Factors Influencing Architecture

Geography

Climate

Socio-Cultural

Construction Materials

Construction Techniques

Geography
Greek Architecture:

In the prehistoric period, distinct regional vernacular styles are

discernible, in the east and north Aegean, on the mainland and in the
southern Aegean islands, especially Crete.

The geography of the Aegean area stimulated navigation and thus triggered
trade activities.

An important civilization developed on the island of Crete and in turn spread

to the mainland.

During 14th century Greeks had migrated from the mainland towards
Cyprus, Southern Italy and Sicily.

These communities contributed to the development of Classical Greek

Architecture.

Greek architecture, stimulated by Egypt and the Near East, was itself the
stimulator of Roman and later European architecture.
India:

Cut off from Asia by the Himalayas, the flow of ideas and people into India
came mainly from the north-west

The great riverine cultures of the Indus and the Ganges were geographically
well sited to receive such diverse cultural influxes.

The fertile Indus plain, was capable of supporting several crops and Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Iran were sources of minerals, metals and animal products.

The Himalayas provided a formidable barrier to external influences from the

North

The Indus was navigable over most of its length but the surrounding plains
were liable to flooding and this influenced the form and appearance of
Harappan cities.

It has been identified that the Harappan Civilization came to an end due to a
catastrophic flooding in the Indus river.

Climate
Greece:

Winters are short, rainfall adequate occurring in autumn, winter and spring

Summers are hot and dry so that the resulting clear air and intense summer
sunshine made it possible to appreciate the fine details of Greek buildings,
enhanced by carving and colour.

The interiors of the buildings were designed to provide relief from the intense
light and heat of summer

Temples received light only through their doors, while in other buildings
windows were generally small and normally opened into inner courtyards
which were surrounded by roofed porticos.

Public activity happened in the open air, even during winter months

Shade from the summer sun and shelter from the winter rains were desirable
but not essential
 The extended roof structure became the most widespread feature through
the Classical Period.

Socio-Cultural Factors
Egypt:

Bands of hunter-gatherers

First buildings appeared with settled communities of Natufian Culture -

stretched from Southern Turkey to the Nile Delta during 9000 BC

Neolithic period that began in 6000BC in Anatolia (modern day Turkey) gave
rise to large and impressive towns. These towns comprised of a succession of
the following cultures:

(i) Hassuna (6000-4500BC)

(ii) Samarran (5500 BC)

(iii) Halafian (5000 BC)

(iv) Eridu (5400 BC)

(v) Ubaid (4500-3500 BC)

Nile Valley - 5th millenium - Distinct settled cultural groups appeared such as
Faiyum, Mermida (Lower Egypt) and Badarian, Amratian, Gerzean (Upper
Egypt)

All Dynasties were ruled under one king In 7500 BC, Mud-Brick architecture
was carried out in the Turkey-Nile region
 Building Materials
England:

Varied geological formation of Britain was responsible for a wider variety of

building materials

Survival of remains from the Roman occupation provided ideas for variety in
the methods of using them

Sometimes, the materials from Roman buildings were reused.

The English Hardwood forests, particularly in the north-western and south

eastern countries provided roof-framing material for the more important
buildings

Most of the indigenous buildings stones were used (military and religious).
These stones were brought from Normandy through sea and river transport
under the royal Patronage

When Gothic succeeded Romanesque, brickwork was developed as a

building material.

When Gothic flourished, the importance for locally available materials

increased.

The exploitation of local materials (limestone and flint) was an economic

necessity as moving stone any distance was slow and expensive.

Construction Techniques
England (Gothic):

During the Gothic period, construction of arches was a real challenge

The pointed-arch was the technological building unit of Gothic construction

 Romanesque style of architecture saw the first Churches being built; there
was sufficient supply of columns for arcades. The only technical problem was
to build wall strong enough and stable enough.

The only arches were the triumphal arch at the end of the nave, the main
arcades, and the frames for windows and doorways.

These did not impinge upon one another, their size was a matter of
elementary calculation.

Gothic arches broke the simplicity and monotony of the semi-circular arch
that just played a minor role in the whole building

The entire structures were conceived as frameworks of arches that were

organised into coherent systems which reduced the structural functions of
walls to a minimum.

The sizes and shapes of these arches had to be compatible unlike

Romanesque arches, requiring a far greater flexibility in the relation between
the height and span.
 Introduction to Art
What is Art?
The expression or application of human creative skill and imagination,

typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works

to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

Elements of Art
Elements:

Texture

Color

Line

Value

Form

Shape

Space

Principles:
 Unity

Focal Point (or emphasis)

Repetition (or Rhythm)

Variety

Proportion

Balance

Movement

Contrast

Medieval Art: The Age of Faith

400 AD to 1400 AD

Rome Falls and the Church gains power

Introduction
The Middle Ages included the millennium from the 5 th to the 15th century,
roughly from the fall of Rome until the renaissance.

During its initial period, called the Dark Ages, after the death of the byzantine
Emperor Justinian in 565 until the reign of Charlemagne in 800, barbarians
destroyed what had taken 3,000 years to build.

Yet the Dark Ages were only part of the Middle Ages story, there were many
bright spots in art and architecture, from the splendor of the byzantine court
in Constantinople to the majesty of Gothic Cathedrals.

3 Major shifts occurred that had far-reaching effects on Western civilization:

Cultural leadership moved north from the Mediterranean to France,

Germany, and the British Isles.

Christianity triumphed over paganism and barbarism.

Emphasis shifted from the here-and-now to the hereafter, and with it

from the body as beautiful to the body as corrupt.

Since the Christian focus was on salvation for a glorious afterlife, interest in
realistically representing objects of the world disappeared.
 Nudes were forbidden, and even images of clothed bodies showed ignorance
of anatomy.

The Greco-Roman ideals of harmonious proportions and balance between the

body and mind ceased to exist. Instead, medieval artisans were interested
exclusively in the soul, especially in instructing new believers in church
dogma.

Art became the servant of the church. Theologians believed church members
would come to appreciate divine beauty through material beauty, and lavish
mosaics, paintings, and sculpture were the result.

Art - distinguishing characteristics

Flat, lack of environmental clues due to Oriental influence as well as
determination to avoid any resemblance to earlier pagan work.

Symbolic not realistic, figures meant not to remind one of earth but to
elevate persons thoughts from the earthly realm to the spiritual .

Collaborative efforts on Cathedrals, mosaics, etc.

Three periods of the MEDIEVAL ART

Byzantine Art

Romanesque

Gothic

Byzantine Art

Constantinople was close to Asia as well as to Greece, and

because of this proximity, Greek, Roman, and Asian art and
culture all influenced Byzantine artists.

Byzantine art featured very rich colors and heavily

outlined figures that appeared flat and stiff.
 Some of the worlds greatest art, in the form of mosaics, was
created during the 5th and 6th centuries in Turkish Byzantium
and its Italian capital, Ravenna.

Mosaics were intended to publicize the now official Christian

creed, so their subject was generally religion with Christ
shown as teacher and all powerful ruler.

Sumptuous grandeur, with halos spotlighting sacred figures

and shimmering gold backgrounds, characterized these
works.

Human figures were flat, stiff, and symmetrically placed,

seeming to float as if hung from pegs.
 Artisans had no interest in suggesting perspective or
volume.

Tall, slim human figures with almond-shaped faces, huge

eyes, and solemn expressions gazed straight ahead, without
the least hint of movement.

Roman Mosaics Byzantine Mosaics

Used opaque marble Used reflective glass

cubes cubes

Pieces had smooth flat Surfaces left uneven so

finish work sparkled

Colors limited due to Glowing glass in wide

use of natural stones range of colors

Typically found on floor Found on walls and

of private homes ceilings-especially
church dome and apse

Subjects were secular, Subjects were sacred,

like battles, games, etc like Christ as shepherd

Used minute pieces for Large cubes in stylized

realistic detail designs

Background Background was

 represented landscape abstract, sky-blue, then
gold

Roman Byzantine

Hagia Sophia

Commissioned by Emperor Justinian and designed by 2

mathematicians, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, the
Hagia Sophia is a completely innovative structure, recognized as
the climax of Byzantine architectural style.

3 football fields long, Hagia Sophia merged the vast scale of

Roman buildings with an Eastern mystical atmosphere. A
Byzantine contribution to engineering:

Pendentives (4 arches forming a square) supported a dome.

This structural revolution accounted for the lofty,
unobstructed interior with its soaring dome.

40 arched windows encircle the base of the dome, creating

the illusion that it rests on a halo of light.
 The Romanesque Period
1050-1200
With the Roman Catholic faith firmly established, a wave of
church construction began throughout feudal Europe.

Builders borrowed elements from Roman architecture, such

as rounded arches and columns.

Due to wooden roofs being prone to fire medieval artisans

began to roof churches with stone vaulting, barrel or groin
vaults resting on piers could span large opening with few
internal supports or obstructions.

Interiors were dark and somber because due to the weight of

the heavy stone roofs not many windows could be added.

The exteriors were plain except for sculptural relief around

the main portal. Most church-goers were illiterate, so
sculpture taught doctrine by telling stories in stone.
ILLUMINIATED MANUSCRIPTS
With hordes of pillagers looting and razing cities of the former Roman
empire, monasteries were all that stood between Western Europe and
total chaos. Here monks and nuns copied manuscripts, keeping alive
both the art of illustration in particular and Western civilization in
general.

The papyrus scroll used from Egypt to Rome was replaced by the
vellum (calfskin) or parchment (lambskin) codes, made of separate
pages bound at one side. Manuscripts were considered sacred objects
containing the work of god. They were decorated lavishly, so their
outward beauty would reflect their sublime contents. Covers were
made of gold studded with precious and semiprecious gems.

Until printing was developed in the 15th century, these manuscripts

were the only form of books in existence, preserving not only religious
teachings but also Classical literature.

Painters mainly worked on elaborate decorations for Bibles and Prayer

books

Elongated figures and elegant insignificant details are rendered with

so much care that they become the dominant feature.
Page from illuminater Gospel, early 15th century
Ethiopia, Lake Tana region
Wood, vellum, pigment; H. 16 1/2 in. (41.9 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1998 (1998.66)

Leaf from a Beatus Manuscript:

Christ in Majesty with Angels and the Angel of

God Directs Saint John to Write the Book of Revelation, ca. 1180
Spanish; Made in Burgos, Castile-Len
Tempera, gold, and ink on parchment,
metal leaf; 17 1/2 x 11 13/16 in. (44.4 x 30 cm)
Purchase, The Cloisters Collection,
Rogers and Harris Brisbane Dick Funds,
and Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1991 (1991.232.3)

Gothic Art / Height and Light

1200-1500
he Gothic Cathedral Medieval architectures greatest
triumph

The solid, heavy Romanesque structures were replaced with

structures of lightness and grace
 In Europe in the twelfth century, many people moved into towns. Stone
carvers and carpenters organized into guilds (unions), where apprentices
were taught by masters.

A wealthy merchant class, with religious faith led to the building of huge
cathedrals.

Developments in architecture

the pointed arch and the flying buttress, along with the use of the
vault allowed them to make taller buildings whose walls were
perforated with stain glass windows that changed the light to a rich,
glowing color and educated the illiterate with Biblical Stories being
reveled in glass.

Stain glass windows

Stain glass windows

replaced frescos
to instruct illiterate
masses
Arches
Arches (formed by narrow stone ribs extended
from tall pillars)
Ribbed vault (ceiling supported by pointed
arches)

Giotto
Late Gothic Period 1266 or 7-1337
Giotto was an artist that formed a bridge between the Medieval
times and the Renaissance. He moved toward realism in his
depiction of figures and used naturalistic backgrounds (his skies
were blue). He led the way to a new manner of painting that
transformed the flat surface into what appears to be an open
space filled with people, see The Kiss of Judas.

Art of the Middle Ages Review:

Throughout the middle Ages, in a succession of 3 styles, art was

concerned with religion. The main forms of art and architecture
associated with each style were:

Byzantine Romanesque Gothic

Art Mosaics, icons Frescoes, Stained glass, more
stylized natural sculpture
sculpture
Architect Central-dome Barrel-vaulted Pointed-arch
ure church church cathedral
Example Hagia Sophia St. Sernin Chartres
Date 532-37 Begun 1080 1194-1260
Place Constantinopl Toulouse, Chartres, France
e, Turkey France
Romanesque vs. Gothic

Romanesque Gothic
Emphasis Horizontal Vertical
Elevation Modest height soaring
Layout Multiple units Unified, unbroken
space
Main trait Rounded arch Pointed arch
Support system Piers, walls Exterior buttresses
Engineering Barrel and groin Ribbed groin vaults
vaults
Ambiance Dark, solemn Airy, bright
Exterior simple, severe Richly decorated with
sculpture

Culture
Culture is the entire way of life for a group of people
(including both material and symbolic elements).
It is a lens through which one views the world and is passed
from one generation to the next.
It is what makes us human.
Culture refers to the total lifestyle of a people, including all
of their ideas, values, knowledge, behaviors, and material
objects that they share
Culture shapes and guides peoples perception of reality
Culture refers to the universal human capacity to classify,
and communicate their experiences symbolically.

What makes up culture?

Sociologists see culture as consisting of two different
categories:
 material culture - any physical object to which
we give social meaning
symbolic culture - the ideas associated with a
cultural group

Material World
Material Culture
The physical or tangible (see, touch) that members of a society
make, use, and share
Includes all those things that humans make or adapt from the
raw stuff of nature: houses, cuisine, jewelry, art, etc.
Non-Material Culture or Symbolic
The abstract or intangible human creations of society that
influences peoples behavior - Language, beliefs, values, rules of
behavior, family patterns, political systems
is a group's way of thinking (including its beliefs, values) and
doing (its common pattern of behavior, including language and
other forms of interaction)

Material Culture:

Symbolic Culture:
Culture determines
Food we eat
Clothing
Music
Games we play
How to express emotions
What is good or bad
What is high or low culture (if any)
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is a universal feature of human social life
Culture is cumulative
Culture is learned
Culture is shared

Society vs. Culture

Society refers to a group of people who are relatively self-
sufficient and who share a common territory and culture
Members of the society preserve and transmit it from one
generation to the next (through literature, art, video
recording and other means of expression)
Culture refers to that peoples traditions, customs, and
behaviors. It includes ideas, values, and artifacts
Sharing a similar culture helps to define the society to which
we belong

Ethnic Group or Culture Group

The cultural heritage, or aspects of culture, that a group
shares and attempts to hand down from one generation to
the next through learning.

Cultural Universals
Customs and practices that occur across all societies
Elements of Culture
Language
Shelter
Clothing
Economy
Religion
Education
Values
Climate
Government/Laws
Recreation/Entertainment

12 Aspects of Culture or Ethnicity

1. History - time period and conditions under which a group migrated or

immigrated.
2. Social Status Factors education, occupation, income
3. Social Group Interaction Patterns: Intra-group (within group
relations) and Inter-group (between-group relations)
4. Value Orientation standards by which members of a culture judge
their personal actions and those of others.
5. Language and Communication - Verbal and Nonverbal
6. Family Life Processes gender roles, family dynamics
7. Healing Beliefs and Practices attitudes and beliefs about health.
8. Religion spiritual beliefs and practices
9. Art and Expressive Forms art, music, stories, dance, etc.
10. Diet/Foods preferred food eaten by groups.
11. Recreation activities, sports for leisure, etc.
12. Clothing types, styles, and extent of body coverings.
Components of Culture

One of the most important functions of symbolic culture is it

allows us to communicate through signs, gestures, and
language.
Signs (or symbols), such as a traffic signal or product logo,
are used to meaningfully represent something else.
Gestures are the signs that we make with our body, such as
hand gestures and facial expressions; it is important that
these gestures also carry meaning.

Non-Verbal Gestures

Finally language, a system of communication using vocal

sounds, gestures, and written symbols, is probably the most
significant component of culture because it allows us to
communicate.

Language is so important that many have argued that it

shapes not only our communication but our perceptions of
how we see things as well.