thiamine, riboflavin and niacin) and inorganic elements (calcium, magnesium,
manganese, phosphorous, potassium, chlorine, copper, iron, sodium and zinc). Some
spices also contain fatty acids, starch, sugars, cholesterol and fiber (Lewis, 1984; Farrell
1985; Leung and Foster 1996). Spices are not used only in countries where the plants
grow. However, the proportion of the use of spices is higher in countries where spices
grow (Billing and Sherman, 1998).
Use of spices in cooking is the oldest form of aromatherapy that stimulates gastric
secretion and creates appetites, stimulates the body, creates positive moods, relieves cold
symptoms and respiratory problems, and eases muscle pains. The active components in
spices are considered as powerful tools to create a state of wellness such as stimulate
production of enzymes that detoxify carcinogens, inhibit cholesterol synthesis, block
estrogen, lower blood pressure and prevent blood clotting (Uhl, 2000). Many herbs have
antioxidant properties and reduce the deterioration of color of meat by reducing the
degree of oxidation of fat in the meat (Lewis, 1984).
‘There is no common method to classify spices. However the most common
classification (Clark, 1970) is based on the flavor and color, i.e. hot (pepper), pungent
(garlic), aromatic (cinnamon, clove), coloring (turmeric), and herbaceous (rosemary,
sage). Spices are also classified according to their taste such as sweet, spicy, sour, bitter
and astringent, The aroma is due to volatile essential oils of different chemical
compositions such as terpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, esters, ethers,
oxides, etc. (Lewis, 1984).
Extracts of plants, spices and herbs play an important role in promoting human
health by their anticancer, antioxidative and antiflamatory properties. Flavonoids from tea
6beverages act as free radical-scavengers and antioxidants (Wiseman et al., 1997).
Anthocyanins and flavonoids from teas and cherries possess antiallergic, antiviral,
anticancer and anticarcinogenic properties, and prevent cardiovascular diseases and aging
(Balentine et al., 1999). Components in spices also possess colorant, bioactive (i.e.
antioxidant and antimicrobial), acidulant and sweetener effects (Chang et al., 1977;
Pszezola, 1999; Mansour and Khalil, 2000; Wang et al., 2000).
Essential oils (volatile oils) are distilled parts of spices by mostly steam, and also
by cold, dry and vacuum distillation methods (Giese, 1994a). Oleoresins, solvent extracts
of spices, contain both volatile and nonvolatile fraction of spices (Farrell, 1985).
A. History
Spices are primarily condiments used in cooking in modem life but in ancient
times they were used as basic ingredients of incense, embalming preservatives,
ointments, perfumes, antidotes against poisons, cosmetics and medicines, and were
valued as condiments in cooking to a limited extend. Spices were used as condiments in
food for the first time, in the first century AD in Rome. Medieval Europeans used spices
to flavor the drab and partially decomposed food, to provide fragrance and to mask
noxious odors. The demand for spices played an important role in world history; which
stimulated the exploration of globe, the discovery of continental America by Europeans,
and the initiation of trade and cultural interaction between the countries of East and West
(Rosengarten, 1969).
‘The first recorded use of spices was dated from the Pyramid Age in Egypt (2600
BC). Onions were fed to laborers as medicinal herbs to preserve their health duringconstruction of pyramids. The spices and herbs used today as condiments such as anise,
caraway, cassia, coriander, fennel, cardamom, onions, garlic, thyme, mustard, sesame,
fenugreek, saffron, and poppy seed were used in medicine, cosmetics, cooking and
embalming. In China, the first authentic record of the use of cassia was found in the Ch’u
Ssu (Elegies of Chu) in the fourth century BC. The great philosopher Conficius (551-479
BC) mentioned the use of ginger in his Analects. Excavations in the Indus Valley show
that spices and herbs have been used since the first millennium BC (Rosengarten, 1969).
In the ancient Greece, spices and herbs played an important role in medical
science and as condiments in food. They imported some Eastem spices such as pepper,
cassia, cinnamon and ginger, and also used spices and herbs grown in Mediterranean area
such as anise, caraway, poppy seeds, parsley and marjoram. Hippocrates (460-377 BC),
the “Father of Medicine”, wrote many treatise on medicinal plants and their use. The
Greek philosopher and scientist Theophrastus (327-287 BC), sometimes called the
“Father of Botany”, wrote two books, On Odors and An Enguiry into Plants, that
gathered the botanical information of spices and herbs (Rosengarten, 1969).
The transportation of spices and other goods from East to West created several
ancient trade routes; the “Incense Route” and the “Silk Route”. High demand and cost of
spices in the Middle Ages encouraged the Europeans to find the new routes to primarily
spice growing regions in Orient, Marco Polo, Pedro Cabral, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinanad
Magellan, Christopher Columbus and Hemando Cortes were the pioneers who
established new routes for spice trading (Parry, 1969). The crucial role of spices in the
countrys’ economy resulted in the discovery of new lands, wars between countries, and
raids of spice growing countries (Farrell, 1985; Parry, 1969)
8Although most of the spices came from the East, some popular spices were
introduced to Europe and Asia after discovering the New World. Chili peppers, sweet
peppers, allspice, annatto, chocolate, epazote, sassafras, and vanilla were used by Aztecs,
Mayans, and Incas to flavor their food and drinks, and for medicinal purposes (Uhl,
2000).
B. Use of Spices in Food
Spices and herbs, aromatic vegetable materials, have long been used in foods not
only for their flavoring, but also for their medicinal and preservative properties
(Davidson et al, 1983). Spices also stimulate appetite by increasing salivation,
carminative action, and preserve the food by their antimicrobial and anti-oxidant
properties (Lewis, 1984). More than 400 spices are used in the different countries in the
world. Since ancient times, spices and herbs have been used for preventing food spoilage
and deterioration, and for extending shelf life of food, as well (Nakatani, 1994),
Spices are used to enhance the flavor and palatability of food. Billing and
Sherman (1998) evaluated several critical predictions in order to address the question of
why people use spices. The authors evaluated the prediction of the use of 43 spices in
4578 meat-based recipes from 36 countries, They concluded that in hot climate countries
the proportion of recipes with spices, number of spices used in each recipe, total number
of spices, and the use of most antimicrobial spices were higher. Spices are used to
enhance food flavor and palatability. Countries with high mean annual temperature use
numerous spices compared to countries with low mean annual temperature. In hot climate
countries spices are more frequently used at higher amounts than cool climate countries.
9Spices with strong antimicrobial activity such as garlic, onion, capsicum, cinnamon, and
cumin are used more frequently in countries with hot climates than countries with cooler
climates. Furthermore, hot country cuisines and spicier cuisines have more antimicrobial
potent against foodborne microorganisms (Billing and Sherman, 1998).
Billing and Sherman (1998) had two hypotheses about how people started using
spices. First, people who used spices, especially in hot countries, suffered less from
foodborne illnesses and stored their food for longer period of times. Second, adding
spices changed the taste and flavor of food, and made it more palatable and safe for
consumption.
of 30 different
Billing and Sherman (1998) compared the antimicrobial propertit
spices and summarized the antibacterial spectrum of each spice. All of the spices
evaluated inhibited the growth of some bacteria, 80% of spices inhibited more than 50%
of bacteria tested, 50% of spices inhibited more than 75% of bacteria tested, and 13% of
spices inhibited all of bacteria tested (Figure 1). The antibacterial spectrum of the most
commonly used spices is given in Table 1
‘The amount of spice extracts used in food systems range from 0.05 to 0.1% (500
to 1000 ppm; Salzer, 1982). Billing and Sherman (1998) calculated that meat recipes
contained roughly 0.25-3.0 g/kg of spices (250-3000 ppm). Although many of the spice
essential oils have antimicrobial effects against bacteria less than 1000 ppm (Hubtanen,
1980; Kivanc and Akgul, 1986; Zaika, 1988), some spices require higher concentration to
exhibit antimicrobial effect.
10‘sage
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Proportial inhibitory properties of spices (adapted from Billing and Sherman,
Figure 1
1998),
uTable 1. Antimicrobial spectrum of spices
Bacteria inhibited
Bacillus subtilis
Clostridium botulinum
Escherichia coli
Listeria monocytogenes
Serratia marcescens
Bacteria not inhibited
None
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Salmonetta Putlorum
Serratia marcescens
Serratia rhadnit
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Streptococcus thermophilus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Clove ‘Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Clostridium sporogenes ‘Azzouz and Bullerman,
Aeromonas hydrophila
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus subtilis
‘Beneckea natriegens
Citrobacter freundit
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium perfringens
Enterobacter aerogenes
Enwinia carotovora
Escherichia coli
Flavobacterium suaveolens
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactobacillus plantarum
Leuconostoc cremoris
Listeria monocytogenes
Micrococcus futeus
Mycobacterium phlei
Proteus morganii
Proteus vulgaris
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas fluores
Salmonella Entertidis
Micrococcus (Sarina)
Pseudomonas pyocyanea
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Serratia rhadnii
3
1982
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Streptococcus faecalis
Streptococeus nasi
Sireptococeus thermophilus
Yersinia enterocolitica
Cumin
“Aerobacter aerogenes
Bacillus anthracis
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus coagulans
Bacillus subtilis
Closcridium botulinum
Enterobacter aerogenes
Lactobacillus plantarum
Leuconosotoc mesenteroides
Listeria monocylogenes
Micrococcus (Sarcina)
Proteus vulgaris
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Salmonelta Entertidis
Salmonelta Paratyphi
Serratia marcescens
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Streptococcus nasik
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bil
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‘erobacter aerogenes
‘Aeromonas hydrophila
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Citrobacter freundit
Enterobacter aerogenes
Erwinia carotovora
Flavobacterium suaveolens
Klebsiella pnewmoniae
Proteus vulgaris
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Serraia marcescens
Staphylococcus albus
Staphylococeus aureus
“Alcaligenes jaecalis
‘Beneckea natriegens
Brochothrix thermosphacta
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium sporogenes
Lactobacillus plantarum
Leuconostoc cremoris
‘Micrococcus luteus
Salmonella Pullorum
‘Staphylococcus faecalis
Yersinia enterocolitica
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Fennel
‘Aerobacter aerogenes
Bacillus cereus
Bacillus subilis
Citrobacter freundit,
Enterobacter aerogenes
Epwinia carotovora
Flavobacterium suaveolens
Leuconostoc cremoris
Proteus vulgaris
Salmonella Enteritidis
“Alealigenes faecalis
Beneckea natriegens
Brevibacterium linens
Brochothrix thermosphacta
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium sporogenes
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Lactobacillus plantarum
‘Micrococcus luteus
Yersinia enterocolitica
4
Deans and Ritchie, 1987
Hargreaves etal, 1975
Hubtanen, 1980
Kivane and Akgul, 1986
Ramadan et al., 1972Fennel (con)
Salmonella Pullorum
Serratia marcescens
Staphylococcus albus
Staphylococcus aureus
Garlic Bacitus coreus None ‘Abdou et al, 1972
Bacillus subtilis Beuchat, 1994
Campylobacter jejuni EL-Khateib and El-
Clostridium perfringens Rahman, 1987
Enterobacter cloacae Ting and Deibel, 1992
Enterococcus faecalis Gandi and Ghodekar,
Enterococcus faecium 1988
Escherichia coli Hargreaves et al,, 1975
Klebsiella aerogenes Hetnawy et al,, 1993
Klebsiella pneumoniae ‘Hughes and Lawson,
Lactobacillus acidophilus 1991
Lactobacillus plantarum Huhtanen, 1980
Listeria monocytogenes Ismaiel and Pierson,
Pediococeus pentosaceus 19908
Proweus mirabilis Rees et al, 1993
Proteus morganii Sato etal, 1990
Proteus vulgaris Shelef, 1984
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Salmonella Dublin
Salmonella Enteritidis
Salmonelta Typhimurium
Serratia marcescens
Staphylococcus aureus
‘Staphylococcus epidermidis
Swreptococeus agalactiae
Vibrio mimicus
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Yersinia enterocolitica
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Bacillus subtilis 1986
Escherichia cali Ramadan, 1972
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Salmonella Enteritidis
‘Staphylococcus auerus
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Aeromonas hydrophila Brevibacteriwn linens 1986
Bacillus subtilis Erwinia carotovora Bayoumi, 1992
Beneckea natriegens
Brochothrix thermosphacta
Citrobacter freundii
Clostridium sporogenes
Enterobacter aerogenes
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Lactobacillus plantarum
Proteus vulgaris
Psoudomonas agruginosa
Flayobacterium suaveolens
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Leuconostoc cremoris
Micrococcus luteus
Salmoneita Typhimurium
Staphylococcus aureus
Streptococcus thermophilus
Beuchat, 1994
Deans and Ritchie, 1987
El-Kady ctal, 1995