routines and live and provoke radical redenitions of the self.
In moments of epiphany, people redene themselves. Epiphanies are connected to turning-point
experiences.
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) Flow is the optimal experience that keeps one motivated. This feeling often involves painful, risky
or difcult efforts that stretch the persons capacity as well as an element of novelty and discovery.
Flow is an almost effortless yet highly focused state of consciousness and yet the descriptions do
not vary much by culture, gender, or age.
Mannell (1984) An experience or state of mind, is uniquely individual and that the quality rather than the quantity
of leisure in our lives deserves attention.
Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) Those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multi-sensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of
ones experience with products.
Maslow (1964) Peak experience is the experiences in which the individual transcends ordinary reality and
perceives being or ultimate reality. Short in duration and accompanied by positive affect.
Thorne (1963) Peak experience is subjectively recognized to be one of the high points of life, one of the most
exciting, rich and fullling experiences which the person has ever had. A experience may be
described operationally as a subjective experiencing of what is subjectively recognized to be one
of the lowest points of life, one of the worst, most unpleasant and harrowing experiences of life.

1978). Motivation research within the marketing eld focuses on
the emotional aspects of products/services, fantasies aroused by
products (Dichter, 1960; Zajonc, 1980), and product symbolism
(Denzin, 1992; Levy, 1959). While these studies contributed to the
paradigm shift, extending the traditional methods used in con-
sumer behavior research by incorporating more phenomenological
approaches, one of the challenges in this stream of research is the
diverse denitions of consumer experience (see Table 1).
As demonstrated in Table 1, experience has been a part of stud-
ies spanning many elds, demonstrating that there is a healthy
and broad application of this concept. From a sociological and psy-
chological perspective, Maslow (1964) dened peak experiences
as those in which the individual transcends ordinary reality and
perceives being or ultimate reality; it is short in duration and
accompanied by positive affect. Similarly, Thorne (1963) dened
peak experience as subjectively recognized to be one of the high
points of life, one of the most exciting, rich and fullling experi-
ences which the person has ever had, contrasting it with a Nadir
experience, which is subjectively recognized to be one of the low-
est points of life, one of the worst, most unpleasant and harrowing
experiences of life (p. 248). From an anthropological and ethnolog-
ical perspective, an experience is the way in which culture affects
the way an individual receives events into his or her consciousness
(Car and Cova, 2003). Though an experience is perceived accord-
ing to an individuals perspective, conceptually it is distinguishable
from an ethnology perspective, which involves experiences that
happen to others, society, and the world (Abrahams, 1986).
Employing an economic and marketing perspective, Schmitt
(1999) declared that experiences are private, personal events that
occur in response to some stimulation and involve the entire being
as a result of observing or participating in an event. He postulated
that in order to stimulate desired consumer experiences, mar-
keters must provide the right setting and environment. Lewis and
Chambers (2000) dened consumer experience as the total out-
come to the customer from the combination of environment, goods
and services purchased (p. 46). Finally, most researchers attempt-
ing to dene the experience overlook the operational patterns that
are common to many consumer experiences. For example, Solomon
and Corbit (1974) described the standard pattern of affective dynam-
ics that can shed light on the many empirical commonalities in
12 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
effective and hedonic experiences. They describe this pattern as
follows:
First, following the sudden introduction of either a pleasurable
or aversive stimulus, an affective or hedonic reaction begins and
quickly rises to a peak. It then slowly declines to a steady level
where it remains if the stimulus quality and intensity is main-
tained. Then, at the sudden termination of the stimulus, the
affective reaction quickly disappears and gives way to a quali-
tatively very different type of affective reaction which reaches
its own peak of intensity and then slowly disappears with time
(p. 120).
According to Solomon and Corbit (1974) the pattern consists of
ve distinctive features: (a) the peak of the primary hedonic pro-
cess or state, precipitated by the stimulus onset; (b) a period of
hedonic or affective adaptation during which the intensity of the
hedonic state declines, even though stimulus intensity is main-
tained; (c) a steady level of the hedonic process that continues as
long as stimulus intensity is maintained; (d) a peak of affective after-
reaction, which quickly follows stimulus termination and whose
quality is hedonically very different from that of the primary hedo-
nic state; and nally; and (e) the after state in which the experience
decays and subsequently disappears. This description is helpful in
understanding what a person undergoes during a prescribed con-
sumer experience. Accordingly, the peak of primary affect reaction
will be less intense, and the peak of affective after-reaction will be
intense and long-lasting. This concept has sensible applications to
the hospitality and tourism setting. In a tourism context, for exam-
ple, visiting a luxury oceanfront resort day after day, consumers
may be less affected by the sights, smells, and sounds than they
were during their rst few visits.
It is important to recognize the distinction between a scientic
experience and experience in general. A scientic experience pro-
vides universal knowledge for all, while a common experience is
unique to the individual. A philosophical experience is a personal
occurrence that changes or transforms the individual. Experience
is therefore gained when what happens is translated into knowl-
edge (common sense), not only when it remains a simple lived
occurrence (Car and Cova, 2003, p. 269). Edgall et al. (1997)
outlined four unique consumption experiences which includes
community experiences, household experiences, state or citizen
experiences, and market or consumer experiences. They dened
market or consumer experiences resulting from encounters with
businesses and other consumers and postulated that there is a dis-
tinction between a consumption experience and a consumer
experience. For example, a communal consumption experience
involving a dinner party with friends is a friendship experience
even though it is linked to the marketplace where the food was pur-
chased. Similarly, a communal consumption experience involving
conversation with friends is outside the realm of the marketplace.
Stated differently, if there is no product or service exchange, then
the individual no longer engages in a consumer-related experience
but rather encounters experiences that are outside or beyond the
market setting (Car and Cova, 2003).
3. Consumer experience in the hospitality and tourism
industry
The experience concept has a broad appeal inuenced by var-
ious disciplines, which helps us to understand the hospitality
and tourism experience. In determining the nature of the tourist
experience, Boorstin (1961) described the postmodern condition
as a trivial, supercial, frivolous pursuit of vicarious, contrived
experiences, a pseudo-event (p. 77). MacCannell (1973) argued
that the tourist experience is a sincere pursuit of the authen-
tic. In response to the contradictory viewpoints, Cohen (1979)
mused that neither conception is universally valid, though each
has contributed valuable insights into the motives, behavior and
experiences of some tourists. Accordingly, different kinds of peo-
ple may desire different modes of touristic experiences; hence the
tourist does not exist as a type (p. 180). Cohen (1979) proposed
a phenomenological typology of tourist experiences that included
recreational, diversionary, experiential, experimental, and existen-
tial modes, ranging from a mere pleasure to a quest for core
meaning.
Uriely (2005) referred to two schools of thought in an attempt
to differentiate tourist experiences. The rst is a modernist point
of view, which postulates that tourism is the opposite of every-
day life. The second point of view is the postmodernist perspective,
which suggests that everyday life is not differentiated from tourist
experiences but rather that a de-differentiation exists intertwin-
ing everyday life and tourist experiences. Everyday life contains
responsibilities, work, thriftiness, and stress. However, tourism
is essentially a temporary reversal of everyday activitiesit is a
no-work, no-care, no-thrift situation (Cohen, 1979, p. 181). In a
similar light, Smith (1978) surmised that the tourist is one who
temporarily visits a place away from home for the express purpose
of experiencing change. Mannell and Iso-Ahola (1987) insisted that
hospitality and tourism activities often incorporate religious feel-
ings, a source of personal development, effective means of escape
from daily routines, and the opportunity to reestablish interper-
sonal relationships.
Another experience-based model is the tourist experience that
inuences choice (Ryan, 2002). Knutson and Beck (2003) pro-
posed a model that relates experience to expectations, perceptions,
service quality, value, and satisfaction. Quan and Wangs (2004)
conceptual model of tourist experiences looked at peak, supporting,
and daily routine experiences, and Knutson et al. (2009) formulated
the consumer experience index, designed to identify the underlying
dimensions of a consumers experience as an accompaniment to the
American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI). These results are very
much in line with Urielys (2005) description of the tourist experi-
ence. His description included (a) the distinctiveness of tourism
from everyday life; (b) the tourism hospitality experience that
includes a multiplicity of interact dimensions; (c) a shift from stat-
ically displayed items to subjective interpretations of physical and
human dimensions; and (d) consumer experiences that tend to be
relative and not absolute.
As outlined in Table 2, experiential research in hospitality and
tourism has taken three general directions: (1) creating a taxon-
omy or classication of experiences; (2) examining the causes of
or explaining an experience; and (3) comparing the relationship
between experiences and other constructs.
The taxonomic work was rst reported by Thorne (1963), who
was exploring the concept of peak experiences and asked sub-
jects to describe the most exciting and best three experiences in
their lives. The results were classied into six main categories: sen-
sual, emotional, cognitive, conative, self-actualization, and climax
peak experiences. Each of these categories was further subdivided
into two or more subcategories. Barsky and Nash (2002) mea-
sured key emotions in the consumer experiences connected to
their hotel stays in order to gain a more in-depth understanding
about the feelings that customers experience. After questioning
a panel of frequent hotel guests, they developed a list of emo-
tions that were appropriate for hotels. In addition, they found
that there were differences among hotel industry segments and
brands in their ability to create emotional experiences for their
guests.
A number of subsequent studies have attempted to develop
experience-related scales. Mehrabian and Russells (1974) plea-
sure arousal dominance scale (PAD); Swansons (1978) absorbing
Table 2
Consumer experience research in hospitality and tourism.
Author(s) (year)
Lodging
Yuan and Wu (2008)
Oh, Fiore and Jeoung (2007)
McIntosh and Siggs (2005)
Barsky and Nash (2002)
Atmospherics
Gueguen and Petr (2006)
Pullman and Gross (2004)
Hui and Bateson (1991)
Study typea Application/discipline Instrument Measured construct
E/R Restaurant/hospitality Self-reported Measured ve experiential
and tourism questionnaire marketing concepts, customer
value, and service quality
model
E/T B&B/hospitality Qualitative and Measured the relevance of Pine
self-administered and Gilmores four realms of
experience in a B&B
environment and perceived
quality and satisfaction.
T Boutique In-depth interviews Inquired as to the experiential
hotel/hospitality nature of boutique
accommodation products,
highlighting the emotive
aspects of the experiences
gained by guests by examining
experiential dimensions that
are seen as important to the
success of boutique
accommodation product.
T Hotels/hospitality Telephone interviews Measured 16 emotions during
their most recent hotel stay
E/R Restaurant/hospitality Self-reported An experiment was carried out
questionnaire in a restaurant where lemon
and lavender aromas were
diffused and compared to a
no-aroma control condition.
E/R VIP circus/hospitality Qualitative, internet Measured relationship
pre-test, and internet between design elements and
self-reported survey experiences and loyalty.
E/R ToTM Self-selected random A self-administered
assignment to questionnaire measured ve
treatments dependent variables: perceived
choice, perceived control,
perceived crowding, pleasure,
and approach- avoidance.
Statistical method Findings
Factor analysis and Outcome suggests that
SEM experiential marketing should
induce satisfaction and loyalty
through emotional and
functional values.
Multivariate The data supported the
measurement scale dimensional structure of the
four realms of experience,
A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
providing empirical evidence
for both face and nomological
validities of these realms and a
starting point for measuring
emerging experience economy
concepts and practices within
lodging and tourism settings
Content and inductive Revealed ve key experiential
analysis dimensions that are seen as
important to the success of
boutique hotels: unique
character, personalized,
homely, quality, and value
added.
Descriptive analysis Developed the market matrix
hotel emotions scale. There are
considerable differences
among hotel industry
segments and brands in their
ability to create emotional
experiences for their guest.
One-way ANOVA Olfactory cues in restaurants
affect approach/avoidance
behaviors
Factor analysis and Determined that different
SEM design elements can contribute
toward emotional connection
and loyalty behaviors.
Multi-sample Situational and emotional cues
structural equation inuence approach/avoidance
modeling behaviors under crowded
conditions
13
 14
Table 2 ( Continued )

Author(s) (year) Study typea Application/discipline Instrument Measured construct Statistical method Findings

Milliman (1986) E/R Restaurant/hospitality Self-reported Repeated randomized block T-test Variation in tempo and rhythm
questionnaire design of music affect purchase
intention and alcohol

Service
Mattila and Wirtz (2006)
Bloemer and de Ruyter (1999)
E Cafe Randomized A 3 by 3 true experimental
convenience sampling design was used to test a
of MBA students research hypotheses in a cafe
context. The research
methodology involved video
simulations and role-playing
instructions.
E/R 6 different service Random Examined the simultaneous
Two-way ANOVA Findings indicated that that an
intrinsically attractive store
environment can be perceived
as unpleasant if it fails to
match the consumers desired
level of stimulation (arousal
congruency).
Hierarchical regression The results reveal that the

A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021

providers interview-point effect of satisfaction and analysis relationship between
Likert scale positive emotions m a number satisfaction and loyalty with
questionnaire of service settings that differ in respect to extended services is
level of involvement. moderated by positive
emotions in the case of high
involvement service settings.

Food
Jacob (2006)
Dube et al. (2005)
Charters and Pettigrew (2005)
Laros and Steenkamp (2005)
E/R Bar or Tavern Setting Observations were An experiment was carried out One-way ANOVA Results showed that drinking
made during 14 in a bar to test inuence of songs appeared to increase the
afternoons of three three different styles of music length of time customers
working weeks with on patrons. stayed in the bar and the
the consent of the average amount spent.
owner of the bar.
E/R Food/Re staur ant Survey was Explored the possibility that Multi-factorial ANOVA Results indicate that mens
administered via the the type of food eaten during comfort food consumption was
worldwide web and comfort-seeking episodes can motivated by positive
was promoted in also be tied to affect emotions whereas womens
electronic and mass asymmetry consumption was triggered by
media negative affects
E/R Blind wine tasting Qualitative approach: Questions covered a range of Self-selected samples Findings of the study suggest
individual interviews topics, but all data collection that consumers perceive some
and focus groups operated within the context of key similarities between the
exploring if and how wine consumption of wine and the
functions as an aesthetic appreciation of art forms.
product for drinkers. These similarities include: the
pleasure provided by each; the
interrelated role of sensory,
emotional and cognitive
responses; and the issues of
personal taste.
E/T Data were collected in Professionally Randomized Dutch Second-order factor Results suggest that basic
a nationally developed respondents were asked to analysis and SEM emotions provide more
representative sample indicate to what extent they information about the feelings
among 645 Dutch experience 33 specic of the consumer over and
emotions for one (randomly above positive and negative
assigned) type of food affect.
(genetically modied food,
functional food, organic food,
or regular food). Thus, we
measure emotions at a general,
product-type level of c
ategorizati on.
Miscellaneous experience studies
Aron (2006)
Knutson et al. (2009)
E Marketing/advertising
T Consumer experience
index (CEI)
22 Experimental The study examined the
design: product impact of marketing
experience communications (designed to
valence advertisement create positive messages)
valence when seen by a customer who
has had a negative experience
with a product/service. What is
the inuence of a counter-
experiential communication
on a dissatised customer?
Attempted to extract, They employed a four-phase
identify, and measure survey methodology. Data was
ANOVA It is demonstrated that after a
negative experience, a positive
message about the product
leads to lower levels of
satisfaction and repurchase
intention as compared to when
that negative experience is
followed by more neutral
message.
Exploratory factor The 39-item consumer
analysis experience index (CEI) is a

A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021

Wirtz et al. (2003)
Harris et al. (2003)
Mathwick et al. (2002)
experience factors. collected through a Web-based reliable and valid index to
Based on American survey using samples from measure the important
Customer Satisfaction three Internet distribution components for a consumers
Index (ACSI). channels (n = 397). economic experience. Second,
Scale-development procedures
result in a seven-factor model
consisting of Environment,
Benet, Accessibility,
Convenience, Utility, Incentive,
and Trust. Third, the factor
analysis also shows that these
dimensions have a hierarchical
order for the consumer.
E/R College Spring Breakers Participants were The present study compared Path-Analysis Predicted and remembered
surveyed at six points students predicted, on-line, experiences were both more
over the course of and remembered spring-break positive and, paradoxically,
about 8 weeks using a experiences, as well as the more negative than on-line
PDA. inuence of these factors on experiences.
students desire to take a
similar vacation in the future
E Retail Interviewed employees This study examined critical Non-hierarchical Authors argue that using
to recount memorably incident techniques with cluster analysis dramatic script development
dissatisfying critical employees and how to deal and integral staging can help
incidents during with them using organizations facilitate total
service encounters theatrical/dramatic script customer experiences.
development
E Retail The sampling frame for Respondents were asked to Factor analysis Results suggest that retailers
this study was drawn recall a recent retail purchase capable of delivering an
randomly from the list and identify seven indicators of efcient shopping experience
of billed customers experiential value. Seven and offering strong economic
who had purchased indicators of experiential value should consider targeting
from the rms catalog valueefciency, economic their retail channel to
or Internet site within value, intrinsic enjoyment, goal-oriented shoppers.
a 45-day period escapism, visual appeal, Consumers with well-formed
immediately preceding entertainment, and service shopping plans are in a
the mailing date. A excellenceserved as the receptive frame of mind for
survey packet mailed subjective measures of retail this type of retail experience.
to 1,200 catalog and channel performance. Experiential shoppers,
1,000 Internet sh however, are looking for and
oncers. apparently nd heightened
enjoyment in the process of
shopping.

15
 16
Table 2 ( Continued )

Author(s) (year) Study typea Application/discipline Instrument Measured construct Statistical method Findings

Prentice et al. (1998)
Donovan et al. (1994)
E/T National Park/tourism Fully structured Experiences felt and benets Inductive analysis Experiential and benet
interview gained by visitors to a Heritage segmentations appear to be
Park somewhat independent of
socio-demographic attributes.
E/R Retail Participants were The study measured emotions Factor and Regression Emotional responses (pleasure
asked to rate their during, rather than before or analysis and arousal) induced by the
feelings on a 12-item after, and records the effects on store environment can affect

A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021

semantic differential actual shopping behavior. the time and money that
scale measuring consumers spend in a the store.
Mehrabian and
Russells pleasure and
arousal dimensions.
Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre (1989) E Experience sampling Investigated the This method consists of Content and Inductive Contrary to what one might
method (ESM) quality of experience providing respondents with an analysis expect, the great majority of
during the course of electronic pager and a block of ow like experiences in the
everyday life - work self-report forms with lives of average adults seem to
and leisure times. open-ended and scaled items. come from work, not from
Respondents wear the pager leisure. This is true not only for
for a week, during which time people working in higher level
they are paged about 56 times jobs, but also for blue-collar
at random intervals. Whenever assembly line workers.
the respondent is signaled, he Whereas leisure activities meet
or she lls out a page of the the conditions of ow (i.e., high
booklet, indicating activity, challenges and high skills) less
location, and companionship, than 20% of the time, work
as well as describing the does so from 47% of the time
quality of the experience at the for blue-collar workers to 64%
time on a variety of of the time for managers.
dimensions.
Mathes et al. (1982) E/T Psychology Conducted ve studies Measured participants peak Varied Peak experiences were
to examine taxonomy, experiences using a variety of validated and taxonomies were
causes and relationship scales recommended; causes of peak
between peak experiences were identied.
experiences
Thorne (1963) T Psychology Ask subjects to write Asked subjects to report the Content and Inductive Peak experiences were
one page of material most exciting, highest and best analysis categorized into six main
describing when three experiences in their lives categories: sensual, emotive,
where, why and how cognitive, conative,
the experience self-actualization, and climax
happened. peak experiences. Each main
category had two or more
subcategories.
a
Study type: TTypology or classr cation; Ecauses or explanation of experiences in a multitude of settings; and Rrelationship between the experience construct and another variable.
 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
Fig. 1. A framework for the composition of hospitality and tourism consumer experiences.
experience scale; Zuckermans (1994) sensation seeking scale;
Mathwick et al. (2001) experiential value scale (EVS); and Knutson
et al.s (2009) consumer experience index (CEI). Other studies have
identied operational constructs that have affected experiences
and have attempted to explain what causes experiences to occur.
For example, Panzarella (1980) found that visual art resulted in
renewal experiences, and music resulted in motor-sensory expe-
riences. Ravizza (1977) hypothesized that peak experiences occur
for athletes participating in sporting events. Milliman (1986) found
that music tempo variations can affect purchases and length of
stay. Donovan et al. (1994) examined how emotional responses
(pleasure and arousal) in a retail setting are induced by a store envi-
ronment that can affect the time and money that consumers spend
in the store.
Further studies revealed that consumers individual character-
istics or situational factors also impact their perceived experience.
Mathwick et al. (2001) discussed the consumer experience and pos-
tulated that it can be rich in experiential value. They suggested
that perceptions of experiential value involve either direct usage
or distanced appreciation of goods and services. These interac-
tions provide the basis for the relativistic preferences held by the
individuals involved offering both intrinsic and extrinsic benets
(Mathwick et al., 2001, p. 41). The extrinsic shopper is oriented
toward simply processing the exchange and can be described as
utilitarian in nature. In contrast, shoppers who appreciate the shop-
ping experience for the experience itself apart from any other
consequence that may result are looking for intrinsic value. This
concept demonstrates that hospitality and tourism companies
must understand the differences in the delivered experiences and
the unique preference held by individual customers.
Finally, a number of studies are both explanatory and
relationship-focused. These studies have sought to describe the
causes of consumer experiences by illustrating the relationship
between an operational construct and the experience itself. For
example, Pullman and Gross (2004) sought to explain how design
elements (food and beverage, interaction, seating, and sensory) of
17
a VIP circus event can contribute toward an emotional connec-
tion with participants. Further, the study explored the relationship
between the service elements designed to create enhanced expe-
rience and customer loyalty. Though few design elements directly
affected loyalty behavior, the relationship between most design
elements and loyalty is strongly mediated by eliciting certain types
of emotional behavior (Pullman and Gross, 2004, p. 551).
4. Hospitality and tourism consumer experience
framework
Based on the above discussion, a framework (Fig. 1) is proposed
to depict the composition of the consumer experience in the hos-
pitality and tourism industry. It is posited that the core consumer
experience is comprised of two axis representing four components
including ordinary, extraordinary, cognitive and emotive. On the
peripheral of the consumer experience are a number of factors that
impact consumer experiences. It is posited that consumer expe-
riences do not operate in a vacuum, void of external or internal
effects, but are unique for each individual. These inuencing factors
may include: perceived physical experience elements, perceived
human interaction elements, individual characteristics, and situa-
tional factors. As depicted in Fig. 1, it is proposed that the external
factors will play a diverse and ever-changing role as consumer
experiences transpire. Each factor may have a modest or signi-
cant impact on the consumer experience components, making each
individuals experience distinctly unique.
The framework is based on incorporating both business and con-
sumer perspectives of experience. A business entity attempts to
connect with a consumer by creating and choreographing experi-
ences for consumers via physical environment dimensions and/or
emotional/human interaction dimensions. The purpose of this
connection is to foster the consumers awareness or interest in
order to create a meaningful and fullling consumption/transaction
experience that will inuence perceived consumption values, sat-
isfaction, and repeat patronage. A consumer experience is the
18 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
multidimensional takeaway impression or outcome, based on the
consumers willingness and capacity to be affected and inuenced
by physical and/or human interaction dimensions and formed by
peoples encounters with products, services, and businesses inu-
encing consumption values (emotive and cognitive), satisfaction,
and repeat patronage.
4.1. Ordinary to extraordinary component
The rst event axis represents the range of experiences from
ordinary to extraordinary. Consumer experiences in hospitality and
tourism are events or occurrences that happen outside of the daily
routine experience. At the highest level, they are peak or transfor-
mative experiences (Cohen, 1979; Smith, 1978). Arnould and Prices
(1993) qualitative work on a river rafting trip described deeply
intense and positive experiences that provide life with meaning
and perspective, or what they call extraordinary experiences. Their
work has inspired other researchers to move away from mere expe-
riences to a new realm of immersed, optimal, extraordinary,
or ow experiences. These four analogous terms perhaps were
conceptualized originally by Maslows (1964) work, in which he
referred to peak experiences as similar to religious ecstasy, and
using such terms has gained momentum as researchers and mar-
keters have run with the idea that consumers want intense, positive
experiences that ultimately provide meaning and perspective to
their lives (Arnould and Price, 1993). Abrahams (1986) further
developed this concept and differentiated between ordinary expe-
rience (i.e., everyday life, routines, and acceptance of events) and
extraordinary experience (i.e., total immersion or ow experience).
Consistently, Car and Cova (2003) differentiated between ordinary
and extraordinary experiences with the latter being the desired
goal of those in the hospitality and tourist industry.
Many researchers have agreed that consumers notice a per-
ceived difference between everyday or routine experiences and
leisure or tourism experiences (Boorstin, 1961; Cohen, 1979;
MacCannell, 1973; Quan and Wang, 2004; Smith, 1978; Uriely,
2005). The hospitality and tourism experience includes both peak
(extraordinary) and supporting daily experiences such as sleeping,
eating, and playing (McCabe, 2002) and can occur on a contin-
uum ranging from ordinary or daily to transformative or epiphanic
depending on the product or service (Day, 2000; OSullivan and
Spangler, 1998; Quan and Wang, 2004). These experiences can
range from exciting positive experiences to unpleasant negative
experiences. The consumer must not only be willing and able to
receive an experience, as mentioned above, but the product or
service category may also lend itself to certain types of expected
and delivered experiences dimensions. For example, experience
encounters when buying a rental car or taxi service tend to be more
product-oriented in and of themselves (feature and benets), while
taking a cruise vacation is more experience-oriented. Therefore, it
is proposed that hospitality and tourism experiences range on a
continuum between ordinary and extraordinary depending on the
product or service. However, as explained later, even ordinary or
daily experiences can become peak or transforming experiences
if inuenced or combined with appropriate physical experience
and/or human interaction factors. For example, a father and daugh-
ter taking a walk at home may be an ordinary experience but
walking together through one of Californias Redwood forests may
prove to be an extraordinary experience.
4.2. Cognitive to emotive component
The internal response is represented by the second event axis,
demonstrating the range of experiences from cognitive (objective)
to emotive (subjective) experiences. This component signies that
individuals can initiate the process in which an experience can
occur. For example, Csikszentmihalyis (1990) ow experiences or
Arnould and Prices (1993) extraordinary experiences would not
occur if the individual did not intentionally have them in the rst
place. This does not, however, preclude the notion that an expe-
rience can occur by happenstance, but it is postulated that the
experience is self-generated and that the consumer can control or
choose whether he will have an experience or not (including nega-
tive experiences). Consequently, all people are not equally affected
by every consumer experience, which contradicts Berry, Carbone
and Haeckels (2002) denition of experiences as orchestrated clues
that all people detect. For example, during a hotel check-in, it is
conceivable that two different customers having nearly the same
staged experience can have a different experience in their inter-
pretation and reaction to the same clues. Therefore, it is assumed
that consumer experiences are received and absorbed dissimilarly
by different people.
Carlson (1997) proposed that an experience can be character-
ized as a steady ow of thoughts (cognitive) and feelings (emotive)
that take place during moments of consciousness regarding experi-
ence elements. Car and Cova (2003) suggested that an experience
is an activity containing both cognitive and subjective processes
that allow an individual to develop a means to construct real-
ity. Similarly, Oh et al. (2007) insisted that hospitality and tourist
settings are satiated with experiences that include both cogni-
tive and emotional components. Prior research investigated the
following general types of experiences: the epiphanic experience
(Denzin, 1992), the ow experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and
the extraordinary experience (Arnould and Price, 1993). These
experiences, whether ordinary or extraordinary, transform lives
and contain processes that allow an individual to develop a means
to construct reality (Car and Cova, 2003). Regardless of ones aca-
demic eld or industrial perspective, experiences employ a unique
combination of cognitive and emotive processes (Abrahams, 1986;
Arnould and Price, 1993; Car and Cova, 2003; Csikszentmihalyi,
1990; Denzin, 1992). It is postulated, for example, that a business
executive who checks into a resort hotel for business purposes may
cognitively limit the experiences in order to achieve her stay goals.
However, the same executive traveling on her honeymoon may
cognitively maximize (choose to engage) the experiences due to
the purpose of the trip.
4.2.1. Physical experience and human interaction factors
Hospitality and tourism companies can enhance consumers
experience through managing physical and human interaction
elements. Bitner (1992) argued that environmental and internal
responses (cognitive, emotional, and physiological) had a direct
impact on consumer and employee experiences, resulting in higher
levels of satisfaction. Consumer experiences are not necessarily
related only to tangible items usually witnessed in general con-
sumer products but also can embody the perception formed when
consumers coalesce the sensory information (sight, smell, touch,
taste, hearing) formed by consumers encounters with business
products and services (Carbone and Haeckel, 1994). These intrinsi-
cally emotional and personal experiences, however, are inuenced
by factors that are out of the control of management (Pullman
and Gross, 2004). These factors may include multi-sensory physical
experiences, human interactions, cultural backgrounds and per-
sonality traits, and other situational factors (Belk, 1975; Bitner,
1992; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982; Schmitt, 1999; Schmitt and
Simonson, 1997).
Domenico and Lynchs (2007) work titled Commercial Home
Enterprises found that participants are not mere bystanders,
nor are the physical environment and human interactions static.
Rather, the consumer experience is multidimensional and evolving,
often spontaneous interaction between the physical environment
dimension and the human dimension consisting of the hosts
 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
and guests. In other words, the staged situation or environment
involves physical dimensions that impact the ve senses of con-
sumers. Bitner (1992) directed organizations to think in terms
of environmental dimensions, participant mediating or internal
responses (cognitive, emotional, and physiological), and employee
and customer behaviors that result in expressing commitment, loy-
alty, spending of money, and extending stays. That is, consumers
who willfully involve themselves in positive physical and relational
aspects of their consumer experiences are more inclined to engage
in positive emotion and behavioral outcomes.
Businesses, in an effort to impact the consumer, stage and
enhance the physical environment in order to appeal to the ve
senses of the consumer and create a physically appropriate envi-
ronment that meets their marketing objectives. These elements
may, for example, include items such as a fresh-smelling hotel
environment, warm and welcoming color schemes, and a properly
designed environment that is both practical and visually appeal-
ing. Businesses also may enhance human interaction experience
elements by training employees and targeting a specic type of
consumer in order to create a socially engaging and appropriate
environment. These elements may include employee behaviors
such as wearing sharp uniforms, having good body posture, mak-
ing eye contact, and smiling at customers. Experiences also may
be impacted by the interactions with other guests. These elements
may include fellow guests or visitors expected behavior, respect
of personal space, or socio-economic expectations.
4.3. Individual characteristics and situational factors
The last two elements, situational factors and individual char-
acteristics, are usually outside the control of the business entity.
The consumer experience may vary because not all hospitality and
tourism products and services are created or performed equally.
Consequently, the consumer experience in the hospitality and
tourism context is not conned to one type of transaction or
response but is impacted by the type and stage of consumption
experience and also the characteristics of the individual. Likewise,
consumer experiences conceivably could be much different if one
compares their reactions to a fast food experience and a luxury
cruise ship experience. Day (2000) and OSullivan and Spangler
(1998) referred to a transaction or experience spectrum wherein
the product/service and the consumer determine the type and
degree of consumer experience encountered.
This can be due to each consumers individual characteristics
and situational factors. The situational factors such as trip-related
characteristics in a hospitality and tourism context often inuence
the nature of the trip. These factors include the purpose of trip,
travel companions, and nature of destination, all of which inuence
the travelers willingness to recognize staged experience elements.
Likewise, individual characteristics, such as personality type and
sensitivity to the environment, also may inuence the travelers
willingness or ability to recognize staged experience elements.
Therefore, the hospitality and tourism consumer experience is a
multidimensional construct comprised of a number of external and
internal factors that shape and inuence consumer experiences,
which can exist only if the participating consumer is willing and
able to participate.
5. Discussion and conclusions
This paper aimed to discuss the theoretical underpinnings of
consumer experience and propose a conceptual framework to bet-
ter understand consumer experience construct in a hospitality and
tourism context. Given the existing quantity and quality of research
production in the hospitality eld, there is still much to learn about
19
consumer experiences and the nature of affect. A further contri-
bution of this paper emerged from an extensive literature review
which found that consumer experience in hospitality and tourism
has taken established three main streams of theoretical thinking
and empirical research. These include creating a taxonomy or clas-
sication of experiences, examining the causes of or explaining an
experience, and comparing the relationship between experiences
and other constructs. These perspectives help identify and gain a
better understanding of the challenges researchers face in under-
standing the hospitality and tourism experience.
A number of themes have been formulated that provide some
framework for this topic. Most importantly, consumer experi-
ences do exist (Csikszentmihalyi and LeFevre, 1989; Denzin, 1992;
Solomon and Corbit, 1974; Thorne, 1963) and are distinctly differ-
ent from and to some extent incorporate everyday routines (Cohen,
1979; Quan and Wang, 2004; Smith, 1978). Furthermore, con-
sumer experiences have a beginning and ending point (Solomon
and Corbit, 1974) and typically are composed of a variety of envi-
ronmental and internal components that trigger a multiplicity of
emotional, physical, and cognitive reactions to the consumption of
goods and services. It is a blend of many individual elements that
involve the consumer emotionally, physically, intellectually, and
spiritually (Shaw and Ivens, 2002).
In general, there appear to be diverse views on key princi-
ples used to craft the hospitality and tourism experience. Day
(2000) and OSullivan and Spangler (1998) described a relation-
ship or goods-services experiences spectrum with a transactional
exchange on one end and a collaborative exchange on the other.
Pine and Gilmore (1998), Schmitt (1999), and Carbone and Haeckel
(1994) agreed that a product or service comes with an experience
or as an event that engages the individual in a personal way across
a wide range of industries including tourism and hospitality. The
diverse perspective on consumer experience has made it difcult to
understand the concept and the relationships between consumer
experiences and their respective elements. From the broadest per-
spective, tourist consumption experiences have been described as
being the opposite of everyday life and are considered distinct,
important, and exceptional. Yet others have argued that these dis-
tinctions are not so clear-cut and are now common in our daily
lives. When looking at the individual elements that make up the
consumer experiences, it appears that many of these elements exist
in both our everyday and tourist experiences.
The proposed conceptual model (Fig. 1) attempts to demon-
strate that consumer experiences are multidimensional and unique
for each situation and consumer. It is posited that in order to elu-
cidate the meaning of experience, the experiential concept should
be approached from both perspectivesthe business entity and the
consumer. This perspective stems from the idea that businesses
can orchestrate only the opportunity for an experience. Consumers
may choose or default to the types of experiences they want to
have. That is, an organization cannot grant an experience to the
consumer; rather, organizations can create only the environment
and the circumstances in which consumers could have an experi-
ence. It is the consumer who adds the nal link to the production
chain by putting together the resources in a consumer experience
that produce the tourism experience (Andersson, 2007). In other
words, the experiences that consumers encounter occur inside the
person, and the outcome or experiential consumption depends on
how the consumer, based on a specic situation or state of mind,
reacts to the staged encounter (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Mossberg,
2007; Pine and Gilmore, 1999; Wang, 2002).
The extent and success of the experience will be based on the
quality of the hostguest connection and the willingness and capac-
ity of the consumer to engage in the multidimensional encounter.
Based on related literature, the authors posit that experience
provide distinctiveness between ordinary and extraordinary expe-
20 A.R. Walls et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 1021
riences, and are composed of a variety of physical and human
components that trigger reactions to the consumption of goods
and services. In sum, consumer experience is the multidimensional
takeaway impression or outcome formed by peoples encoun-
ters with products, services, and businesses (Lewis and Chambers,
2000). No longer are consumers mere inert purchasers but rather
co-producers who actively build their own consumption experi-
ences through interactions with the environment, sellers, and other
consumers. These impressions are related to the facets of con-
sumer behavior that relate to cognitive and emotive aspects of ones
encounter with products and services and inuence the intensity
of the experience from ordinary to extraordinary. Additionally, it
is posited that consumer experiences may vary from consumer to
consumer, depending on the physical or human interaction ele-
ments, individual characteristics, or situational factors.
The hospitality and tourism industry has endeavored to create
unique concepts and marketing strategies that differentiate prod-
ucts and services offered by their respective competitors. Many
hospitality rms are investing heavily in changing their service
cultures in an attempt to enhance their brand with consumer
experiences. Though businesses can stage consumer experiences,
consumers may not be impacted fully due to a number of external
factors (i.e., individual characteristics and situational factors). This
in no way should discourage businesses from creating and staging
experiences but rather help them to understand why some con-
sumers are more impacted than others when they encounter the
identical consumption experience. One way in which experiences
can be used to achieve differentiation is by focusing on the design
and delivery of service experiences (Yuan and Wu, 2008). Typi-
cal examples of companies that provide differentiated consumer
experiences include the Rice to Riches rice pudding stores, Haagen-
Dazs cafes, and hotels such as the Soho Grand Hotel or its sister
property, the Tribeca Grand, created to be the ultimate downtown
atmosphere for a fusion of business and pleasure.
6. Future research
Further empirical research is needed to identify the specic
dimensions of a consumer experience. Fig. 1, for example, postu-
lated that physical elements and human interaction dimensions
impact consumer experiences in respective environments. In gen-
eral, experiential research in the hospitality and tourism industry
is based on ontological philosophical assumptions incorporating
an evolving and exible research design. Researchers have investi-
gated what experiences do (i.e., olfactory and auditory cues impact
customer behaviors), but there is still little understanding about
how the consumers mind works in relation to his or her experi-
ences. Some researchers are incorporating a positivist approach but
more research is needed to fully understand the consumer experi-
ence construct and its impact on consumers. It is noticeable that a
number of tourism and hospitality studies incorporated qualitative
methodologies (e.g., in-depth interviews, observation, and focus
groups), suggesting the exploratory nature of experiential research.
However, additional empirical investigations should attempt to ll
the void of related research work in this area (Knutson et al., 2009;
Titz, 2007).
Though a number of studies have identied specic physical
elements and human interaction factors, little research has been
done on the interaction between the consumer experience factors.
For example, are the concepts mutually exclusive or interrelated?
If a consumer experience is poor in the physical environment,
how does that impact the human interaction factor? Furthermore,
the literature generally has assumed that experience factors carry
equal weight in the guests minds. Further research could be con-
ducted to determine if these factors (i.e., physical environment
elements and human interaction elements) are indeed equally
experience-enhancing and whether the use of a weighting system
could be employed with respect to which guests would weigh
how important each item is to their experience. This would pro-
vide important managerial implications as to where to allocate
limited resources in order to create the most positive hospitality
and tourism experiences. It also would be interesting to investigate
consumer experiences from a managerial point of view. Are there
differences in what hospitality and tourism managers believe are
important consumer experiences compared to what the guests say
are important? Finding potential gaps or incongruence may prove
useful for proactive managers looking to understand and enhance
consumer experiences.
Finally, many organizations are moving into the experience
business without a comprehensive positioning strategy for con-
sumer experiences or tactical goals of knowing which experience
dimensions to emphasize. It is recommended that organizations
carefully consider their positioning strategies before engaging in
experiences. For example, in order to avoid incongruencies, hos-
pitality and tourism business entities should recognize who they
are (e.g., luxury resort vs. select-service) and plan their correspond-
ing consumer experience strategies accordingly. Some services and
products lend themselves to be more experience-oriented, whereas
other products tend to be more transaction-oriented. Similarly,
some consumers may choose to diminish the consumer experi-
ence, depending on their willingness (e.g., purpose of trip) or ability
(e.g., personality type) to engage in an experience. These factors
may impact consumer experiences considerably and are vital in
positioning and branding strategies of hospitality and tourism com-
panies, especially for those with multiple brands in their portfolio.
Additional exploration is needed to understand the relationship
between experiences, emotions, absorption, cognition, and multi-
sensory elements.
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