204 1
UNITChapter
Principles of
electrical science
11
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
2
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
charges repel and unlike charges attract, so within an atom the electrons
in the outer shell are attracted to the positive protons. Neutrons are
neutral in charge but act as the glue holding the atom together. It is the
Chapter
electrons in the outer shell that determine if a material is going to be a
good insulator (like glass) or a good conductor (like copper). In insulators
the electrons are firmly bound to the atom taking a lot of force to break
1 3
them free. In good conductors such as metals, the electrons appear to
be relatively free and with a little encouragement they can be broken off
and set free to find something more positive. It is this movement of free Unit
electrons that is known as current and hence electricity. A free-moving
electron is said to be a charge carrier because it is carrying a negative
charge of energy as it moves through a conductor. Key terms
To get a feel of the strength of an electric current, imagine the flow of Charge sometimes called
electric charge or electrostatic
negatively charged electrons as a flow of water down a river. A strong charge, it is a quantity of
current would be a large amount of water passing a point in a certain time. electricity. Charge can be positive
So a strong or large electric current would be a large volume of electric (+ve) or negative (ve).
charge (free electrons) passing a point in a certain time. It is important for Coulomb one coulomb is
you to understand charge because without it there would be no electricity. 6.24 1018 electrons.
Charge is a quantity of electricity and it is the movement of charge that Ampere one ampere equals one
gives rise to current flow in a circuit. coulomb of electrons passing by
every second.
Charge, Q, is measured in coulombs; time, t, is measured in seconds and Luminaire a term used in the
current, I, is measured in amperes. electrical industry to describe the
whole light fitting, including the
The rate of flow of electric charge is therefore calculated using the
housing, reflector, lamp and any
following formula: internal control gear.
Q
I= t
Worked example
If a charge of 180 coulombs (180 C) flows through a luminaire every
minute, what is the electric current in the luminaire?
Q = 180 C
t = 1 minute (or 60 seconds)
Q
I = t
Putting the values in place of the symbols gives:
180
I = 60
I =3A Link
For another worked example,
Or, 3 amps will flow through the lamp if a charge of 180 coulombs
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
passed through it in 1 minute. ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.1
1 If a charge of 180 C flows in a luminaire every 2 minutes, what is the current?
2 What is the charge in coulombs if a current of 3.2 A flows for 2 seconds?
3
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
1
imagine water in a pond and also water in a river. Water in a pond is still, so
there is no flow or current. Water in a river, however, does have the potential
to flow. The strength of the current flow depends on the difference in
height between the top of the river and the bottom the steeper the drop,
the faster the current. In an electrical circuit this is the same basic principle.
Force depends on
how high it falls
Pump moves
water up hill
An electric circuit has a high charge point and a lower charge point.
These are the +ve and ve terminals of a battery of supply. The height in
the circuit is known as the voltage and the difference between the high
point and the low point is called the potential difference (otherwise
known as p.d.). The battery or electrical source acts as a pump, moving
the charge to the top of the hill where it has potential energy and then
it can fall down the hill giving up potential energy in the form of heat
or light (for example, going through a heat element or a luminaire).
Potential difference, often referred to as voltage across or simply voltage,
is measured in volts and the greater the p.d., the greater potential for
current flow in a circuit.
Electrons with high potential energy
Conductor with
electrons moving Current/electron flow
through depends on resistance
and voltage pressure/
Electrons pump potential difference
or battery moves
electrons up hill
4
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
5
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
6
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
There are seven base units, which are shown in Table 1.1. Notice the
columns: base quantity (the quantity we are actually using), base unit (the
full measurement name) and the symbol (the symbol is a shorter version
Chapter
of the base unit and comes after the number to show what the number
represents, for example the temperature is 20 kelvin or 20 K). You will need
to be familiar with these units.
1 7
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Area metre squared m Used to measure a surface such as a floor area for numbers and types of
circuits required (2 A1 circuits if the floor area is 200 m BS 7671:2008
Onsite Guide Appendix H, standard circuits for households).
Volume metres cubed m Used to measure the capacity of a heating system cylinder.
Mass kilogram kg The amount of material. This must not be confused with weight. Building
services (BS) engineers need to know how much energy is required to change
mass from one state to another.
Weight newton N Weight takes into account the mass of an object and the effect of gravity on it.
Mass is constant but gravity and hence weight can vary (compare Moon and
Earth gravity!).
Time second s 60 s = 1 minute and 60 mins = 1 hour. BS engineers need to know this to
work out speeds for motors (revs/min vs revs/s).
Force (F) newton N You need to know how much force is applied on a conductor in a magnetic
field to work out motor torque.
7
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Chapter Electric current ampere A The symbol I actually comes from the original French name lintensit du
1 (I) courant, as comparisons were made against the intensity of flow of water (still
a very good analogy).
Luminous candela Cd You may have heard of the term candle power. This is the light power at a
intensity source of illumination.
Magnetic flux () weber Wb If you can, imagine the flux lines coming out of a magnet.
Magnetic flux weber per metre Wb/m An example of how you can actually work out the formula from the units
density (B) squared or tesla or T webers/metres squared or flux divided by area.
Frequency herz Hz The number of full cycles of a sine wave that occur in one second: 50 Hz in the
UK and 60 Hz in the USA.
Resistance ohm The level of resistance a conductor will put up against current flow. It is
affected by the material, heat, length and cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Voltage pressure volt V Voltage is a measure of the pressure available to force electrons to break free
or potential from their atom and start flowing. If there is a different level of voltage between
difference or two points on a circuit, there is said to be a voltage drop or potential
simply voltage difference.
Resistivity () ohm metre square m A unique constant number given to individual materials that can be used to
work out what a materials resistance is likely to be. All materials have different
resistivity values and hence resistance (or opposition to current flow).
8
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Table 1.3 shows that multipliers are arranged into groups of thousands,
millions, billions and thousandths, millionths, billionths, etc. By dividing
a number by 1 000 and replacing the 0s with a prefix k, the number looks
Chapter
simpler and, providing you have good calculator skills, it becomes much
easier to handle. 1 9
Worked example
Convert 34 000 000 J into a number with a prefix. Link Unit
Divided by 1 000 it would become 34 000 kJ. For another worked example,
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
If you divide 34 000 000 by 1 000 000 it would become 34 MJ. ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.2
1 Convert 0.0048 F into a number with a prefix.
2 Convert 4.5 mF into a number without a prefix.
3 Show 1.2 TN as MN.
4 Change 64 f into mf.
5 Represent 0.000 000 135 A as mA.
9
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
You will use a wide range of formulae by the end of Level 3 training
and the formulae will rarely be ready to use you will have to change it
around to make what you want to find the subject. The rules are fairly
Chapter
straightforward but the key is lots of practice until it becomes second
1 nature. Once you have practised and mastered transposition you will
be able to change around the most complex formulae as needed.
Understanding the actual number you have been given or which you
have taken off a meter is also essential, because if you get it wrong you
could put yourself or others at serious risk.
Basic mathematical concepts
For all engineers to get the same correct answers, everyone needs to be
working to the same basic rules.
You may have seen the term BODMAS before. It is used to decide in what
order you should complete a calculation. If you have a mathematical
expression and need to find out what it is equal to, then you need to tackle
it in the right order. If you do it in the wrong order you will get the wrong
answer, as can be seen in the following example:
5 (5 + 5) = 50 (complete what is inside the brackets first to give 5 10 = 50)
If this was done in a different order you could get:
5 5 + 5 = 25 + 5 = 30 (giving a wrong answer)
How does BODMAS work?
BODMAS stands for:
Brackets If there are brackets around any part of the maths
expression then this must be acted on first, ignoring
all other parts.
Other operations This refers to powers and roots being dealt with next.
Division Division and multiplication must be completed next,
starting from the left.
Multiplication Multiplication and division both have the same
priority but you must start from the left and work to
the right. Note that sometimes a number might be
next to a bracket even though there is no sign, it
still means multiplication needs to happen.
Addition Having completed all the other maths operations,
there should only be addition and subtraction left in
the expression to deal with.
Subtraction Addition and subtraction have the same priority so
start from the left and work to the right until all the
terms have been completed.
10
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example
4(7 3)2 5 + 3 Chapter
Brackets:
(7 3) = 4 1 11
Operations:
(4) = 16
Unit
Division and multiplication:
There is no division so move on to multiplication (starting from left!)
4(16) = 64
64 5 = 320
Addition and subtraction: Link
Final solution: For another worked example,
320 + 3 = 323 go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.3
Resolve the following mathematical expressions:
1 (9 + 7) 1 + 3
2 (4 + 4 3 + 1)2 + 3 + 3
3 (7 + 8) 3 + 3
4 (7 + 7 7) (3 + 3)
Worked example
5=3+2
We can rearrange this simple formula in a number of different ways:
53=2
52=3
3 = 5 +2 (or 3 = 2 5)
2 = 3 5 (or 2 = 5 + 3)
If the number moves to the other side of the = it changes sign from +
to or to +.
11
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Worked example
Rearrange the following formula to make I the subject.
Imagine you have numbers for V and R (V = 100 volts and R = 50 ohms)
but you need to work out what I is equal to.
V = IR
It doesnt matter what side of the = the I is but it needs to be alone. To
do this you need to remove the R by rearranging the formula.
One option is to divide by R. If you divide something by itself the
answer is 1 regardless of whether it is a number or even a symbol!
This means if you divide R by R the answer will be 1. If you divide one
side of the formula by something the rule states you must do the same
to the other side as well. This keeps the formula balanced (like a see-
saw). Remember this, as it is very important!
V=IR
V=IR
R R
Both sides have been divided by R. Remember, if you have R divided by
R this is the same as 1 so they must cancel out.
V=IR
R R
V=I
R
Notice R has moved from one side to the other to leave the I the
subject, all by itself. Also note that in moving from one side to the other
it has turned from multiplication to division (moved from above the
line to below the line). This would be the same if it were to move in the
reverse direction. This means that if something moves from one side of
a formula to the other, the operation becomes the opposite.
Examples:
_
A becomes A and vice versa
Ax becomes 1
A
12
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
)
Trigonometry se de
te nu est si
po g
One of the most important maths tools that you will need to use is Hy e lon
t h
trigonometry. Trigonometry is used to find missing angles or missing ys Opposite
(alwa (to the angle)
sides of a right-angled triangle. This is necessary in many electrical
applications such as:
To remember these formulae use the following name, SOHCAHTOA, which shows:
sine (shortened to sin) of an angle equals opposite over hypotenuse
cosine (shortened to cos) of an angle equals adjacent over hypotenuse
tangent (shortened to tan) of an angle equals opposite over adjacent.
13
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
To find the angle when you know two sides you use the INV function (or
SHIFT) depending on the two sides you have. If you have the opposite and
the hypotenuse, divide them and this will give you a value for sine . To find
Chapter
the actual angle , you press the INV button on the calculator before pressing
1 the sine button. This will convert a decimal value to an actual angle.
Link
Worked example
For another worked example,
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/ The opposite is 4.9 cm and the hypotenuse is 6.9 cm what is the angle?
ElectricalInstDiploma. Opposite
Sin = Hypotenuse
4.9 Hypotenuse
Sin = 6.9 Opposite
Sin = 0.71
(INV) Sin1 0.71 = 45.23 Adjacent
Activity 1.4
1 The opposite is 33 m and the hypotenuse is 80 m what is the angle?
2 The adjacent is 49 mm and the angle is 60 how long is the hypotenuse?
3 The hypotenuse is 1 km and the angle is 24 how long is the adjacent?
LO2
THE PRINCIPLES OF BASIC ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
Calculating the resistance of a conductor
Conductors and insulators
The atomic molecular structure of a material can determine whether it is
going to make a good conductor, insulator or something in between. If the
atomic structure has very few free electrons in its outer shell then it is likely
to be a good conductor. If the outer shell of the atom has lots of electrons it
is likely to be a good insulator.
Resistance and resistivity
A materials ability to resist the flow of electrons through it depends on
the type of material it is. Each type of material is unique and will have a
different effect on current flow. The unique property of a conductor that
affects this is called resistivity, symbol (Greek letter rho). The resistance of
a conductor is directly proportional to the resistivity of the material if the
resistivity is high, the resistance to current flow will be high.
Resistance also goes up when the distance that the current has to flow
increases the further you go, the more effort it is.
14
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
To return to the water analogy if there is a large pipe and a small pipe, it
is much easier for water to flow in the large pipe. This is true for electricity
and conductors. If there is a very thin conductor it will be more difficult for
Chapter
electrons to flow through it, as there are fewer atoms with free electrons
available. A smaller cross-sectional area will reduce current flow and create
a higher resistance. This means resistance is inversely proportional to
1 15
cross-sectional area.
Given the resistivity, cross-sectional area and the length of a conductor, it is Unit
therefore possible to work out the resistance of any conductor. Putting all
of these factors together in a formula gives:
I
R= A
Worked example
Calculate the resistance of an aluminium cable of length 10 km and
diameter 4 mm.
Firstly, convert all the units to the correct dimensions never mix
dimensions!
10 km = 10 103 (1 000 m in a km)
4 mm = 4 103 (1 000 mm in a m)
Resistivity, , of aluminium is 28.2 109 (see Table 1.4 on page 16).
1
A = 4 d2
1
A = 4 (4 103)2
1
A = 4 4 106 = 3.142 106
(Notice what happens with the powers inside and outside the brackets
when they are combined.)
I
Using the formula R = A , and replacing the symbols with the correct
numbers:
R = (28.2 109 10 103) Link
(3.142 106) For more worked examples,
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
R = 89.75 ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.5
Work out the resistance of the following conductors:
1 a 25 m length of 2.5 mm2 copper
2 400 m of 1.5 mm2 copper
3 50 m of 8 mm2 aluminium
4 25 m of 6 mm2 copper
5 100 m of 1 mm2 copper earth conductor.
15
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
The formula for resistance shows that resistivity, length and area directly
affect resistance but there is a fourth thing that can affect resistance,
temperature. Table 1.4 shows resistance specifically at room temperature,
20C. This is not always the case as you will install in very hot locations
such as boiler rooms or very cold locations such as industrial freezers. Heat
excites electrons and makes them move around faster, bumping into each
other on their travels. This movement causes more resistance. If a conductor
is placed in a hot environment, there will be proportionally more resistance
(think how much less gets done on a hot sunny day!). The amount the
resistance changes with temperature is due to the temperature coefficient
of the particular conductor and is given by the formula:
Rf = Ro(1 + t)
where t is the temperature change in C, is the temperature coefficient
(measured in //C: assume copper to have a value of 0.004 //C), Ro is
the resistance at 0C (in ) and Rf is the final resistance (in ).
Worked example
A length of copper has a resistance of Ro = 2 at 0C what would its
resistance change to if the temperature increased to 20C?
Rf = Ro(1 + t)
Rf = 2(1 + 0.004 20)
Rf = 2.16
16
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
H3 H1 H3 H2 H1
H2
17
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Supply
The voltage pressure required to force electrons to break free and flow is
across the resistors. If, as per Figure 1.9, there are three resistors, there will
be three voltage pressures, one across each resistor. The supply voltage
is across all three but this will be divided up proportionally across each
resistor, depending on the size of the resistor the current has to overcome.
The resistance in a series circuit must be the total of the individual
resistances added together:
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
The relationship between R, V and I is also known by the formula:
V
R= I
Based on these two facts and a known supply voltage you will be able to
work out what current is being forced to flow.
18
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example
The supply in the circuit is 12 V and the resistors are all 2 each. Chapter
Step 1 add the resistors up:
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
1 19
Rt = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6
Step 2 now apply the relationship formula called Ohms law Unit
(rearrange to make I the subject, as discussed earlier in the chapter, and
remember current is measured in amps, A).
Step 3 put the known values into the formula and find the value of
current flowing in this circuit:
V
I=
R
12
I= =2A
6
Because there is only one path for the current, the current will be
the same wherever it is measured in a series circuit and is said to be
constant. The only way the current will change is if the voltage supply is
changed or the resistors are replaced with other values.
Lets look at this series circuit in a little more detail. If the current is a
constant 2 A anywhere in this series circuit and the resistor values are
all fixed at 2 , it should be possible to work out the individual voltage
pressure across a single resistor by applying Ohms law again. Ohms law can
be applied to each part of the circuit.
The current in resistor 1 is 2 A, the resistor has a value of 2 , so using Ohms law:
V1
I =
R1
V1 = I R1
V1 = 4 V
This calculation is carried out across all three resistors, giving 4 V across
each resistor. The potential difference between one end of the resistor and
the other is known as voltage drop.
If all the individual voltage drops across each resistor were added up, it
would equal the supply voltage for this series circuit:
Vt = V1 + V2 + V3
Vt = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 V
Key term
Voltage drop and the regulations
Load refers to any component
If there is a very long cable it is effectively made up of lots of series of or device that requires power in a
connected resistances. If a load is connected to the very end of the cable circuit, for example a light, motor
you would need to ensure there was a high enough voltage available to or cooker.
run the device.
19
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
! Safe working
All electrical circuits must be
Activity 1.6
For each of the five examples below, calculate:
checked for voltage drop. If the
the total resistance
voltage drop is greater than 3 per
cent for lighting and 5 per cent the total circuit current
for power, the circuit needs to the voltage drop across each resistor.
be redesigned and will probably 1 A series circuit has three resistors: R1 = 3 , R2 = 6 , R3 = 9 and is connected
require a larger conductor. across a 12 V supply.
2 A series circuit has four resistors: R1 = 1.2 , R2 = 2.6 , R3 = 9 , R4 = 9 and is
connected across a 24 V supply.
3 A series circuit has five resistors: R1 = 12 , R2 = 36 , R3 = 29 , R4 = 5 , R5 = 6
and is connected across a 36 V supply.
4 A series circuit has four resistors: R1 = 2 k, R2 = 3 k, R3 = 6.7 k, R4 = 5 k and is
connected across a 230 V supply.
5 A series circuit has four resistors: R1 = 1.7 M, R2 = 2.3 M, R3 = 2.9 M, R4 = 5.7 M
and is connected across a 400 V supply.
Parallel circuits
Resistor R1
Instead of connecting the conductors end on to make one long resistive
conductor, imagine connecting them side by side (see Figure 1.10).
Resistor R2
In a parallel circuit the voltage source will push the electrons around until
I they reach a junction. At the junction the electrons have two choices they
now have two paths to travel down. Current is very lazy and will travel
Figure 1.10: Parallel circuit down the path of least resistance. If the paths were of equal resistance, an
equal proportion of electrons would flow down each one the resistance
is effectively halved. If there were three equal resistors or conductors
connected in parallel (next to each other), then the overall resistance effect
would be one third, allowing the current to split into three equal parts. This
is different to the series circuit where the current was constant. Now the
voltage is a constant pressure as it is connected across the three resistances.
The current is now the thing that varies as it leaves the source, splits into
three at the junction, passes through each of the three resistors and then
joins back together again at the other junction.
It = I1 + I2 + I3
Key fact
With resistors in series it is straightforward to find the overall effect simply
In a parallel circuit, the current
varies and the voltage is a
add them up. Resistors in parallel need to be added up as fractions as we
constant. have seen; two identical resistors in parallel equate to half of one resistor
and three identical resistors in parallel equate to one third of one resistor.
20
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example
Now consider R1 = 5 and R2 = 7 :
1 1 1
= +
Rt R1 R2
1 R2 + R1
= now, put in the values:
Rt R1 R2
Rt 5 7
=
1 7+ 5
35
Rt =
12
Rt = 2.92
If the supply voltage is 12 V, what is the total circuit current?
The total resistance is 2.92 and the total supply voltage is 12 V, so
apply Ohms law to find the total circuit current:
V
I=
R
12
I= = 4.1 A
2.92
If the total circuit current is 4.1 A and this is the value that leaves the
supply travelling towards the junction between the two resistors what
happens when it reaches this junction? It splits but how much goes
down each branch? Apply Ohms law to each resistor to find out.
Step 1 the total current is 4.1 A and the total voltage dropped across
both resistors in parallel is 12 V. If the voltage across R1 (5 ) is 12 V,
applying Ohms law to resistor R1 gives the following:
V
I1 =
R1
12
I1 = = 2.4 A
5
Step 2 now applying Ohms law to the other resistor, R2, gives the
following:
V
I2 =
R2
12
I2 = = 1.7 A
7
21
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Step 3 to prove the branch currents are correct, simply add them:
Chapter It = 2.4 + 1.7 = 4.1 A
1 Tip: always sketch out the circuit and label it as it will make the task
quicker in the long run.
Activity 1.7
1 A parallel circuit consists of two resistors: R1 = 2.4 and R2 = 1.2 . If they are
connected to a 12 V supply, calculate:
(a) the total resistance
(b) the total circuit current
(c) the current in each resistor.
2 The circuit in Question 1 has a third resistor connected in parallel of 5.9 . Carry out
the same calculations and find:
(a) the total resistance
(b) the new total circuit current
(c) the current in each of the three legs.
3 A parallel circuit consists of four resistors: R1 = 4 , R2 = 1.8 , R3 = 3.7 and
R2 = 6.7 . If they are connected to a 24 V supply, calculate:
(a) the total resistance
(b) the total circuit current
(c) the current in each resistor.
4 The circuit in Question 3 has a fifth resistor connected in parallel of 12.3 and the
voltage supply is changed to 40 V. Carry out the same calculations and find:
(a) the total resistance
(b) the new total circuit current
(c) the current in each of the five legs.
5 The circuit consists of four resistors connected in parallel. If R1 = 12 , R2 = R1+20%,
R3 = R2+20%, R4 = R3+20% and if the circuit is connected to a 36 V supply, calculate
and find:
(a) the individual resistor values
(b) the total resistance
(c) the total circuit current
(d) the current in each of the four legs.
22
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example
Calculate the total resistance of this circuit and the current flowing
through the circuit when the applied voltage is 110 V.
R1 10
R2 20 R4 10
R3 30
Activity 1.8
For Questions 1 and 2 below, calculate:
the total circuit resistance
the total circuit current
the voltage drop across each resistor in the network.
1 A parallel resistor network containing four equal 4 resistors is connected to a fifth
series resistor, R5, with a resistance of 12 . If the whole circuit is connected across a
12 V supply, carry out the calculations above.
2 The same circuit as Question 1 has all five resistors replaced with 3 resistors and
the supply is changed to 24 V. Carry out the calculations above.
23
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Power in a circuit
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Clearly, when an
Chapter electron is forced free from an atom and pushed around a circuit, work
1
must have been done. Power is also the heating effect of passing a current
through a conductor you probably have a heater at home that has a
power rating written on it somewhere. The power rating describes how
much heat can be expected the higher the power rating, the higher the
heating effect.
The basic power formula for a circuit with a known voltage and current is
given by the following:
P=IV
Ohms law can be used to give another power formula:
V=IR
The Ohms law formula for V can be put into the power formula:
P = I (I R)
P = I2 R
By rearranging Ohms law again to make I the subject, you can put this into
the power formula to get a third formula for power as follows:
V
I =R
( )
V
P= R V
V2
P=R
Worked example
A resistor has a current of 20 mA passing through it when a voltage
supply of 200 V is connected across it. What is the power?
Link P=VI
For more worked examples, P = 200 20 103
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma. P=4W
Activity 1.9
1 Calculate the power if a 100 m resistor is connected to a 36 V supply.
2 What is the resistor value if the power is 10.2 W when a current of 3.9 A passes
through it?
3 If the voltage across a 1.2 k resistor is 210 V, what is the power dissipated?
4 A voltmeter registers 125 V across a resistor and an ammeter reads 30 A. What is the
power dissipated in the resistor?
5 What is the voltage drop across a 15 resistor when the power measures 120 W?
24
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
25
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
V R
R
V V
Figure 1.14: Voltmeter in circuit Figure 1.15: Multimeter measuring voltage
26
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
If the voltage is known, the internal battery supply of the meter and Instrument
the current can be measured by the ammeter, then Ohms law can be
applied. The ohmmeter connects the meter battery across the load to
be measured. The current that flows around the circuit is dependent
on the resistor. The meter divides the battery voltage by the current
flowing and gives the resultant value for resistance. Care has to be
taken to make sure any extra resistance introduced by the test leads is
taken into account. The lead resistance can be measured by touching Resistance under test
the probes together and then making a note that this needs to be Figure 1.17: Ohmmeter
taken off the final reading. Most modern meters have a built null
facility. By pushing the null button while holding the probes/crocodile
clips together, the meter display will return to zero and is ready to be
reconnected to the circuit to be tested.
Measuring power quantities wattmeter
In the same way that an ohmmeter uses the combination of voltage
meter and ammeter, the wattmeter can follow the same principle to
measure power in watts. For a d.c. circuit, power can be measured by
taking a voltmeter and ammeter reading and then multiplying together:
P=V I
27
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
In the a.c. world this is not as straightforward as there are other things
to consider such as capacitance, inductance and impedance these are
reactions to a.c. current that will be covered later in the chapter. These
Chapter
reactive components have a slightly different effect on the current if
1 compared to just resistance, and need to be taken into account. For this
reason a.c. single-phase power is measured using the same formula as
above but is also multiplied by a power factor as follows:
P = V I (Power factor)
P = VI cos
A full description of the types of power will be expanded on in a later
chapter but at this stage it can be considered as a decimal multiplier
that is a value less than 1 (1 being perfect). Power factor at this stage
can also be considered as a power efficiency multiplier that needs to
be considered in all a.c. circuits that contain a capacitor or coil (power
factor will be covered fully later on in this chapter). You will need to
measure the true power being consumed in a circuit which is why a
specially connected wattmeter is required. The wattmeter usually has
four terminals two for the voltage coil and two for the current coil, as
shown in Figure 1.18.
Measuring three-phase power quantities
W1 W2 If a single-phase supply can be measured in the way just described,
then so can one phase on a three-phase supply, in theory. This can
P1
only happen if all the phases are balanced drawing the same current
Load and at the same voltage level. If the three phases are balanced, then
P2 the reading for one phase can be simply multiplied by three to give
the total power. The wattmeter would be connected, as shown in
Figure 1.19 below. You would only take a power reading like this if the
Figure 1.18: Wattmeter connected to load three phases were balanced, otherwise there could be errors.
W1 W2
Br
P1
P2
Wattmeter
Bu
Gy
Bl
28
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Br W
Bu
Gy W
Bl W
Each of the wattmeters readings would then be taken and added to give an
overall value:
True three-phase unbalanced power = power W1 + power W2 + power W3
There are lots of other methods to measure power but they are not covered
at this level of study.
29
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Strength of a magnet
From Figure 1.21 you can see the lines of flux.
The concentration of flux lines determines how
strong the magnet will be. Magnetic flux, with
the symbol , is measured in webers, Wb. The
concentration of flux lines or magnetic flux
density, B, is how many flux lines are in a specific
area of the magnet. Hence, it is measured in
webers/m and found by the formula:
B= A
30
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example 1
Calculate the magnetic flux density of a magnet with a flux 2 Wb and Chapter
cross-sectional area of 0.13 m.
B= A
Link 1 31
2 For more worked examples,
B = 0.13 = 15.38 go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma.
Unit
Activity 1.10
1 What cross-sectional area does a magnet need to have to produce a magnetic flux
density of 5 T when the magnetic flux is 5 Wb?
2 What is the magnetic flux density of a magnet with a cross-sectional area of 0.3 m
and a flux of 4 Wb?
3 What is the magnetic flux of a 160 mT magnet with a cross-sectional area of 200 mm?
4 A magnet of flux 120 Wb and cross-sectional area 200 mm2 is required to have a
flux density of 1 T to be used as a fire door magnet. Is this magnet strong enough to
hold the fire door open?
5 A motor requires a magnet with a flux density of 0.65 T. If the flux is 200 mWb, what
is the cross-sectional area of the magnet?
Electromagnetism
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced
around that conductor. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional
to the amount of current passing through the conductor. It can only exist Direction of
while the current is flowing. Control of an electromagnet can be achieved current
by simply putting a switch into the circuit.
It is important for lots of applications to know the direction in which the
Direction
magnetic field is going. Motor movement is caused by the interaction of flux
of magnetic fields, so it is a good idea to know which way the motor will
start spinning. The concentric circles of magnetic flux lines stretch along
Figure 1.22: Lines of magnetic force set up
the whole length of a current-carrying conductor and the flux direction is
around a conductor
relative to the direction of current, as can be seen in Figure 1.22.
Maxwells screw rule
An easy way to work out which way the flux lines are running is to imagine
putting a screw into a piece of wood. As the screw is turning clockwise it
is going into the wood. The direction of the screw is the direction of the
current flow (away from you and into the wood) and the clockwise rotation
represents the rotation of flux lines, as per Figure 1.23 below. This is known
as Maxwells screw rule and is named after the scientist who discovered it.
31
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Direction of
current
Resultant
force
Direction of
current
If the current is made to travel in the same direction, at the point between
the conductors, the lines of flux would be going in opposite directions
opposites attract so the conductors would move closer together.
This principle is how motor movement is created. Now consider putting
a current-carrying conductor into a permanent magnetic field. With no
current flowing the conductor will not have any magnetic properties but
when the current is switched on, invisible concentric flux lines will appear
along the length of the conductor. What exists now are two magnetic fields:
one from the permanent magnets going from north to south and one from
the conductor with induced electromagnetic field lines. These will interact
and movement will occur the trick is to work out which way.
The solenoid
A solenoid is a number of turns of insulated conductor wire closely wound
in the same direction to form a coil. The coil is held in place by a core
called a former. If the coils are connected to a circuit with a current supply
and a switch, a solenoid is created. The direction of the current dictates
the polarity of the electromagnet. Imagine taking your right hand and
wrapping your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the current
flow; your thumb will point to the North Pole.
32
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Direction of Cylinder
magnetic force Chapter
Coil
1 33
Unit
The control circuit
Low current Pump
controls such
as time switch, Main contacts
sensor and
coil
thermostat
e.g. 5 A 400 V 3 F high current supply
e.g. 100 A
Control circuits often use one supply to switch another, e.g. a low
current supply to switch a high current load. An example of this
is a heavy-duty pump operated by a time switch and thermostat.
Figure 1.26: The principle of the solenoid coil and simple control circuit
The solenoid is a temporary magnet that acts like a permanent bar magnet
when switched on. Applications include relays, contactor controls, fire
doors, bells and buzzers, residual current devices (RCDs) and miniature
circuit breakers (MCBs).
Consider replacing the battery source with an ammeter and then pushing a
magnet into the coil at speed what will happen? The ammeter will show a
current is flowing.
Lenzs law for induced current
As shown with the simple generator, for an electromagnetic field (emf) and
current to be generated, there must be movement. With the example shown
in Figure 1.27, you could either move the coil or the magnet. As long as there
is movement, an emf will be generated and subsequently an induced current.
Lenzs law gives a clue as to what direction the current will flow.
Lenzs law states:
The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the change
causing it. Direction of movement
This can be seen in Figure 1.27: as the magnet moves into the coil, the
ammeter shows a negative deflection. But if the magnet is pulled out of the
N S N S
coil, the current deflection will be positive.
Magnet
There are also other factors that can affect the induced emf and current. Coil or loop
have a direct effect on the induced emf and current. The quicker the
movement, the larger the measured current.
Ammeter
A larger number of coils will increase the current generated.
A larger magnet will mean larger current. Figure 1.27: Induced emf and current
33
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
1 Spring
and move towards it. This principle is used for a door bell with a spring-
loaded iron plunger sitting close to the de-energised solenoid coil.
Off
When the switch is closed the iron plunger is drawn into the solenoid
coil and hits the bell, as shown in Figure 1.28.
Supply
Residual current devices (RCDs)
RCDs, miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) and RCBOs make use of
electromagnetism in their operation. In the heart of an RCD is the toroid
core. Under normal operating conditions this core is not magnetised.
Wound around the magnetic core are two main current-carrying coils:
one for the line conductor and one for the neutral conductor.
On
Supply
Trip coil
Figure 1.28: Operation of a switch in Toroid
the off and on positions on a solenoid in
a door bell Supply
Test button
Earth terminal
Earth electrode
Load
Figure 1.29: An RCD
As long as the current on the line matches the current on the neutral, the
induced magnetism in the toroid core cancels each other out. If, however,
there is a slight leakage to earth (a contact between the live and earth)
there will be an imbalance in the two coils. This imbalance will mean the
induced magnetic flux will not be the same on both sides of the core and
a third coil that sits between the line and neutral coil will detect a new
Figure 1.30: An RCBO generated magnetic flux. This search coil will trip a relay and cut the circuit
off instantly, making it safe.
Key terms Contactor control and relays
Toroid a small transformer Contactor controls use the electromagnetic principles of a solenoid.
designed to detect imbalance In a domestic situation, to turn a light on and off all that is required is a
generated by earth fault currents.
light switch. This is because the voltage and current levels involved are
Search coil also known as the
trip coil.
accordingly low. If the requirement was to switch much bigger currents,
Contactor a switch that uses
a different method might be better. A contactor control will use a small
small currents to control large current to energise a relay which in turn will pull over a much bigger
currents. It is generally found in contactor. As the contactor is pulled over, a contact bridge is made for the
industrial applications such as larger load current to flow through. In this way the small control current is
motor control.
kept very separate from the load current.
34
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
In Figure 1.32 it can be seen under normal conditions the switch is open
and is termed normally open. When the coil in the relay is energised the
light is switched on. Contactor relays can be configured in many different
Chapter
ways but remember contactors are still only simple switches and if you can
follow a wiring diagram you will be able to wire a contactor. 1 35
Force on a conductor
A current-carrying conductor will move with a certain force when placed in
a magnetic field. The force on a conductor is directly related to three things: Unit
Worked example
A 3 m conductor is placed in a magnetic field of 3 T when a current of
3 A is turned on. What force is exerted on the conductor?
Link
F=BIL For more worked examples,
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
F = 3 3 3 = 27 N
ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.11
1 Calculate how long a conductor is when placed inside a 4 T magnetic pole pair.
A force of 6 N is experienced when the current is 20.9 mA.
2 What force will a 0.6 m conductor experience if it has a 3 mA current flowing through
it and is placed in a 5 T magnetic flux?
3 Calculate the magnetic flux density of a 22 m current-carrying conductor that is
carrying a current of 2 A and experiences a force of 3 N.
4 What current is flowing in a conductive armature of 0.3 m length when it
experiences a force of 0.68 N when moving through a 2 T magnetic field?
5 How long does a conductor need to be to experience a force of 3 N when a current
of 250 mA passes through it? The magnetic flux density is 350 mT.
35
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
N Rotation
Thumb = motion
Output (a.c.)
First finger Figure 1.34: An a.c. generator
= field
The generated voltage and current can be found using Flemings right-hand
or generator rule, as shown in Figure 1.35.
To work out the direction of the current flow generated, line up the first
finger in the direction of the permanent magnet field. Now align the thumb
in the direction the conductor is being moved. The second finger will show
Second finger the direction of the current generated.
= current
Worked example
If a conductor with a length of 0.4 m is moving at right angles to a
magnetic field density of 1.5 T and is moving with a velocity of 3 m per
Link second, what is the induced emf in the conductor?
For more worked examples, E=BIV
go to www.Pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma. E = 1.5 0.4 3 = 1.8 V
36
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Activity 1.12
1 A 0.2 m long conductor moves through a magnetic field of density 12.3 T at a
velocity of 1800 cm/minute. Calculate the emf induced in the conductor. Chapter
2 A conductor is moved through a magnetic field of flux density 200 mT at a velocity
of 18 000 mm/minute. The conductor is twice the length of the conductor in the 1 37
previous question. What emf is generated?
3 What is the velocity of a 15 m conductor that generates 230 V when moved through
a 15 T magnetic field?
Unit
4 What speed is required to generate a voltage of 210 V when the generator
components consist of an armature of 12 m and a magnet of flux density 2.1 T?
5 A voltage of 120 V is required from a generator with an armature of length 13 m and
that has a maximum velocity capability of 10 rev/s. What size magnet is required?
Sinusoidal waveform
Instantaneous value
As discussed earlier, an alternator will produce a sine wave, otherwise
known as an alternating current (a.c.). In the UK the a.c. supply is 50 Hz. As
the loop conductor passes through and cuts the largest concentration of
magnetic field lines, the largest current is made. As the conductor rotates to
the vertical point, no flux lines are cut and no emf or current is induced. At
any point in time of the cycle the instantaneous value of voltage or current
can be taken. In electrical terms, this value is called the instantaneous value.
Average value
If the sine wave was split up into a number of time samples, an average
value could be taken. Using the standard method of averages in maths:
The sum of the instantaneous values
Average value (mean) = The number of samples
If more samples are taken the average value (or mean) could become much
more accurate. Over an entire 360 sine wave, the average value would be
0, as in a symmetrical sine wave the negative part of the wave is identical
and opposite to the positive section so they cancel each other out. Over
half a cycle, say the positive part, the average would work out as follows:
1
Average value (mean of 2 cycle) = Maximum peak value 0.637
Peak value
Peak to
When the loop conductor is horizontally between the magnet poles it is peak value
cutting the highest concentration of magnetic flux lines. Following the 360
theory that this is when the largest emf will be generated, then this means
this will be the peak value. The positive part of the cycle will have a peak
value and so will the negative part of the sine wave.
If a measurement is taken from the peak of the positive cycle to the
trough of the negative part, this is the peak to peak value, as can be seen
in Figure 1.36. Figure 1.36: Peak to peak value
37
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
1
current is passed through a conductor with resistance it has a heating effect
which is constant because the current is a constant. When an alternating
! Safe working
Meters measure rms values. The
current is connected to the same conductor, the heating effect will be
different because the current grows to a maximum and then shrinks to
peak value will actually be larger
0 before changing direction and growing to a maximum in the opposite
by a factor of 1.414. direction. The best way to work out the effect of a.c. is to work out its
equivalent if it were d.c. This is done by calculating the rms value.
If the heat produced by 1 A of d.c. is equal to 100C then 1 A of a.c. current
would produce 70.7C of heat. This heating effect gives the comparison
230 V required to find the rms value using the following formula:
Heating effect of 1A maximum a.c. 70.7C
Heating effect of 1A maximum d.c. = 100C = 0.707
1 2 3
Therefore:
The effective rms value of an a.c. waveform = 0.707 Imax
And if the formula is rearranged to find the maximum value of current, it
becomes:
230 V
Imax= Irms 1.414
In Figure 1.37 a comparison of a constant d.c. supply (1) is made with an a.c.
1 21 2supply
3 3 peak value (2). Waveform 3 shows what an a.c. supply
with the same
would need to be to have the same heating effect as the constant d.c.
supply. From this diagram it can also be seen that the domestic 230 V a.c.
supply is actually a lot more than 230 V peak. A domestic 230 V supply has
a peak of 325.22 V and an rms value of 230 V. Most a.c. values and readings
230 V from meters are rms values.
Sine wave frequency and period
50 Hz is the standard frequency in Europe. This means 50 full cycles where
2 3
1 2 3
a wave starts and returns to the same place in one second. If 50 cycles were
drawn out in a line to represent 1 second of time, that would mean 1 cycle
is one fiftieth of a second. This can be shown in the following formula:
Figure 1.37: Peak value diagrams 1
Frequency = The time for one cycle, T
Worked example
What is the period for a 50 Hz supply?
1
T= f
Link
For more worked examples, 1
go to www.Pearsonfe.co.uk/ T = 50 = 0.02 or 20 mS
ElectricalInstDiploma.
38
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Activity 1.13
1 If a wave form has a period of 50 s, what is the frequency? (Dont forget to take
great care with the units and convert to base values.) Chapter
2 If one third of a full sine wave cycle is 33 mS, what is the frequency?
3 A square wave reaches its maximum value of 3 V twice in 20 mS. What is the
1 39
frequency of this square wave?
4 A 100 GHz signal is measured on an oscilloscope. What is the length of one cycle?
5 If a sine wave has a frequency range 1012 kHz, what is the period range? Unit
Electrical equipment
The d.c. generator
A single conductor that is moved through a magnetic field produces
an emf. Providing there is an electrical circuit, a current will flow. That
current will tend to move in the opposite direction to the movement
causing it. This is called Lenzs law for induced current (otherwise
known as Lenzs generator law). If the conductor length, the magnet
or the speed is increased, the induced emf and current will increase.
Imagine taking the conductor and making it into a loop, as shown in
Figure 1.38.
Rotating coil
N
Commutator S
B
Figure 1.38: A d.c. generator
39
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Rotation The coil can be moved around an axis by rotating it. As the conductor cuts the
magnetic field lines, an emf and current will be induced into the coil. If you
Chapter look at Figures 1.39 and 1.40, you will notice one side of the loop is moving
N S upwards and the other side is moving downwards to give the rotation.
1 As the loop reaches the horizontal position it cuts the highest density of
Figure 1.39: Wire loop within a permanent flux lines that exist directly between the magnet poles. However, as the
magnetic field
loop reaches the vertical position, it is moving parallel to the magnetic
flux lines not cutting any at all! From this you can see that most emf is
generated when the coil is horizontal and little or no emf is generated when
the coil is vertical. To connect the turning loop up to a circuit, a commutator
is used. For a single loop generator, a two copper segment commutator is
required. The commutator is split and separated by an insulated material.
A B C D A
+ Copper segment
N S N S N S N S N S
A B C D A
(0) (90) (180) (270) (360)
Position Position Position Position Position
The circuit is now complete and the loop is rotating within the magnetic
field. The commutator allows the current to pass around the circuit in the
same direction, as can be seen in Figure 1.41. As the loop rotates, the brushes
keep contact with the moving commutator until the brushes reach the
insulated divider. At this point the loop is about to start on the second half of
its journey and the direction of the current changes. The commutator/brush
arrangement allows the current to keep flowing in the same direction as the
loop passes the vertical position.
To make a larger emf and current, more loops of wire are required. For each
extra loop, a further connection is required and this is achieved by adding
more segments to the commutator. In reality, lots of loops and segments
will make a much smoother d.c. current. An armature is made up of lots of
loops formed around a core for strength.
The brushes are made of carbon for several reasons. Carbon, as it heats up
with friction, has a negative temperature coefficient. This means that unlike
most metals, as it gets hotter its resistance gets less, making it a better
conductor. Carbon also self-lubricates to minimise friction. Springs behind
the carbon push the brushes on to the commutator segments to keep a
constant pressure and good contact. Timely maintenance is important to
make sure the carbon brushes are replaced when they have worn down.
40
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Rotation
Field
Chapter
Loop
N S 1 41
Carbon
brushes
Commutator Unit
The slip rings allow each end of the loop to be continuously connected
to their side of the circuit, so as the loop enters and leaves the magnetic
field, the current changes direction and this is fed to the outside circuit.
As the loop makes one full rotation (360), a full cycle of a.c. current is
generated. One full cycle is called a sine wave and contains a positive and
negative half cycle, as shown in Figure 1.42.
Induced a.c.
Leads from the
coil connected Carbon brushes
to slip rings press on slip rings
on the axle of
the coil
41
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
N S N S N S
Figure 1.44: Current-carrying conductor Figure 1.45: Field caused by two Figure 1.46: Current-carrying conductor in a
between two magnetic poles magnetic poles magnetic field
As can be seen from these figures, the top of the conductor is experiencing
a compression force as the flux lines are going in the same direction, hence
repulsion. However, at the bottom of the conductor, the induced flux lines
of the conductor and the permanent magnet are travelling in opposite
directions. This causes attraction. At the top of the conductor there is a push
and at the bottom a pulling force. This dual action will cause the conductor to
be forced downwards this is the d.c. motor principle.
A simple way to work out the direction of a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field is to use Flemings left-hand motor rule, as seen in
Figure 1.47.
Line up the first finger with the permanent magnetic field in the direction
of North to South. The second finger is lined up with the direction of
current flow. The direction of movement will now be shown by the
direction of your thumb.
42
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Energy in a coil
If there is current flow in a coil, there will be power. If there is power
there is work being done. Work done is the same as energy and energy
can be stored in a coil. If an inductive circuit is switched off, arcing Key term
can be seen in the form of a spark. It is this spark that needs to be RF suppression otherwise
suppressed to avoid interference in other circuits when a fluorescent known as radio frequency
suppression it is used to
light is switched on. Suppression is achieved by placing an RF suppress the high frequency
suppression capacitor across the starter switch terminals to soak up signal given off by arcing at
the spark energy. The stored energy within the coil can be calculated switch terminals as they operate.
from the following formula:
L I2
W= 2
where W is the stored energy measured in joules, L is the inductance
measured in henrys and I is the current in amps. The formula for coil energy
is shown here but will mainly be used at Level 3.
Primary Secondary
coil coil
43
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
44
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
45
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Worked example
Chapter What is the back emf generated within a 10 coil inductor when the flux
1
changes from 1.2 mWb to 5 mWb in 3 seconds?
E = N
t
(2 1)
E = N
3
(5 103 1.2 103)
E = 10
3
3.8 103
E= = 1.27 mV
3
VP Shell transformer
The shell form is a slightly more efficient configuration as there are three
legs to the shape and the coils are around the central pillar. The windings
VS can either be next to each other or wound on top of each other. As the
varying voltage creates the varying magnetic flux, the outer pillars act as
a parallel magnetic circuit, as can be seen in Figure 1.51.
Figure 1.51: Shell-type transformer Transformer calculations
Transformers are all about ratios. If you can find the ratio values and you
have one of the voltages or currents involved, you can work out the rest.
Points to consider:
1 A transformer can be used to step up or step down a current or
a voltage.
2 A voltage transformer will step down if the secondary windings are
less than the primary windings.
3 A voltage transformer will step up a voltage if the secondary windings
are more than the primary windings.
4 A current transformer is completely the opposite to a voltage
transformer.
5 A current transformer will step down a current if the secondary
windings are more than the primary windings.
6 A current transformer will step up a current if the secondary windings
are less than the primary windings.
7 Unless otherwise stated, the power rating on both sides of the
transformer are the same this means that the primary voltage the
primary current = secondary voltage secondary current.
8 The formula for transformers is as follows:
Vp Np Is
= =
Vs Ns Ip
46
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Worked example
A transformer has a primary voltage of 230 V and primary windings Chapter
with 100 turns. The secondary windings are 50 turns. What is the
secondary voltage? 1 47
Step 1
What is this: a voltage or current transformer?
It is a voltage transformer. Unit
Step 2
Is it a step up or step down voltage transformer?
It is a step down transformer as there are fewer turns on the secondary
windings.
Step 3
What is the ratio?
The ratio is 100 : 50.
To simplify a ratio, simply divide both sides by the smallest number, in
this case 50, to give:
100 50
: =2:1
50 50
This is a 2 : 1 step down voltage transformer.
Step 4
Apply the ratio to the voltage to find what the secondary voltage
Link
should be.
For more worked examples,
230
= 115 V go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
2 ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.14
1 A transformer has a primary voltage of 230 V and a secondary of 12 V. If the primary
turns are 200, how many turns are there on the secondary side?
2 A core transformer has 3 A at the output and is supplied by 12 A, 400 V. What is the
secondary voltage?
3 A shell transformer has a turns ratio of 20 : 1 and a secondary voltage of 23 V. What is
the primary voltage?
4 A transformer is supplied with 200 V at 3 A. If the secondary current is 15 A, what is
the secondary voltage?
47
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
1
Winding
Iron core
L
100% of supply voltage
Vp 75% of supply voltage
50% of supply voltage
Vs Output
N
supply
One end of output
connected to a fixed
point on main winding
Used for loads which can operate at different voltages, e.g. starting
cage-type induction motors
230 V 24 V
supply Output
Used for extra low voltage loads, e.g. elv lamps and soldering irons there
is no direct electrical connection (including earth) which means that the
load is completely separated from main voltage
Auto-transformer
The main principle of transformers centres around the amount of coils on
the primary and secondary sides. The output voltage is dependent on the
turns ratio. If you were able to get access to the coils on the secondary side
and decide exactly where you wanted to take your output from, you could
effectively pick the amount of coils that made up your output. By varying the
secondary coils, the output voltage also can be varied. An auto-transformer
is a transformer having a part of its winding common to the primary and
secondary circuits. The advantage of only having one copper winding to pay
for can also be seen as a disadvantage, as there is one point of failure that
could make the transformer very dangerous. There is a direct electrical circuit
between the input and the output that could also lead to the input voltage
appearing at the output under fault conditions.
Auto-transformers are suited to applications such as starting cage-type
induction motors that require a variable voltage. Another type of transformer
design is required where complete electrical separation must be maintained at
all times.
48
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Isolating transformer
Where water is concerned, electrical separation is particularly important. Progress check 1.2
Transformers are still required to bring voltages down to extra low voltage 1 How do you calculate the Chapter
levels but the possibility of completing an electric circuit and getting a shock
1
energy stored in a coil?
must be minimised. Applications such as shaving sockets are supplied via 2 Define inductance in a coil.
isolating transformers that do not share a common earth. The two sides of the 49
3 What is the transformer
transformer are electrically separated from earth and from other systems. This formula?
means that a fault cannot give rise to the risk of electric shock.
Unit
Worked example
A photovoltaic solar panel has a mass of 48 kg. What weight force
would you need to consider when installing it on a roof?
M = 48 kg
Link
G = 9.81 ms-2
F = mg For more worked examples,
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
F = 48 9.81 = 470.88 N ElectricalInstDiploma.
49
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Activity 1.15
Chapter 1 What is the force due to gravity on a control panel with a mass of 15 kg?
1
2 What is the mass of a cable drum with a weight force of 108.2 N?
3 How many cable drums of mass 27 kg each can a trolley rated at 1 kN carry in one trip?
Worked example
How much work has been done if a force of 12 N moves a control panel
15 m across a room?
F = 12 N
Link D = 15 m
For more worked examples, W = Fd
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma. W = 12 15 = 180 J
Activity 1.16
1 What energy do you use when moving a street light from a highways depot store to
your van? It requires a force of 16 N and the distance is 25 m.
2 What energy is required when loading your van with three cable drums? Each drum
takes 10 N of force and the distance is 10 m.
3 How far do you move if the total work done moving your site lockup box is 2500 J
and the force used is 3 N?
4 What energy will be spent moving a 200 kg transformer core 12 m into position for
installation?
5 What energy will be used moving 7 25 kg photovoltaic panels 20 m from the
delivery pallet to winch position?
50
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Up until now you have just considered moving an object across a floor
now imagine moving an object up a floor, vertically. Every object has
potential energy or stored energy. An example might be a drill that is about
Chapter
to be picked up. This drill has potential energy it also has a known mass
(for example, a standard 36 V SDS cordless drill has a mass of around 3.5 kg).
To be picked up, you will also have to overcome the gravitational pull of the
1 51
Earth. The amount of potential energy is also related to how high the drill
will be raised.
Unit
This can be shown by the formula:
PE = m g h
Key term
Worked example
Fixed floor level (ffl) the finished
Consider this you have to drill a hole 1 500 mm above fixed floor floor level that is the starting
level (ffl). What potential energy (PE) will there be if the 3.5 kg SDS point for measurements. This term
drill is to be lifted from your tool box on the floor to the marked spot is often abbreviated to ffl.
on the wall?
PE = mgh
m = 3.5 kg
g = 9.81 ms2 Link
For more worked examples,
h = 1 500 mm = 1.5 m (convert to base unit of length, m)
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
PE = 3.5 9.81 1.5 = 51.5 J ElectricalInstDiploma.
Activity 1.17
1 Calculate the potential energy of a cable drum that has a mass of 50 kg and which is
to be lifted 0.75 m into the back of a truck.
2 Calculate the height a cable tray has been lifted if the potential energy is 1 kJ and
the mass is 20 kg.
3 Calculate the mass of a tool chest that has a potential energy of 250 J and requires
lifting 1.75 m back on to the store shelf.
4 Calculate the potential energy of a pallet of solar panels with a mass of 100 kg to be
lifted on to a roof at a height of 6 m.
5 A control panel for a motor is to be lifted up a 30 m riser. The control panel is labelled
up as 2000 N. What is the potential energy of the control panel?
51
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Power can be expressed as a relationship between work done and the time
taken, using the formula:
Work done (W)
Chapter Power, P =
Time taken to do the work (t)
1
Worked example
A 25 kg drum of mineral-insulated cable has to be pushed into the
storage lockup 30 m away. You have 2 minutes to complete the move
as your supervisor wants to leave site how much power will you use?
(Keep this simple and ignore considerations such as slopes and friction
in reality these would need to be considered but not at this level.)
Step 1 write down what you know/have been given:
m = 25 kg
d = 30 m
t = 2 mins = 120 s (convert to base unit of time, s)
F = mg
W = Fd
W
P =
t
Step 2 what can you work out from the facts you have?
F = mg
F = 25 9.81 = 245.25 N
and:
W = Fd
W = 245.25 30 = 7357.5 J (or 7.3575 kJ)
so:
Link W
P =
For another worked example, t
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/ 7357.5
P = = 61.31 W
ElectricalInstDiploma. 120
Activity 1.18
1 How much power will you use if you move a 50 kg crate of stripped copper 50 m to
the recycling bin in 5 minutes?
2 You use 500 kJ of energy moving a fluorescent bulb crushing machine from the
tailgate of a delivery truck to your electrical storage area which is 75 m away and it
takes you half an hour. How much does it weigh?
3 How much power will you use if you move a conduit bending machine (mass of
20 kg) a distance of 30 m in 30 seconds?
4 How much power will you use moving a pallet of contactors with a mass of 78 kg
from your van to the installation position 12.5 m away in 2 minutes?
5 You need to move a ground source heat pump 35 m from your secure lockup to the
installation point. The pump weighs 75 kg and you have 20 minutes to do the task.
How much power will you exert doing the move?
52
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Force
Fulcrum
Load
This lever system is similar to a see-saw where the fulcrum or pivot point is
in the middle. The force (person pushing) is at one end and the other end of
the lever is the load you are trying to lift.
Second order lever
Force
Fulcrum
Load
This type of lever system is found on a wheelbarrow. This time the fulcrum
and the force (person lifting) are at either end, with the load in the middle.
Third order lever
This type of lever system is similar to a person lifting a dumb-bell. The load
is at one end and the fulcrum is at the other end, with the force (muscle) in
the middle.
Each one of these systems will give a mechanical advantage and enable
more load to be moved. On a see-saw, for it to be balanced or in a state of
equilibrium, both sides of the pivot have to be identical.
53
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Chapter
1 Force
Fulcrum
Load
Figure 1.55: A third order lever
There is a rule that states the effort the length to the fulcrum must equal
the load the length to the fulcrum for it to be balanced. This means that if
you are trying to lift something really heavy, it can be done if you move the
fulcrum closer to the load. This can be calculated using the formula:
F1D1 = F2D2
where F1 is the effort, F2 is the load force you are trying to lift, and D1 and D2
are the distances to the fulcrum from the person and the load respectively.
Worked example
F1 F2
110 N ?
D1 D2
230 mm 770 mm
Link F1 D1
F2 =
For more worked examples, D2
go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma. F2 = 32.86 N (or 3.35 kg if you divide by gravity, 9.81)
Activity 1.19
1 A first order lever is used to raise a motor off the ground. The lever is 2.75 m long and
you are 1.9 m from the fulcrum. The motor is 200 kg. What force will you exert?
2 The same scenario as Question 1, but this time the motor has increased to 300 kg.
How much force will be required now?
Pulley systems
Levers are a good way of gaining mechanical advantage. Another way is to
use a pulley system. There are several types of pulley system available.
54
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Efficiency 50
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of useable output energy (or power) to
the energy (or power) you have to put in. The symbol for efficiency is
(Greek, eta). Simply, no machine is perfect and no matter how much 50
50 50 Applied force
energy you put into it, not all of it will be converted to something useful 50
50 9.81 = 490.5 N
like movement. Some energy or power will be lost in the form of heat,
vibration or generation of noise or smoke.
Efficiency is extremely important to an electrician, as you will need to
know how much electricity or effort to put into a machine to get the
output you want. If there are too many losses or there is too much wasted
energy, there may not be enough left to turn a motor or power a load. It is
worth noting that it is impossible for a system to be 100 per cent efficient. 200 kg
Efficiency is a ratio and has no units but is commonly shown as a Figure 1.57: A multiple pulley system
percentage. Efficiency can be expressed with the formula:
Useful output power (or energy)
Efficiency, = 100%
Input power (or energy)
Worked example
If the input power to a motor is 1100 W and the output power is 800 W,
what is the efficiency of the motor? Link
800 For more worked examples,
efficiency, = 1100 100% = 72.72% go to www.pearsonfe.co.uk/
ElectricalInstDiploma.
55
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Activity 1.20
1 A machine has losses of 3.1 kW and it requires 56 kW to run. What is the required
Chapter input power?
LO7
THE PRINCIPLES OF A.C. THEORY
You have looked at the d.c. world, including Ohms law and how current
and voltage are related to resistance. In a d.c. circuit the analogy to
water is very strong. If there is resistance then a larger pressure (voltage/
potential difference) is required to force the current through the
obstruction (resistance). This holds true for the a.c. single-phase circuits
as well. Three-phase a.c. circuits are the next logical step, which is why
they are covered last (and slightly out of order with the running order of
outcomes in the specification).
56
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
+ V
I Chapter
1
360
a.c. lamp
57
1 2
Unit
Figure 1.58: Circuit and sine wave diagrams
I V
+ V
I
360
I
90
V
Figure 1.60: Sine wave and phasor diagrams for capacitive circuit
I
Inductors in an a.c. circuit
A current in a conductor will produce a magnetic field, as shown earlier
in a solenoid. If the current is an alternating current, the magnetic field
will be continuously changing. By winding the conductor into a coil
90
V
57
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
The sine wave used to there will be a series of conductors next to each other. A
represent this inductive growing magnetic field in a coil will be cutting the coil next to
circuit would look like this: it and hence inducing a second emf and current. This emf and
Chapter
current will be in direct opposition to the voltage and current
1
+ V
causing it. A second emf created in this way is called back emf.
I
By having a second emf and current in opposition, the circuit
360
behaves like a big man pushing a small man. The small man
has an effect on the big man but the big man does eventually
win through (although a little weakened). The reality of an
inductor is that the current lags behind the voltage as the
coil resists any change in current flow. The property of a coil
to resist a changing electric current by the production of an
If we represented this as a phasor opposing back emf and current is known as inductance (L) and
diagram, we end up with: is measured in henrys (H). The back emf that occurs in an a.c.
circuit with a coil can cause a current to lag behind the supply
V voltage by up to 90, as shown in Figure 1.61.
90 Impedance
As you have now seen, the effects of a capacitor and an
inductor in an a.c. circuit on current are opposite. In reality an
Direction of a.c. circuit will contain capacitance and inductance, as well as
rotation resistance. The combined effect of all of these qualities of an
I a.c. circuit is known as impedance. In a d.c. circuit, Ohms law
states V = RI. For an a.c. circuit the same principle applies but
Figure 1.61: Sine wave and phasor the R is replaced with Z for impedance. Impedance is measured
diagrams for inductive circuit in ohms. More work on this subject follows in Chapter 6 but for
now all you need to appreciate is the concept that impedance
exists in an a.c. circuit and it is a combination of resistive and
reactive components.
Key term
Inductance the ability of a coil Characteristics of power quantities for an a.c. circuit
to resist a changing current
measured in henrys, H.
Power is defined as doing work or using energy in a set time. In a d.c.
circuit you have already looked at the concept of the heating effect
or power. Power is measured in watts and can be found by using the
formula P = VI. This is not the whole story for an a.c. circuit. Reactive
components (capacitors and inductors) make the current and voltage go
out of phase with each other. This is particularly troublesome when you
consider that a power reading is taken at an instant in time and at that
instant the voltage could be 0 V and the current could be 2 A. This would
mean that in this circuit at that particular instant in time, the power
could be 0 W.
The power in an a.c. circuit is therefore made up of three parts:
reactive power, KVAr (or VAr) due to the capacitors and inductors
true power, KW (or W) due to the resistive part of the circuit
apparent power, KVA (or VA) due to the overall combined effect of
impedance.
Power calculations are covered in Chapter 6.
58
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
59
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
LO5
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES IN STAR DELTA
Chapter
CONFIGURATIONS
1 An introduction to three-phase networks
Three-phase supplies (or poly-phase supplies as they are sometimes
referred to) are used in the UK to supply electricity to users. Electricity
is generated in the power stations as a poly-phase supply. Poly-phase
means multiple phases, in this case three phases, that have electricity
induced in each of them in turn. There are many reasons for generating
electricity in this way but the main benefits are cost, efficiency and ease of
transportation to customers.
You have looked at direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) but
as an electrician you will also work with three-phase supplies putting
it simply, three single-phase supplies that are connected together. An
a.c. single-phase supply consists of a live and a neutral wire but this
is not quite the case for a three-phase supply. Each live wire does not
necessarily need a separate neutral. A single-phase supply is generated by
spinning a loop of wire within a magnetic field. A three-phase supply is no
different apart from the fact that there are three loops of wire spinning.
If the three loops of wire are equally spaced out there will be an angle of
120 between each of the lines.
Br
N S
Bl Gy
As a loop rotates past a magnetic pole the moving conductor will have a
current induced in it the greater the density of magnetic flux lines that are
cut, the greater the induced current.
As the first loop passes the magnetic pole, the second loop will be
approaching (120 behind). This loop will go through the same growth in
current as it cuts across the most magnetic flux lines. This will occur again
for the third loop. The rotation of all three loops of wire through the magnet
poles produces three identical sinusoidal waveforms but each is separated
by 120. The way in which the three loops are connected together can
be changed. One method is to connect the end of one armature to those
of its two neighbour armatures. This type of connection is called a delta
connection. The other method is to connect one end of each loop together
at a central point and create a star connection.
60
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Delta connection
IBr
Chapter
VL
VP 1 61
IP
IBl
Unit
IGy
This type of connection has three lines only. Each end of the transformer
phase is connected to another to form a triangle configuration. To get a
supply voltage you connect between any two of the lines. There is only
one level of voltage that can be found. You can see from Figure 1.63 that
no earth or neutral are available on a delta configured system.
The current flowing through the transformer winding is called the phase
current and the current flowing through the line is called the line current.
As the current flows through the line and gets to the junction with the
other two phases, it has two other possible routes to flow down. This means
the current must split. On a delta system there are two different values of
current flowing. The two different currents can be found by the formula
IL = 3 IP. On a delta system there is only one voltage so VL = VP.
Star connection
IBr
VP
IN IP
IBl
VL
IGy
A star configured supply is the typical supply that can be found in your street.
It consists of three separate line conductors, each with a separate supply on
it. A star system also has a neutral and an earth conductor. You can see from
Figure 1.64 that the centre point of the star is connected down to earth and
also onwards connected to give an extra conductor this is the neutral.
61
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
A star connection has an advantage over the delta because not only can you
go across two lines to get a particular voltage, you can also connect between
any line and a neutral. Connecting between a line and a neutral will give a
Chapter
different voltage. This means two different voltage levels are available on
1 the star connected supply. If you connect between two lines you will get a
line voltage. If you connect between a line and a neutral (effectively across a
single-phase) you will get the phase voltage. In a domestic street supply the
line voltage would be 400 V and the phase voltage would be 230 V. These
voltages can be found by the formula VL = 3 VP .
The current flowing through the phase winding on a star system is also
called the phase current and the current flowing through the line is
called the line current. As the current flows along the line and reaches the
junction with the phase winding, there is only one route so the line current
and the phase current must be the same thing it simply travels along the
line, turns the corner and becomes the phase current. For this reason, IL = IP.
400 kV
Power station
11kV
33 kV
Transformers in local
sub-stations reduce
the voltage to 400/230V
for homes, shops
and offices.
Transformers reduce
the voltage to 33000 V
or 11 000 V for factories.
230 V 11kV
62
Chapter 1: Principles of electrical science
Case study
A college experienced such a rapid growth in learners that extra temporary buildings
were built to house them. The extra electricity required for heating, computers and
workshop machinery led to the supply becoming unbalanced. The neutral heated up
because one line in particular was supplying most of the extra current. When it snowed
and even more electricity was required, the path of the underground supply cable
melted the snow with the excessive heat produced. Eventually the supply transformer
fuse blew, putting the whole college into darkness for a few hours! The supply was
redesigned, balanced and a new supply was installed.
Key facts
1 For a star connected network, a balanced load is preferred as no current flows down
the neutral and means the neutral can be small.
2 A star connected supply (three line and neutral) has an advantage over delta because
of the neutral and the two different available voltages.
3 Delta has one voltage and two currents, star has one current and two voltages.
63
Level 2 Electrical Installations (Buildings and Structures)
Knowledge check
Attempt all 15 multiple choice questions, which are based on the basic science covered in this chapter. If you are not successful
Chapter
in getting all of the answers correct, go back over the chapter and attempt them again.
1 1 What is the unit for magnetic flux 6 A parallel circuit consists of two 11 A sine wave reaches the same peak
density? resistors: R1 = 2.5 , R2 = 1.2 . If the value twice in 50 mS. What is the
a Wb circuit is connected to a 12 V supply, frequency of the sine wave?
b T what is the total circuit current? a 50 Hz
c Hz a 10 A b 500 Hz
d b 1.5 A c 200 Hz
c 15 mA d 20 Hz
2 34 000 000 J can also be written as d 15 A
what? 12 What energy has been used moving
a 34 MJ 7 A parallel circuit has four resistors of a 200 kg transformer core 12 m into
b 340 kJ 1.7 M, 2.3 M, 2.9 M, 5.7 M. This position for installation?
c 3.4 MJ parallel circuit is now connected to a a 23.544 kJ
d 34,000 MJ 400 V supply. What is the total circuit b 2.44 kJ
current drawn by the loads? c 16.67 kJ
3 72 (3 3 + 3) can be simplified to a 617.3 A d 16.67 J
what? b 6.3 A
a 444 c 16 A 13 A motor is 97.3% efficient and
b 120 d 0.617 mA produces 16.7 kW of power at
c 588 its output. What input power is
d 882 8 What is the magnetic flux density of required to achieve this?
a magnet with a cross-sectional area a 16.25 kW
4 If copper has a resistivity of of 0.3 m2 and a flux of 4 Wb? b 19.4 kW
17.5 109, what is the c 17.16 kW
resistance of a 25 m length of a 13.33 T
d 1.6 MW
2.5 mm2 conductor? b 1.2 T
c 4.3 T 14 What is the best power factor?
a 1.75
d 43 mWb/m2
b 0.175 a Unity
c 17.5 9 A 280 kg mass is suspended by four b 0.99
d 175 ropes on a moveable pulley system. c 0.1
What is the mechanical advantage? d 0
5 What is the resistance of a series
circuit with resistors of 3 , 6 , 9 ? a 5 15 A transformer has a turns ratio of
b 2 3 : 1 and a secondary current of 3 A.
a 1.64
c 4 What is its primary current?
b 162
d 1
c 27 a 9A
d 18 10 What force will a 0.6 m conductor b 3A
experience if it has a 3 mA current c 0.1 A
flowing through it when placed in a d 1A
5 T magnetic field?
a 90 T
b 9.0 T
c 0.009 T
d 900 T
64