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When heat is added to a gas, the temperature increases and the gas expands. If the gas is in a
rigidcontainer, then the volume remains constant and the pressure increases. If the gas in in
a container that can expand (for example a cylinder with a vertical piston), then
the pressure remains constant but the volume expands.

The amount of energy required to increase the temperature of one mole of gas is called the specific
heat; there is a specific heat for constant pressure (Cp) and a specific heat for constant volume ((Cv).

In equation form, this is written:

Delta Q is the energy required to raise the temperature of the gas by a certain amount (delta T). The
specific heats for a few gases, including monoatomic gases such as helium and argon, and diatomic
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, are given in the table below.

Specific Heat of Some Gases

Gas Cv Cp Cp-Cv
Helium(H) 3.00 4.98 1.98
Argon(A) 3.00 5.00 2.00
Nitrogen(N2) 4.96 6.95 1.99
Oxygen(O2) 4.96 6.95 1.99
Carbon Monoxide(CO) 4.93 6.95 2.02
Carbon Dioxide(CO2) 6.74 8.75 2.01
Methane(CH2) 6.48 8.49 2.01
Note: All quanties are in calories(Kelvin*mole)

÷  Let X be the energy needed to raise the temperature of 5 moles of nitrogen held
at constant pressureby one degree. Let Y be the energy needed to raise 5 moles of carbon monoxide
by one degree with thepressure held constant. What is the ratio X:Y?

A. 5:7
B. 1:1
C. 7:5
D. 7:9

º
 B



  There is no need to do any calculations here. If you put X on top of Y, you will see that it
reduces to the ratio of Cp for nitrogen over Cp for carbon monoxide. And since both gases have the
same Cp, the ratio is simply 1:1.
÷ The difference Cp - Cv is a constant. This constant is often called R, the universal gas constant.
Which of the following is true given the data?

A. Vor a monoatomic gas, Cp = 3/2 R

B. Vor a diatomic gas, Cp = 3/2 R
C. Vor a monoatomic gas, Cv = 3/2 R
D. Vor a diatomic gas, Cv = 3/2 R

º
C



 Helium and argon are monoatomic gases, and we can see that Cv = 3/2 *R = (3/2)*2 =
3.

÷  How much energy would be required to heat two moles of methane by one degree if the gas is
kept atconstant volume?

A. 6.5 calories

B. 8.5 calories
C. 11 calories
D. 13 calories

º
D




 The definition of Cv is the amount of energy required to heat one mole of a gas by one
degree. Therefore, to heat two moles of methane by one degree will require 2*6.5 = 13 calories.

÷ Which of the following is a possible explanation for the fact that Cp is always greater than Cv?

A. Some of the energy is used to expand the container in order to maintain constant pressure.
B. A rigid container does not conduct heat as well as one that can change shape.
C. There are generally more moles of gas when the pressure is kept constant than when the
volume is kept constant.
D. There are generally fewer moles of gas when the pressure is kept constant than when the
volume is kep constant.

º
A



 Because Cp is always greater than Cv we know that it takes more energy to increase a
given amount of gas when the pressure is held constant. It is reasonable that the extra energy is used
to increasethe volume of the container.

÷  A certain amount of energy, X, is sufficient to raise the temperature of 60 moles of argon by T

degrees when the pressure is constant. How many moles of argon can be raised by T degrees with the
same amount of energy X, if the volume is held constant?

A. 30
B. 50
C. 75
D. 100

º
D
Discussion: You can use the two equations:

You are given that X = 60*5*T. Let n be the number of moles that can be heated to temperature T
with X calories of energy. Then X = n*3*T, and for this equation to be consistent with the previous
one, it must be that n = 100.

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When food is cooked, only some of the nutrients are preserved. Vood scientists performed two
experiments to study the retention of vitamin C after potatoes were cooked. The scientists measured
the retention ofascorbic acid (AA) and dehydroascorbic acid (DAA). The sum of the amounts of AA and
DAA equals the total amount of Vitamin C.


 
In this experiment, potatoes were peeled and then fried. The following table shows the stability
of ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid after frying. The concentrations of AA and DAA are given in
milligrams per 100 grams of dry potato.

Total Content of
DAA AA
Sample vitamin C
(mg/100g) (mg/100g)
(mg/100g)
Raw,
peeled potatoes before 7.4 44.6 52.0
frying
Vried potatoes
140o for 10 min 29.7 20.6 50.3
o
140 for 20 min 33.7 7.3 41.0
o
140 for 30 min 42.7 0 42.7
o
180 for 5 min 42.8 0 42.8


 
In this experiment, potatoes were peeled and then boiled in water with varying concentrations of
NaCl. The following table shows the stability of ascorbic acid (AA)and dehydroascorbic acid (DAA) after
boiling.

Total Content of vitamin

DAA AA
Sample C
(mg/100g) (mg/100g)
(mg/100g)
Raw peeled potatoes 7.4 43.1 50.5
Coocked in water 9.0 17.1 26.1
 Coocked in 1% NaCl 9.1 13.1 22.2
Coocked in 5% NaCl 7.1 11.2 18.3
Coocked in 10% 5.8 8.9 14.7
NaCl

÷ Which of the following statements accurately reflects the experimental results?

A. There is more DAA in fried potatoes than in raw, uncooked potatoes.
B. There is more AA in fried potatoes than in raw, uncooked potatoes.
C. There is more total vitamin C content in fried than in raw, uncooked potatoes.
D. There is more AA in fried potatoes compared with uncooked potatoes, but only if they are fried
at 140oC or lower.

º
A




  The concentration of DAA in uncooked potatoes is 7.4 mg/100 grams of dry matter. In
the four examples of frying, the DAA concentrations ranged from 29.7 to 42.8, clearly indicating an
increase.

÷ If some potatoes were boiled in a 10% NaCl solution, and there were 300 grams of potato left,
how many milligrams of vitamin C would there be?

A. 14.7
B. 17.4
C. 26.7
D. 44.1

º
D




  After potatoes are boiled in a 10% NaCl solution, there are 14.7 milligrams of vitamin
C per 100 grams of potato. Therefore, if there were 300 grams of potato, there would be 14.7 * 3 =
44.1 milligrams ofvitamin C.

÷ What concentration of ascorbic acid would you expect to see if potatoes were fried for 45 minutes
at 140oC?

A. 0 mg/100 grams

B. 7.3 mg/100 grams
C. 20.6 mg/100 grams
D. There is insufficient evidence to answer

º
A




  Although this question does break our rule concerning extrapolation, it is reasonable to
infer from the given data that the ascorbic acid will be depleted. The data show a decreasing
concentration until there is 0 mg/100 grams after 30 minutes of frying. Unless there is some process
by which AA is suddenly created as the frying proceeds, the concentration will stay at zero.

÷ 
 If a potato is boiled in water with 5% NaCl, about what percentage of the original vitamin
C will be lost?

A. 31%
B. 36%
C. 52%
D. 64%

º
D




  The table tells us how much Vitamin C will be retained. The concentration will be about
18 mg/100 grams of potato after cooking in a 5% NaCl solution, whereas for the uncooked potato,
the vitamin Ccontent is 50 mg per 100 grams. That means about 36% of the Vitamin C is retained.
But this means that about 64% is lost.

÷ All of the following explanations could account for the different pattern of DAA retention when
comparing frying and boiling except:

A. When immersed in water, the AA is less likely to oxydize to become DAA.
B. When immersed in water, DAA is hydrolized to become 2,3-diketogluconic acid.
C. Vrying increases the likelihood for DAA to break down into other compounds.
D. Vrying dries out the potatoes and reduces the tendency for DAA to hydrolyze.

º
C




  If it were true that frying increased the likelihood of DAA breaking down into other
compounds, then we would expect to see less DAA when frying than when boiling. But the opposite is
true, so this explanation must be false.

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Gamma ray bursts are bursts of very high energy electromagnetic radiation that astronomers have
observed to occur roughly once per week at random locations in the sky. These bursts present a
puzzle to scientists and two astronomers, Jesse and Becky, take different positions.
Jesse:
The bursts appear to be isotropic - that is evenly spread out in the sky. But our galaxy is disk shaped,
so if the sources were within our galaxy, then they would not appear uniformly across the sky.
Therefore, thegamma ray bursts must originate outside our galaxy.
Becky:
The problem is that each of these bursts contains a large amount of gamma radiation. If a single light
bulb appeared bright from a large distance, then it would have to be a very powerful bulb. The same
thing is true of gamma ray bursts. They appear bright to us, and if they are far away and if the
energy emanates from them in all directions, the source must be extraordinarily powerful. We do not
know of any mechanism in the universe that could produce that much energy. Therefore, the gamma
ray bursts must come from lower energy sources closer to us.

÷ Which of the following is an assumption made by Becky, but not necessarily by Jesse?
 A. Gamma ray bursts carry electromagnetic radiation.
B. The energy from a gamma ray burst spreads out evenly in a sphere.
C. Our galaxy is shaped like a disk.
D. The direction of a light source can be determined.

º
B




  Becky uses this assumption to argue that the source of energy must be enormously
powerful. But what if the gamma ray burst were directed in a thin beam at the Earth? Then an
astronmer would not have to worry that the energy we see on Earth is only one tiny tiny fraction
of the energy of the source. We might see most or all of the energy of the source, as if a light beam
were pointed directly at us. The assumption that the gamma radiation emanates in all directions from
its source is critical to Becky's argument, but Jesse may well disagree

÷ Which of the following new observations would most weaken the argument of Jesse?

A. Observations from the southern sky showing uniformly distributed gamma ray bursts.
B. Observations of bursts of x-rays coming from sources far outside our galaxy.
C. Observations showing that our galaxy is not actually disk shaped, and is in fact more like a
sphere.
D. Observations showing that earlier studies had overestimated the energy coming from gamma
raybursts.

º
C




  Jesse's essential point is that we see gamma ray bursts spread out in a shape that is
different from the shape of our galaxy. If it turns out that our galaxy is not disk shaped, and indeed is
spherical, then her argument is considerably weakened.

÷ Which of the following would most weaken Becky's argument that the bursts could not occur far
outside our galaxy?

A. New measurements showed that the bursts do occur in a disk shaped pattern.
B. The discovery that astronomical events occurring very close to the Earth also appear uniformly
across the sky.
C. The discovery that gamma ray bursts occur twice as frequently as previously thought.
D. The discovery that the collision of black holes could theoretically produce more energy than
any other known event.

º
B




  Becky's argument is based strongly on the fact that we do not know of any astronomical
events that could yield the energy required for the gamma ray bursts. If new sources of high energy
events are discovered, then her argument is weakened.

÷ The two astronomers disagree most as to:

A. the existence of gamma ray bursts.

B. the timing of the gamma ray bursts.
C. the location of the source of the gamma ray bursts.
D. the amount of energy reaching Earth from the gamma ray bursts.
º
C




  Jesse presents an argument to show that the gamma ray bursts must occur outside our
galaxy; Becky argues that the gamma ray bursts must occur closer to home. The two astronomers
differ most about the location of the source of the gamma ray bursts.

÷ Light from sources far from the Earth is often redshifted, which means that it has a longer
wavelength. Which of the following, if true, would most support Jesse's position?

A. Radiation from the gamma ray bursts is redshifted similarly to objects known to be within our
galaxy.
B. Radiation from the gamma ray bursts is redshifted in a pattern similar to objects known to be
far outside our galaxy.
C. The radiation is not redshifted at all.
D. The radiation is redshifted, but not in a way that is similar to any known objects.

º
B




  If the light from the gamma ray bursts has similar redshift to light from other sources
far outside the galaxy, then it would be evidence in favor of Jesse's position that the sources of the
bursts originate far outside our galaxy.

 ÷


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The following table represents the concentration of ions and dissolved gases in the sediment at the
bottom of an ocean. A depth of 0 centimeters (cm) represents the top of the sediment. The
concentrations are expressed in parts per million (ppm). The acidity of a solution is represented on a
scale known as pH. A pH of 1 is very acidic, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH of 14 is very basic.

Depth Temperature Concentration in sediment (ppm)

o
pH 2-
(cm) ( C) SO4 S2- CO2 Ve3+ Ve2+ O2
0 4 7.0 7.0 0.0 1.0 4.0 0.5 2.0
5 5 6.5 5.0 2.0 1.5 3.0 1.5 1.0
10 7 6.0 3.5 3.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.0
15 9 5.5 3.3 3.8 3.0 0.8 3.8 0.0
20 10 5.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 0.5 4.0 0.0

÷  According to the information provided in the table, the concentration of which of the following
ions and dissolved gases is constant for sediment depths of 10 cm or more?

A. Sulfide (S2-)

B. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
C. Verric iron (Ve3+)
 D. Oxygen (O2)

÷  The graph below best represents the relationship between concentration and sediment depth for
which of the following ions and dissolved gases?

A. Verrous iron (Ve2+)

B. Oxygen (O2)
C. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
D. Sulfate (SO42-)

÷  If the trends indicated in the table were to continue, one would predict the pH of the sediments
at a depth of 35 cm to be:

A. 1.5.
B. 3.5.
C. 4.5.
D. 6.0.

÷  A certain type of bottom-dwelling microorganism thrives under the following environmental
conditions: low concentrations of Ve2+, high concentrations of O2, and a neutral pH. Based on
the table, at which of the following sediment depths would one most likely find this microorganism?

A. 0 cm
B. 5 cm
C. 10 cm
D. 15 cm

÷  A researcher wants to determine whether an unidentified sediment sample was drawn from a
depth of 15 cm or 20 cm. Based on the information in the table, which of the following would NOT
confirm the depth of the sample?

A. O2 concentration
B. Ve3+ concentration
C. S2- concentration
D. pH