plates which would tend to slip and absorb shock load of short duration is such that energy input,
shock load of short duration is such that
energy.
Minimum twin-bundled conductor sepa-
ration is desirable to limit the increase of
phase tensions during short circuits. How-
ever, in our case it was determined that a
minimum conductor separation, on the order
of 2 inches, was not warranted because of
additional conductor heating, conductor
abrasion, and a more difficult installation
technique. Of course the ideal method to
eliminate shock forces, as noted in the
paper, is a single conductor per phase. The
handling techniques for the single large-
diameter conductor required is the limiting
factor of this method.
Mr. Essel raises the question of why
tower side-sway does not produce any
tower base strain on Figs. 5, 6, and 7. Since
the principal stress was along the axis of
the bus, strain gages were not placed to
check stresses produced by tower side-sway.
The tower side-sway deflection was meas-
ured at the top center of the tower. The
symmetrical nature of 3-phase fault cur-
rents produces symmetrical magnetic forces
and phase conductor deflections in a manner
which tends to cancel the forces that could
cause tower side-sway. The maximum
tower side-sway deflection was less than
1/8 inch, and this is of little concern when
it is known that a man at the top of the
tower caused a tower-side-sway deflection
of 6 inches by swinging in rhythm with the
natural frequency of the tower.
Mr. Essel notes the out-of-phase condition
of phase tension and tower deflection in
Figs. 5 and 6. After obtaining a clear
picture of the instrumentation locations,
the difference in phase between tower
deflection and conductor tension may be
explained as follows: The nature of the
(r LIIL
ong wa le ines mI4ternatingE .turrent
_ A I .
with Reactor Compensation
Summary: The limitationis imposed by
capacitance of long cable lines upon their
power transmission capabilities are gener-
ally kniown. Howvever, the limited relief
affor(led by shunt inductive reactors is
not fully appreciated. Quantitative evalua-
tions of valrious modes of such compenlsation
are prov ided in graphs and tables for a
widrag ,flnelnts.heavnae
of high-voltage d-c transmission, as an
alternative system, are' also outlined With
emphasis onl developments necessary to
improve its practicability,
* IMITATIONS of the charging
i current requirements of long high-
voltage a-c cables upon the availability of
JUNE 1962
Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 10,2 at 19:57 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
energy input, higher stress, and greater
it is applied and removed from the tower
before the tower inertia allows it to move.
Actually, a period of high acceleration is
occurring during the short duration period
of the shock force. At the peak of the
shock force, the tower has reached maxi-
mum acceleration and tower inertia carries
the tower to the point of maximum de-
flection. When the tower starts to
deflect the conductor tension is relieved
and consequently is a minimum when the
tower deflection is maximum on the inward
swing. Tower base strain is in phase with
the tower deflections, which is normal.
Mr. Essel makes a comparison between
Figs. 5 and 6 with apparent paradoxical
conclusions. The oscillogram traces shown
in these figures are mechanical subjects,
however, one electrical trace of the C
phase fault current was included to provide
synchronizing the mechanical oscillograms
with the electrical oscillograms of the type
shown in Fig. 25. The authors believe
the erroneous deduction was caused by the
omission of the influence of fault current
crest values associated with A and B
phase. A check of the values in Table I
test CVI-3, C30-1, and C30-2 may change
the logic and conclusion.
The authors agree with Mr. Essel that
there is a correlation between the crest of
the offset portion of the current wave and
maximum phase tensions. However, it
should be noted that a considerable phase
tension increase can be obtained when
there is no current offset; see Fig. 7.
As was noted by Mr. Essel, the force-
time curve of the shock force applied to
the tower is an all-important factor in
the calculation of peak tower stress. Shock
forces of longer duration would cause more
rtential underground bottleneck and to
or
Direct Current
J. J. DOUGHERTY C. S. SCHIFREEN
MEMBER AIEE FELLOW AIEE
thermal ratings of such underground lines
for transmission of large blocks of power,
' .
both real and reactive, are well known.
While this has not yet become a serious
lproblem in the United States, the spectre
o)f fewer and higher capability aerial
transmission lines and of associated cable
lines of greater lengths is arising out of
the rapidly vanishing availability of
rights-of-way and increasingly congested
and extending urban and suburban areas.-
System planning engineers need to
be provided with tools that will facilitate
evaluation of various solutions to the pO-
Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Gable Lines
tower deflections. The maximum tower
deflection that may be caused by a shock
load appears to be twice the deflection
caused when the peak value of the shock
force is applied statically. This condition
will be reached when the force is applied
instantaneously and allowed to remain
constant at the peak value indefinitely.
This action is sometimes described as a
step-change function. None of our tests
approached this condition. The forces
in our tests were applied rather quickly
and removed in a relatively short time.
The area under the force-time curve, which
is a measure of its energy, is also small.
It is true that within the limits determined
in this report, impact loading is not a
factor in design. However, impact loads
should always be considered since some
requirements of tower design may extend
beyond the present limits investigated.
Mr. Essel interprets Fig. 19 correctly.
There are two points where the dynamic
change in phase tension is the same. The
point with minimum spacer separation is of
academic interest only because of the
hardware and clearance problems in the
real situation.
In regard to Mr. Essel's final conclusions,
the authors comment as follows:
1. The equation developed in Appendix I
of the paper works within the accuracy
required by using the average force cal-
culated with rms values of fault current.
It is our opinion that the off-set current
time duration is too small to be of real
consequence.
3. This conclusion is a major one. A
program has been initiated to carry out the
investigation on an International Business
Machines Corporation 1620 computer.
simplify the appraisal of megawatt (mw)
and megavar (mvar) transmission ca-
pabilities
(EHV) cableof such extra-high-voltage
lines.long,The solution to this
perplexing, though fortunately rather
long-term,
directions:
problem appears to lie in two
1. Distribution of shunt inductive reactors
along the cable line in order to compensate
for charging current requirements with a-c
operation.
2. Elimination of the charging current
limitation by adopting d-c operation.
The purpose of this paper S to analyze
an
facets of the two choices and point to
some requiired areas of near-term research
and development.
______________________
Paper 62-59, recommended by the AJBEE Insulated
Conductors Committee and approved by the AIEE
at theia Operationse Depatment for presentation
. 2Octeberur
January 27 , 1962. Manuscraiptlefo
printing December 1, 1961.
J. J. DOUGHECRTY and C. S. ScHIFRE:EN are both
Pa.
lt aepi lcrcConay hldlha
169
 A - NO COMPENSATION A
/B - ONE REACTOR IN CENTER
//D - TWO REACTORS
C-ONE REACTOR OFF CENTER B
E - THREE REACTORS O.5kB
1.0 s / / zF- FOUR REACTORS o0 k 0.5k
(r 0.81 Y /REACTORS
G- FIVE C
0.67kB
0.6 \0.67k 033k

w 5kB
lO\,t \ t | \ \_B 05kB
v 0.6 E :5
M
0.4 F X kB
5 0.5k 005k 5k
50.2
0.17kB
0J3 I0.33kB 033k
0.33kB
03k
0.17kB
cr ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~G
00 80 2o 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
o_I_l_I_18.0
7.0
s
F--
I 1 _ 5 0.125kB
.25k
0.25kB
OL25k I
0.25kB
0
0.25k _
0.25kB 0.125kB
PER UNIT LINE LENGTH (k)
Fig. 1. Line performance with unity pf load, pu values Fig. 2. Circuit arrangementsof compensating reactors

The Compensated A-C Line ting these factors is explained in the plotting on a per-unit (pu) basis both the
Appendix of reference 1. power delivered to the receiving ends and
In a previous paper,' in which one of the lengths of the cable lines.
the present authors collaborated, atten- Compensation for Maimm Power One pu receiving-end power in Fig. 1
tion was directed to the charging current Transmission at Unity Power is the equivalent of delivering the thermal
limitations in operating long high-voltage Factor rating of the cable to a unity pf load. One
cable lines without shunt reactors. Bar- In calculating the effect of adding shunt pu line length, also referred to as critical
ring any unforeseen development of dis- Ind racutmg to lof cabe ine a
length, is the cable length at which the
tributed shunt inductance in the cable nductve reactors to a og cab total charging current equals the current
structure itself, the solution to the prob- there are numerous variables, such as rating of the cable.
lem of compensating the charging current cable thermal rating and length of cable Arrangement A in Fig. 2 represents the
requirements with a-c operation will in- ' ' ' tf uncompensated cable line, whose per-
volve careful analysis of the relative reactors; and power factor (pf) of the formance already has been shown in Fig
magnitude and number of lumped shunt load to be supplied by the cable, which lead 2 of reference 1. Arrangements B and C
inductive reactors required and their to many possible solutions. The over- represent partially compensated cable
strategiclcations.Thispaperpresents all effect is evident in . .. . lines, utilizing only one reactor. In ar-
graphs and tabulations which should gn Fig. 1, based on supplying unity pf rangement B, the compensating reactor is
facilitate such system planning analyses. load with maximum real power for the located at midpoint of the line, while in
The reactor sizes and locations have arrangements of the reactors in Fig. 2. C, the location is two-thirds of the cable-
been chosen, primarily, to permit maxi- Fig. 1 shows the extent to which the line length from the sending end Ar-
mum transmission of real power, which
thermal rating of a cable system is avail-
alfopwetrnmsinouiy rangements D, E, F, and G represent fully
not always be techniquesmay
the desired result. able for power transmission to unity pf ragmnsDE,FadCreeetful
may
Howeve,nthswame besu.
However, the same techniques .may be** of
loads as a function of line length and mode compensated cable lines with symmetrical
applied in determining proper and compensation. It provides a means of distribution two, three, four, and five
of
location of reactors when transmission of evaluating, in general terms, the effective- reactors, respectively. The reactors,
relatively large blocks of reactive power is ness of various reactor arrangements by rated in mvars, are given in pu kB, where
also an important consideration.
The term "full compensation" is used 450
to define the arrangement when the 220KV LINE
mvars consumed by all of the shunt in-
ductive reactors are equal to the total 350 345K UNE
charging mvars of the cable line. With E
under-compensation-where total mvar 300
rating is less than the total charging et 50

mvars of the cable line-the uncompen- 5

sated portion of the cable's charging 1 k\
mvars must be absorbed by the system at g F l l\t 8 \ \ 1\
either or both terminals. 5 i\1 \ I; I 1
The data given inthis paperdonot takez Or !I ' ' I 'I\
into account the series impedance or>i / I\ \ X \l
shunt conductance of the cable line. h o< K, BDl- t_
While neglect of these factors may intro- .,1_ , ' \t \t\,{ ,\
duce some error in lines, 50 or more miles FIg. 3. Performance e 40) e 0oo; o o0 240 2810
in length, the results are unlikely to be of 220-kv and 345-
affected appreciably. The basis for omit- kv lines LINE LENGTH IN MILES

170 Dougherty, Schifreen -Long Cable Lines JUNE 1962

Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 10,2 at 19:57 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
kis the line length in pu values and B rep-
resents a reactor that will absorb the
total charging current of a critical-length
line. Note that B in mvars is, by defini-
tion, numerically equal to the line's ther-
mal rating in megavolt-amperes (mva).
The practical significance of the curves
in Fig. 1 can best be illustrated by show-
ing how they may be used in an engineer-
ing analysis of the performance of long
EHV cable lines when using 345-kv 2,000-
MCM (thousand-circular-mil) pipe-type
cable, having a thermal rating of 440 mva,
shown in Fig. 16 of reference 1. This cable
system has a 3-phase reactive power
charging requirement of 18.3 mvar per
mile, and, therefore, a critical length of 24
miles-440 mva divided by 18.3 mvar per
mile. Fig. 3 is a replot of Fig. 1 for this
cable system and also for a similar 220-kv
system, with power transmission capa-
bilities in mw, plotted against line
lengthsinmiles. Thecomparablethermal
rating00 CMca
ofth20v
would be 300 mva with a 3-phase charg-
ing reactive requirement of 8.6 mvar per
mile and a critical length of 35 miles.
If 12 miles of the 345-kv cable were
being installed, curve A (dashed line) in
Fig. 3 shows that it could deliver only 381
mw-86.6% of its rating-to the load with-
out inductive corrections. The charg-
ing reactive power of this cable is 220
mvar and, with no shunt reactors and a
unity pf load, the 220 mvar have to be
absorbed at the sending end of the line.
This 220 mvar in quadrature with the 381
mw equals the 440-mva thermal limita-
tion of the line, which is described as being
"sending-end limited." Thus, while
cable line with lengths up to several miles
has negligible charging reactive power
requirements, so that its real power output
is limited only by its thermal rating-
in this case, 440 mw-the output to a
unity pf load over a line only 12 miles in
length suffers reduction of more than 13%
in its real-power transmission capability
If a single reactor, equal to 0.5 kB or
110 mnvar, is added in the center of this
345-kv cable line, curve B of Fig. 3 shows
that the permissible receiving-end power
is now 426 mw or 96.8% of rating. The
220 mvar is now absorbed, half at the
sending-end and half at the reactor, and
the line is carrying its rated 440 mva, con-
sisting of 426 mw in quadrature with the
110 mvar at these two points. Adding
additional reactors, curves E, F, and G,
would further increase the permissible
power transmission, but this may not
be economically justified for so short a
cable line,
Table I, which shows the results of such
analysis for the same type of cable on a
12-mile, 24-mile, an 8ml andie
48-mleline,thus
JUNE: 196;2
Authorized licensd use limted to: IE Xplore. Downlade on May 10,2 at 19:57 UTC from IE Xplore. Restricon aply.
reveals that additional reactors may be-
come justifiable as line length increases,
because greater power transmission capa-
bilities may be realized.
Of particular interest in Fig. 3 is the
crossover point in the curves for a given
mode of compensation. In the un-
compensated lines-curves marked A-
both the 220-kv and 345-kv cable system
can deliver only 248 mw when the line
length is 19.8 miles. For a cable line
longer than that, the 220-kv system has
the higher transmission capability. This
same 248-mw crossover value reoccurs
for all modes of compensation shown, but
it occurs at increasingly longer line
lengths.
The economic break-even point be-
tween the two cable systems may be at a
shorter line length than the crossover
points in Fig. 3, since the higher voltage
cable system with the same conductor
size is more expensive to install and
requires more reactive compensation.
For example, if a 40-mile-long cable sys-
tem were being installed, both the 220-ky
and 345-kv lines could deliver about 245
mw with arrangement D, but the 345-kv
line (k =1.67) would rqiea total of
733 mvar in compensating reactors (0.5
kB at each end) compared with 342 mvar
for the 220-kv line (k= 1.14).
Since D appears to be the only prac-
tical arrangement for compensating sub-
marine cables, Fig. 3 would appear to be
at variance with Fig. 7 of reference 2,
which shows the annual cost-per-kw of
transmission of a 220-kv cable, leveling
off at 95 kilometers (59 miles). At this
distance in Fig. 3, curve D, the trans-
mission capability of 220-kv pipe-type
cable is down to 159 mw (53% of its ther-
mal rating), and the percentage would be
even lower for an oil-filled cable. Re-
duction in rating of this magnitude must
necessarily result in higher cost-per-kw of
power transmitted for such distances.
In Figs. 1 and 3, curves B and D coin-
cide, but it must be emphasized that this
pertains only to a unity pf load. With a
lagging pf load, the 0.5-kB reactor in the
center would be more effective than those
on the ends, as will be shown later. Also
of special interest is curve C, which repre-
sents the optimum size and location
of a single reactor for maximum power
transfer in one direction only. For the
12-mile 345-ky cable line discussed above,-
curve C indicates a power transfer in Fig.
3 of 434 mw, or 98.6%o of rating, as com-
pared with 426 mw for curve B. How-
ever, if the power flow were reversed, the
maximum power transfer would be re-
duced to 415 mw, and,in alonger line, this
hs
vraini
varation i
oe rnmsincp-
power tansmissin capa-
Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Cable Lines
bility becomes much more pronounced.
See Table I.
Summarizing the foregoing analysis, it
may be stated generally that, whenever a
unity pf load is supplied over a long cable
line of given thermal rating, power trans-
mission capability is increased with in-
creasing degree of compensation and ex-
tent of distributed compensation along
the line.
There were no reactive interchanges
between cable and system at the receiving
end of the cable line in operating condi-
tions thus far considered, but the next sec-
tion will be devoted to the influence of
mvar interchanges at either or both ends.
Effect of Reactive Power
Transmission on Real Power
Transmission Capability
In considering how reactive power inter-
cnesatereceiving end of a cable
line will affect its transmission capability
of real power, a marked distinction exists
renpowerformane offlycm
between the performance of fully om-
P
compensated and partially compensated
ones. In the former, the cable itself can-
not supply reactive power to the external
systems. Thus, any mvar delivery at one
line end must be matched by an equal
mvar input at the other end, with a result-
ing reduction in real-power transmission
capability. Both uncompensated and
undercompensated lines obviously must
supply mvars from either or both cable
ends. The manner in which these fac-
tors increase or decrease the real-power
transmission capabilities is shown in Figs.
4 and 5, which are in effect extrapolations
from Fig. 4 of reference 1 for various
compensation arrangements.
In first approaching Figs. 4 and 5, it is
desirable to describe the significance of
their parameters. The ordinate scales'
"per-unit receiving-end power" has al-
Table l. 345-Kv Cable, 440-Mva Thermal
Rating, Unity Pf Load
Maximum Receiving-End Power Output
for Various Line Lengths
12 Miles 24 Miles 48 Miles
cirrcnuit (k=0-5) (k='1.0) (k}=2.0)
ment Pu Mw Pu Mw Pu Mw[
A.0.866. .381. 0 .. ..0 0O
B.0.968. .426. .0.86i6. .38i.. .0
c.0.986. .434. . .0.943. .4.... .0.745. .3280
Cl*. .0943. .41t5. ...7865 328.. .0 0
E.:0.992 .437. .0.968. .426.. .0.866. .381
F .0.996. .438. .0.986. .434. .0.943. .45
-
* Cl represents
line with reactorpower flow in reverse
arrangement C. direction over
171
 l.0 /REDUCED POWER TRANSMISSION LEVELS Each deviation (such as 0.3 pu mvars)
cr m_ FPERMISSIBLE PER UNIT actually represents a superimposed trans-
w _- _- Dq_ sPmVARIATION IN MVAR mission of reactive power over the cable
R_0.8 -__ DELIVERED FOR A line-ither in the same direction (+0.3),
20. \ 8s\1 GIVEN POWER or in the opposite direction (-0.3) to the
z0z TRANSMISSION real power flow. In Fig. 5, these devia-
___ ~ ___tions represent directly the pu mvars
z i \ \ ffi \ \ l \to X. \ \
z
5 \ N \ \ \ r @ \ \ \
transmitted over the cable line from one
external system to the other, that is, posi-
m 0.4
0.4 \ \ / \- \ \<-<w \ \ \ - i- tive from the sending-end system to the
tr: \ i\ \ \to I \2 \ \ {\ \ receiving-end svstem, and negative in the
z_ opposite direction.

Z@ 0.2 - I__ II\ _ \ \ AFULLY COMPENSATED CABLE LINES

W
0-
The significance of Fig. 5 may be out-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 OB .0 1.2 l4 .6 1.8 2.0 A lined by considering a 34a-ky 440-mva
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 C thermally rated cable line of 24 miles
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 B (k= 1.0 pu length) and with compensa-
0 0. 0.8 Q .0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 R0.6 0.7
LNT
tion in accordance with arrangement D-
PER UNIT MVAR DELIVERED WITH MAXIMUM POWER TRANSMISSON that iS with a 220-mvarline.reactor (0.5 kB)
FROM EACH END OF CABLE IN ARRANGEMENT A AND "B at each end of the cable
FROM SENDING END OF CABLE ONLY IN ARRANGEMENT 'C Maximum real transmission
power

Fig. 4. Permissible variation in reactive power interchange at line terminals for a given power capability is seen on the uppermost curve
transmission; undercompensated lines in Fig. 5 for the line arrangement under
consideration to be point P (0.866-pu
power, or 381 mw), corresponding to 1.0-
ready been defined as the ratio of the real Fig. 5 (arrangements D, E, F, and G) pu line length on the D abscissa scale.
power, delivered by the cable into the requires only one set of abscissas compar- Since no reactive power transmission is
system at the receiving end of the line, able to the upper set of abscissas in Fig. available for delivery to the receiving-end
to the thermnal rating of the cable. 4. Since the reactors in arrangements system, the 381 mw are delivered at unity
In order to generalize the curves in D, E, F, and G fully compensate the pf.
Fig. 4 (arrangements A, B, and C), two charging reactive power of the cable, no Fig. 6(A) shows the pattern of real
sets of abscissas are established. The reactive power is available to be supplied and reactive power flow for this unity pf
upper set of three abscissa scales defines from the cable to the external system or operation. The two 220-mvar reactors at
the length of the cable lines in "per-unit systems. the line terminals consume the cable's 440
line length (k)" where unity value of k The curves marked 40.1 to 0.9 in Fig. mvar of charging reactive power, resulting
is the "critical length" for the cable sys- 4 show the reduced levels of real-power in zero reactive power flow at the center
sem. The lower abscissa scale gives a transmission which are available at these and 0.5 pu mvar (0.5 kB = 220 mvar) at
means of determining the magnitude of indicated deviations in reactive power each end of the cable. Since the thermal
mvars which must be delivered by the interchanges at the cable-line terminals. rating of the cable allows no more than
cable to the external system or systems
for the condition of maximum real-power
transmission over the cable line (upper-
most curve in Fig. 4), and is expressed as .0
RANSMISSI ON LEVELS
a ratio to the thermal rating of the cable _PEMISSIBLE PER UNIT
line. VARIATION IN MVARS
The lower abscissa in Fig. 4 shows the 2 08
magnitude of pu mvars, which must beD
delivered by the cable from each terminal z
of the cable line to the external system 06 L \_X 1_X
at its termination for maximum real- o
power transmission in arrangements A and
B; but which, in arrangement C, must be i .4
delivered only from the sending-end of the 8 04
cable line to the sending-end system. \l
This accounts for the uncompensated F ltl i[\L &
portion of the charging reactive powerD02\o 1\\\\ \ \
of the cable. The plus and minus signs ff l \-~ \
on the pu mvar quantities in the lower L__ 1___11
0 0.4 0.6 oh
|R1_
101e.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 D
abscissas are in accordance with the con- 0.2
vention used in this paper that reactive 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 F
power flowF in the same direction as real-
power flow is positive, and that reactive
power flow in the direction opposite to the
0 0.8 1.6
PRUI IELNT
2.4
PR UI
3.2 4.0

IELNT
4.8 5.6
k
6.4 7.2 8.0 G

flow of real power is negative. Fig. 5. Same as Fig. 4, except fully compensated lines

172 Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Cable Lines JUNi! 1962

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 K L M N Fig. 6. Typical dis- end to the receiving-end systenm, only 26-1
0.87 MW- 087MW tribution of reactive mw (295 mva at 90% pf) could be deliv-
NO MVAR 087 NO MVAR power Aow within ered when 132 mvar were to be delivered
I W
I fully compensated from the sending- to receiving-end system.
MVAR 0.5 08 0.5R 05 l Similarly, the zero power point reduces the
A-A unit) pf lodd delivered mva to 220 mva at 0% pf.
0.87 MWVA B-A load with lag- Table II illustrates the reactive power
ging reactive com- distribution on this 24-mile 345-kv 440-
K L M N ponent mva cable line at points K, L, M, and N
06 MW x 0.6 MW in Fig. 6, and shows the maximum mag-
0.3 MVAR ~ 1| (b) 0.3 MVAR- nitudes of real power and total mva out-
MVAR
5 -0.2 0M6 0.8
MVAR
put to the receiving-end system at pf vary-
ing from unity to zero, lead and lag.
Tables III, IV, and V tabulate the
capability of cable lines with various de-
grees of compensation (arrangements A
through G of Fig. 2) at varying pf. All
440 mva over any portion of the cable, the deviation, and the cable would be sending- quantities of real, reactive, and apparent
real power component is limited to 381 end limited, power are in pu, and the tables can be
mw (0.87 pu) at the cable ends. Such a apli)zled to any cable system bv setting I1.0
For the same 345-kv cable line, when pp toany cale te setting
line would be termed both sending-end required to deliver a receiving-end load of the line and substituting the actual
and receiving-end limited. 0.5 pu mvar, the real power transmission critical length of the line equal to 1.0-pu
Fig. 6(B) illustrates operation when the capability would be reduced to zero, k. Table III represents a line where k
cable line is required to supply 0.3 pu point R in Fig. 5, since the reactive power equals 0.5, while k equals 1.0 in Table
mvars (132 mvar) to the system at the flow at the receiving end of the cable would IV, and 2.0 in Table V.
receiving end of the line (+0.3 deviation be equal to its thermal rating. This
in Fig. 5). The magnitude of permissible makes the line receiving-end limited at
real-power transmission is obtained by zero power with 220 mvar delivered to the PARTIALLY COMPENSATED AND
moving from point P down the 1.0 pu receiving system. Reversal of this mag- UNCOMPENSATED CAPLE LINES
length abscissa to its intersection with the nitude of mvar interchange between sys- The lower abscissas in Fig. 4 show
0.3 curve at point Q (0.6 pu power, or tems, moreover, would permit no power that, in cases of arrangements A and
264 mw). This delivery of 0.3 pu mvar transmission and the cable would be send- B, maximum real power can be delivered
to the receiving system is, by convention, ing-end limited. to the receiving system only when both re-
a plus deviation from the zero mvar The conclusion then is that a fully com- ceiving- and sending-end systems get a
permissible with maximum real power pensated cable line with reactors at both definite and equal amount of mvars from
(Fig. 5, point P), and results in a signifi- ends, with or without additional reactors the cable. Unity pf load is not the con-
cant change in reactive power flow at the at intermediate points, delivers maximum dition for maximum real-power trans-
ends of the cable. The total reactive real power to a unity pf load. However, mission, as prevailed with fully com-
power component of the total mva at when reactive power also is to be deliv- pensated arrangements.
the receiving end of the cable will be ered, the real power which may be trans- In Fig. 1, note that arrangement B,
0.8-pu mvar (+0.3 pu for the load added mitted over the cable line suffers a greater with only one reactor, 50% compensation,
to +0.5 for the receiving-end reactor), reduction than would be expected from allows the same maximum value of real
or 352 mvar. the simple quadrature relation of the real power delivered for a given line length as
Similarly, the +0.3 pu superimposed and reactive components of the load de- permissible with arrangement D, with
delivered reactive power added to the livered to the receiving system. While two reactors each of same size as in
-0.5 pu, which would otherwise flow at 381 mw (381 mva at unity pf) could be arrangement B, giving full compensation.
the sending end of the cable as in Fig. delivered when no reactive power was This is also evident in Table I, showing
6(A), gives a cable sending-end reactive delivered over the cable from the sending- 426, 381, and 0 mw for the 0.5-, 1.0-, and
flow of -0.2 pu reactive flow, or 88 mvar
delivered from the cable to the 220-mvar
reactor, leaving 132 mvar to be supplied Table ll. 345-Kv Cable, 440-Mva Thermal Rating, 24 Miles Long (k=1.0)
from the sending-end system to the re-
actor. The cable in Fig. 6(B) is seen to be Transmission Capabilities Mvar at Indicated Points
receiving-end limited, and the real-power Pu Load, -_-_-_ -
transmission capability is reduced 30% Mvar Pu Power Mw Mva Load, Pf K L M N
from the 381-mw capability at unity pf 0.5. 0. 0.00220 .0 . +220... 0.. +440... +220
to 264mw in order to transmit 132 mvar 0.4.. L . 0O436.i92 .261. 0.O736. .L.+176.. - 44...+396. +176
from the sending system to the receiving 0.2..::G.0::::Z4.::314.::326:::::0.963..::G-:::+ 88....:-i32::::+308::::+ 88
system, equivalent to a delivered load of 0.1o. 0.80.352.355.0...O992 . + 44. i-76. .+264.. + 44
295 mva at 9v0% lagging pf . ^ A . O . 0.1
0 .. 0.866. .3
81. ....3
81. .0O.0.
..1 .. -O..220
.. +220...
0.80.352 .355 -0..O.992 . - 44...-264...+176...- 440
Obviously, if the reactive power trans- 0.2. .L.0O.714.314.326.0.963. .L.- 88.. -308.... +132.... - 88
misiSson requirements were reversed, the 0.3.E.
0.4. .. E.0. 60 .192.
A.0..O436. 264 .296. 0. O894. E .-132...
..261.0O.736.A. .A.-i76. ........ 88...-132
-352... ++ 44.... -178
through reactive power flow would be 0.5D... OD.0 0. .220 .0 D . . -220.. -440.... 0.. -220
opposite to that of the real-power flow Plu1s Sign ( +) indiCateS reaCtiVe flow in same direction as power flow while minus Sign (-) indiCateS reaCtiVe
and would be represented by -0.3 cable; Point M, rCeeving end Of Cable; and poin6tN, receivng-endjn edsystem. OtL d
JUNE 1962 Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Gable Lines 173

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 2.0-unit-length lines for both arrange- Similarly, arrangements A and D have points in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 shows that they
ments. However, these line lengths with identical maximum real-power trans- indicate identical real-power levels for
arrangement B are seen in Table III, IV, mission capabilities of 0.97, 0.87, and 0 pu arrangement A in Fig. 4, if the indicated
and V to have maximum real-power trans- at line lengths equivalent to k =0.5, 1.0, 0.5-pu mvars in the lower abscissa scale
mission capabilities of 0.99, 0.97, and and 2.0, respectively, but they occur at are delivered to each terminal.
0.87 pu at specific lagging pf of 0.99, 0.97, specific lagging pf for A and at unity pf for It is thus evident that if real-power
and 0.87, respectively. These pu values D. This is further illustrated by com- transmission capability is the chief crite-
of maximum real-power transmission paring points P, Q, and R in Figs. 4 and 5. nion and the systems at the cable line ter-
capabilities are identical with the maxi- In Fig. 5, these points have already been minals can absorb large magnitudes of re-
mum capabilities of arrangement E, but, discussed in connection with a line with active power, the partially compensated
in this fully compensated arrangement, arrangement D compensation and 1.0-pu arrangements B and C warrant careful
the maximums occur at unity pf. line length. Comparison between these evaluation in comparison with the fully

Table Ill. Pu Transmission Capability of 0.5-Pu Length Lines

Circuit Arrangements
A B C D E P G
Load
Mvar Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pf

1.0 ...0 ..1.0 .0 .... 0 ..1.0 ..0 *.*.* . s ...... * . *.. * * * ..* .* * .* ..* .. .. .

0.9375... .0.35. .1.0 . .0.35.... .0.35. .1.0 .0. 35. .. * * .. *.. * .* ..* ..* ..* * ... *.. *.. *... 0 .0.94.0O
0.9166.... .0.40. .1.0 .0.40.... .0.40.A..0 .0.40 ... * .*... * ..** * * * * .. .0 ..0.92. .0 ... .0.20. .0.94. .0.21
0.875 .... .0.48. .1.0 .0.48 .....0.48. .1.0 .0.48 ... * ..*.* * * * 0 .0.87. .0 .. .0. 29. .0.92. .0.32.. .0.35. .0.94. .0.37
0.833 .... .0.55. .1.0 ..0.55.... .0.55.A..0 .0.55... .0 .0.83. .0 ..*..*..* 0. 29. .0.88. .0.33.. .0.40. .0.92. .0.43... .0.44. .0.94. .0.47
0.800 .... .0.60. .1.0 .0.60 .....0.60. .1.0 .0. 60.. .0.26. .0.84. .0.31 ... * .*..*... .0.38. .0.89. .0.37... .0.47. .0.93. .0.51 ....0.51.-0.95.-0.54
0.75 ... .0.66. .1.0 .0.66.... .0.66.A..0 .0.66... .0.40. .0.85. .0.47 .. .0 .0.75. .0 ... .0.48. .0.89..0.54... .0.55. .0.93. .0.59... .0.58. .0.95. .0.61
0.60 .. ..0.80. .1.0 .0.80.... .0.80. .1.0 .0.80... .0.64. .0.88. .0.73.. .0.53. .0.80. .0.66... .0.69. .0.91. .0.76.. .0.73. .0.94. .0.78....0.75. .0.96. .0.78
0.50 ... .0.87. .1.0 .0.87.... .0.87. .1.0 .0.87... .0.75. .0.90. .0.83.. .0.66. .0.8,3. .0.80... .0.78. .0.93..0.84... .0.81. .0.95..0.86.. .0.83. .0.97. .0.87
0.40 .. ..0.92._1.0 .0.92... .0.92.A..0 .0.92... .0.82. .0.91. .0.90... .0.76. .0.86. .0.88... .0.85. .0.94. .0.90... .0.88. .0.97. .0.91... .0.89. .0.98. .0.91
0.25 .. ..0.97. .1.0 .0.97.... .0.97. .1.0 .0.97... .0.91. .0.94. .0.97... .0.87. .0.90. .0.97.. .0.93. .0.96. .0.97... .0.94. .0.97. .0.97... .0.95. .0.98. .0.97
0.20 .. ..0.95. .0.97. .0.98... .0.98. .1.0 .0.98.. .0.93. .0.95. .0.98... .0.89. .0.91. .0.98... .0.95. .0.97. .0.98... .0.96. .0.98. .0.98... .0.96. .0.98. .0.98
0.125 ... .0.93. .0.94. .0.99.... .0.99.A..0 . .0.99.. .0.96. .0.97. .0.99... .0.93. .0.94. .0.99... .0.97. .0.98. .0.99.. .0.98. .0.99. .0.99.. .0.98. .0.99. .0.99
0 -....0.87. .0.87. .1.0 .....0.97. .0.97. .10 ... O.0.99.N..99..0 ..0.97. .0.97.A..0 ... .0.99..0.99.A..0 . ..1.0 .1.0 .1.0 ... .1.0 .1.0 .1.0
-0.20 .. ..0.71..0.4..0.96.... .0.89. .0.91. .0.98... .0.93..0.95. .0.98... .0.89. .0.91. .0.98... .0.95. .0.97. .0.98... .0.96. .0.98. .0.98... .0.96. .0.98. .0.98
-0.25 .. ..0.66. .0.71. .0.93.... .0.87. .0.90. .0.97... .0.91. .0.94. .0.97... .0.87. .0.90. .0.97... .0.93. .0.96. .0.97... .0.94. .0.97. .0.97.. .0.95. .0.98. .0.97
-0.40 .. ..0.44. .0.59. .0.75.... .0.76. .0.86. .0.88... .0.82. .0.91. .0.90... .0.76. .0.86. .0.88... .0.85. .0.94. .0.90... .0.88. .0.97. .0.91.. .0.89. .0.98. .0.91
-0.50 ... .0 .0.50. .0 ... .0.66. .0.83. .0.80.. .0.75. .0.90. .0.83... .0.66. .0.83. .0.80.. .0.78. .0.93. .0.84. ..0.81. .0.95. .0.85... .0.83. .0.97. .0.87
-0.60 * . * *. .. .0.53..0.80..0.66 ...0.64. .0.88..0.73.. .0.53. .0.80. .0.66 ....0.69..0.91..0.76... .0.73. .0.94..0.78 .. .0.75. .0.96. .0.78
-07.75 0 ..0.75. .0 ... .0.40. .0.85. .0.47 .. .0 . .0.75. .0 ... .0.48. .0.89. .0.54... .0.55. .0.93. .0.59... .0.58. .0.95. .0.61
-0.80 ...* * 0.26. .0.84. .0.31 .. ..*..* ... .0.38. .0.89. .0.37... .0.47. .0.93. .0.51... .0.51. .0.95. .0.54
-0.833 .... ...0 .0.83. .0 ... * ..*..*. 0.29. .0.88. .0.33... .0.40. .0.92. .0.43... .0.44. .0.94. .0.47
-0.875 .... * * * * * * * * * * * *.0. ..0.87..0 ... 0.29..0.92..0.32 ... 0.35..0.94..0.37
-0.9166 .... * * * * * * * * * * * * * *.. .0 .0.92. .0 ... .0.20. .0.94. .0.21
-0.9375... . * * * * * * * * *0 ..0.94..0
-1.0 * * * * * * * ** ** *

*Cable line cannot be operated to deliver the mvars as listed without overloading the cable.
t The positive quantities represent lagging pf loads and the negative quantities leading pf loads.

Table IV. Pu Transmission Capability oF 1.0-Pu Length Lines

Circuit Arrangements
A B c D E P G
Load,t ___

Mvar Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pt Mw Mva Pf

1.0 .0.. ..1.0 ..0 .... 0 ..1.0 ..0 ...... ..*. *. *.. * .. *
0.875... .0.48. .1.0 . .0.48 .....0.48. .1.0 .0.48 ......* .* . .0 .0.87. .0
0.833.... .0.55.A..0 .0.55.... .0.55. .1.0 .0.55 .. * * *..*..
* .*..*..*.*...0 .0.83. .0 ..0.29. .0.88. .0.33
0.80 .... .0.60. .1.0 .0.60 .... 0.60. .1.0 .. 0. 60. . * * ..*.*..*..*.*..
* ....0.26. .0.84. .0.31... .0.38. .0.89. .0.43
0.75 .... .0.66. .1.0 .0.66... .0.66. .1.0 .0.66 ... * * . .*. 0 ..0.75.0O ... 0.40..0.85..0.47 ... 0.48..0.89..0.54
0.66 .... .0.5..1.0 .0.75 .... .0.5..1.0 .0.75 ... .0 .0.66. .0 ... * ..*..*. 0.40. .0.77. .0.52... .0.55..0.86. .0.64... .0.61. .0.90. .0.68
0.60 .... .0.80.A..0 .0.80.... .0.80.A..0 .0.80.... .0.36. .0.70. .0.51 ...* * .. .0.53. .0.80. .0.66... .0.64..0.88. .0.73... .0.69. .0.91. .0.75
0.50 .... .0.87.A..0 .0.87.... .0.87.A..0 .0.87.... .0.55. .0.74. .0.74.. .0 . .0.50.- .0 .. .0.66. .0.83. .0.80.. .0.75. .0.90. .0.83... .0.78.. .0.93. .0.8.4
0.40 .... .0.80..0.89. .0.89.... .0.92.A..0 .0.92.... .0.68. .0.79. .0.86.. .0.42. .0.58. .0.72... .0.76. .0.86. .0.89.. .0.82. .0.91. .0.90... .0.85..0.94. .0.91
0.25 .. .0.66..0.1..0.94.... .0.97. .1.0 .0.97... .0.81. .0.85. .0.95... .0.66. .0.71..0.94.. .0.86. .0.90. .0.96...0.91. .0.94. .0.97... .0.93. .0.96. .0.97
0.20
a I no0.60
.. .063 ..9.. .095.-Ar Yr ..9..
~f k?f71A- D -s .097
..8.
f 0.7..097. 0.1..074 ..9...089 .091 ..9...093 .0.5..0.8. .095 .09 .0.98n l
I

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 Table V. Pu Transmission Capability of 2.0-Pu Length Lines
Circuit Arrangements
A B C D KF G
Load,t_
Mvar Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva P1 Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva P1 Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva Pf Mw Mva P1

1. 0. 0 .1.0.. 0 ...0 ..1.0 .0 ... * * *.* **

... * *
0.75 .... * **. .... .0.66. .1.0 06.. . .0.75. .0 .*
0.66..... * .* ... .0.5..1.0 .0.75 .... * 0 .0.66. .0 ... .0.40. .0.77. .0.52
0.60....* .. .0.80._1.0 .0.80.. * .... 0. .036.
. .0. 70. .0.51... .0.53. .0. 80. .0.66
0.50.* ... .0.87. .1.0 .0.87 .... * .* * * * *. .0 . .0.50. .0 ...055. .0. 74. .0.74... .0.66. .0. 83..0. 80
0.40 ... ... *. ... .0.80. .0.89..0.80.... * * ...* 0.42. .0.58. .0.72... .0.68. .0.79..0.86... .0.76. .0.86. .0.89
0.33.*.. ..*. *...075. .0. 82. .0. 91.. . .0 .0.33. .0 .... * 0.55. .0.64. .0.86... .0.75. .0.82..0.91... .0.81. .0.88. .0.92
* *... ...0.71. .0.77 .0.92 ..0.26. .0.40. .0.65 ... .0.60. .0.67..o.0.90.. .0.77. .0.83. .0.93... .0.84. .0.89. .0.94
...

0.30 *
* **. .... .0.60. .0.63..0.95...0.50. .0.54. .0.93..
....

0.20 ..*. 0.71. .0.74. .0.96.. .0.85. .0.87. .0.97... .0.89. .0.92. .0.98
0.10. * *... *.... .0.42. .0.43. .0.98.... .0.64. .0.65. .0.98.... * *... .0.80. .0.81. .0.99... .0.90. .0.91. .0.99... .0.94. .0.95. .0.99
0 * .*. 0 .0 ......0.75. .0.75. .1.0 .... 0 ..0.....0.87. .0.87. .1.0 .. .0.94. .0.94. .1.0 ..0.97. .0.97. .1.0
- 0. 10..
...... 0.64. .0.65. .0.98....* ** ... 0.80. .0.81. .0.99... .0. 90. .0.91. .0.99>..0. 94. .0.95. .0.99
**...O.71..0.4.0.196
-0.20... * * * * 0.50..0.54..0.93.... * ... 0 M.85.0. 87..0.97...0.89..0.'92..0.98
-0.30.*.. ..* .* * * 0.26. .0.40. .0.65.... * *... .0.60. .0.67. .0.90.. .0.77. .0.83. .0.83... .0.84. .0.89. .0.94
-0.33.*.. .. * . ..0.33.0O .... *. * * * * * 0.42. 0.55. .0.64. .0.86... .0.75. .0.82. .0.91... .0.81. .0.88. .0.92
-0.40... .0.58. .0.72... .0.68. .0.79. .0.86... .0.76. .0.86. .0.89 ...

-0.50....0 .0.50. .0 . ..0.55. .0.74. .0.74... .0.66. .0.83. .0.80

-0.60.... * * * * * * * ..* * ... .0.36. .0.70. .0.51.. .0.53. .0.80. .0.66
-0.66.....* * * ...*.~. ..0.66.-0 ....0.40. .0.77. .0.52
.

. .. .0
-0.75.*.. .*..* * * * * * * * 4 ....0 . .0.75._0
-1.0 .... .. 4 * *
* Lines cannot be operated to deliver the mvars as listed without overloading cable.
t The positive qusantitie-3 represent lagging pf loads and the negative quantities leading pf loads.

compensated arrangements D and E for times. However, for reactor sizes and where the latter is able to compensate
appropriate cable line lengths. locations used in this paper, only the for the entire charging current require-
reactors at the ends of the line need be ments. The minus signs, left of the
The Need for Variable or Switched variable or switchable, when the criterion abscissa scale, represent loads with lead-
Reactors of operation is maximum power trans- ing pf. Each curve, a, b, c, e, f, and g,
mission. is symmetrical about its maximum value,
In the commercial operation of a given
system design, changes in the reactive
COC
CHIEO ECO
FRETRSIEmerging
IEside of its peak.
with curve d (0.5 kB) on either

requirements of the load or in the ability The choice of reactor size to give Analysis of these curves indicate that
of the sending system to supply or absorb optimum results depends on where the maximum power transmission capa-
megavars, would indicate the advantage it is to be connected, how many other bility is obtained with the 0.5-kB re-
of being able to modify in effect, the num- reactors will be used, the line length, the actor (arrangement B), feeding a load with
ber, size, and location of reactors required pf of the load at which optimum com- 0.25-pu mvar component and where k is
to obtain the degree of compensation pensation is desired, and economic con- equal to 1.0. This corresponds to a
necessary for maximum power transmis- siderations. To show the effect of 0.968 lagging pf for a critical-length line.
sion. Since it is impractical to change changing reactor size, the simple case of Obviously, as the reactive component of
reactor location, a measure of flexibility a single reactor in the center of a critical- load current increases, the power compo-
may be provided by installing the reactors length line was chosen. Fig. 7 shows the nent must be reduced to avoid overload-
so they can be switched in or out of the pu power delivered by the line for various ing the receiving end. The power level
circuit as required. WVhen they are large values of pu mvars delivered to or ab- must also be reduced if the reactive com-
in size and small in number, as will sorbed from the receiving-end system for ponent of the load decreases below 0.25 pu
usually be the case, little flexibility is different sized reactors from 0 to 1.0 kB, since this results in a greater absorption
obtained by switching them. Hence,
it may be desirable to install reactors that
may be varied, possibly by parallel com- RATRSZ

binations of smaller reactors that can be 10b .2k

switched. With such an arrangement, the d .k
transmission capability of a compensated 31f-o m
line is made available over a reasonably a_0.____
wide range of load pf and the reactive
power
represented b th hrigcr

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 Q66 k B REACTOR Q66
REACTOR
~~~~~~~~~~UNIT
LOCATION
LENGTHS 1k) FROM
14 PER Fig. 8. Same between locations 0.33 and 0.66 but at
as
0.5kB REACTOR SENDN4G END b *-0.25 Fig. 7, except reactor
=to instead
different levels of mvars delivered. Since
c,g *075
05 location itedoof
a reactor cannot always be placed at
e
sire ws changed the optimum location, calculation of
1011.0,
ui
/ </>va <ss2\proper size will probably depend largely
on locations available, as well as on
operating characteristics of the line.

The D-C Line

Zh f [{ / / /b /: hX \d I < 9If the power is transmitted by operation
of the cable with direct current, the charg-
02 i T ,' T I \ \ \- _ Aing mvars of the line are eliminated com-
pletely and even the power loss is reduced
--0.5 QS5 -
-0.2
0.75 0
0 0
0,25 0 0 .0
1.0 appreciably. These and several other
PER UNIT MVAR DELIVERED TO RECEIVING SYSTEM considerations cause the d-c line to have
of the line's charging mvars at the send- reactor to be used at the center of the much greater power transmission capa-
ing end (sending end limited). line, neglecting economic considerations, bility than its a-c counterpart. How-
The area contained under each curve is one capable of compensating for half the ever, since generation and utilization of
representing different reactor size is also charging current requirements of the power will still be at alterating currents,
significant since it reflects the ability of cable. Fig. 8 shows the effect of locating the d-c line must have conversion equip-
the line to transmit appreciable power at the reactor at different positions along the ment at both ends. In keeping with
different pf. For example, the cable line line. Curves a b, c, d, and e (solid lines) developments of the last decade in
.. . . ...................
with the 0.5-kB reactor can deliver a plot the effectiveness of a 0.5-kB < . reactor
' ' Swe
Sweden, Rus Russia, and elsewhere abroad,
ia, andelsewhrearod
range from 86 to 96.8% of its rating as at different locations, the best of which is
mw to a load with a range . . ofP* .lagging
. * . the
in . center and. with. the . . and. ~~~~~for
. power level Thi dcnsmistsio
d-c transmissionmhaserbeen determined.
cathode
reactive components from 0 to 0.5 pu reactive power transmission flexibility Tubs ins3-phase bercur ts (aetz
mvar. The same cable line with a 1.0-kB falling off as shifts are made in either tuin use witdgepprrcuitse(Gratz
reactor can deliver a maximum 86% of direction. circuit), used appropnate
withallows control
The maximum power level at unity pf ~~~~~~~~~~~~equipment
its rating as mw when there, is .no reactive . . which functioning of
the sending-end terminal equipment
component of load and no power when the (curve e) occurs when the reactor is at the as a polyphase rectifier and of the receiv-
load has the 0.5-k pu mvar component. receiving end and no power can be de- ing end as an inverter, able to deliver
The family of curves in Fig. 7 reveals livered at unity pf when the coil is at the the power transmitted to a 3-phase a-c
that increasing the reactor size beyond 0.5 sending end (curve a). This latter loca- system. Suitable auxiliary equipment
kB (curves e, f, and g) has no merits since tion, incidentally, has no beneficial effect will make ower flow in either direction
such lines have no more power trans- on the power transmission capability of possible
mission capability at leading pf loads and the cable itself, but does reduce the
P rs rr ass rsthe
fall off more rapidly ] s pfr ofr the
v1 rloadJ amount of mvars which the sending-end sible. operation with direct current
~~~~~~~While o

eliminates
swings in the lagging direction. In con- system may have to absorb over an ap- it also prevents the transmission line
charging mvar requirements,
trast to this, reducing the reactor size preciable range of load pf. This might be from delivering any reactive power to the
below 0.5-kB value (curves a, b, and c) important in the case of a remote generat- load. As will be shown later, the ter-
may have merit since the smaller reactors ing station with little or no local load and minal equipment actually consumes much
allow equal power transmission with loads with machines having a low short-circuit reactive power, particularly at the re-
over an appreciable range of lagging pf ratio. It would also act to lessen the duty ceiving end. Depending on the relative
and, of course, are less expensive to install. on circuit breakers and, of course, would size of a-c systems at the two ends of the
Proper choice of reactor sizes in any in- be helpful if power flow were to be in both line compared with the power transmission
stallation requires full knowledge of condi- directions. capability of the line, and the relation-
tions under which the line must operate The broken lines f, g, and h plot a 0.66- ship between reactive supply and demand
and the degree of flexibility that is wanted. kB reactor for three
The desirable flexibility of variable locations. All of these at each end of the line, the characteristic
curves have the same peak power level of the d-c line of transmitting only mw
reactors can be readily seen in a further
(0.943-pu power) but at different levels of can be a valuable asset or it can be a
examplde,ation
0.-kBap o such d wh arlingemequi
receiving-end mvars. Significantly, this serious deficit. ar
.0.5-kB reactor thereeivnend,
re ct atat the receiving end, and an reactor located at two-thirds the distance Thus, many factors must be evaluated I

workigio lfrom the sending end (curve h), allows in making a choice between the two possi-
preciale reative cmponen, the eactor greater power transmission to a unity pf ble solutions to the problem of bulk power
size~~~~~~~~.
ma.erdcdtopri aiu load than any other single reactor at any transmission in long cable lines. The
poertrnsisio cpblt.. Mreo position. This is arrangement C in Fig. choice may be influenced by the eco-
the~~~~~~~~~'
chrigmaso.teln ilb 2. If the 66%o reactor is moved closer nomical study of the system's reactive
availabl toimpove theover-al system than 33%O of the cable length from either power requirements, the system stability,
pf. P end of the line, the power level falls off and even by the short-circuit ratio of the
so does the flexibility of reactive power system's large generator units, which
transmission. The peak power trans- could be adversely affected by a-c bulk
~~~~~~~~~~and
*CHOICE OF REACTOR LOCATION mission capability remains constant with power transmision lines without sufficient
Fig. 7 shows that the optimum-size this size reactor when placed anywhere compensation.

176 Dougherly, Schifreent-Long Cable Lines JUNE 1962

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THE NATURE OF THE D-C LINE "natural commutation," the sum of the mutation schemes that have been tried
The operation of a high-voltage d-c commutating angle, the time required may eventually mitigate the problem of
line has not as yet been stereotyped since to "deoinize" the outgoing tube, and a reactive supply to the inverter, but they
har sotfewf
there theminin existence, but
there are so few of them estencotype, reasonable safety-margin angle will nor- would probably have their main advan-
the general characteristics of the two lines mally add up to 30 degrees or more. This tage in operational stability rather than
currently operating commercially in Eu- total angle is known as the angle of ad- in cost reduction of the auxiliary terminal
rope can serve as a temporary standard. vance of the inverter. equipment.
Basically, a bulk-power d-c transmission Since the current through a given DESIGN AND RATING OF D-C CABLE LINE
line would consist of a series of double- inverter tube must rise from zero in the
way 3-phase bridge circuits connected in positive directi6n while the compo-
a-c Since experience with high-voltage d-c
cascade as a polyphase rectifier at the nent of the voltage across the tube is still operation of cables is limited, any attempt
sending end and a similar set at the negative but diminishing towards zero to compare ratings of conventional-type
receiving end with auxiliary equipment value (a fact not readily evident without cable, for d-c and a-c operation, must de-
to allow operation as an inverter. See a detailed study of the phase relationship pend on theoretical considerations and
Fig. 9 in the circuit which is not within the scope extrapolation from the meager informa-
The cascade arrangement of bridges of this paper), the a-c output current is tion available. Moreover, virtual elim-
has several major advantages: described by conventional nomenclature ination of dielectric loss and other changes
as leading the a-c voltage produced at the in d-c operating conditions could result
1. In normal operation, the more numerous inverter terminals. This condition re- in a high-voltage cable for d-c operation
the bridges, the higher will be the frequency quires that the inverter deliver its power bearing little resemblance to existing
and the lower the amplitude of the ripple
component of the voltage on the d-c line. output to a system comprising an ade- high-voltage a-c cables. In any event, a
The problem of suppressing this audio- quate quantity of static capacitors, syn- 3-conductor d-c system (one conductor
frequency component to eliminate any chronous condensers, or underexcited positive, one negative, and the third
interference with communication circuits generators. In effect, this may be char- grounded) could probably operate safely
is thereby simplified.
acterized as the reactive power require- at 2.5 to 4 times the a-c rating to ground,
2. Voltage requirements of the main ment of the inverter circuit. on either the plus or minus leg, and could
tubes is sharply reduced, which allows The inverter must have a large mvar carry appreciably more current per con-
EHV operation of the d-c line with the
mErcuoprytube ommtherdc ialy wilbe
today.
ava supply for successful operation. The
commutation angle and deionization time
ductor because of decreased losses per
circuit foot. This would result in power
vary directly with the magnitude of the transmission ratings for a given line of at
3. When a commutation failure in one
bridge occurs, the by-pass tube can clear power transfer. Hence, the reactive re- least 2 to 3 times its rating as an a-c line.
the fault and the increased voltage stress quirements vary directly with the power
on the other bridges is less. With four or transmission. With natural commuta- Economic Considerations
more bridges in this cascade arrangement, tion, it is now expected that this reactive
the a-c systems at either end of the line
An economic
power requirement would be from 50 to An analysis to detemine
cnmiaayssodtrie
would not have troublesome~ transients poereurmnwolbefo 50t
caused by single commutation failures. 75% of the line's mva rating. Where the whether a new bulk power transmission
line is expected to transmit power in either channel should be a-c or d-c has many
Of course, the more bridge circuits used, direction, provisions for this large block facets. A basic study, comparing the
the more auxiliary equipment is needed, of reactive supply must be made at both installed costs of the two systems and
resulting in increased costs. ends. taking into account any difference in the
Some of the forced or artificial com- annual operating costs of the line, must be
MVAR SUPPLY WITH D-C OPERATION
As stated earlier, the d-c line cannot +
transmit any reactive component to the I & Y
load and, in fact, with present terminal
equipment design, the d-c link consumes
D AY
much reactive power. At the sending
end, the units operating as rectifiers have T
a lagging pf which is an inverse function of Y
the amount of power being transmitted. I X
The normal means of controlling the Y It,
power transfer is to delay the firing time RECEIVING
of the rectifier tubes so that the current STATION
wave lags the a-c supply voltage. This is SENDING (INVERTERS)
reflected to the sending-end system as an AY
inductive load. However, when the (RECTIFiERS)t t
power transfer iS maximum, the lag angle Q l I II PHASE
of current with respect to voltage iS - IIIA Y SHIFTERS
small and the sending system sees a load PHSHFEF{
quite near unity pf, though always induc- YY L_ E
tive in nature.
At the receiving end, commutation of
I4 liI
J
the tubes in each bridge circuit requiresI..I
a much larger displacement angle between
current and voltage. With so-called Fig. 9. Line diagram of d.c franimission line and associated terminal equipment

JUNE 1962 Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Gable Lines 177

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the foundation of any economic compari- of a-c lines was considered, the reactor search along these lines may result in some
son but there are factors outside these locations were limited to the ends of the surprises.
parameters which can readily change the line since the cables were assumed to be 3. Development of lightning protection
lines and station equipment and some
final economic decision. For example,
the greater flexibility of the a-c line which
submarine installations.
, .. . <' . there is for d-cresearch
. .Since
~~~~~~~~~~~basic
no indication that these reactors were baeia lesuation on pole line hardware and
requiren ord ovr
aerial line insulation requirements for over-
allows taps at intermediate points, at a switchable, the a-c lines would lack flexi- head d-c lines. This latter investigation
later date, may override an apparent bility in their operating characteristics. would include such items as conductor
economic advantage for direct current. The cost increment necessary to attain spacing and clearance from ground, re-
On the other hand, the nonsynchronous variability or switchability would further quired number and possible redesign of
characteristics of the d-c line could be reduce the line lengths at which direct level on d-c lines of both positive and
the deciding factor in choosing direct cur- current becomes competitive. negative polarity.
rent for an intersystem tie line. Many
of the characteristics, beneficial or detri-
As pointed out by the CIGRE study While studies are currently being
committee, the monetary values in theirn
mental, are difficult to evaluate as a gen- report, based on Swedish prices in 1955, sarhed out in Europe and elsewherem we
eral case. However, while the operating will change with time and further develop-
characteristics of a-c bulk power lines are ment of the art. However, since the the conclusions reached may not be valid
well understood, it might be well to out- costlV components of d-c terminal equip- for American operating conditions.
.- benefits
line some of the fringe * . might
that . mentv are a more recent addition
. . to the ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Only
On when adequate information ha
when adequ teanfmation has
be derived by adopting d-c operation. transmission field than the a-c equipment, been obtai en d- n i
The d-c line could contain, within the it is reasonable to assume that future used as a tool when needed.
controls of the conversion equipment at developments will tend to favor the d-c
its terminals, an accurate and instantane- system from an economic standpoint. Conclusions
ous control of the magnitude and direction Herewith is a 6-point summary of con-
of power flow, independent of external clusions reached.
conditions in the connected systems. Future Avenues of Investigation
This could be used to schedule power 1. Without compensation, a-c cable lines
interchanges between connected systems While no transmission projects in the can deliver their thermal rating to the load
or be left free to respond to system condi- United States today are critically await- over short distances only, but can do so
tions. These same controls can be used ing further development of d-c trans- reactors distances
over longinstalled. with distributed shunt
to limit power flow to any preset value mission techniques, the authors believe
shunt reactors are confined nao
into a faulted system, making possible the there will be suitable applications for it 2. Even with 100% cope n, if
thetiends of
firm interconnection of large a-c systems in the near future and that, in 20 to 25 cable line, it is limited to zeroto transmission
without any increase in circuit-breaker years, it may well be an indispensable capability at twice the uncompensated
ratings. This same power-limiting fea- tool. As present techniques of high- critical length and can deliver only 86.6%
ture allows the interruption of a d-c line voltage a-c transmission did not spring of its rating at critical length. For ex-
ample, a 440-mva 345-kv line can deliver
fault without any detrimental effect be- a co-ordinated
into being as an efficient coordinatedspring
sys- no power at 48 miles and only 381 mw at
yond the terminals of the line. In the tem, we cannot expect a sudden blossom- 24 miles.
case of flashovers, such as might be ing of perfected d-c techniques. We are 3 Interrupting a cable line at inter-
caused by lightning on the d-c line, the fortunate in having this extended lead mediate points to inset reat will
fault can be cleared and the line returned time of possibly 10 years or more and it involve substantial expenditures for pot-
to service in a few cycles. Obviously, should be used judiciously to investigate heads, reactor installations, and additional
the dollar value that can be attributed some of the problems which high-voltage real estate. This added expense should
to such characteristics will vary widely, d-c transmission will bring before the shorten the line length at which d-c cable
depending on the specific application, but need for d-c transmission is upon us. becomes competitive.
they indicate that high-voltage d-c trans- Research should be initiated in many 4. Switched and variable reactor installa-
mission may well become a promising ex- different phases to obtain first-hand tions, necessary for maximum flexibility
pedient for large-capability bulk power knowledge of d-c phenomena and answers economic break-even distance.
transmission and interconnection lines. tomanymundane but important questions 5 Nonsynchronous characteristics of the
In the economic comparison made by aside from the complexities of high-volt- d-c line and its independence of phase
CIGRE,2 where cable constructions were age conversion equipment and auxiliary relationships at the terminals offer a
compared under the assumption that cable equipment associated with its operation promising advantage to system-planning
would be used only for a submarine in- and control. Some of these avenues of engineers.
stallation, the conclusions were that cer- investigation are 6. Much development work is needed on
tain minimum line lengths, ranging from 1. Development of d-c *cuit breakers or terminal equipment, controls, and asso-
18 to 31 miles, were necessary to make other suitable line-interrupting devices. ciated problems such as cable design, circuit
direct current competitive. For lines The American utility industry cannot use interrtiaing devices, and an evaluation of
longer than these, direct current would d-c transmission effectively on a large scale aeilindsinfr-corto.
have the economic advantage. This until equipment is available which will allow
the economic operation of an integrated R
References
study compared 130-ky and 220-ky cables network of d-c lines.
oeaiga-c with 200-ky n 0-vca- 1. CEaaxoiNG CURRENT LIMTATIONS
CABLE LINEs, OPRRA-
operating wih20k
bles operating d-c. Presumably the line and,300-k 2. Development of a cable, and the
necessary jointinlg anld terminatinlg acces-
TION OF HIGH-vOLTAGE
Schufreen,
IN
C. 5.
W. C. Marble. AIEE Transactions,
lengths, corresponding to the economic sories, specifically designled for d-c opera- pt. III (Powecr Apparatus and Systems), vol. 75,
break-even points, would be even shorter tion. While present a-c cable systems can t 96 p 0-7
be adapted successfully to d-c operation, 2. CCOMPARISON OP TRANSMSSION COST3. FOR
if higher a-c cable voltages had been stud- they may not represent the optimum de- HIGH VOLTAGE A-C AND D-C SYSTEMS, F. Lane,
ied. However, while full compensation sign, technically or economically. Re- Report no. 417, CIGRE, Paria, France, i956.
178 Dougherty, Schifreen-Long Cable Lines JUNE 1962

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