Well Testing

Introduction to Well Testing
Log-Log
Derivative
Battery Electric
section line section
Pressure maintenance
No-flow boundary
Mode
led re
servo
C-4 ir area
C-5
C-1
C-8
C-3
Microcontroller
C-7
UNIGAGE
recorder EEPROM data
section memory
Sensor
sub
section
CQG Customized Sapphire

sensor Quartzdyne sensor
sensor
Radial flow
Superposition
Paris,
July 1996
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing

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Paris,
July
1996
Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
Introduction to Well Testing
Table of Contents
Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 2

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Section 1.0 Basic Reservoir Engineering
1.1 Introduction - (Course Objectives)........................................................................... 1-3
1.2 History .................................................................................................. 1-3
1.3 Geology Recap .................................................................................................. 1-4
1.3.1 Rock Classification ...................................................................................... 1-4

1.3.2 Rock Properties........................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.2.1 Porosity....................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.2.2 Permeability................................................................................. 1-6
1.3.3 Hydrocarbon Accumulations .......................................................................... 1-7
1.3.3.1 Domes And Anticlines ................................................................... 1-7
1.3.3.2 Salt Domes And Plug Structures...................................................... 1-7
1.3.3.3 Faults.......................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.3.4 Unconformity................................................................................ 1-8
1.3.3.5 Lenticular Reservoirs...................................................................... 1-8
1.3.4 Reservoir Temperature And Pressure ............................................................... 1-8
1.3.4.1 Normal Pressure ............................................................................ 1-8
1.3.4.2 Abnormal Pressures ....................................................................... 1-9
1.3.4.3 Reservoir Temperature.................................................................... 1-9
1.4 Interacting Forces, Saturation And Displacement...................................................... 1-9
1.4.1 General .................................................................................................. 1-9

1.4.2 Surface And Interfacial Tension....................................................................... 1-9
1.4.3 Wetting .................................................................................................. 1-10
1.4.4 Capillarity.................................................................................................. 1-10
1.4.5 Saturation .................................................................................................. 1-10
1.4.6 Irreducible Water Saturation........................................................................... 1-11
1.4.7 Residual Oil ............................................................................................... 1-12
1.4.8 Relations Between Permeability And Fluid Saturation........................................ 1-12
1.5 Fluid Properties .................................................................................................. 1-13
1.5.1 Components Of Hydrocarbon ......................................................................... 1-14

1.5.2 Classification Of Hydrocarbons....................................................................... 1-15
1.5.3 Characteristics Of Formation Water ................................................................. 1-16
1.6 Phase Behaviour .................................................................................................. 1-17
1.6.1 Phase Behaviour Of A Single Component System ............................................. 1-17

1.6.2 Phase Behaviour Of A Multi-Component System .............................................. 1-17
1.6.3 Reservoir And Fluid Compressibility.............................................................. 1-19
1.6.4 Conversion Factors Between Surface And Downhole Volumes ............................. 1-19
1.6.4.1 Formation Volume Factor Of Gas, Bg ............................................... 1-20
1.6.4.2 Formation Volume Factor Of Oil, Bo................................................ 1-20
1.6.4.3 Formation Volume Factor Of Water, Bw ........................................... 1-21
1.6.5 Fluid Density Corrections ............................................................................. 1-21
1.6.5.1 Gas Density.................................................................................. 1-21
1.6.5.2 Oil Density .................................................................................. 1-21
1.6.5.3 Water Density............................................................................... 1-21
1.6.6 Viscosities.................................................................................................. 1-21
1.6.6.1 Gas Viscosity ............................................................................... 1-21
1.6.6.2 Oil Viscosity ................................................................................ 1-21
1.6.6.3 Water Viscosity ............................................................................ 1-22
1.6.6.4 Formation Compressibility ............................................................. 1-22

Table of Contents
1.7 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms .............................................................................................1-22
1.7.1 Oil Reservoirs..............................................................................................1-22

1.7.2 Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs........................................................................1-23
1.7.3 Gas Cap Expansion Drive Reservoirs ...............................................................1-23
1.7.4 Water Drive Reservoirs..................................................................................1-24
1.7.5 Discussion Of Recovery Efficiency ...................................................................1-26
Section 2.0 Completion Technology And Types
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................2-3
2.2 Completion Components .........................................................................................2-3
2.2.1 Production Tubulars .....................................................................................2-4

2.2.2 Packers ...................................................................................................2-4
2.2.2.1 Permanent Packers..........................................................................2-5
2.2.2.2 Retrievable Packer ..........................................................................2-6
2.2.3 Flow Control...............................................................................................2-6
2.2.3.1 Landing Nipples ............................................................................2-6
2.2.3.2 Sliding Side Door..........................................................................2-7
2.2.4 Subsurface Safety Systems..............................................................................2-8
2.2.4.1 Subsurface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves ...................................2-8
2.2.4.2 Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valves........................................2-8
2.2.5 Ancillary Components...................................................................................2-10
2.2.5.1 Wireline Entry Guide......................................................................2-10
2.2.5.2 Blast Joint ....................................................................................2-10
2.2.5.3 Flow Couplings.............................................................................2-10
2.2.6 General ...................................................................................................2-10
2.3 Completion Techniques ..........................................................................................2-12
2.3.1 General ...................................................................................................2-12

2.3.1.1 Open Hole Completions..................................................................2-12
2.3.1.2 Cased Hole Completions.................................................................2-12
2.4 Completion Types ..................................................................................................2-12
2.4.1 Natural Completions .....................................................................................2-14

2.4.2 Stimulated Completions................................................................................2-14
2.4.2.1 Hydraulic Fracturing.......................................................................2-14
2.4.2.2 Acidizing......................................................................................2-14
2.4.2.3 Extreme Overbalnce Perforating.........................................................2-15
2.4.2.4 Effects Of Perforation.......................................................................2-15
2.4.3 Sand Control Completions.............................................................................2-16
2.4.3.1 Production Rate Restriction .............................................................2-16
2.4.3.2 Gravel Packing ..............................................................................2-16
2.4.3.3 Sand Consolidation ........................................................................2-16
2.4.3.4 Resin Packs ..................................................................................2-16
2.5 The Effects Of Drilling On Completions..................................................................2-17
2.5.1 Pre-Formation Drilling..................................................................................2-17

2.5.2 Formation Drilling .......................................................................................2-17

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Section 3.0 Practical Well Testing
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 3-3
3.1.1 Productivity Well Testing............................................................................. 3-3

3.1.2 Descriptive Well Testing .............................................................................. 3-5
3.2 Test Design .................................................................................................. 3-6
3.3 Tubing Conveyed Perforating - Tcp ........................................................................ 3-10
3.3.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-10

3.3.1.1 Through Tubing Perforating ............................................................ 3-10
3.3.1.2 Casing Gun And High Shot Density Perforating (HSD)........................ 3-11
3.3.2 Benefits Of TCP.......................................................................................... 3-11
3.3.3 Equipment Selection .................................................................................... 3-12
3.3.4 Testing Requirements................................................................................... 3-13
3.3.5 Firing Heads ............................................................................................... 3-14
3.3.5.1 Differential Pressure Firing Head....................................................... 3-14
3.3.5.2 Hydraulic Delay Firing Head ........................................................... 3-14
3.3.5.3 Bar Hydrostatic Firing Head............................................................ 3-14
3.3.5.4 Trigger Charge Firing System ......................................................... 3-14
3.3.5.5 Redundant Firing Systems .............................................................. 3-16
3.3.6 Depth Control............................................................................................. 3-16
3.3.6.1 Procedure..................................................................................... 3-16
3.4 Drill Stem Testing Tools - Dst................................................................................. 3-19
3.4.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-19

3.4.2 Basic Requirements...................................................................................... 3-19
3.4.2.1 Packer ......................................................................................... 3-19
3.4.2.2 Test Valve ................................................................................... 3-19
3.4.2.3 Reverse Circulation Valve ............................................................... 3-19
3.4.2.4 Slip Joint..................................................................................... 3-19
3.4.2.5 Hydraulic Jar ................................................................................ 3-20
3.4.2.6 Safety Joint .................................................................................. 3-20
3.4.2.7 Safety Valve ................................................................................. 3-20
3.4.2.8 Gauge Carrier................................................................................ 3-20
3.4.2.9 Sampling Chamber Tool ................................................................ 3-20
3.4.3 Types Of Drill Stem Tests ............................................................................ 3-22
3.4.3.1 Open Hole Drill Stem Testing......................................................... 3-22
3.4.3.2 Cased Hole Drill Stem Testing........................................................ 3-22
3.4.4 New Technology ......................................................................................... 3-25
3.5 Subsurface Safety Systems ..................................................................................... 3-26
3.5.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-26

3.5.2 Subsea Test Package .................................................................................... 3-26
3.5.2.1 Subsea Test Tree........................................................................... 3-26
3.5.2.2 Retainer Valve .............................................................................. 3-27
3.5.2.3 Lubricator Valve............................................................................ 3-27
3.5.3 New Developments ...................................................................................... 3-27

Table of Contents
3.6 Surface Testing Equipment ..............................................................................................3-28
3.6.1 General ...................................................................................................3-28

3.6.2 Equipment ..................................................................................................3-29
3.6.2.1 Flowhead......................................................................................3-29
3.6.2.2 Choke Manifold.............................................................................3-31
3.6.2.3 Heater / Steam Exchanger ................................................................3-31
3.6.2.4 Test Separator ...............................................................................3-32
3.6.2.5 Gauge Tank ..................................................................................3-32
3.6.2.6 Pumps And Manifolds ....................................................................3-33
3.6.2.7 Burners ........................................................................................3-33
3.6.2.8 Emergency Shut Down Systems .......................................................3-33
3.7 Data Acquisition ...................................................................................................3-36
3.7.1 General ...................................................................................................3-36

3.7.2 Transducer Performance .................................................................................3-36
3.7.2.1 Static Parameters............................................................................3-36
3.7.2.2 Dynamic Parameters .......................................................................3-38
3.7.2.3 Calibration....................................................................................3-39
3.7.3 Pressure Transducer Technology .....................................................................3-39
3.7.3.1 Strain Gauge Sensors......................................................................3-39
3.7.3.2 Capacitance Sensors........................................................................3-40
3.7.3.3 Quartz Crystal Sensors....................................................................3-40
3.7.4 Surface Data Acquisition................................................................................3-41
3.7.5 Downhole Data Acquisition............................................................................3-43
3.7.5.1 Downhole Recording ......................................................................3-43
3.7.5.2 Surface Readout .............................................................................3-43
3.7.6 New Technology..........................................................................................3-44
3.7.6.1 Datalatch System ...........................................................................3-44
3.7.6.2 Wireless Telemetry ........................................................................3-44
3.7.6.3 Data Acquisition In Permanent Completions.......................................3-45
3.7.7 Formation Interval Testing.............................................................................3-45
3.8 Special Applications ...............................................................................................3-46
3.8.1 High Pressure High Temperature - HPHT .........................................................3-46

3.8.2 High Flow Rates..........................................................................................3-47
Section 4.0 Sampling Of Reservoir Fluids
4.1 Sampling Procedures Design ...................................................................................4-3
4.1.1 Samples Representivity .................................................................................4-3

4.1.2 Producing Conditions ...................................................................................4-5
4.1.3 Well Conditioning .......................................................................................4-6
4.1.4 Hydrocarbon Sampling Methods .....................................................................4-7
4.1.4.1 Bottom Hole Sampling...................................................................4-7
4.1.4.2 Surface Sampling ...........................................................................4-7
4.2 Sampling Of Oil Reservoirs ....................................................................................4-8
4.2.1 Preliminary Conditions On Oil Reservoirs........................................................4-8

4.2.2 Pre-Job Required Data...................................................................................4-9
4.2.3 New Wells Or Wells In Undepleted Zones ........................................................4-9
4.2.3.1 Undersaturated Reservoirs ................................................................4-9
4.2.3.2 Saturated Reservoirs .......................................................................4-9
4.2.4 Producing Reservoirs Or Wells In Slightly Depleted Zones..................................4-10
4.2.4.1 Gor Is Equal To Gori......................................................................4-10
4.2.4.2 Gor Is Higher Than Gori .................................................................4-10

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4.3 Sampling Gas Reservoirs........................................................................................ 4-10
4.3.1 Preliminary Considerations On Gas Reservoirs.................................................. 4-10

4.3.2 Gas Reservoir Sampling Procedures ................................................................ 4-12
4.3.2.1 New Reservoirs Or Wells In Undepleted Zones................................... 4-13
4.3.2.2 Producing Reservoirs Or Wells In Depleted Zones............................... 4-13
4.4 Sampling Of Volatile Oil Reservoirs........................................................................ 4-13
4.5 Bottom Hole Sampling ........................................................................................... 4-15
4.5.1 Well Conditioning For Bottom Hole Sampling ................................................ 4-15

4.5.2 Bottom Hole Sampling Procedures ................................................................. 4-15
4.5.3 Bottom Hole Sample Transfer Procedures......................................................... 4-17
4.5.4 Checking Bottom Hole Sample Validity .......................................................... 4-18
4.6 Surface Sampling .................................................................................................. 4-19
4.6.1 Well Conditioning For Surface Sampling......................................................... 4-19

4.6.2 Oil Surface Sampling Methods ....................................................................... 4-21
4.6.2.1 Piston Bottle Displacement Method.................................................. 4-25
4.6.3 Gas Surface Sampling Methods ...................................................................... 4-25
4.6.3.1 Vacuum Method ............................................................................... 4-25
4.6.4 Special Surface Sampling Cases...................................................................... 4-25
4.6.4.1 High Pressure Samples................................................................... 4-25
4.6.4.2 Multistage Separation System.......................................................... 4-25
4.6.4.3 Hydrogen Sulphide........................................................................ 4-26
4.6.5 Well Head Sampling Of Oil And Gas .............................................................. 4-29
4.6.5.1 Oil Sampling At Well Head............................................................ 4-29
4.6.5.2 Gas Sampling At Well Head ........................................................... 4-29
4.7 Sampling Of Formation Water ............................................................................... 4-29
4.7.1 Formation Water Sampling Methods............................................................... 4-29

4.7.1.1 Drillstem Tests............................................................................. 4-29
4.7.1.2 Surface Sampling........................................................................... 4-31
4.8 Sampling Equipment............................................................................................. 4-31
4.8.1 Bottom Hole Sampling Equipment................................................................. 4-31

4.8.1.1 Open Hole Sampling From Formation Interval Testing........................ 4-31
4.8.1.2 Dst Sampling Tools ...................................................................... 4-31
4.8.1.3 Production Sampling Tools ............................................................ 4-32
4.8.1.4 Transfer Benches ........................................................................... 4-32
4.8.2 Surface Sampling Equipment ......................................................................... 4-35
4.8.3 Sample Containers....................................................................................... 4-35
4.8.3.1 Gas Sample Bottles ....................................................................... 4-35
4.8.3.2 Oil Sample Bottles ........................................................................ 4-35
4.8.4 New Developments ...................................................................................... 4-36
4.9 Fluid Analysis And Uses Of Data ........................................................................... 4-36
4.9.1 Field Estimation Of Reservoir Properties.......................................................... 4-36

4.9.1.1 Field Estimation Of Reservoir Properties Through Correlations ............. 4-36
4.9.1.2 Field Estimation Of Reservoir Properties With Portable PVT................ 4-37
4.9.1.3 Field Estimation Of Reservoir Properties With Fluid Properties
Estimator..................................................................................... 4-37
4.9.2 PVT Laboratory Measurements Of Reservoir Properties ...................................... 4-38

Table of Contents
Section 5.0 Basic Well Test Interpretation
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................5-3
5.1.1 Reservoir Model...........................................................................................5-3

5.1.2 Well Test Interpretation.................................................................................5-3
5.2 Defining The Reservoir Model .................................................................................5-5
5.2.1 Inverse And Direct Problem............................................................................5-5

5.2.2 Basic Model................................................................................................5-6
5.2.2.1 Homogeneous Reservoir ..................................................................5-6
5.2.2.2 Heterogeneous Reservoir..................................................................5-6
5.2.2.3 Radial Flow ..................................................................................5-6
5.2.2.4 Infinite Acting Radial Flow..............................................................5-7
5.2.3 Inner Boundary Conditions ............................................................................5-7
5.2.3.1 Wellbore Storage ...........................................................................5-7
5.2.3.2 Skin ............................................................................................5-8
5.2.3.3 Other Flow Regimes.......................................................................5-8
5.2.4 Outer Boundary Conditions............................................................................5-9
5.2.5 The Complete Model....................................................................................5-10
5.2.6 Various Phases During A Well Test ................................................................5-10
5.3 Model Recognition..................................................................................................5-11
5.3.1 Log-Log Scale .............................................................................................5-11

5.3.2 Time Periods...............................................................................................5-11
5.3.3 Flow Regime Identification ............................................................................5-12
5.3.3.1 Radial Flow ..................................................................................5-13
5.3.3.2 Spherical Flow ..............................................................................5-13
5.3.3.3 Linear Flow ..................................................................................5-16
5.3.3.4 Bilinear Flow ................................................................................5-17
5.3.3.5 Compression / Expansion................................................................5-17
5.3.3.6 Steady State ..................................................................................5-18
5.3.3.7 Dual Porosity / Permeability ............................................................5-18
5.3.3.8 Slope Doubling .............................................................................5-19
5.3.4 Specialised Plots..........................................................................................5-19
5.3.4.1 Wellbore Storage ...........................................................................5-19
5.3.4.2 High Conductivity Fracture..............................................................5-19
5.3.4.3 Infinite Acting Radial Flow..............................................................5-20
5.3.5 The Complete System...................................................................................5-20
5.3.6 Additional Information For Model Recognition..................................................5-21
5.4 Parameter Estimation..............................................................................................5-21
5.4.1 Dimensionless Groups...................................................................................5-21

5.4.2 Type Curves................................................................................................5-22
5.4.2.1 Type Curve Matching.....................................................................5-22
5.4.3 Parameter Approximation From Type Curves ....................................................5-23
5.4.3.1 Basic Homogeneous Model..............................................................5-23
5.4.3.2 Basic Homogeneous - Specialised Plot...............................................5-25
5.4.4 Superposition ..............................................................................................5-25
5.4.5 Semi-Log Analysis For Parameter Estimation....................................................5-27
5.4.5.1 Horner (Or Superposition) Method ....................................................5-27
5.4.5.2 Skin Calculation ............................................................................5-27

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5.4.6 Other Key Type Curves ................................................................................ 5-27

5.4.6.1 Homogeneous Reservoir With Wellbore Storage And Skin................... 5-27
5.4.6.2 Homogeneous Reservoir With Wellbore And Infinite Conductivity
Vertical Fracture ............................................................................ 5-28
5.4.6.3 Well With Wellbore Storage And Skin. Reservoir With Double Porosity
Behaviour - Pseudosteady State Interporosity Flow.............................. 5-29
5.4.7 Parameter Refinement........................................ ........................................... 5-30
5.5 Verification Of Results........................................................................................... 5-33
5.6 Summary Of Interpretation Methodology ................................................................ 5-33
5.7 Gas Well Testing .................................................................................................. 5-34
5.7.1 Simplifications To The Pseudofunctions .......................................................... 5-34

5.7.2 Multi-Point Well Testing ............................................................................. 5-35
5.7.3 Types Of Gas Well Tests .............................................................................. 5-36
5.7.3.1 Flow-After-Flow Tests ................................................................... 5-36
5.7.3.2 Isochronal Tests............................................................................ 5-36
5.7.3.3 Modified Isochronal Tests............................................................... 5-36
5.8 Multiple Well Testing ............................................................................................ 5-39
5.8.1 Interference Testing ...................................................................................... 5-39

5.8.2 Pulse Testing.............................................................................................. 5-39
5.9 Other Specialised Testing Types ............................................................................. 5-40
Section 6.0 Nodal Systems - (Systems Analysis)
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 6-3
6.2 Inflow Performance Curves .................................................................................... 6-3
6.2.1 Tubing Intake Curves................................................................................... 6-4

6.2.2 Horizontal Flow Curves................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.3 Other Considerations.................................................................................... 6-6
6.3 The Nodal Concept................................................................................................ 6-8
6.3.1 Example Problem 1...................................................................................... 6-11

6.3.2 Example Problem 2...................................................................................... 6-12
6.3.3 Example Problem 3...................................................................................... 6-15
6.3.4 Example Problem 4...................................................................................... 6-17
6.3.5 Discussion Of Results To Problems 1 Through 4.............................................. 6-18
6.4 Changes In Flow Conduit Size................................................................................ 6-20
6.4.1 Example Problem 5...................................................................................... 6-20
6.5 Functional Nodes.................................................................................................. 6-23
6.5.1 Surface Wellhead Choke................................................................................ 6-23

6.5.2 Example Problem 6...................................................................................... 6-24
6.5.3 Example Problem 7...................................................................................... 6-28
6.5.3.1 Effects Of Separator Pressure ............................................................ 6-29
6.5.3.2 Effects Of Flowline Size .................................................................. 6-30
6.5.3.3 Effects Of Tubing Size .................................................................... 6-30

Table of Contents
6.6 General Discussion On The Effects Of The Variables ...............................................6-33
6.7 Graphical Representation Of The Total Producing System For One Well....................6-34
6.8 Summary ...................................................................................................6-35
Section 7.0 Work Sessions
Work Session For Section 1...............................................................................................7-3
Section 8.0 Work Session Answers
Section 9.0 References

Section 1
Basic Reservoir Engineering
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Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) 1-2

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1.0 Basic Reservoir Engineering
1.1 Introduction and Course

Objectives
Every hydrocarbon bearing reservoir is a The introduction to well test interpretation
valuable asset. To ensure the best possible will be kept in a simple form, avoiding com-
return, not just in terms of the commercial plicated mathematical analysis where possi-
factors, although this is clearly the driving ble. Finally, the student will be given an in-
factor, it is important to understand as much troduction to the techniques of nodal analysis
as possible about the reservoir. This always which complement the interpretation proc-
presents a conceptual problem as we cannot ess.
physically see the reservoir in question. For-
tunately the pioneering instinct and inquisi- Well testing is a costly operation involving
tive minds of mankind have developed some significant resources and logistics. As such,
ingenious techniques to help gain valuable management require detailed justification be-
data which in turn develops a descriptive pic- fore giving approval to any testing budget
ture or simulated model of the reservoir in and it is often critical to highlight a return on
question. the investment. Accurate well testing data
can reveal extremely valuable information
Techniques such as; Seismic Data Acquisi- which in turn leads to efficient reservoir man-
tion, Electric Line Logging, Core Analysis, agement. Consequently, the course will place
PVT Analysis, and Well Testing to name a significant emphasis on data quality.
few have become sciences within themselves
and all produce valuable data which help 1.2 History
build the simulated reservoir model and thus
help in developing the most cost effective Fossil fuels have been used by man for gen-
strategy to manage the asset. erations. The industrial revolution of the
early 19th century created a large demand for
Well Testing is different from most tech- fuel to supply the emerging industries, and
niques as it requires the reservoir to be in a the corresponding social changes demanded
dynamic state as opposed to a static state in fuel and lighting for the homes of the
order to trigger the responses needed for wealthy. Initially oil was mainly obtained
mathematical modelling. through whaling and other animal fats how-
ever the availability of surface oil deposits
The objective of this course, as the title sug- was creating specific excitement among the
gests, is to develop a basic understanding of scientific community. The first commercial
well testing methodology and the associated oil well was drilled near Oil Creek, Pennsyl-
interpretation techniques. To achieve this, a vania, by Colonel Edwin L. Drake in 1859
review of some of the fundamental basics of which marked the birth of the modern petro-
petroleum engineering is necessary in order to leum industry. Well testing techniques were
develop the essential principles required later first applied in the early 1920s whereby a
on. The course will cover the necessary simple pressure measurement was taken us-
hardware requirements for different test sce- ing a Bourdon tube and stylus arrangement.
narios and the objectives of testing with an
emphasis on data acquisition and representa-
tive fluid sampling.

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Early analysis techniques were presented by sands of feet of overlying sediments, and ce-
Muskat in the 1930s and later in the 1950s mentation by precipitates from percolating
with the classical work of Miller, Dyes, waters act to convert these materials into
Hutchinson and Horner. More advanced in- sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates.
struments and testing techniques were gradu-
ally developed however, the onset of elec- Sedimentary rocks are classified into two
tronic recording devices in the early 1970s groups;
and computerised systems in the early
1980s set new standards of data acquisition Clastic (the rocks of detrital origin or de-
and interpretation techniques. bris from older rocks) such as sandstone,
siltstone and shales.
1.3 Geology Recap
Non-clastic (rocks of biochemical or
1.3.1 Rock Classification chemical precipitate origin) such as lime-
Rocks are broadly classified into three stone, dolomite and clays.
groups:
Igneous. Nonclastic - Mostly of Chemical or Biochemical Origin
Sedimentary. Rock Type Composition

Metamorphic.
Igneous rocks comprise 95% of the earths
Limestone Calcite - CaCO3
Dolomite Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2
crust. They originate from the solidification Salt Halite - NaCI
of molten material emanating from below the

Gypsum Gypsum - CaSO4.2H2O
Chert Silica - SiO2
earths surface. Volcanic igneous rocks are Coal Chiefly Carbon
often glassy in texture as rapid cooling of

magma does not allow time for the formation Fig. 1-1b Sedimentary rock classification.
of crystals. Plutonic igneous rocks are formed Metamorphic rocks are formed from other
sedimentary deposits by alteration under
Calstic Rock - Formed From Debris of Older Rock
great heat and/or pressure. Examples of
Rock Type Particular Diameter metamorphic rocks are;
Conglomerate Pebbles - 2 to 64 mm
Marble - metamorphosised limestone.

Sandstone Sand - 0.06 to 2 mm
Siltstone Silt - 0.003 to 0.06 mm
Shale Clay - Less than 0.003 mm
Hornfeld - converted from shale or tuff.
Gneiss - similar to granite but has been
metamorphicaly consolidated.
Fig. 1-1a Sedimentary rock classification.
in slower cooling intrusive magmas which Oil and gas are not usually found in igneous
allows the time needed for the atoms to ar- or metamorphic rocks as both are so non-
range themselves into a crystalline grain porous that hydrocarbons can not accumulate
structure. or be extracted from them. The few excep-
tions are when hydrocarbons have seeped
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the mate- from near-by sedimentary formations
rials of older up-lifted formations which have through cracks and fractures.
broken down by erosion and transported by
the elements to lower elevations where they
are deposited. Consolidation of sands, silts,
pebbles and clays by pressure of many thou-

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1.3.2 Rock Properties

To form a commercial reservoir of hydrocar-
bons, a geological formation must exhibit
three essential characteristics;
Contain sufficient void space to contain

hydrocarbons.
Possess adequate connectivity of these

pore spaces to allow transportation over
large distances. Fig. 1-2 Accumulation of oil and gas into a
reservoir.
Possess a capacity to trap sufficient quan-
tities of hydrocarbon to prevent upward
migration from the source beds.
1.3.2.1 Porosity
The void spaces in the reservoir rocks are, for
the most part, the intergrannular spaces be-
tween the sedimentary particles. Porosity is
defined as a percentage or fraction of void to
the bulk volume of the rock. While the pro- Fig. 1-3 Intergranular porosity.
portion of void can be calculated from regular
arrangements or uniform spheres (see Fig. 1- Primary Porosity refers to the void spaces
3), the arrangements within actual reservoirs remaining after sedimentation of the granules
is a much more complex picture and effected in the matrix and hence is a matrix porosity.
by many different parameters. In this case
measurements are either done in the labora- Secondary Porosity is the contribution from
tory on core samples whereby actual condi- pits, vugs, fractures and other discontinuities
tions are simulated as closely as possible in the bulk volume of the matrix. The contri-
prior to measurement or in-situ via suites of bution of secondary porosity to the overall
electric logs such as Neutron, Density and bulk porosity is generally small yet it can
Sonic Logs. lead to dramatic increase in the ease with
which hydrocarbons flow through the rock.
Processes after sedimentation (cementation,
re-crystallisation, weathering, fracturing etc.) From the reservoir engineering point of view,
can modify substantially the proportion and the distinguishing factor between primary
distribution of pore space. In reservoir engi- and secondary porosity is not the mode of
neering, only the interconnected or effective occurrence but the very different flow capac-
porosity is of interest since this is the only ity where an interconnected secondary po-
capacity which can make a contribution to rosity system is present. This is known as a
flow. Pore spaces initially present but subse- dual porosity system. In the real world of the
quently sealed off by cementation or re- reservoir this is often the case and one can
crystallisation effects are of no interest. easily see how quickly our simulated models
can be made complex. Fortunately in the
world of mathematical modelling certain prac-

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tical assumptions are made to help unbundle ential equations after subjecting the reservoir
this complex approach and best fit the real to a dynamic condition and monitoring the
world to a workable model. corresponding pressure and temperature re-
sponse. While grain size has a negligible ef-
1.3.2.2 Permeability fect on the porosity of a rock,
Permeability is a measure - under non-
turbulent flow conditions of the ease with
which fluid flows through a porous rock and
is a function of the degree of interconnection
between the pores. To illustrate this Fig. 1-4
shows a volume of rock with the same effec-
tive porosity. It is clear that fluid will flow
more rapidly through sample A than through
sample B where the flow is restricted.
Fig. 1-5 Definition of a Darcy.
this parameter has a predominant effect on

permeability. This is so because as we are
dealing with flow, we are also dealing with
friction of the fluid against the surface area of
the rock grains. Each rock grain has a wetted
surface surrounding it where fluid velocity is
always zero by definition, thus shearing fric-
tion is formed between this zero velocity
layer and any passing fluids. Thus more fric-
( a) ( b)
tional forces are encountered passing the
same fluid through a fine granular pack than
Fig. 1-4 Source Principles of Oil Well Production
through a coarse granular pack of equal po-
T.E.W. Nind.
rosity. Similarly one can understand that the
permeability will also be dependent on the
Permeability is measured in darcy units or
density of the fluid flowing through the rock
more commonly millidarcy (md - one thou-
and this plays an important part in the inter-
sandth of a darcy) after Henry Darcy who
pretation of different hydrocarbon bearing
carried out some pioneering work on water
reservoirs. Permeability is denoted in three
flow through unconsolidated sand stones. A
different ways, absolute permeability ka is
practical definition of a darcy is as follows;
A rock has a permeability k of 1 Darcy if a derived in the laboratory by flowing a known
pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm induces a flow quantity of fluid through a core while its pore
rate of 1 cc/ cm2 of cross sectional area of a spaces are 100% saturated with the same
liquid viscosity 1 cp. See Fig. 1-5. fluid. Absolute permeability will not change
with varying fluids as long as the pore space
Permeability, like porosity can be measured configuration remains constant.
in the laboratory from core samples. There is
to date no instrument which measures per- Effective permeability is the permeability of
meability directly in-situ, but permeability a flowing phase which does not saturate
can be calculated via solving complex differ- 100% of the rock. The effective permeability

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is always less than the absolute value of k for

the rock.
Relative permeability is a dimensionless

number which is the ratio of effective perme-
ability (to a fluid) to absolute permeability of
the same rock.
Fig. 1-7b Oil and gas accumulation in an anticline.
1.3.3.2 Salt Domes and Plug Structures

This commonly occurring geological structure
is caused by the intrusion from below of a
Fig. 1-6 Effect of grain size on permeability. salt mass, volcanic material or serpentine. In
pushing or piercing through the overlying
1.3.3 Hydrocarbon Accumulations strata, the intrusion may cause the formation
Petroleum deposits will be found only in of numerous traps in which petroleum may
those areas where geological conditions com- accumulate.
bine to form and trap them. Hydrocarbons,
being less dense than water, migrate upwards
from the source beds until they escape at sur-
face or an impervious barrier is encountered.
The principle classifications of petroleum
reservoir forming traps are as follows;
1.3.3.1 Domes and Anticlines
Domes and anticlines are formed by uplifting

and folding of the strata. When viewed from
above the dome is circular in shape, whereas
the anticline is an elongated fold. Fig. 1-8 Hydrocarbon accumulation associated with
a piercement salt dome.
1.3.3.3 Faults
Reservoirs may be formed along the fault
plane where the shearing action has caused an
impermeable bed to block the migration of oil
and gas through a permeable bed.
Fig. 1-7a Dome structure. Oil and gas migrate

upward from source beds until trapped
by the impermeable cap rock.

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Fig. 1-9 Trap formed by a fault.

Fig. 1-11 Upper bounds of the reservoir formed by
change in permeability of a sand.
1.3.3.4 Unconformity
This type of structure can be formed where 1.3.4 Reservoir Temperature and
more recent beds cover older, inclined forma- Pressure
tions that have been planed off by erosion. A
reservoir may be formed where oil and gas is 1.3.4.1 Normal Pressure
trapped by an impermeable overlying layer.
As previously mentioned, hydrocarbon ac-
cumulations occur in partially sealed struc-
tures where the upward migration of oil and
gas from the source beds is blocked by an
impermeable barrier. As hydrocarbon accu-
mulates, formation water is expelled from the
porous reservoir rock. Unless subsequent
tectonic movements completely seal the res-
ervoir, the underlying waters are contiguous
Fig. 1-10 Oil and gas trapped under an
unconformity. and pressures in the aquifer will approximate
to some local or regional hydrostatic gradient.
1.3.3.5 Lenticular Reservoirs In a water column, the pressure at any depth
Oil and gas may accumulate in pockets of is approximated to;
porous permeable beds or traps formed by
pinch-outs of the porous beds within an im- p = h x Gw
permeable bed. Lens type reservoirs are
formed where sand was deposited along an where: h is the depth and Gw is the pressure
irregular coastline or by filling in an ancient gradient.
river bed or delta. Similar productive zones
occur in various porous sections in thick im- Although ground waters are saline, tempera-
permeable limestone beds. Pinch-outs may tures increasing with depth tend to reduce the
occur near the edge of a basin where the sand water density and a common normal value
progressively shales out as the edge of the of Gw is 0.433 psi/ft (0.1 kg/cm2/m), which
basin is approached. In river deposited sand
is approximately a fresh water gradient. Gra-
bars, shale-out frequently occurs within a
dients within the range 0.43 to 0.5 psi/ft are
few hundred feet.
considered normal. Pressures at the top of a
hydrocarbon bearing structure, higher than
the hydrostatic gradient extrapolated from

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the hydrocarbon/water contact, is expected

because of the lower density of hydrocarbon
compared with water. Even in thick gas
bearing zones this situation does not lead to
dangerously abnormal pressures.
Fig. 1-13 Estimation of formation temperature.
1.4 Interacting Forces, Saturation

and Displacement
1.4.1 General
Fig. 1-12 Normal pressure distribution from sur- A brief discussion on these topics is neces-
face through a reservoir structure. sary as they play a crucial role in the devel-
opment of the mathematical understanding of
1.3.4.2 Abnormal Pressures dynamic fluid movement within reservoirs.
Under certain depositional conditions or be- When two or more fluids exist within a reser-
cause of tectonic movements which close the voir (multiphase system) the number of in-
reservoir structure, fluid pressures may de- teracting forces increases and thus the com-
part substantially from the normal range. plexity of the simulated model.
Abnormal pressures can occur when some
part of the overburden load is transmitted to 1.4.2 Surface and Interfacial Tension
the formation fluids. Abnormal pressures The apparent film which separates two im-
corresponding to gradients of 0.8 to 0.9 psi/ft miscible fluids, such as air and water is
and approaching the geostatic gradient caused by unequal attractive forces of mole-
(generally taken as approximately equivalent cules at the interface. The work required to
to 1.0 psi/ft) may occasionally be encoun- move a molecule of water across this barrier
tered and can be considered dangerously high. gives rise to surface tension. When the fluids
are water and oil the phenomena is known as
1.3.4.3 Reservoir Temperature interfacial tension.
Reservoir temperatures will conform to the
regional or local geothermal gradient, a normal Surface tension and interfacial tension are
value being 1.6 F/100ft. Because of the large commonly measured in dynes per centime-
thermal capacity of the rock matrix which tre. Surface tensions between some common
comprises in the order of 80% of the bulk fluids and air at 20 C are given below:
reservoir volume and the very large area for
heat transfer, conditions within the reservoir Water 72.6 dynes/cm
may be considered isothermal in most cases. Benzene 28.9 dynes/cm
Cyclohexen 25.3 dynes/cm

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the interfacial tension between water and oil 1.4.4 Capillarity

at 20 C 30 dynes/cm. When liquid wets the surface of a fine bore
glass capillary tube, surface tension around
1.4.3 Wetting the circumference of the contact pulls the liq-
The adhesion tension , which is a function of uid interface up the tube until an equilibrium
the interfacial tension, determines which fluid is reached with the downward force due to
will preferentially wet a solid. As an exam- the liquid column height. In the reservoir, al-
ple, water will spread out on the surface of a though the pore spaces do not form the uni-
sheet of glass whereas mercury will bead up form capillary tubes of the laboratory, never-
and not adhere to the glass. Thus for water theless they do interconnect to form a
the adhesive forces between liquid and solid complex maze of capillary systems which in
are greater than the cohesive forces holding turn gives rise to capillary forces. These
the liquid molecules together, the opposite is forces can be measured under laboratory con-
true for the mercury. In the formation, water ditions for a given rock - fluid system and in
will adhere to water wet turn, the capillary height can be calculated if
the density difference of the fluid system is
known.
1.4.5 Saturation
During deposition, reservoir rocks are com-
pletely saturated and water wet. As hydro-
carbons migrate and accumulate in the reser-
voir rock, a portion of this water (connate
Fig. 1-14 Apparent surface film caused by imbalance water) is displaced. Both silica and calcite
of molecular forces. have a strong tendency to remain water wet-
ted which means even after hydrocarbon per-
rock and bead-up on oil wet rocks. The ten- colation some connate water will always re-
dency of one fluid to displace another from a main within the rock structure.
solid surface is determined by the relative
wettability of the fluids to the solid. Water saturation Sw represents the percent-
age of water occupying effective pore space
and is expressed as a fraction of the pore vol-
ume. Likewise similar definitions exist for oil
So and gas Sg. These values can be measured
in the laboratory using cores or derived from
electric logs.
Fig. 1-15 Contact angle as a measure of wetting.

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the centre of the larger pore channels leaving

oil behind in the smaller channels.
Fig. 1-17 Shape of the capillary pressure vs.

Fig. 1-16 Comparison of fluid rise in a capillary saturation curve.
tube bundle of varying diameters illustrates the
distribution of saturation in the transition
zone above an oil/water contact.
1.4.6 Irreducible Water Saturation

The minimum saturation that can be induced
by displacement is one in which the wetting
phase becomes discontinuous. To understand
this, imagine a packing of uniform spheres,
this would then correspond to the wetting Fig. 1-18 Shape of capillary curve through the
phase remaining as pendular rings at the transition zone is strongly affected by the
sphere contacts. The minimum saturation distribution of grain size.
corresponds to the smallest mean radius of
curvature of these rings and the maximum During the accumulation of hydrocarbon in
available capillary pressure. However since the reservoir, some threshold pressure had to
the wetting phase will become discontinuous be overcome in order to permit the non-
at some finite capillary pressure there will wetting oil to enter the water saturated pores.
always be some irreducible water saturation, These same forces now aid the expulsion of
a saturation which cannot be reduced by dis- oil from the tight and dead-end pores by in-
placement by a non-wetting phase no matter hibition of water along the surface of the
how great a pressure is applied to the sys- grains
tem. It follows that the size of the grains will
also impact the irreducible water saturation
as shown in Figs. 1-17 & 1-18.
At higher wetting phase saturations, the

mean radius of curvature increases and the
capillary pressure decreases.
Water tends to displace oil in a piston like

fashion, moving first close to the rock surface Fig. 1-19 Natural displacement of oil by water in a
single pore channel. (Courtesy Journal of Petroleum
where it is aided by capillary forces in Technology - June, 1958).
squeezing oil from the smaller channels. Gas
being more mobile tends to move easily along

Section 1 Basic Reservoir Engineering
Fig. 1-23 Capillary pressure gradient causes oil to

Fig. 1-20 Natural displacement of oil by gas in a move out and water to move into a dead.end pore
single pore channel. (Courtesy of Journal of Petro- channel when sand is water-wet. (Courtesy Journal
leum Technology - June, 1958). of Petroleum Technology - June, 1958).
1.4.7 Residual Oil

Residual oil is left in the smaller channels
when interfacial tension causes the thread of
oil to break leaving behind small globules of
oil (See Fig. 1-24).
Fig. 1-21 Gas displaces oil first from high perme-

ability pore channels. Residual oil occurs in lower
permeability pore channels. (Courtesy Journal of
Petroleum Technology - June, 1958).
Fig. 1-24 Water drive leaves residual oil in sand

because surface films break at restrictions in sand
pore channels. (Courtesy Journal of Petroleum
Technology - June, 1958).
1.4.8 Relations between Permeability

and Fluid Saturation
Fig. 1-22 Capillary forces cause water to move The effective permeability of a fluid is a
ahead faster in low permeability pore channel (A)
when water is moving slow through high permeabil- function of the saturation. In complex porous
ity pore channel (B). (Courtesy Journal of Petroleum media it is not a unique function and depends
Technology - June, 1958). upon the capillary structure of the rock and
the wetting characteristics as well as the satu-
ration history.

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A typical set of oil/water relative permeabil- the matrix. At higher displacement pressures
ity curves are shown together with the corre- increasing amounts of water are drained from
sponding capillary pressure relations (Fig. 1- the core until at point (2) the irreducible wa-
25). Both are plotted versus water ter saturation is reached. At point (2) the
relative permeability to water becomes zero.
Note that the relative permeability to oil at
point (2) can not reach 1.0 as the irreducible
water reduces the amount of pore volume to
oil flow. When water is imbibed into the core
which now contains oil and water, the satura-
tion of water increases up to the point (3)
where the residual oil saturation is reached.
The relative permeability to water can not
reach a value of 1.0 because of the residual oil
remaining in the pores.
In spite of the wide variety of pore struc-

tures in reservoir rocks, preferential wet-
Fig. 1-25a Water Saturation - Relative Permeability. tabilities between fluids and rock surfaces,
and fluid properties, normalised plots of rela-
tive permeabilities against saturation exhibit
general similarities. It has thus become possi-
ble to formulate theoretical, semi or even
purely empirical relationships to assist in
obtaining values of effective permeabilities.
1.5 Fluid Properties
Nearly all naturally occurring petroleum ac-

cumulations are made up of an extremely
large number of organic compounds, primar-
ily hydrocarbons, all mixed together. Seldom
are two crude oil samples found that are iden-
tical and certainly never are two crude oils
made up of the same proportions of the vari-
ous compounds. The fact that carbon atoms
have the ability to form long branching and
cyclic chains allows an almost limitless diver-
Fig. 1-25b Water Saturation - Capillary Pressure.
sity in the molecular composition of petro-
leum deposits. Different specialists involved
in petroleum exploration and production have
saturation to illustrate their relationship. different reasons for wishing to examine and
Starting with a 100% water saturated core at characterise the hydrocarbon fluids and water
point (1) the threshold pressure must be ex- found together in petroleum reservoirs. A
ceeded before the non-wetting fluid (oil) can chemical engineer may be interested in a
displace the wetting phase fluid, water from crude oils composition only as it relates to

the amount of commercial products the oil oms. These different arrangements are called
will yield after refining. An exploration geo- isomers and possess different physical prop-
chemist might have an interest in an oil or erties. All straight chain alkanes form CH4
reservoir waters composition insofar as it (methane) to C40H82 (tetrocontane) have
sheds light on the origin, maturation and deg- been identified in crude oil. Typically they
radation of the oil or helps point way toward amount to 15% to 20% of the oil. The possi-
a better geological interpretation. The petro- ble isomers for these alkanes range from two
leum engineer is particularly concerned with for butane to 6.2 x 1013 for tetracontane.
the analysis of hydrocarbons in order to de-
termine their behaviour under varying condi- The alkanes are characterised by their chemi-
tions of pressure and temperature that occur cal inertness, which probably accounts for
in the reservoir and piping systems during the stability over long periods of geological
the production process. times. The first four members of the series
(methane, ethane, propane, butane) exist as
1.5.1 Components of Hydrocarbon gases under standard conditions of pressure
Since hydrocarbon molecules have specific and temperature. Those from C5H12
ratios of hydrogen and carbon atoms, hydro- (pentane) to about C17H36 are liquids and
carbon compounds making up petroleum can C18H38 and higher are wax-like solids.
be grouped chemically into a few series, al-
though each series may have thousands of
Paraffin is a mixture of these solid members
members. The most common hydrocarbon
of the series. Saturated hydrocarbons that
compounds are those of paraffin or alkane
form closed rings rather than chains belong to
series which include methane, ethane, pro-
a series known as cycloalkanes (also called
pane, butane, etc. They are straight chain or
cycloparaffins or naphtenes). These hydro-
branched configurations of carbon and hydro-
carbons follow the general formula CnH2n.
gen atoms that follow the general formula
CnH2n+2. The alkanes are saturated, that is, Being saturated, they are relatively stable and
possess chemical properties similar to those
the carbon atoms are connected with single
of the alkanes.
bonds.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are compounds
that contain a carbon-carbon double bond.
These compounds can add hydrogen to their
structures under appropriate conditions, and
are therefore said to be unsaturated (with hy-
drogen). One class of hydrocarbons that con-
Fig. 1-26 Models for methane and propane, showing
the tetrahedral nature of the carbon-hydrogen contains carbon-carbon double bonds is the arene
figuration. series (also called aromatic because many of
them have fragrant odours). This group is
Figure 1-26 shows the models used to visu- made up of derivatives of benzene, whose
alise the structure of these hydrocarbons, and formula is C6H2n and whose unique structure
their shorthand formulae.
allows it to be relatively stable and un-
reactive. Arene hydrocarbons are either liq-
As longer chains are built, it becomes possi-
uids or solids under standard conditions and
ble to arrange the carbon atoms in either lin-
are common constituents of crude oil.
ear or branched fashion without changing the
relative number of carbon and hydrogen at-

Schlumberger
Other unsaturated compounds include For gases, the standard reference is dry air
alkenes or cycloalkenes (also known as ole- at the same temperature and pressure as
fins) and the acetylene series (triple carbon- the gas in question.
carbon bond). Olefin compounds are very
uncommon in crude oils and the acetelyne For liquids, the reference is pure water at
series is virtually absent. This is undoubtedly 60F and one atmosphere (14.7 psia).
due to their high degree of reactivity and their
tendency to become saturated with hydrogen For hydrocarbon liquids, the API gravity
forming alkanes. Of the eighteen different scale is most commonly used in the oil in-
possible hydrocarbon series, therefore, al- dustry. It expands and inverts the range of
kanes, cycloalkanes and arenes are the com- numerical values for oil specific gravity.
mon constituents of most crude oils. Water has an API gravity of 10.0 and the
relationship between API and specific
1.5.2 Classification of Hydrocarbons gravity is given as;
Common oilfield classification of oil and
natural gas rely on observed producing char- 141.5
API = - 131.5
acteristics and easily measured specific grav- (Specific G ravity at 60 F)
ity. The gas-oil ratio (GOR), gas gravity and
oil gravity are used to categorise reservoir
hydrocarbons.
Fig. 1-28 Structure of several members of the arene,

or aromatic, series. The formula convention used
here to represent benzene is called a Kekul.
Fig. 1-27 Structure of several members of the cy- The compounds shown are common
cloalkane series of hydrocarbons. Cyclohexane has constitutes of crude oil.
an actual three-dimensional geometry that is slightly
puckered, not planar as the formula suggests.
Figure 1-29 shows the classifications of res-
ervoir fluids based on GOR and fluid gravi-
Gas-oil ratio (GOR) in this case refers to the ties. In general, low GOR, low API oils have
cubic feet of gas produced per barrel of liquid lesser amounts of the light paraffinic hydro-
(or cubic meters per cubic meter), with both carbons, while dry gases are composed al-
volumes measured at standard conditions of most entirely of these compounds. Sampling
temperature and pressure. and analysing the behaviour of dry gas or
black oil systems are relatively straight for-
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of ward procedures. Condensate and volatile oil
a substance to the density of some reference systems, on the other hand, can be much
substance. more complex in terms of their physical
chemistry.

Reservoir Surface appearance GOR range Gas API C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+

fluid specific gravity
gravity
Dry Gas Colorless gas Essentially 0.60-0.65 96 2.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.4
no liquids
Wet gas Colorless gas with Greater than 100 0.65-0.85 60o
small amount of clear MSCF/bbl
or straw-colored ( m3/ m3)
liquid
Condensate Colorless gas with 3 to 100 MSCF/bbl 0.65-0.85 50o-70o 87 4.4 2.3 1.7 0.8 3.8
significant amounts of (900-18000 m3/ m3)
light-colored liquid
Volatile Brown liquid with About 3000 SCF/bbl 0.65-0.85 40o-50o 64 7.5 4.7 4.1 3.0 16.7
or high various yellow, red or (500 m3/m3)
shrinkage green hues
oil
Black or Dark brown to black 100-2500 SCF/bbl (20- 30o-40o 49 2.8 1.9 1.6 1.2 43.5
low viscous liquid 450 m3/m3
shrinkage
oil
Heavy oil Black, very viscous Essentially no gas in 10o-25o 20 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 71
liquid solution
Tar Black substance Viscosity>10000 cp <10o 90+
Fig. 1-29 General categories of reservoir hydrocarbons. There are no definite boundaries between these classifica-
tions and usage may vary depending on location. Gravities and GOR are also dependent on separation conditions.
1.5.3 Characteristics of Formation in milligrams per litre (mg/l) or parts per mil-
Water lion (ppm). A unit volume of solution is
In addition to liquid and gaseous hydrocar- taken to have a million parts of weight, and
bons, petroleum reservoirs always contain a the number of parts of weight contributed to
third fluid, water. Formation water is termed the solution by a given ionic component is
connate water if it is believed to be a remnant the parts by weight per million. Parts per
of the original water in which the sediment million is only equivalent to milligrams per
was deposited. Meteoric water refers to for- litre at a solution density equal to that of
mation waters that originate as rainfall and pure water. Since most formation waters
are carried into the ground via outcrops, frac- have densities close to this value, the differ-
tures or permeable sediments. ence between numerical values is therefore
not great. However, for an extremely salty
Interstitial water is the preferred term for the water the difference could be as great as 20%.
formation water that shares the pore space of
the hydrocarbon reservoir with oil and gas, Salinity is the most important characteristic
regardless of origin. Interstitial water satura- that can be measured for a formation water
tions in petroleum reservoirs usually range sample. The ways in which formation water
from 10% to 50% of the pore space and wa- and hydrocarbon mixtures change with pres-
ter saturations can vary throughout a reser- sure and temperature depend upon the degree
voir depending on the pore structure of the of salinity. For example, the solubility of
rock. natural gas in a formation water with 150,000
ppm total dissolved solids is only about half
Formation waters are most commonly distin- the solubility in pure water. However, even
guished by their varying degrees of salinity, in pure water, the solubility of natural gas is
that is, the amount of dissolved ions present not great; it is only about 10 to 30 SCF/bbl (2
in the water. The ionic composition of forma- to 5 m3/m3) under most reservoir conditions.
tion water is usually measured and expressed

Schlumberger
Determination of the formation water salinity This is called the bubble point. Further in-
is more important for correct log interpreta- creases of cylinder volume at this stage does
tion. The resistivity of a formation water is not reduce the pressure provided the tem-
related to its salinity, and a value of forma- perature is held constant. The gas volume
tion resistivity is necessary for the quantita- increases at this constant pressure until the
tive evaluation of resistivity logs. Although point is reached where all the liquid is va-
this value can be estimated from log data, the porised. This is called the dew point. At this
best results are obtained when a sample of stage, further increase of cylinder volume at
formation water is retrieved and analysed. constant temperature results in a hyperbolic
reduction in pressure as the ethane gas ex-
1.6 Phase Behaviour pands. A series of similar expansions at
varying temperatures produces a three di-
A phase is a definite portion of a system mensional chart (Figure 1-31). The locus of
which is homogeneous throughout and can be bubble points obtained at various tempera-
separated from other phases by distinct tures projected on the pressure-temperature
boundaries. Solids, liquids and gases are plane is a line called the vapour pressure
phases of matter which can occur, depending curve. At pressures above the vapour pres-
on pressure and temperature. Commonly, sure curve, ethane exists in the liquid phase
two or three different fluid phases exist to- and beneath it in the gaseous phase. The va-
gether in a reservoir. Any analysis of reser- pour pressure curve for single component
voir fluids depends on the relationships be- systems terminates at the critical point. As
tween pressure, volume and temperature of the critical point is approached the proper-
the fluids commonly referred to as the PVT ties of the gas and the liquid phases approach
relationship. It is customary to represent the each other, and they become identical at the
phase behaviour of hydrocarbon reservoir critical point.
fluids on the P-T plane showing the limits
over which the fluid exists as a single phase 1.6.2 Phase Behaviour of a Multi-
and the proportions of oil and gas in equilib- Component System
rium over the two phase P-T range. Consider the phase behaviour of a 50:50 mix-
ture of two pure hydrocarbon components
1.6.1 Phase Behaviour of a Single on the P-T plane shown in figure 1-32. The
Component System vapour pressure and bubble point lines do
Single component hydrocarbons are not not coincide but form an envelope enclosing a
found in nature, however it is beneficial to broad range of temperatures and pressures at
observe the behaviour of a pure hydrocarbon which two phases (gas and oil) exist in equi-
under varying pressures and temperatures to librium. The dew and bubble point curves at
gain insight into more complex systems. that temperature and pressure at which liquid
and vapour (gas) phases have identical inten-
As an example, the PVT cell shown at the sive properties, density, specific volume etc.
upper left of figure 1-30 is charged with eth-
ane at 60 F and 1000 psia. Under these con- Similarly phase diagrams can be produced for
ditions, ethane is in a liquid state. If the cell different reservoir fluids which highlight the
volume is increased while holding the tem- large variety and effects of reservoir fluid
perature constant, the pressure will fall rap- properties and the compressibility of gases.
idly until the first bubble of gas appears.

Fig. 1-30 Phase behaviour of a single-component hydrocarbon.
Fig. 1-31 Three-dimensional diagram of single-component system.
Fig. 1.32 Vapor pressure curves for two pure components and phase diagram for a
50:50 mixture of the same components.

Schlumberger
1.6.3 Reservoir and Fluid

Compressability Oil Volume is measured in the API barrel or
Boyles, Charless and Avogadros laws cubic meter at stock tank conditions - con-
showed that for an ideal gas ventionally 60 F (15.5C) and 14.7 psia (1
atmosphere).
pV = nRT
Gas Rate is measured in standard cubic feet
where: scf or in cubic meters at the same reference
p = absolute pressure. conditions 60 F (15.5C) and 14.7 psia (1
V = volume. atmosphere).
n = moles of gas.
T = absolute temperature.
R = constant.
At very low pressures, many gases exhibit

ideal behaviour and the equation is valid. At
higher pressures and temperatures such as
those found in oil and gas reservoirs the equa-
tion does not hold. The petroleum industry
has found that a simple correction factor can
be added to the ideal gas law which describes
the behaviour of gas mixtures under oilfield
conditions. The factor is called the com-
pressibility factor or z factor and varies with
pressure, temperature and composition. The
Fig. 1-33 Relationships between surface and down-
gas equation of state is thus modified to:
hole volumes - dissolved gas systems.
pV = znRT
Units are standard cubic feet per stock tank
barrel scf/B or cubic meters of oil per cubic
where z is the dimensionless compressibility
factor. meter of oil m3/m3. (as there are 5.6 cubic
feet in a barrel then; scf/b 5.6 = m3/m3).
1.6.4 Conversion Factors between
Surface and Downhole Volumes The basic surface to downhole relationships
Conversion of downhole volumes (or volu- are shown diagramatically in Fig. 1-33.
metric rates) of oil, gas and water to equiva-
lent volumes at surface conditions is made so Formation volume factors are designated by
frequently that it is convenient to use con- the letter B with a suffix denoting the fluid
version factors which account for the overall phase concerned. Formation volume factor is
changes which effect the fluids as they pass a function of fluid composition and the pres-
from one set of conditions to another. sure and temperature difference between the
(Typically - compressibility and solubility). downhole and reference state;
The following units are commonly used to

measure hydrocarbon volumes;

Formation Volume Factor is equal to; 1.6.4.2 Formation Volume Factor of

Oil, Bo
Volume at downhole conditions The formation volume factor of oil is best
Volume at reference conditions determined by PVT measurement on a reser-
voir fluid sample. Figure 1-34 is a typical
Figure 1-33 above shows that the total gas at plot of PVT data for an undersaturated oil.
surface is the sum of the solution gas evolved From 8000 psig to the bubble point pressure
from the downhole liquids plus free gas pro- at 6350 psig, the Bo increase is due to expan-
duced independently from the oil. The gas sion of the undersaturated oil. On expansion
volume factor accounts for expansion of free from 6350 psi to atmospheric pressure in-
gas. Oil shrinks in volume between downhole creasing amounts of gas are liberated. Note
and surface conditions primarily as a result of that the Rs, the amount of gas in solution is
the solution gas evolved. A typical range of
almost directly proportional to the system
the formation volume factor for oil Bo is 1.2
pressure. Bo being dependent essentially on
for low GOR oil to 1.4 or higher for more
the amount of dissolved gas increases with
volatile oils. Solubility of gas in water is low
pressure up to the bubble point, where all of
and the combined effects of reduction in
the available gas is dissolved and then de-
temperature, pressure and loss of solution
creases at a a rate determined by the liquid
gas has a small (but for some purposes im-
compressibility. Solubility of natural gas in
portant) effect on the formation volume fac-
oil is dependent on the composition of the
tor for water Bw.
hydrocarbons, the temperature and pressure
applied. As for gas, charts are available to
1.6.4.1 Formation Volume Factor of estimate the values required in determining
Gas, Bg Bo.
The gas formation volume factor may be cal-
culated from PVT measurements on a gas
sample, or it may be calculated using the gas
equation of state;
p1 V1 p 2 V2
=
z 1 T1 z2 T2
then
V 2 p1 T 2 z 2
Bg = =
V1 p 2 T1 z 1
where conditions 1 are standard and condi-

tions 2 are bottom hole. Charts based on the
relationship and correlations between z and
specific gravity, pressure and temperature
Fig. 1-34 Typical PVT data for differential vapori-
have been established to simplify calcula- zation of an undersaturated oil at constant
tions. temperature (305oF).

Schlumberger
1.6.4.3 Formation Volume Factor of 1.6.5.2 Oil Density

Water, Bw At standard conditions, the density of oil is
The formation volume factor of water exists equal to the weight divided by the volume; or
due to small amounts of dissolved gases and in equation form;
salts which make the water compressible.
The solubility of natural gas in water and osc = W osc
brine is small and the effect on compressibil- V osc
ity can be neglected for small changes of
pressure and temperature and Bw can be ap- At well flowing conditions, the density of oil
proximated as 1.0. For large changes in pres- is still equal to the weight divided by the vol-
sure and temperature, Bw may be approxi- ume. It is, however, not quite straight for-
mated from charts. ward because the weight of the oil has been
increased by dissolved gas, and the volume of
1.6.5 Fluid Density Correlations the oil has been increased by the oil forma-
tion volume factor:
1.6.5.1 Gas Density
W osc + W dis. gas
Gas specific gravity g, is widely used in the owf =
V osc x Bo
oil industry to characterise natural gases. Gas
specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the or
density of gas to the density of air, both at
osc + air g R s
standard conditions. owf =
Bo
gsc
g = 1.6.5.3 Water Density
( air )sc
The density of gas-free water is a function of
temperature, pressure and water salinity.
The weight of any volume of a gas can be de-
This value is typically determined from
termined by multiplying the volume of gas
charts.
times g times air. The density of air at
standard conditions is 0.001223 gm/cc or 1.6.6 Viscosities
0.0762 lb/cu ft.
1.6.6.1 Gas Viscosity
The density of gas at any temperature and
At elevated temperatures and low pressures,
pressure can be found from the gas formation
low gravity gases closely resemble perfect
volume factor, Bg
gas in their behaviour, while at low tempera-
tures and high pressures, the heavier gases
1 gwf
resemble liquids.
= by rearranging ;
Bg gsc
1.6.6.2 Oil Viscosity
1 The viscosity of a crude oil decreases with a
gwf = g (0 .001223) (gm/cc) temperature increase and with an increase of
Bg
dissolved gas. Heavier oils are generally more
viscous than lighter oils of the same hydro-
carbon base.

1.6.6.3 Water Viscosity Invasion of the original oil bearing reser-

The viscosity of water is primarily a function voir by the expansion of the water from an
of temperature and salinity. Charts are used adjacent or underlying aquifer.
to gain approximations of viscosity.
1.6.6.4 Formation Compressibility

In addition to the compressibility of fluids
which can play an important role in deter-
mining an accurate picture of the simulated
reservoir model, it is also just as important to
have a measure of the formation rock com-
pressibility. Formation compressibility is
best measured in the laboratory although
again correlations and charts do exist which
will give good approximations under certain
conditions.
1.7 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
1.7.1 Oil Reservoirs

Oil can be recovered from the pore spaces of
a reservoir rock, only to the extent that the
volume originally occupied by the oil is in- Fig. 1-35 Dissolved gas drive reservoir.
vaded or occupied in some way. There are
several ways in which oil can be displaced Since all replacement processes are related to
and produced from a reservoir, and these may expansion mechanisms, a reduction in pres-
be termed mechanisms or drives. Where sure in the original oil zone is essential. The
one replacement mechanism is dominant, the pressure drops may be small if gas caps and
reservoir may be said to be operating under a aquifers are large and permeable, and, under
particular drive. Possible sources of re- favourable circumstances, pressure may sta-
placement for produced fluids are: bilise at constant or declining reservoir off-
take rates. The compressibilities of under-
Expansion of undersaturated oil above the saturated oil, rock and connate water are so
bubble point. small that pressures in undersaturated oil res-
ervoirs will rapidly fall to the bubble point if
Expansion of rock and of connate water. there is no aquifer to provide water drive.
Expansion of gas released from solution in So these expansion mechanisms are not usu-
the oil below the bubble point. ally considered separately, and the three
principal categories of reservoir are:
Invasion of the original oil bearing reser-
voir by the expansion of the gas from a Solution gas drive (or depletion drive) res-
free gas cap. ervoirs.

Schlumberger
Gas cap expansion drive reservoirs. permeability to gas so that the producing gas
oil ratio will rise. As more gas comes out of
Water drive reservoirs. solution, and gas saturations increase, perme-
ability to gas increases, permeability to oil
Frequently two or all three mechanisms diminishes and this trend accelerates. Ulti-
(together with rock connate water expansion) mately, as reservoir pressure declines to-
occur simultaneously. wards abandonment pressure, the change in
gas formation volume factor offsets the in-
1.7.2 Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs creasing gas to oil mobility ratio and the gas
If a reservoir at its bubble point is put on oil ratio trend is reversed; i.e. although the
production, the pressure will fall below the reservoir GOR may continue to increase, in
bubble point pressure and gas will come out terms of standard volumes, the ratio standard
of solution. Initially this gas may be a dis- cubic ft/stock tank barrel may decline. In ad-
perse, discontinuous phase, but, in any case, dition to the effect of gas on saturation of,
gas will be essentially immobile until some and permeability to, oil, the loss of gas from
minimum saturation - the equilibrium, or solution also increases the viscosity of the oil
critical gas saturation, is attained. and decreases the formation volume factor of
the oil.
The actual order of values for critical satura-
tion are in some doubt, but there is consider-
able evidence to support the view that values
may be very low - in the order of 1% to 2 %
of the pore volume. Once the critical gas
saturation has been established gas will be
mobile, and will flow under whatever poten-
tial gradients may be established in the reser-
voir - towards producing wells if the pressure
gradient is dominant - segregating vertically if
the gravitational gradient is dominant. Segre-
gation will be affected by vertical permeabil- Fig. 1-36 Production data dissolved gas drive reser-
ity variations in layers, but is known to occur voir. (Courtesy API, Drilling and Production
Practicles-1943).
even under apparently unfavourable condi-
tions.
1.7.3 Gas Cap Expansion Drive
Reservoirs
Initially the gas-oil ratio of a well producing
from a closed reservoir will equal solution The general behaviour of gas drive reservoirs
GOR. At early times, as pressure declines is similar to that of solution gas drive reser-
and gas comes out of solution, but cannot voirs, except that the presence of free gas re-
flow to producing wells, the producing GOR tards the decline in pressure. By definition
will decline. When the critical gas saturation the oil must be saturated at the gas oil con-
is established and if the potential gradients tact, so that decline in pressure will cause the
permit, gas will flow towards producing release of gas from solution, but the rate of
wells. release of gas from solution, and the build up
of gas saturation and of gas permeability, will
The permeability to oil will be lower than at be retarded. At higher prevailing pressures,
initial conditions, and there will be a finite oil viscosities are lower, and provided that

the free gas phase can be controlled, and not

produced directly from producing wells, bet-
ter well productivities and lower producing
gas oil ratios can be maintained.
Fig. 1-38 Production data-gas cap drive reservoir.

(Courtesy API, Drilling and Production
Practices-1943.)
1.7.4 Water Drive Reservoirs

If a reservoir is underlain by, or is continuous
with a large body of water saturated rock (an
aquifer) then reduction in pressure in the oil
zone, will cause a reduction in pressure in the
aquifer. Although the compressibility of wa-
ter is small ( 3 x 10 -6 psi -1) the total com-
pressibility of an aquifer includes the rock
pore compressibility.
Fig. 1-37 Gas cap drive reservoir.

( 5 x 10 -6 psi -1) making the total com-
Under residual conditions the stock tank oil pressibility in the order of;
left in place is So/Bo and the smaller this fac-
tor the greater will be the oil recovery. Con- 8 x 10 -6 .psi -1.
sequently the higher the pressure at aban-
donment, the greater the value of Bo, and the The apparent compressibility of an aquifer
can be substantially greater if some accumula-
smaller this term becomes. In addition aban-
tion of hydrocarbons exist in small structural
donment of wells and reservoirs depends
traps throughout the aquifer.
primarily upon an economic limit - the rate
of production required to pay for operating
An efficient water driven reservoir requires a
costs, and direct overheads - and an oil flow
large aquifer body with a high degree of
rate, which depends upon Ko/o, which will transmissivity allowing large volumes of wa-
be greater at any given saturation (and so ter to move across the oil-water contact in
given Ko ) under pressure maintenance condi- response to small pressure drops.
tions due to the lower oil viscosity than un-
der depletion conditions.

Schlumberger
As with gas cap drive reservoirs, the main-

tained pressures lead to lower viscosities and
higher Bo values at any given saturation, re-
ducing the saturation and minimising the term
So/Bo hence the stock tank oil left at any
given economic limit. While reservoir drive
mechanisms may be classified into the three
categories we have discussed, most often two
or more of these mechanisms act simultane-
ously in a combination drive.
Fig. 1-39 Water drive reservoir.

Fig. 1-40 Production data-water drive reservoir.
(Courtesy API, Drilling and Production
This replacement mechanism has two par- Practices-1942).
ticular characteristics - first there must be
pressure drops in order to have expansion,
and secondly, the aquifer response may lag
substantially, particularly if transmissivity
deteriorates in the aquifer.
A water drive reservoir is then particularly

rate sensitive, and so the reservoir may be-
have almost as a depletion reservoir for a
long period if off-take rates are very high, or
as an almost complete pressure maintained
water drive reservoir if off-take rates are low,
for the given aquifer. Because of the similar-
ity in oil and water viscosities (for light oils
at normal depths) the displacement of oil by
water is reasonably efficient, and provided
that localised channelling, fingering or coning
of water does not occur, water drive generally
represents the most efficient of the natural
producing mechanisms for oil reservoirs.
Fig. 1-41 Combination drive reservoir.

1.7.5 Discussion of Recovery Efficiency grating to structurally high positions, with oil
(including gravity segregation) counterflowing downwards. This mechanism
One mechanism, only briefly referred to, but has two effects.
which has an important role in several as-
pects of reservoir behaviour is that of gravity Firstly the oil saturation in the lower parts of
segregation the movement of phases counter- the reservoir is maintained at a value higher
current to each other, (generally of gas and than the average oil saturation - so that per-
oil) under the influence of the gravitational meability to oil is higher, and permeability to
potential g x p. gas lower than for the pure solution gas
drive case. The producing gas oil ratio is then
Considering the solution gas drive reservoir, lower than for solution gas drive alone.
the behaviour described earlier assumes es-
sentially that gas saturations build up uni-
Secondly, the lower producing gas oil ratio
formly throughout the oil zone without any
involves smaller gross fluid withdrawals than
saturation gradients in the vertical direction.
would otherwise be the case, so that the
(Saturation gradients existing as a result of
pressure decline at any given oil cumulative
horizontal pressure gradients, i.e. the pres-
production will be smaller.
sure drops near the well bore). Under these
conditions the expected recovery efficiency
The segregated gas may form a secondary gas
will depend on the economic limit for wells
cap, and the later life of a reservoir may then
and could be as low as 2% - 3% for low per-
be similar to that of a primary gas cap drive
meability reservoirs with high viscosity, low
reservoir. Under these conditions the recov-
gas oil ratio oils, and up to about 15% or so
ery efficiency will be higher if the economic
for high permeability reservoirs, normal GOR
limit is low - possibly very much higher and
low viscosity oils, but will rarely exceed this
may approach or even exceed the range 20%
range.
to 40% of oil in place.
Gravity drainage plays its greatest role in

dual porosity systems with great contrast
where almost complete segregation can take
place in the secondary porosity system, and
the producing wells produce throughout at
solution gas-oil ratio. Gravity drainage is then
the predominant mechanisms in draining oil
to residual saturation in the secondary gas
cap.
The recovery efficiency of water drive reser-

Fig. 1-42 Reservoir pressure trends for reservoir voirs will be governed by an economic limit,
under various drives. (Courtesy API, Drilling and
Production Practices-1943). the limit in this case being dictated by water
handling problems. Provided that water can
If the vertical permeability to gas is non-zero be controlled reasonably, efficiencies of 30%
however, there will be a vertical component to 40% would be expected and sometimes
of gas flow, under the gravitational potential, under extremely favourable conditions recov-
and gas will segregate in the reservoir, mi- ery efficiencies up to 50% might be achieved.

Schlumberger
(Ultimately, of course, calculating a recovery

efficiency depends on knowing the initial oil
in place, and an apparently high recovery fac-
tor might be the result of under-estimating oil
in place).
Fig. 1-43 Reservoir gas-oil ratio trends for reser-

voirs under various drives. (Courtesy API, Drilling
and Production Practices-1943).


Section 2
Completion Technology
Section 2 Completion Technology

Schlumberger
2.0 Completion Technology and Types
2.1 Introduction their involvement in the well testing opera-

tion is appreciated.
The completion phase of a well development
is a term generally used for a well that is pre- 2.2 Completion Components
pared for production after drilling is com-
pleted. It essentially consists of installing Completion is generally associated with the
selected tubulars and associated components tubulars and general hardware which are in-
into a pre-conditioned wellbore to ensure that stalled into the wellbore, however there are
production can be performed in a safe, con- two important aspects to consider when de-
trolled and efficient manner. It follows there- signing a completion which are very closely
fore that during the exploration, appraisal and related;
development testing of wells, a temporary
completion (often referred to as a Drill Stem Completion Technique
Test String) is used as the well is temporarily
produced to gain valuable reservoir data for Communication between the reservoir
the future development of the field. and the wellbore.
There are many different completion types Completion Components

and methods. The technique, like all others
within the industry, is continually evolving Transmission of the produced fluids
especially with the onset of new drilling to surface.
methodology such as horizontal wells and
multi-lateral well development which all need Whereas the natural progression of produced
cost effective completion methods while en- fluids warrants the order given above, we will
suring productivity is enhanced rather than first look at the essential completion compo-
impaired. nents as an understanding of the different
completion techniques requires a knowledge
The completion design engineer has to tailor of basic completion components.
each completion, not just to a specific reser-
voir but often to a specific well. Completion The completion components will differ de-
design is a complex science influenced by pending upon whether the well is eruptive or
numerous factors such as temperature, pres- non-eruptive.
sure, effluent type/characteristics, reservoir
type /characteristics, expected productivity Non-eruptive wells require artificial lift
and so on and so forth. It is therefore no sur- methods to give the extra energy required to
prise that the completion has an enormous drive the effluent to surface. These methods
impact on the productivity potential of a include the familiar nodding donkey pump
well and its life throughout the production or sucker-rod pump usually associated with
cycle. on-land low producing wells, gas lift or elec-
trical submerged pumps for the higher rate
This section aims to review the basic comple- wells.
tion components and review the different
completion types so that an understanding of
their impact on the productivity of a well and

count by the completion design engineer.

Apart from the specialised equipment associ-
ated with the artificial lift technique chosen,
there are still many components common to
both systems. We will categorise these com-
ponents into the following basic groups;
Production Tubulars
Packers
Flow Control
Subsurface Safety Systems
Ancilliary Components
2.2.1 Production Tubulars

The main component of any completion is
the production tubing, as it is the one element
required in considerable quantity (depth de-
pendent). The choice of tubing is not a
straight forward exercise of ordering enough
length of pipe for the well concerned, the
wrong choice of tubing can lead to disastrous
consequences later on during the life of a well
and so the economies of scale need to be
properly scrutinised. In general the tubing
type will mainly depend on the following;
Reservoir Fluid.
Presence of corrosive agents - H2S,
CO2 etc.
Well Deliverability.
Pressure/Temperature
These factors will govern the grade of steel

required, the tubing size and the pressure seal
or connection between the tubing joints.
Fig. 2-1 Basic - Single String Completion for Oil or 2.2.2 Packers
Gas Production. The primary function of a packer is to create
a seal between the production tubing and the
Eruptive wells which have sufficient bottom casing. It also serves to isolate the casing
hole pressure to provide the energy required from corrosive reservoir fluids and to enable
to transmit the effluent to surface. It is also selective production in the case when several
possible for wells which were initially erup- producing zones are available. A packer also
tive to become non-eruptive as the well de- requires a seal between the packer and the
pletes and this must also be taken into ac- tubing.

Schlumberger
There are two main types of packers;

There are two main types of packers;
Permanent.
Retrievable.
2.2.2.1 Permanent Packers

Permanent packers are generally used in high
pressure differential or extreme environ-
ments. The packer consists of a dual slip
system which locks the packer in both direc-
tions. It is termed permanent as once it has
been set, it requires milling (or in extreme
cases drilling) to remove it as opposed to
manipulation of the tubing string. The packer
is set either on wireline-electrically or on
drillpipe-hydraulically. This depends to a
certain extent on the deviation of the well or
the weight of the packer and associated tail-
pipe assembly.
A permanent packer contains a seal bore into

which a seal locator on the production tubing
will sting thus creating the seal between the
packer and the tubing. This seal locator may
be of the type that latches onto the packer or
of sufficient length to allow for tubing
movement which occurs due to forces created
within the tubing by temperature differences
(expansion/contraction), pressure differential,
piston and buckling effects. It also contains a
nipple profile such that the packer can be
plugged off in the event of wanting to isolate
the formation below during workovers.
A variation on the permanent packer is the

polish bore receptacle, this is the case
whereby the female seal bore is integral to the
casing usually at the liner top. The main ad-
vantage of these systems are their large bores.
Fig. 2-2 Camco - HSP-1 Hydraulic Set Permanent

Packer.

2.2.2.2 Retrievable Packers

Retrievable packers are installed as part of
the production tubing. They are designed to
be released and removed without destroying
the packer especially during workover cam-
paigns. The packer can be set via tubing ma-
nipulation or more commonly - hydraulically.
A packer can either be a tension or compres-
sion set packer depending on the application
encountered. Modern retrievable packers
have dual slip systems holding them both
from the top and the bottom thus giving
some of the advantages of the permanent
packer while remaining retrievable.
As the tubing is an integral part of the packer

body, there is no movement between the
packer and the tubing therefore to allow for
tubing movement an expansion joint would
be required to be installed in the tubing string
usually one or two joints above the packer.
Permanent and retrievable packers are avail-

able in a multitude of sizes and shapes de-
pending on the application required, further
information can be obtained from the promo-
tional catalogues of the major completion
component suppliers.
2.2.3 Flow Control

Flow control in completions is achieved via
numerous ancillary components strategically
placed within the production tubing string.
2.2.3.1 Landing Nipples

Landing nipples provide known depth seats
into which various types of flow control de-
vices can be located and landed. They have a
honed bore for pressure sealing and a recess
for the locking mechanism of the mandrel
which accompanies the device being set.
Fig. 2-3 Camco - HRP-1 Hydraulic Set

Retrievable Packer.

Schlumberger
through the nipple. The nipple is either bot-

tom no-go or top no-go. They are usually
placed at the bottom of a series of similar
sized selective nipples to prevent the loss of
slickline tools.
Selective landing nipples are installed at vari-

ous strategic depths within the tubing string.
They are profiled internally such that only
certain setting devices can land in them or
special procedures are required to locate them
otherwise the setting device will pass straight
through.
Landing nipples are used as, among other

things, a means to install plugs to seal off
unwanted zones or temporarily create a pres-
sure barrier, set chokes to restrict flow and to
hang instruments during routine pres-
sure/temperature surveys
2.2.3.2 Sliding Side Door

A sliding side doors or SSD is designed as a
means of providing communication between
the tubing string and the annulus. It consists
of a ported nipple with a moveable sleeve
which can open or close the ports. The proc-
ess of opening or closing is normally done by
using a mechanical shifting tool run on slick-
line although there are other variations which
operate under pressure. The main applica-
tions are;
A means of circulating the well either to

Fig 2-4a Fig 2-4b kill it prior to workover or for circulat-
Fig. 2-4a and Fig. 2-4b Camco - D-Type No-Go ing completion fluids.
Landing Nipple and associated C-Type
Wireline Lock.
Selective testing or treating in a single
string multi-zone well.
There are several types of landing nipples
but the most common types are No-Go (or
non-selective) and Selective (or universal). Gas lifting in the absence of proper gas
lift mandrels.
No-Go landing nipples, as the name suggests,
are designed such that the setting device with Use in multi-string completions for se-
the corresponding profile can not pass lective production.

2.2.4 Subsurface Safety Systems

A subsurface safety system is installed as a
means to shut in the well in the event of an
uncontrolled event at the surface. They are
categorised into two groups;
Subsurface Controlled Subsurface

Safety Valves - (SSCSSV)
Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety

Valves - (SCSSV)
2.2.4.1 Subsurface Controlled

Subsurface Safety Valves
Subsurface controlled subsurface safety
valves are the old generation of safety valves.
They are mechanically operated valves usu-
ally plug valves (although flapper types are
available) which are set to react to significant
changes in flowing pressures causing the
valves to close. They are not as reliable as
surface controlled systems and they would
certainly not be considered for use in high
profile applications such as the offshore en-
vironment or under severe operating condi-
tions.
2.2.4.2 Surface Controlled Subsurface

Safety Valves
Surface controlled subsurface safety
valves are the modern safety valves in-
stalled in higher profile completions.
(Their use is compulsory in certain
countries) They are categorised into
two groups;
Wireline Retrievable
Tubing Retrievable.
Fig. 2-5 Camco - DB-1 Sliding Side Door.

Schlumberger
Fig. 2-6b Camco - WRP-1A Wireline Retrievable

Fig 2-6a Camo - TRDP.5 Tubing, Retrievable SCSSV.
SCSSV.

The common means of operation is via ap- 2.2.6 General

plying hydraulic pressure through a 1/4 The most common form of completion is the
stainless steel control hose to a ported nipple single string with a single packer. The beauty
which forces the valve to open. (All valves of this system is its simplicity which in turn
should be fail-safe closed such that in the leads to reliability as there are less compo-
event of loss of pressure they will close). nents which could potentially have problems.
Modern systems are incorporating electri- Leading on from the various components dis-
cally operated valves. cussed above, it can readily be seen that even
the basic single string system could have one
There are many types of valves on the mar- or several packers each isolating hydrocarbon
ket offering a wide variety of advantages and bearing zones which can be selectively pro-
disadvantages. The main difference being that duced through sliding side doors.
tubing retrievable valves offer larger internal
diameters but can not be removed to be fully The next progression is a dual string comple-
serviced (although some manufacturers offer tion, whereby two production tubing strings
them with removable critical parts) while are run together with one string producing a
wireline retrievable are the converse. lower zone and the other, an upper zone with
a packer isolating the two.
2.2.5 Ancillary Components
Other types of completions include concen-
2.2.5.1 Wireline Entry Guide tric string completions, triple string com-
This is placed at the bottom of the tubing pletions etc. Within these various completion
string to assist entry back into the tubing for types, the available components open up a
slickline or wireline tools. variety of combinations which can be tailored
to each reservoir.
2.2.5.2 Blast Joint
This is used mainly in multiple string com-
pletions. It is an extra thick joint of tubing
designed to withstand the external erosion
forces or blast from adjacent perforations.
2.2.5.3 Flow Couplings

These are placed above and below safety
valves or restrictions within the tubing. They
are extra thick short joints of tubing to with-
stand internal erosion created by turbulent
flow from restrictions.

Schlumberger
Fig. 2-7a Fig. 2-7b Fig. 2-7c

Dual String - Gas Production. Dual String - Oil Production. Single String - Gas Injection.

2.3 Completion Techniques
2.3.1 General
Communication between the formation and completion, it has many apparent disadvan-
the wellbore is an essential phase of the tages;
completion process as it can directly impact
the productivity of the formation. Factors No possibility for selectively produc-
such as hydrocarbon saturation, porosity, ing or treating different zones.
permeability, fluid properties and geometry
Limited control of water or gas en-
can be measured or inferred from the meas-
croachment.
urements but they cannot usually be con-
trolled. By contrast, completion can be con-
These two factors alone can play a significant
trolled and thus affect well performance.
part in the future management of the well and
During the drilling, logging and testing phase
this coupled with safety issues has lead the
of the well, valuable information will have
industry down the road of cased hole and
been gained and the relevant completion
perforated completions.
technique chosen. There are two main catego-
ries of completions to consider, with of
2.3.1.2 Cased Hole Completions
course the usual variations;
A cased hole completion is when the well has
Open Hole Completions been cased and cemented across the target
formation and requires shaped charge perfo-
Cased Hole Completions. ration to achieve communication between the
formation and the wellbore. This is the most
2.3.1.1 Open Hole Completions common form of completing wells today and
An open hole completion is when the well is our discussion will centre around this tech-
drilled to the top of the target formation and nique.
the casing is cemented at this stage. Drilling is
continued across the target formation, the 2.4 Completion Types
drilling mud removed, any necessary stimula-
tion or preparation performed and then the Completions can be broken down into three
well is completed and produced. Open hole main categories;
completions are only possible in Natural
competent rocks that will hold their form
Stimulated
and not cave in or crumble - so called hard
rock environments. This technique is gener- Sand Control
ally associated with older, cheaper methods
of drilling and completing wells and today In all three the objective is to maximise pro-
would only be used in very low profile ap- duction through enhancement of some aspect
plications, if at all. Variations on the straight of reservoir performance modelled by the ra-
forward open hole completion include gravel dial flow equation. Of particular importance
packing with slotted liners used to contain in the analysis of well productivity is the
the pack. Whereas this technique offers the change in radial flow geometry near the well-
least restriction to flow from formation to bore caused by flow convergence, wellbore
wellbore and as mentioned is an economical damage (from drilling and filtrate invasion),

Schlumberger
Wellhead Wellhead
Tubing
Casing
Packer
Production
zone
Large shaped-
charge gun
Mud, oil and

salt water
Tubing-Conveyed Completion Extreme Overbalance Completion

pw < pf pw > pf
Derrick
Pressure
control
equipment
Tubing
Packer
Cable to truck Casing

Cable
Casing
Production
Large shaped- zone Small
charge gun through-
tubing gun
Mud, oil and Salt water

salt water
Wireline Wireline
Casing Gun Completion Through-Tubing Gun Completion
pw > pf pw < pf
Fig. 2-8 Examples of Different Perforating Techniques.

perforations (debris), partial penetration and 2.4.2 Stimulated Completions

deviation. This damage is known as skin (S) These fall into two broad categories;
and will be discussed in more detail in section
5, but for the time being can be considered as Hydraulic Fracturing
an induced pressure drop across the comple-
tion which effects productivity. Acidizing
Occasionally the two are combined in an

acid frac job.
2.4.2.1 Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing is performed to enhance
the effective wellbore radius rw and is usually
indicated for reservoirs with small permeabili-
ties (k < 1 md). This is accomplished by in-
Fig. 2-9 Pressure Distribution in a Reservoir jecting fluids and propant at high pressure,
with Skin. which alters the stress distribution in a for-
mation creating a fracture or crack in the rock.
The aim of the completion design engineer Hydraulic fracturing is generally a five step
and reservoir engineer is to reduce the influ- process.
ence of skin as much as possible.
Pre-fracturing treatment.
2.4.1 Natural Completions
The natural completion is usually chosen for Fracture initiation and breakdown.
sandstone reservoirs with permeabilities
above 10 md and porosities above 9 p.u. Fracture extension.
These reservoirs typically have small dam-
aged zones and limited skin, good transmissi-
Proppant injection.
bility and stable rock mechanics. They gener-
ally do not require stimulation or sand control
Cleanout and production.
during primary completion. The objectives of
the perforation in this case would be depth of
2.4.2.2 Acidizing
penetration and effective shot density, the
perforation diameter is generally unimportant Acidizing is a stimulation process used to
if it is larger than 0.25 (0.5 cm). The deepest repair formation damage caused by the drill-
penetration with the greatest phase distribu- ing or perforating operation. This type of
tion is desirable for production enhancement. damage is usually associated with plugging of
the pore throats around the wellbore.
Acidizing removes this damage from the ma-
trix rock by injecting acid into the naturally
porous rock at sub-fracturing rates, allowing
the acid to dissolve the plugs.

Schlumberger
posed to this pressure by perforating the

casing. The compressed nitrogen drives the
stimulation fluid across the perforations into
the formation.
rs
Prefracturing Treatment Fracture Initiation Fracture Extension

k
ks
p
h rw
re
Proppant Injection Cleanout and Production
Zone of altered
Fig. 2-10 Hydraulic Fracturing Process. permeability
Acid frac jobs are used to etch the surface of Fig. 2-11 Well and Zone of Altered Permeability
After Acidizing.
the hydraulically induced fracture. After the
fracture closes, the etched surface signifi-
2.4.2.4 Effects of Perforation
cantly improves the effective wellbore radius,
rw. Acid frac jobs are operationally less In the stimulated completion, perforation is
critical to the success of the completion. In
complicated because no proppant is used
long intervals or multi-zone treatments, the
thus eliminating the potential for premature
proppant or acid may cover only part of the
frac termination that may be caused by
interval or enter only one zone because of
screenout or problems of proppant flowback.
permeability variations.
The principle disadvantage of this technique
are the expense of the acid fluids and non uni-
Limiting the number and diameter of perfora-
form leak-off resulting in wormholes. Acid
tions can increase the pressure in the casing
frac jobs are usually performed on carbonate
to a point where intervals of higher stress
reservoirs.
may be fractured or zones of lower perme-
ability penetrated. This technique is called
2.4.2.3 Extreme Overbalance
limited entry. The perforation diameter and
Perforating
uniformity are of primary importance for this
Extreme overbalance perforating (EOP) is a type of operation because these become the
new technique developed to stimulate the limiting factors in creating pressure restric-
formation in the region near the wellbore. It tions in the well and providing a sealing sur-
involves building up very high pressures in face for ball sealers, if they are used.
the wellbore by pressuring up with nitrogen
in the tubing - much higher than the formation
breakdown pressure. When the desired pres-
sure has been reached, the formation is ex-

For both limited and non-limited entry Costly disposal of produced sand.
stimulations, completion success is influ-
enced by three perforation effects; There are four general methods of sand con-
trol;
Perforation Erosion
2.4.3.1 Production Rate Restriction
Whereby the flow erodes the perfora- Sand production can sometimes be prevented
tion thus reducing the pressure differen- by restricting the flow of the fluids through
tial across it which is important for the the formation to a rate that avoids collapse of
limited entry technique. the stable arch that forms around the perfora-
tion. This method can be enhanced by utilis-
Perforation Bridging ing high shot densities, uniform perforations
and controlled clean-up.
Whereby the perforations become
bridged with sand particles. Experi- 2.4.3.2 Gravel Packing
ments have shown that there is an ideal Gravel packing is the oldest technique for
perforation diameter to reduce this ef- controlling sand production. It consists of
fect. placing a sand pack between the formation
and a wire screen to prevent migration of
Perforation Phasing formation fines into the wellbore. Gravel
packing may be accomplished externally in
Crucial for fracturing. openhole or internally in cased hole.
2.4.3 Sand Control Completions 2.4.3.3 Sand Consolidation

Oil and gas reservoirs producing through It may be possible to consolidate sand by
sandstones that are not structurally compe- injecting plastic resins into the formation.
tent often produce sand along with the forma- This process binds the sands together while
tion fluids. Fluid movement through sand- leaving the pore spaces open. Sand consolida-
stone reservoirs produces stress on the sand tion is normally limited to intervals of 30 ft
grains because of fluid pressure differences, (9 m) or less.
fluid friction and overburden pressure. If
these stresses exceed formation restraining 2.4.3.4 Resin Packs
forces, sand is produced, and the near well- Resin coated gravel may be placed both out-
bore permeability is significantly altered. The side and inside the perforations and casing.
consequences include; As the resin cures, it forms a permeable filter
in the perforation tunnels by binding the sand
Sand plugging of casing, tubing or sur- grains together. The result is a strong, highly
face facilities. permeable synthetic sandstone. After curing,
the excess material can be drilled out of the
Casing collapse resulting from changes casing leaving an open wellbore. This method
in overburden stress. may be used with or without a screen.
Destruction of downhole and surface

equipment.

Schlumberger
The success of sand control treatments in 2.5.1 Pre-Formation Drilling

cased hole is affected by perforation density, During pre-formation drilling of the well
hole diameter and damage. If perforation den- down to the target formation(s), there are
sity is too low or hole diameter too small, many problems which may be encountered
large pressure drops occur across the pack which can effect the planned completion.
introducing large skin effects, reducing well These generally involve the need to set addi-
performance and damaging the pack. Perfora- tional liners because of casing wear from the
tion plugging caused by perforation damage drill string, poor cement bonds or the need to
prevents gravel deposition in tunnels in- set an intermediate casing string higher than
creasing the chance of premature pack failure anticipated due to unexpected over-pressures
and reducing well productivity. Perforation requiring higher mud weights to control the
phasing is important in maintaining uniform well. The inclusion of a liner influences the
flow patterns around the wellbore. This re- size of the final completion which in turn
duces fluid velocities and subsequent forma- may directly effect the production potential
tion sand movement. of the well. Other factors such as the need to
side track or irregular hole shapes will also
2.5 The Effects of Drilling on cause complications with completions.
Completions
2.5.2 Formation Drilling
There are two main areas where drilling re- During the formation drilling of the well,
lated problems can effect the success of a problems encountered can have significant
completion; effects later on. Formation damage can be
caused by excessive invasion of fluids and
Pre-Formation Drilling solids from the mud systems, over-pressuring
the formation can cause fracturing and break-
Formation Drilling down of weak zones. Mud quality and
washed out zones can further impair the
quality of log and core data which in turn will
effect the evaluations performed on the res-
Casing
ervoir and the choice of the proposed com-

pletion. Poor cement bonds between casing
Cement
Dynamic forces
and formation can result in communication
Fluid flow
between different zones. Incorrect perforating
programmes can have a major influence on the
Stable arch
performance of the completion as discussed

in the previous section.
Fortunately the age of information technol-

ogy and the onset of new computer modelling
techniques gives the modern engineer all the
tools he requires to plan, execute and evaluate
Fig. 2-12 Stable Arch and Forces Formed Around a
Perforation in an Unconsolidated Formation. his formations as accurately and efficiently as
possible.

yyyyyy
yyyyyy
Washpipe
Tubing Tubing
string string
Liner or Liner or
producing producing
screen screen
Circulating Circulating
screen on screen on
set shoe set shoe
After perforation
the perfs are washed The zone is The liner is The gravel pack
with a wash tool. squeeze packed. gravel packed. is completed.
Fig. 2-13 Gravel-packing process.

Section 3
Practical Well Testing
Section 3 Practical Well Testing

Schlumberger
3.0 Practical Well Testing
3.1 Introduction
Tests on oil and gas wells are performed at Integration with data from other reservoir
various stages of drilling, completion and related disciplines, constant evolution of in-
production. The test objectives at each stage teractive software for transient analysis, im-
range from simple identification of produced provements in downhole sensors and better
fluids and determination of reservoir deliver- control of the downhole environment have all
ability to the characterisation of complex res- dramatically increased the importance and
ervoir features. Most well tests can be capabilities of well testing.
grouped either as productivity testing or as
descriptive/reservoir testing. 3.1.1 Productivity Well Testing
Productivity well testing, the simplest form
Productivity well tests are conducted of testing, provides identification of produc-
to; tive fluids, the collection of representative
samples and determination of reservoir de-
Identify produced fluids and deter- liverability. Formation fluid samples are used
mine their respective volume ratios. for PVT analysis, which reveals how hydro-
Measure reservoir pressure and carbon phases coexist at different pressures
temperature. and temperatures. PVT analysis also pro-
Obtain samples suitable for PVT vides fluid physical properties required for
analysis. well test analysis and fluid flow simulation.
Determine well deliverability. Reservoir deliverability is a key concern for
Evaluate completion efficiency. commercial exploitation. Estimating a reser-
Characterise well damage. voirs productivity requires relating flow
Evaluate workover or stimulation rates to drawdown pressures. This can be
treatment. achieved by flowing the well at several flow
rates (different choke sizes) and measuring
the stabilised bottomhole pressure and tem-
Descriptive tests seek to;
perature prior to changing the choke.
Evaluate reservoir parameters.
The plot of flow data verses drawdown pres-
Characterise reservoir heterogenities. sure is known as the inflow performance rela-
Asses reservoir extent and geometry. tionship (IPR). For monophasic oil condi-
Determine hydraulic communication tions, the IPR is a straight line whose
between wells. intersection with the vertical axis yields the
static reservoir pressure. The inverse of the
Whatever the objectives, well test data are slope represents the productivity index of
essential for the analysis and improvement of the well. The IPR is governed by properties
reservoir performance and for reliable predic- of the rock-fluid system and near wellbore
tions. These, in turn are vital to optimising conditions. Examples of IPR curves for low
reservoir development and efficient manage- and high productivity are shown in Figure 3-
ment of the asset. Well testing technology is 2. The steeper line corresponds to poor pro-
evolving rapidly. ductivity, which could be caused either

(a)
QT4
QT3
QT2
Wellhead
flow rate
QT1
(b)
P1
Bottomhole
pressure
P2
P3
P4
Time
Fig. 3-1 Relations between flow rates and drawdown pressures used for estimating reservoir productivity. A
stepped production schedule during a productivity test (a) is achieved by flowing the well at several flow rates.
Associated (stabilized) bottomhole pressure (b) is measured before changing the choke.
4200
3800
Sandface pressure (psia)
3400
C
3000
A B
2600
0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
Flow rate at surface conditions (B/D)
Fig. 3-2 Typical inflow performance curves showing low (a) and high (b) productivity. For gas wells, IPR curves
exhibit certain curvature (C) due to extra inertial and turbulent flow effects in the vicinity of the wellbore and
changes of gas properties with with pressure. Oil wells flowing below the bubblepoint also display similar curva-
ture, but these are due to changes in relative permeability created by variations in saturation distributions.

Schlumberger
by poor formation flow properties (low mo- Homogeneous reservoir

bility-thickness product) or by damage
caused while drilling or completing the well
(high skin factor)
3.1.2 Descriptive Well Testing

Estimation of the formations flow capacity,
characterisation of wellbore damage and
evaluation of a workover or stimulation
Pressure and pressure derivative (psi)

treatment all require a transient test because a Double porosity reservoir
stabilised test is unable to provide unique
values for mobility-thickness and skin. Tran-
sient tests are performed by introducing
abrupt changes in surface production rates
and recording the associated changes in bot-
tomhole pressure. The pressure disturbance
penetrates the reservoir much faster than in
the near wellbore region, to such an extent
that pressure transient tests have evolved Impermeable boundary
into one of the most powerful reservoir char-
acterisation tools. This form of testing is of-
ten called descriptive or reservoir testing.
Production changes, carried out during a tran-

sient well test, induce pressure disturbances
in the wellbore and surrounding rock. These
pressure disturbances extend into the forma-
tion and are effected in various ways by rock
Elapsed time (hr)
features. For example, a pressure disturbance Fig. 3-3 Characteristic pressure transient plots
showing the types of responses that might occur due
will have difficulty entering a tight reservoir to various reservoir characteristics.
zone, but will pass unhindered through an
area of high permeability. It may diminish or Typical pressure responses that might be
even vanish upon entering a gas cap. There- observed with different formation character-
fore, a record of wellbore pressure response istics are shown in Figure 3-3. Each plot con-
over time produces a curve whose shape is sists of two curves presented as log-log
defined by the reservoirs unique characteris- graphs. The top curve represents the pres-
tics. Unlocking the information contained in sure changes associated with an abrupt pro-
pressure transient curves is the fundamental duction rate perturbation, and the bottom
objective of well test interpretation. To curve (termed the derivative curve) indicates
achieve this objective, analysts display pres- the rate of pressure change with respect to
sure transient data in three different co- time (refer to section 5). Its sensitivity to
ordinate systems - log-log (for model recogni- transient features resulting from well and res-
tion), semi-log (for parameter computation) ervoir geometries (which are virtually too
and Cartesian (for model / parameter verifica- subtle to recognise in the pressure change re-
tion). sponse) makes the derivative curve the single

most effective interpretation tool. However, in) on a producing well, a drawdown test is
it is always viewed together with the pres- performed by putting a well into production.
sure change curve to quantify skin effects Other well tests, such as multi-rate, multi-
that are not recognised in the derivative re- well, isochronal and injection well fall-off are
sponse alone. also possible.
Pressure transient curve analysis probably Mathematical models are used to simulate the
provides more information about reservoir reservoirs response to production rate
characteristics than any other technique. changes. The observed and simulated reser-
Horizontal and vertical permeability, pres- voir response can then be compared during
sure, well damage, fracture length, storativity well test interpretation to verify the accuracy
ratio and interporosity flow of the model. By altering model parameters
such as permeability or the distance from the
well to a fault, a good match can be reached
101
between the real and modelled data. The

model parameters are then regarded as a good
100 representation of those of the actual reser-

Before acid buildup voir. Todays computer generated models
provide much greater flexibility and improve
101 the accuracy of the match between real and
After acid buildup simulated data. It is now possible to compare
an almost unlimited number of reservoir
models with the observed data.
102
3.2 Test Design

103 102 101 100 101 102
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 3-4 Derivative curves showing features of outer

boundary effects. The effects of damage removal are Design and implementation of a well testing
clearly seen in the after-treatment pressure response program can no longer be conducted under
curve.
standard or traditional rule-of-thumb guide-
lines. Increasingly sophisticated reservoir de-
coefficient are just a few of the characteristics
velopment and management practises, strin-
that can be determined. In addition pressure
gent safety requirements, environmental
transient curves can indicate the reservoirs
concerns and a greater need for cost effi-
extent and boundary geometry. The shape of
ciency require that the entire testing se-
the curve, however, is also affected by the
quence, from program design to data evalua-
reservoirs production history. Each change
tion, be conducted intelligently. Proper test
in production rate generates a new pressure
design, correct handling of surface effluents,
transient that passes into the reservoir and
high performance gauges, flexible downhole
merges with previous pressure effects. The
tools and perforating systems, wellsite vali-
observed pressures at the wellbore will be a
dation and comprehensive interpretation are
result of the superposition of all these pres-
keys to successful well testing.
sure changes.
The importance of clearly defined objectives
Different types of well tests can be achieved
and careful planning cannot be overstated.
by altering production rates. Whereas a build-
Design of a well test includes development of
up test is performed by closing a valve (shut-

Schlumberger
a dynamic measurement sequence and selec- Selecting the instrumentation and equipment
tion of hardware that can acquire data at the for data acquisition is the final step of the
wellsite in a cost effective manner. Test de- test design process. Surface and downhole
sign is best accomplished in a software envi- equipment should be versatile to allow for
ronment where interpreted openhole logs, safe and flexible operations. Key factors to
production optimisation analysis, well perfo- consider include;
ration and completion design and reservoir
test interpretation modules are all simultane- Controlling the downhole environment
ously available to the analyst. to minimise wellbore storage.
The first step in test design involves dividing Using combined perforating and testing
the reservoir into vertical zones using open- techniques to minimise rig time.
hole logs and geological data. The types of
well or reservoir data that should be collected Running ultra high precision gauges
during the test are then specified. The data to when test objectives call for detailed
be collected drive the type of well test to be reservoir description.
run. (See Figure 3-5).
Choosing reliable downhole recorders
Once the type of test is determined, the se-
to ensure that the expected data will be
quence changes in surface flow rate that
retrieved when pulling the tools out of
should occur during the test are calculated.
hole.
The changes in flowrate and their duration
should be realistic and practical so they gen-
Selecting surface equipment to safely
erate the expected interpretation patterns in
handle expected rates and pressures.
the test data. This is best achieved by se-
lecting an appropriate reservoir model and
simulating the entire test sequence in ad- Environmentally sound disposal of
vance. Test sequence simulation allows the produced fluids.
range of possible pressure and flow rate
measurements to be explored. Simulation also Whatever the choice, it is important to ensure
helps isolate the types of sensors capable of that all data is acquired with the utmost pre-
measuring the expected ranges. Diagnostic cision. To do this a good understanding of the
plots of simulated data should be examined to available hardware options is necessary along
determine when essential features will ap- with its prospective impact, if any, on the
pear, such as the end of wellbore storage ef- data quality.
fects, the duration of infinite acting radial
flow and the start of total system response in
fissured systems. The plots can also help
anticipate the emergence of external boundary
effects, including sealed or partially sealed
faults and constant pressure boundaries.
The next step is to generate sensitivity plots

to determine the effects of reservoir parame-
ters on the duration of different flow regimes.

Fig. 3-5 Summary of Current Test Types.

Schlumberger
10,000
8000
Pressure (psia) 6000
4000
0 1 2 3 4
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 3-6 Simulated pressure response for a test sequence of flow periods followed by shut-in-periods.
106
Pressure
Derivative
105
10 4
Wellbore
storage
Limits
103
Radial flow
2
10
Double porosity behavior
101
10 4 102 100 10 2 10 4
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 3-7 Test design flow identification plot.

0
60 k = 50
120
180
240
Pressure (psia)
k = 100
300
360
420
480 k = 500
Flow period no. 3
540
Skin = 0
Tzero = 12
600
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 3-8 Sensitivity analysis plot for different permeability valves.

3.3 Tubing Conveyed Perforating

TCP
3.3.1 General
Shaped charge perforating is a critical part of
the well completion process and develop-
ment of the technique has been driven by the
need for better well productivity, operating
efficiency, safety and lower costs. Two basic
perforating techniques are available to the
completion design engineer;
Through Tubing Perforating - The

guns are lowered into the well through
the production string (or drill pipe /
test string). The guns may be conveyed
with wireline or coiled tubing.
Casing Gun and High Shot Density

Perforating (HSD) - Large diameter
guns are lowered into a cased well be-
fore the production string is run (or in
some cases as part of the bottom-hole
assembly especially during drillstem
testing and certain completion tech-
niques). The guns may be conveyed
with wireline or the tubing string.
Modern techniques include conveying
some gun systems on coiled tubing or
even slickline.
3.3.1.1 Through Tubing Perforating

Through tubing perforating guns offer the
following features;
The wellhead and completion string are

in place and tested before the casing is
perforated.
Fig. 3-9 Fig 3-10
The underbalanced differential from the 2 1/8-in. 60o phased 2 1/8-in. Enerjet
reservoir into the wellbore provides Scallop gun. gun.
perforation clean-up.

Schlumberger
Perforations may be made as required to high downhole temperatures for a shorter

over the life of the well, with or with- time than with TCP. This is an important
out a rig on site. consideration in high temperature wells.
Operating times are low, providing 3.3.2 Benefits of TCP

good job efficiency and use of rig time. Tubing conveyed perforating has however
Maximum perforated interval per run is many benefits and the flexibility of the mod-
limited by the surface set-up and is ern systems makes it an attractive prospect
typically 30 ft (9 m). especially for well testing operations. Some
of these benefits include;
3.3.1.2 Casing Gun and High Shot
Density Perforating (HSD) TCP combines the advantages of the
Casing or HSD guns offer the following fea- through tubing gun systems with those
tures; of the HSD systems.
Gun size is limited only by the casing Large guns may be fired in an underbal-
internal diameter, allowing the highest anced condition with the full well con-
performance deep penetrating or big trol equipment and production string or
hole charges to be used at optimal shot drill pipe in place.
density and perforating pattern.
Long intervals may be efficiently perfo-
When guns are conveyed on wireline rated in one run with a kill string in
the overbalanced differential from the place if required.
wellbore into the formation allows the
use of longer guns than with through The programmed underbalance is ap-
tubing perforating. Typically 60 ft (18 plied to all perforated intervals, evenly
m) can be readily achieved. Only sim- and in a controlled fashion.
ple wellhead control equipment is
needed. A variety of firing systems and acces-
sories accommodates a wide range of
Compared to expendable through tub- well conditions and completion tech-
ing guns, carrier type guns significantly niques.
reduce the amount of perforating debris
introduced into the wellbore during the After firing, expended guns may be
perforating process. dropped to the bottom of the well al-
lowing future through tubing opera-
The choice between wireline and tubing con- tions.
veyed perforating should be made on the
completion objectives and operational con-
siderations. From an operational viewpoint,
wireline perforating operations are usually
faster when there are a few short intervals to
perforate. TCP operations are more efficient
for long, multi-zone perforation intervals.
Because of the faster operating speeds of
wireline perforating, explosives are exposed

3.3.3 Equipment Selection

Accurate assessment of the operating envi-
ronment, completion objectives and testing
requirements are necessary to determine the
safest and most efficient TCP technique.
Non-standard or unusual conditions such as
high bottomhole temperatures and pressures,
long exposure times, high well deviations,
small restrictions or an H2S environment may
call for special equipment and techniques.
The reservoir and type of completion form a
unique set of conditions that determines the
selection of various options;
Casing size and formation characteris-

tics usually dictate the gun size and
charge type.
uch as SPAN analysis help in se-
lecting the best gun / charge option.
Selection of a suitable explosive pack-

age is based on the anticipated maxi-
mum exposure time of the gun string at
or near bottomhole temperature.
Well testing requirements affect the

choice of TCP firing heads and accesso-
ries and the size of perforating guns in
some cases.
Formation characteristics, together with

safety and economic considerations, de-
termine the amount of underbalance and
how it is established.
Accurate knowledge of the internal di-

ameters of all string components and
thus possible restrictions is essential to
Fig. 3-11 7-in., 14 spf, 140o/20o High Shot choosing the firing system and to plan-
Density Gun.
ning for possible fishing tool, posi-
tioning tool or cutter runs.

Schlumberger
3.3.4 Testing Requirements

Combining perforating and testing operations
provides a powerful means to evaluate the
effectiveness of the completion itself as well Radioactive marker sub
as to gain valuable information about the res-

ervoir. The annulus pressure firing system is
ideally suited for impulse and drillstem tests
in which the guns are run below a downhole
valve.
Reversing valve
The system operates at any deviation, is

practically immune to debris and does not
require a fullbore string. The firing system is
usually a differential pressure firing system.
Testing valve
With this firing system, differential pressure

between the annulus above the packer and
the rat-hole actuates the firing head. There-
Annulus pressure
fore, guns cannot be fired before the packer is

transfer sub
set. Annulus pressure from above the packer

is ported to the firing head through the
packer and slotted pipe via a packer conver-
sion kit. The packer conversion kit is either a Retrievable packer
non-fullbore universal packer conversion kit
for standard retrievable packers or a fullbore
packer conversion kit which is also suitable
for hydraulic set retrievable and permanent
packers as used in permanent completions.
As annulus pressure is increased via the sur-
face pumps, the test valve opens. At this Slotted tail pipe
time a pressure difference is created across
the packer with the cushion pressure below it
and the annulus plus pump pressure above it. Differential pressure
The firing head is set to fire at this pressure firing head
or a few hundred psi pressure higher to allow Extension housing

packer seal confirmation before the guns are Safety spacer
fired. Opening the test valve while simulta-
neously firing the guns is a possible option HSD gun
for applications in which open perforations
exist in the well.
HSD gun
Fig. 3-12 Testing / TCP system.

3.3.5 Firing Heads A minimum of 150 to 300 psi hydro-

Apart from the differential pressure firing static pressure is required to activate
system discussed above, there are many the firing pin, making the gun safe on
other options available to fit a variety of and near the surface.
completion and testing needs. Each system
has unique features that provide benefits for The adjustable firing delay makes the
specific applications, the main difference be- head suitable for operations with nitro-
tween firing heads is the method of actuation. gen.
3.3.5.1 Differential Pressure Firing Pressure equalisation prevents firing

Head flooded guns.
The differential pressure firing head
(discussed above) is actuated by the differen- 3.3.5.3 Bar Hydrostatic Firing Head
tial pressure between the annulus above the The bar hydrostatic firing head is a drop bar
packer and the rat-hole pressure below. The actuated device. Once actuated, hydrostatic
main features are; pressure drives the firing pin into the detona-
tor. The main features are;
A safety spring disables the firing pin
when hydrostatic pressure is below A minimum of 150 to 300 psi hydro-
600 psi (250 psi optional), making the static pressure is required to activate
gun string safe on and near the surface. the firing pin, making the gun safe on
and near the surface.
The packer must be sealed and the test
valve must be open before the guns can The device is uncomplicated in design
be fired. and operation.
The system is specifically designed to Pressure equalisation prevents firing

be combined with test tools. flooded guns.
Pressure equalisation prevents firing 3.3.5.4 Trigger Charge Firing System

flooded guns. The trigger charge firing system adapts either
the absolute pressure, drop bar or jar down
3.3.5.2 Hydraulic Delay Firing Head firing mechanism to a transfer assembly that
The hydraulic delay firing head, an absolute is run into the well on slickline (or electric
pressure firing head, is actuated by tubing line) after the string and guns have been run,
pressure shearing calibrated pins when a pre- tested and positioned. The main feature is;
set pressure level is reached, initiating a time
delay period during which underbalance pres- Heads containing primary explosives
sure is established before the guns are fired. are run into the well latched and then
Once the delay has expired, pressure at the retrieved independently of the gun
firing head drives the firing pin into the deto- string.
nator. The main features are;

Schlumberger
Note:
Delay time
Air is dependent
chamber upon orifice
range and
Orifice downhole
temperature
Oil chamber Piston and pressure.
Traveling moves
piston upward.
Pump
pressure
Shear pins
is applied.
Shear pins Ball retainer

break. moves Tubing/
upward. rathole
Ball retainer pressure
Locking Ball
balls retainer
Firing pin uncovers
balls; firing
pin is
Detonator released.
Firing pin
is propelled
onto
detonator.
1Running in 2Actuating firing head 3Delay 4Firing
Fig. 3-13 Hydraulic Delay Firing System.
Primary high explosives are very sen- The firing head is connected after the
sitive and easily detonated by shock, guns are on depth, which improves the
friction or heat. For safety reasons, level of safety for the entire operation.
primary high explosives are used only
in electrical or percussion detonators in The firing head is disconnected before
Schlumberger gun systems. gun retrieval.
Secondary high explosives are less The choice of firing head may be made
sensitive and require a high energy after the guns have been run.
shock wave to initiate detonation
(usually provided by primary high ex- Drop bar, jar down and hydraulic delay
plosives - detonators). Secondary high versions require a minimum of 150 -
explosives are used in all other ele- 300 psi hydrostatic pressure to be acti-
ments of the ballistic chain (detonating vated.
cord, boosters and shaped charges).
PETN, RDX, HMX and HNS are sec-
ondary high explosives used in oilwell
perforating.

3.3.5.5 Redundant Firing Systems Special techniques are used on floating rigs
Redundant firing systems are available that derived from GR/CCL correlation. A refer-
allow the primary firing heads to be com- ence point in the string (radioactive marker
bined with one another as required. Both fir- sub) is tied to the openhole logs, taking into
ing heads are located at the top of the gun account the movement of various pieces of
string, allowing the guns and heads to be equipment in the string (Slip-joints, jar,
made up safely, and both heads retain their packer) after the packer has been set and
full safety features. Redundant systems are weight slacked off.
an excellent contingency which can save valu-
able rig time in the unforeseen event of any 3.3.6.1 Procedure
problems. a) Run in hole with TCP/DST string and
subsea hanger, land off in subsea blow-
3.3.6 Depth Control out preventer (BOP) stack, and run
Depth control is vital to ensure that the for- GR/CCL correlation log.
mation is perforated in the correct place and
corresponding to the analysed log data. Off b) Locate radioactive marker at a depth
depth perforating can result in poor well per- corresponding to the top shot, minus the
formance and have severe financial implica- length of assembly from top shot to
tions. There are four main techniques to ver-
ify that the guns are at the correct perforating radioactive marker measured in tension
depth; (including D+J).
Run a through tubing GR/CCL (gamma- c) Pull out of hole to subsea hanger, and add
ray / casing collar locator) log to locate or remove tubing/drillpipe below hanger
a reference point in the string and tie as required in step b. Run back in hole
into on depth logs. with subsea hanger and add subsea tree
assembly.
Set the packer with electric wireline at a
d) When landed off, the top shot is D+J
known depth using GR/CCL for corre-
below desired top shot location.
lation and sting the guns and comple-
tion string through the packer.
e) Pull up D+J+P, rotate right to set packer
and start to slack off weight; at this point
Set the packer and guns with electric
the top shot is P above its desired final
wireline at a known depth using
location.
GR/CCL for correlation and completion
string through the packer.
f) As the weight is further slacked off, the
setting stroke P of the packer brings the
Tag a fixed and accurate point such as a
top shot to the desired location.
bridge plug.
Confirmation with GR/CCL is possible
after packer setting.

Schlumberger
Fig. 3-14 Through Tubing Correlation Log.

a+b c d e f
D+J+P
Slip joints
half closed
Slip joints T
fully open
Radioactive
marker sub Reference
tool closed
Reference tool
Jar
stroked open
closed
Jar open
Packer
set
Interval D+ J
Adjust space out Pull up D + J + P. Set packer, and slack off

below hanger Packer ready weight to have subsea
and add tree. to be set. tree landed off
Run gamma ray slip joints in midstroke
correlation log with and guns at shooting depth.
subsea hanger Land
landed off. subsea tree.
Fig. 3-15 TCP Depth Control on Floating Rigs.

Schlumberger
3.4 Drill Stem Testing Tools - DST
3.4.1 General
A set of drill stem test tools is a complex ar- 3.4.2.1 Packer
ray of downhole hardware used for the tem- This provides a seal and isolates Ph from Pf
porary completion of a well. They are run as much the same as for permanent com-
a means of providing a safe and efficient pletions.
method of controlling a formation during the
gathering of essential reservoir data in the ex- 3.4.2.2 Test Valve
ploration, appraisal and even development
A test valve, run above the packer, isolates
phase of a well, or to perform essential pre-
Pc from Ph while running in the hole. It also
conditioning or treatment services prior to
permanent completion of the well. helps reduce the effects of wellbore storage
which is an important element of interpreta-
Many components are similar in function to tion (see section 5). After the packer is set
those of permanent completions although the and the test valve opened, flow to surface
temporary nature of the string require some occurs.
additional functionalities normally not asso-
ciated with permanent completions. This can 3.4.2.3 Reverse Circulation Valve
be better understood by realising that DST A reverse circulation valve provides a means
tools are designed for a wide range of oper- of removing produced fluids before pulling
ating environments and multi-use as in they out of the hole. For redundancy, two revers-
can be redressed between runs while perma- ing valves with different operating systems
nent completion components are designed for are normally run. In addition, reversing valves
specific installations and long life. are used to spot cushion and acid treatments.
3.4.2 Basic Requirements Additional tools may also be run to enhance

Drillstem tests are affected by three different string efficiency, safety and versatility. Some
pressures; of the more common components are;
Hydrostatic Press Ph 3.4.2.4 Slip Joint

A slip joint is an expansion/contraction com-
pensation tool. It accommodates any changes
Formation Pressure Pf
in string length caused by temperature and
pressure during the DST. The tool is hydrau-
Cushion Pressure Pc
lically balanced and insensitive to applied
tubing pressures. Slip joints have a stroke of
5 ft (or occasionally 2 ft), the total number of
During testing Ph must be isolated from Pf slip joints depends on well conditions e.g. for
and Pc to allow a formation to flow to sur- a standard test at 10,000 ft. two or three slip
face. Three primary tools are used; joints are normal.

3.4.2.5 Hydraulic Jar

A hydraulic jar provides the means of trans-
mitting an upwards shock to the tool string in
the event that the packer and lower assembly
become stuck. The tool has a time regulated
action as transferring rapid movement in a
long string is not a simple means. An upward Upper Slips
pull activates a regulated oil flow until the

(Retracted)
Floating
hammer section is released thus giving a rapid

Piston
upward movement and generating the rele-

Bypass Seal
(Closed)
vant shock.
Gauge Ring
3.4.2.6 Safety Joint

Rubber Antiextrusion
Elements Rings
A safety joint is actuated only if a jar cannot

Gauge Ring
pull stuck tools loose. By manipulating the

Setting
Mandrel
tool string (usually by a combination of re-
ciprocation and rotation), the safety joint,
which is basically two housings connected by
a course thread, can be unscrewed, and the
upper part of the string removed from the
well.
3.4.2.7 Safety Valve Fig. 3-16 Packer.

A safety valve independent of the main test
valve is often required to provide additional
well control, especially if the main downhole
valve fails. Ball Valve
Ball Seal
Ball Valve
3.4.2.8 Gauge Carrier Operator
When run with a test string, both mechanical

and electronic gauges must be placed in a car-
Bias Area
Hydrostatic
rier for support and protection. Carriers can

Ports
Operator
either be of the above or below packer type.

Mandrel
3.4.2.9 Sampling Chamber Tool Nitrogen
A sampling chamber tool is used to trap a Compensating Reference
downhole sample anytime during the test

Piston Pressure
without shutting in the well. Pressure

Reference
Ports
Rupture Rupture
Discs Discs
Closed Open
Fig. 3-17 Test Valve.

Schlumberger
Top Sub
Slots/Dog Stroke
2 ft
or
Index 5 ft
Section
Piston Spline
Mandrel
Spring
Reverse
Reverse Circulation
Ports Through Ports Internal Pressure
Chamber
Seal
Mandrel
V-Packing Seals
Annulus Pressure
Chamber
Closed Cycling Open

(Mandrel Pumped
Down)
Fig. 3-18 Reverse Circulation Valve.
Fig. 3-19 Slip Joint.
Time-
regulating
nut
Anvil
Shock
Shock
Oil Absorber
Hammer
Brass valve
Gauge
Rapid oil
transfer
Buffer
Tube
Metering
section
Jars Closed Jars Tripped
Fig. 3-20 Hydraulic Jar.

Fig. 3-21 Gauge Carrier.

tion. The Multiflow Evaluator System -

MFE is a self contained open hole drill stem
Drain Valve
test string.
Floating Piston
If drilling is not halted to allow testing when

Sample
Chamber
a potential hydrocarbon bearing zone is en-

Oil Chamber
Sample
countered, an alternative test method is to
wait until the well is drilled to total depth
Mandrel
and then use straddle packers to isolate the

Lock
Flow Restrictor zone of interest. The introduction of inflat-

able packers allows the effective isolation and
testing of individual zones pinpointed using
Atmospheric
Chamber
Operator
wireline logs.
Mandrel
Open hole drill stem tests gather important

Rupture Disc
early information, but reservoir testing re-

quires more data over a longer period. The
extent of reservoir investigated increases with
Before Sampling After Sampling test duration. A key factor governing the du-
Fig. 3-22 Sampling Chamber Tool. ration of an openhole test is wellbore stabil-
ity. At some point the well may cave in on
3.4.3 Types of Drill Stem Tests top of the packer and the string may get
As with permanent completion components permanently stuck downhole, calling for an
there are a variety of different drill stem test expensive sidetrack. These hazards of well-
tools designed for a range of operating condi- bore stability have been eliminated by testing
tions and to perform different functionalities. after the casing has been set and in many sec-
There are however two main categories of tors particularly offshore, cased hole testing
drill stem tests; has replaced traditional open hole drill stem
testing.
Open Hole Drill Stem Tests
Cased Hole Drill Stem Tests 3.4.3.2 Cased Hole Drill Stem Testing
As offshore drilling increased, floating rigs
3.4.3.1 Open Hole Drill Stem Testing became common, increasing the potential for
If hydrocarbons are detected in either cores vessel heave to accidentally cycle traditional
or cuttings during drilling or indicated by the weight set tools and even un-set the packer.
logs, an open hole DST provides a rapid, In addition, deeper more deviated wells make
economical means to quickly assess the pro- reciprocal tools more difficult to operate and
duction potential of the formation. However control and thus jeopardise the safety of the
the technique requires the hole to be in very operation. A new pressure controlled system
good condition and highly consolidated as the was designed specifically for these applica-
packer elements actually seal on the rock tions which eliminates the need for pipe ma-
face. The open hole sections also limit the nipulation after the packer has been set and
application of pressure on the annulus there- has eventually become the new standard in
fore special strings are designed which are drill stem test operations.
operated by pipe reciprocation and/or rota-

Schlumberger
Drillpipe or tubing Drillpipe or Tubing
Drill collars Drill Collars
Pump-out reverse tool Pump-Out Reverse Tool
Drill collars (1 stand) Drill Collars (1 Stand)
Break-off plug Break-Off Plug

reverse tool Reverse Tool
Drill collars (1 stand) Drill Collars (1 Stand)
Bar catcher Bar Catcher
Multiflow evaluator valve

Multi-Flow
Evaluator (MFE)
Openhole bypass
Pressure Recorder
(Inside Reading)
Pressure recorder
(inside reading) TR Hydraulic Jars
TR hydraulic jars
Rotary Pump
Safety joint
Multi-Stage
Safety seal Relief Valve
Safety Joint
Openhole packer
(conventional or bobtail) Upper Inflate
Packer
Perforated anchor
Blank Spacer Pipe
or Drill Collars
Pressure recorder
(outside reading)
Lower Inflate
Packer
Drill collar(s)

@@@

QQQ
Ported bullnose Deflate Drag
Spring Tool
@@@

QQQ

Pressure Recorder
Fig. 3-23 Typical MFE Open-Hole String.
(Inflate Pressure)
Bullnose
Fig. 3-24 Typical MFE Inflate Open-Hole String.

The Pressure Controlled Test System - PCT The system is specifically useful in horizon-
is a self contained cased hole drill stem test tal well applications, and offers almost un-
string. limited testing, treating and stimulation op-
erations in this technically demanding arena.
The main test valve and other key tools are
operated by specific signatures of annulus
and/or tubing pressure which is why a thor- Drillpipe or tubing
ough understanding of the different pressures

and potential differentials is important in the
Slip joint (open)
design of the cased hole DST string. In the

specific case of the PCT, the valve opens
Slip joint (half open)
when pressure above a certain threshold - Slip joint (closed)
usually 1500 psi - is applied on the annulus,

and closes when this pressure is bled off. It Drill collars
uses the same annular pressure threshold

regardless of depth, hydrostatic pressure and
Pump-out reverse tool
temperature (provided the design specifica- Drill collars (1 stand)

tions of the tool are not exceeded). To do
this, a chamber in the tool is pre-charged at Break-off plug reverse tool
the surface with nitrogen. A compensating
piston ensures that the nitrogen acquires hy- Drill collars (1 stand)
drostatic pressure as the tool is run in the

hole. (See Figure 3-17) Bar-catcher
Most pressure controlled systems provided

Overpressure Safety Valve
and Sampler (OSVS)
today are termed fullbore which means that a

minimum internal diameter of 21/4" is main-
PCT Pressure-Controlled Tester
tained throughout the string from top to bot-

tom, which is essential for running wireline
Hydrostatic Reference Tool (HRT)
tools or coiled tubing inside the string to ac-

cess the producing zone and hence enhance
Pressure recorder (inside reading)
the flexibility of the test program. Services

such as through tubing perforating, wireline
TR hydraulic jars
or slickline conveyed sampling, pres-

sure/temperature and production logging can
Safety joint
readily be programmed into the test sequence PosiTest cased hole packer
either as main parts of the program or contin-
gency measures. The flexibility of this type
of system allows it to be run with most spe-
Perforated/slotted tailpipe or tubing
cialised systems;
Permanent production packers or ce-
Pressure recorder (outside reading)
ment retainers. Ported bullnose
TCP systems.
Surface Pressure Read Out Systems.
Fig. 3-25 Typical Fullbore PCT String.

Schlumberger
3.4.4 New Technology operating instructions and opens or closes

Increased sophistication in testing demands solenoid valves to direct hydraulic fluid from
additional tools, creating the need for a com- chambers at annular hydrostatic pressure into
plex sequence of distinguishable pressure chambers at atmospheric pressure. This fluid
pulses. The annular pressure has to supply movement is used to operate the tools
not only a discrete signal to one of a number valves, closing them with a high intensity
of tools, but also the power to operate it. For force driven by the differential pressure
example, opening a single shot reversing valve rather than by just the force of a spring, as in
at the end of a test can typically require 2000 conventional systems. In addition, the fact
to 3000 psi above the hydrostatic pressure. that clean hydraulic fluid rather than mud is
This creates significantly higher pressures in operating the tools, reliability is also en-
the annulus and great care must be taken not hanced.
to exceed the tubing collapse or casing burst
pressures. There is thus a limit to the number
of discrete annular pressure signals that can
be safely employed to command and power
downhole equipment. Circulating valve
A recent development addresses this limita-

tion by employing much lower annular pres-
sure variations as command signals to the
downhole tools. The signals are analysed by
the tools controller which uses field proven, Test valve
reliable electronics to control the downhole
test valve and circulating valve.
Batteries power the electronics, annular hy-

drostatic pressure supplies the energy to op-
Atmospheric chamber
erate the valves. The system is called the

Intelligent Remote Implementation System Hydrostatic chamber
- IRIS.
Low intensity coded pulses of at least 250 Pilot and solenoid valves
psi are sent down the annulus using the rig Pressure sensor
mud pumps. The key recognition factor for Electronics
the IRIS systems pressure sensor is the
shape of the pressure pulse. A threshold
pressure has to be achieved, sustained and
Battery
bled off within specific time and pressure

variation constraints. The duration that a pla-
teau pressure is sustained distinguishes one
command from another.
Fig. 3-26 Intelligent Remote Implementation
System-IRIS.
In the tool, a microprocessor reads the coded
pressure pulses, compares them to pre-set

TCP guns fired using annular pressure

TCP guns fired using drop bar stallation package. The basic floating installa-
tion package consists of;
1200
Subsea Test Tree

1000
Applied annular pressure (psi)
TCP guns fire

800
Retainer Valve
Lubricator Valve
Drop bar
Main flow period
TCP guns fire
600
Test valve opens Test valve closes

400
200
3.5.2.1 Subsea Test Tree
The subsea test tree is designed to provide a
seabed master valve to close the drill string
0
and allow disconnection during testing from a

Test valve opens, Time Disable Circulating
sequential mode sequential valve
enabled mode opens
Fig. 3-27 Annular pressure pulses needed to control floating vessel. Disconnection may be neces-
the IRIS dual valve in conjunction with either pres- sary due to rough weather, loss of anchors or
sure or drop bar operated TCP guns. failure of the dynamic positioning system. It
consists of a combination of a dual valve as-
Since the tool functions through electrohy- sembly and a hydraulic operator and latch
draulics, its mechanical construction is sim- assembly incorporated in the landing string
plified. The 20 ft. (6 m) IRIS dual-valve re- and tailored to space out in the BOP stack.
places conventional fullbore test strings The hydraulic operator is powered by a sur-
measuring up to 40 ft. (12 m). Elimination of face hydraulic power unit connected via a
pressurised nitrogen chambers also enhances hydraulic hose bundle.
the safety aspects of the tool. The equipment
is compatible with conventional pressure op- Underneath the complete assembly a slick-
erated test equipment including TCP sys- joint is connected to a fluted hanger which
tems. lands in the wear bushing of the BOP stack
and is spaced such that during testing the
3.5 Subsurface Safety Systems BOP pipe rams are closed around the slick
joint thus sealing off the well annulus. If it
3.5.1 General becomes necessary to unlatch, the hydraulic
When testing from semi-submersible or latch assembly disconnects from the valve
floating drilling vessels, the well is controlled assembly leaving the well shut-in and under
by landing a subsea control valve tool (subsea control. The valve assembly is designed such
test tree) in the blow-out preventers. This that the blind rams can be closed above it.
tool is designed to allow the rig to shut-in the The main features of the tree are;
well, quickly disconnect from the main land-
ing string and safely move off location in the Valves are normally closed and hydrau-
event of unforseen weather patterns causing lic pressure is required to keep them
excessive heave. The additional safety featues open. The valves close when pressure
of these tools have been incorporated into is released or lost.
fixed and jack-up type drilling rigs.
The hydraulic mechanism is contained
3.5.2 Subsea Test Package in the latch. There is no communication
The subsea test package varies between of hydraulic fluid to the valves and
floating and fixed drilling installations. The therefore no danger of contaminating
fixed installation package is merely a simpli- the hydraulic fluid by mud or well
fied version of the more complex floating in- fluids. The entire operating mechanism

Schlumberger
can be serviced by pulling the latch,

leaving the valves and string landed in
the BOP stack.
A safety piston in the downhole hy-

draulic assembly and a four way valve
in the hydraulic console provide dual
safety against accidental unlatching of
the hydraulic assembly.
The valve assembly is designed such

that it is possible to close two pipe
rams on the slick joint and still close
the blind rams above the valves after
disconnecting the latch. Re-latching
takes place deep in the BOP stack,
where good centralisation is maintained
and not in the area of the riser or ball
joint.
Fig. 3-28 Subsea Test Tree.
Pressure applied through one of the
hydraulic lines, may be used to assist in 3.5.2.3 Lubricator Valve
closing the ball valve and thus cut
During offshore testing where slickline or
slickline, electric-line or coiled tubing.
wireline operations are performed, it may be
The trees are designed to allow the in- advantageous to use a valve that avoids hav-
jection of chemical inhibitor to prevent ing a lubricator above the flowhead and thus
hydrate formation. high up from the drill floor. The lubricator
valve, usually located about 30 m below the
In deep water (depths greater than 1000 ft ) a flowhead, enables the upper part of the string
hydraulic control pod can be added to the to be used as a lubricator. It is a balanced
system to allow faster response times for valve as in it remains in the position in which
well closure and unlatching (less than 20 sec- it was last placed (open or closed). It holds
onds at 3000 ft.) pressure from above and below and contains
an equalising device to remove any differen-
3.5.2.2 Retainer Valve tial prior to opening.
The retainer valve isolates the well fluids un-
3.5.3 New Developments
der pressure in the pipe above the subsea test
tree and prevents communication to the riser Modern subsea test packages are becoming
should it become necessary to disconnect. shorter and faster acting with more stringent
This is particularly important in deep water pre-service testing requirements, especially
because it prevents pollution and eliminates for use in high profile applications. Hydraulic
the dumping of high pressure gases into the operating systems can be combined with
riser. electric systems ensuring the fast operating
responses. This becomes even more impor-
tant in high pressure high temperature

(HPHT) applications and with exploration 3.6 Surface Testing Equipment

drilling in much deeper water.
3.6.1 General
On the surface, the fluids produced during a
test are normally handled using temporary
equipment or a surface testing package. This
equipment needs to be assembled and de-
signed to safely and reliably fulfil a wide
range of operations;
Provide a means of quickly controlling

the pressure and shutting in the well.
Separate produced fluids into gas, oil

and water phases, allowing the con-
stituents to be metered, and record key
data such as temperature and pressure.
Allow representative samples of the

produced fluids to be taken.
Dispose of produced fluids in an envi-

ronmentally acceptable manner.
The traditional safety philosophy seeks to

maintain a minimum of two independent
pressure retaining barriers between the sur-
face equipment and the formation. These
may be located at three levels; downhole,
subsurface and surface. Downhole barriers
include the DST test valve itself or a special
safety valve used only in emergencies. Sub-
surface barriers are not universally employed
on fixed rigs or onshore. In some cases, par-
Fig. 3-29 Lubricator Valve.
ticularly high pressure gas wells or in hostile
environments, an additional means of shut-
The onset of horizontal wellheads (whereby
ting in the well is required.
vary large external diameter service tools are
required to be run through the subsea tree)
A typical offshore well testing set-up, in-
and testing high rate gas wells calls for very
cluding all standard equipment, is shown in
large bore subsea test trees. Traditional size
Figure 3-30. Although the surge tank is rec-
has been 3" internal diameter. Special appli-
ommended and compulsory in the presence
cations today are producing subsea test trees
of H2S, both surge and gauge tanks are shown
with internal diameters of 5, 6 and 65/8.
in this set-up. The surge tank is used as a
second stage separator, and the connection of

Schlumberger
both tanks is shown. The grey area shows other three valves by a swivel which allows
the permanent piping, which is now being rotation of the landing string without discon-
used frequently on drilling rigs. For safety necting the kill lines. The master valve allows
reasons, compressed air to supply the burn- isolation of the surface equipment from the
ers must be totally independent from the rig downhole string and as such connects di-
air supply. rectly to the top of the string. The swab
valve allows introduction and retrieval of
3.6.2 Equipment slickline, wireline or coiled tubing. The
A brief description of the main components flowline valve is equipped with an automatic
now follows, but it must be emphasised that hydraulic actuator which is linked into the
each well test set-up requires detailed plan- emergency shut down system, thus auto-
ning and design related to expected operating matically closing the valve in the event of a
conditions and customer objectives. pre-programmed event (such as too high
pressure etc.). An actuated valve can also be
3.6.2.1 Flowhead installed on the kill valve if required. In cer-
tain applications an additional valve called a
Surface shut-in is usually provided by a flow
stand alone valve will be placed immediately
control head or flowhead, which functions as
downstream of the flowhead to provide an-
a temporary christmas tree. The flowhead
other safety barrier (specifically in HPHT
comprises of four valves, the master valve,
applications).
the swab valve, the flow valve and the kill
valve. The master valve is isolated from the

Heater or steam
Gauge tank Separator exchanger
Surge tank
or
second stage Water
from
separator
Diesel
supply for
diesel-fired
heater
Optional
for
gauge
tank
Steam
Gas Laboratory
cabin
Transfer
pump Oil manifold
Low- Fluids from well
pressure
gas
Steam
generator
Flowhead
Choke manifold
Coflexip
Air
compressor or
Chiksans
Piping usually Safety

provided by client valve
Water
or permanent pump
on the rig
Seadragon* or Seadragon or
mud burner mud burner
(3 or more heads) Boom Boom (3 or more heads)
Air Air
Water Water
Oil Oil
Gas
Gas manifold
Propane
bottles
Fig. 3-30 Typical Offshore Testing Setup.

Schlumberger
choke do not affect pressures and flow rates

upstream of the choke.
3.6.2.3 Heater / Steam Exchanger

It is often required to raise the temperature of
well effluents to prevent hydrate formation,
to reduce viscosity and to break down emul-
sions, thereby making separation of oil and
water easier. To do this some form of heater
is placed downstream of the choke manifold.
There are two main types, an indirect fired
heater or a steam exchanger. Indirect fired
heaters are fuelled by diesel or gas and for
that reason are often not permitted by regula-
tions in many operating environments, par-
ticularly offshore. The main functions of a
heater are as follows;
Hydrate Prevention
Fig. 3-31 Flowhead. Natural gases contain water vapour. Under
certain choked flow conditions, sufficient ex-
3.6.2.2 Choke Manifold pansion occurs to lower the temperature of
the flow and cause hydrate formation; that is
After the flowhead comes the choke mani-
particles of water and some light hydrocar-
fold, which controls the produced fluid by
bons in the gas become solid. This is a seri-
reducing the flowing pressure and providing a
ous problem; if these particles freeze in the
constant flow rate. A choke is simply a re-
surface equipment, valves and flowmeters
striction to flow; the choke manifold consists
become inoperative and chokes blocked.
of valves and fittings arranged so that flow
Natural gas hydrates appear as hard snow
can be directed in one of two directions
and consist of chemical compounds of hy-
(through one of two choke boxes). Each box
drocarbon and water. They form at tempera-
accepts either a fixed or variable choke. On
tures above the freezing point of water when
the fixed side of the choke manifold, cali-
certain hydrocarbons are dissolved in water
brated choke beans are used. Each bean is a
and under some low temperature and high
specific size usually in graduations of 1/64"
pressure conditions. Using a heater helps to
and is screwed into the choke box. The con-
maintain the temperatures above the point
figuration allows a flow rate and specific
where hydrates form.
choke size to be specified at the end of a test.
A variable choke fitted to the other side of
Viscosity Reduction
the choke manifold enables the fixed choke to
High viscosity impairs the flow of an effluent
be changed without interrupting flow. It also
through a pipe. This is not usually a problem
allows prediction of flowrates and pressure
in well testing, however, combined effects of
drops across the choke manifold during clean-
changes in composition as the reservoir fluid
up. The aim is to impose critical flow across
is brought to surface ambient temperature,
the choke. When this has been achieved,
the viscosity occasionally becomes high and
changes in pressure made downstream of the
effects separation efficiency. Because vis-

cosity is temperature dependent, a heater being carried into the outlet gas stream,
may be used to lower the viscosity and pre- and the mist extractor, which is the last
vent the problem. obstacle the gas encounters before
leaving the separator vessel, blocks fine
Emulsion Breakdown liquid droplets still in the gas stream.
With the inevitable production of water from The blocked droplets coalesce and fall
a reservoir, it is necessary to separate the oil back into the oil phase.
from the water. Under certain conditions, the
oil and water emulsify and will not separate Instrumentation for level regulation and
unless chemicals are injected or the effluent retention time setting - separators are
temperature is raised by the use of a heater. such flexible pieces of equipment be-
cause the level of liquid can be adjusted
3.6.2.4 Test Separator between two values: plus or minus 6 in.
To accurately measure flow rate and take of the centre line of the vessel. A
samples, the produced fluid must be sepa- pneumatic liquid level controller with a
rated into oil, gas and water. Test separators long vertical float provides a vast range
are capable of handling all types of output; of oil levels.
gas, gas condensate, light oil, heavy oil,
foaming oil, water and spent stimulation flu- Metering manifold - Oil metering is
ids such as acid. The possibility that hydro- done via positive displacement meters
gen sulphide (H2S) can be produced necessi- for low rates and a turbine meter for
higher rates. Gas metering uses a cali-
tates special equipment and enhanced safety
brated orifice plate.
precautions. Designed for such versatility
they are not expected to achieve as perfect a Piping and valves.
separation as production station separators,
however separation efficiency is essential for Skid and protective frame.
accurate metering of the separated phases and
as much care as possible must be taken to 3.6.2.5 Gauge / Surge Tank
pre-condition the fluid for ideal separation. The separated liquids then pass into either a
Test separators are generally very compact gauge tank, which vents to the atmosphere
to facilitate easy installation in limited space via a flame arrestor or when H2S is expected,
environments such as offshore installations. a pressurised surge tank. In these, volume is
They are available in a variety of types to also measured to help calibrate the flowme-
cope with different operating environments. ters and because the pressure is further re-
The main elements of a test separator are; duced, additional gas comes out of solution
causing shrinkage which can also be measured
The vessel - including essential internal solution causing shrinkage which can also be
components to separate the phases and measured.
ease the separation process. The dixon
plates or coalescent plates prevent
droplets larger than 15 microns from

Schlumberger
Gas
outlet
Safety Rupture
valve disk
Effluent Deflector
Mist
inlet plate Baffle extractor
Dixon
plates Manhole
Vortex
Weir
breaker
Water Oil
outlet outlet
Fig. 3-32 Horizontal Three-Phase Separator.
3.6.2.Pumps and Manifolds surrounding air which creates a pressure pro-

The gas is usually directed via a gas manifold file so that it sucks extra air, essential for
to the gas flare where it is burned. The oil is combustion, into the stream. Other essential
then redistributed via transfer pump and oil parameters needed for enhanced burners can
manifold to be burned through the oil burner. be continuously monitored and adjusted
during the course of the test. While this
3.6.2.7 Burners method can be used with available rig equip-
ment, additional air compressors will be re-
As environmental constraints tighten, accept-
quired and for best results additional equip-
able disposal of produced fluids presents an
ment is needed.
increasing challenge. Gas and oil are generally
burned. Onshore this usually occurs in flare
3.6.2.8 Emergency Shut Down Systems
pits. Offshore, the primary concern is to
avoid dropping oily or carboniferous residue Emergency shut down systems are used to
into the sea. Within a typical burner, oil control the process chain in the event of an
flows into a chamber where it is atomised by unforeseen hazard. High/low pilots initiate
compressed air. The mixture is then ignited. well closure when the pressure either rises
Water sprayed into the flame creates high above a high level threshold (choke blockage)
turbulence, improves the efficiency of the or falls below a specified level (flowline leak /
burning and prevents the formation of carbon rupture). These pilots are installed at the up-
black smoke. High efficiency burners have stream choke manifold, upstream heater or
been introduced in the early 1990s improv- upstream separator. They are pneumatically
ing the efficiency of the burners by a factor operated and if triggered actuate a hydraulic
of 10. Using modern technology the atomis- actuator which will close down the wing
ers have been computer modelled such that valve on the flowhead or an additional stand
atomisation is improved shearing the oil into alone valve upstream of the choke manifold.
extra fine droplets. The velocity of the jet
leaving the nozzle creates turbulence in the

P2
Gas metering
PGV2 valves (GMV)
Air
supply
Relief
valve Gas outlet valves (GOV)
PCV2 1 2 T3 4
PCV7 4
3 3
1 2
T2 5 6 Farris
PGV3 safety valve
P3
Nonreturn
swing valve
GOV7
P1
GOV6 T1
PCV1 PCV3 PCV4 PGV1
5 5
1
3 V3
1
T5 6 V1
4
2
6 7
2 3
Water WOV1 V2
4 8
7 5 outlet
valves (WOV) WOV2
Liquid PCV5 PCV6
Shrinkage levels 3
tester valves V4
valves (SHV) (LLV)
2 2 4
1
1 3
5 T4
Oil metering valves (OMV)
Oil outlet valves (OOV)
P1: Separator pressure gauge GMV: Gas metering valves

P2: Pressure gauge GOV: Gas outlet valves
P3: Pressure gauge LLV: Liquid levels valves
T1: Thermowell OMV: Oil metering valves
T2: Thermowell OOV: Oil outlet valves
T3: Thermowell PCV: Pilot circuit valves
T4: Thermowell PGV: Pressure gauge valves
V1: Separator inlet valve SHV: Shrinkage tester valves
V2: Bleedoff valve WOV: Water outlet valves
V3: Separator bypass valve
V4: Separator bypass valve
Fig. 3-33a Separator Flow Sheet.

Schlumberger
Fig. 3-33b Separator Flow Sheet (Index).
Modern systems are electrically operated and subsea test tree etc. The electrical activation
computer controlled. This opens up a whole significantly speeds up the reaction time and
new range of safety options. For example, in the computer input makes pre-programming
addition to the high/low pressure pilots, the of settings a formality. These systems are
system can handle high/low levels in any of specifically important for HPHT and hostile
the relevant vessels, high/low temperatures, environment operations.
high /low flowrates, activate closure of the

3.7 Data Acquisition
3.7.1 General
During well testing, there are two main places performance and these are important to
where data is acquired; at the surface and understand when selecting the correct
downhole. In the early days of well testing, transducer for the task required.
only mechanical instruments were available
to perform the measurements required. In 3.7.2 Transducer Performance
many places this is still often the case espe- Manufacturers of pressure sensors most
cially for surface measurements. Today, commonly depict their products and their
however, sophisticated electronic circuitry performance through technical specifications.
with high performance strain, capacitance or It is important to understand these specifica-
quartz transducers are available coupled with tions and what they apply to so that a thor-
automatic computer acquisition, control and ough understanding of the product is realised.
display. Typical pressure measurement parameters
can be split into the following two main
Whatever the instrumentation chosen for classes;
measuring the various parameters, the end
user requires accurate, valid data to ensure Static Parameters.
that the best interpretation of the data can be
made and used in the future development of Dynamic Parameters.
his asset. The old adage rubbish in , rubbish
out is certainly relevant to data acquisition. 3.7.2.1 Static Parameters
These parameters describe the transducer
Before looking at the different components performance in static conditions. The main
and techniques it is important to emphasise factors influencing performance are;
two main factors;
Accuracy
The severe difference in environment Resolution
between a pressure/temperature trans- Stability
ducer required for surface measurement Sensitivity
and that of one required for downhole
measurement. Whereas this may seem
Accuracy
obvious, the effects of pressure and
This is considered to be the algebraic sum of
temperature on the associated elec-
all the errors influencing the pressure meas-
tronics can severely affect the meas-
urement. These errors are due to;
urement and this needs to be under-
stood and accounted for in the design of
Mean Quadratic deviation (MQD) is a meas-
the instrument.
ure for the quality of the mathematical fit of
the sensor response at one constant tempera-
The performance of pressure / temperature. This parameter is a function of the
ture transducers is paramount to pro- transducer linearity (i.e. the closeness of a
ducing accurate and reliable data. There calibration curve to a specified straight line)
are many factors which affect a gauges

Schlumberger
and of the calibration procedure (i.e. coeffi-

cient grid and polynomial function used).
Fig. 3-36 Repeatability.
Resolution
Fig. 3-34 M.Q.D. This is the minimum pressure change that is
detected by the sensor. When referring to a
Hysteresis is the maximum discrepancy of gauge resolution, it is important to take into
the output of the transducer signal between account the associated electronics as the two
increasing and decreasing pressure (or tem- are always used together. It is also important
perature) excursions. to measure the resolution with respect to a
specific sampling time. The gauge resolution
is equal to the sum of three factors;
The sensor Resolution.
The digitizer resolution.
The electronic noise induced by the

amplification chain.
Fig. 3-35 Hysteresis.
In the case of tools equipped with strain
Repeatability is defined as the discrepancy gauge transducers this last factor is by an or-
between two consecutive measurements of a der of magnitude the predominant parameter.
given pressure. As shown below, the repeat- In addition, mechanically induced noise may
ability is not affected by the hysteresis be- also be a factor that limits a gauge resolution.
cause both measurements are performed us- This is because some gauges behave as mi-
ing the same procedure.Temperature crophones or accelerometers. This may be an
Sensitivity or dP/dT is the ratio of the tem- important consideration during tests when
perature sensitivity (of the pressure signal) there is fluid movement or tool movement
to the pressure sensitivity. Example - a gauge downhole.
with a dP/dT of 5 psi/C and an associated
temperature sensor of 0.1C accuracy will
induce the following error:
5 psi/C x 0.1C = 0.5 psi.

3.7.2.2 Dynamic Parameters

These parameter describe the transducer per-
formances in dynamic conditions. Under this
classification we find;
Transient response during tempera-

ture variation.
Fig. 3-37 Resolution. The sensor response is monitored under dy-

namic temperature conditions whilst the ap-
Stability plied pressure is kept constant. The peak
This is the ability of a sensor to retain its error represents the maximum discrepancy
performance characteristics for a relatively between the applied pressure and the stabi-
long period of time. The stability gives the lised sensor output. By general consensus,
sensor mean drift in psi per day obtained at a the stabilisation time represents the time
given pressure and temperature. Three levels needed to be within 1 psi of the stabilised
of stability can be defined; pressure. The offset represents the difference
between the initial and final pressure. This
Short term stability for the first day of parameter provides for a given temperature
a test. variation, the time required to get a reliable
pressure measurement.
Medium term stability for the follow-
ing six days. Transient response during pressure
variation.
Long term stability for a minimum of
one month. The sensor response is recorded before and
after a pressure variation whilst the tempera-
Sensitivity ture is kept constant. Peak error and stabili-
This is the ratio of the transducer output sation time are measured as previously de-
variation induced by a change of pressure to scribed for a temperature variation.
this change of pressure. In other words, the
sensitivity represents the slope of the trans-
ducer output verses the pressure curve.
Fig. 3-39 Transient response during temperature

variation.
Fig. 3-38 Sensitivity.

Schlumberger
3.7.2.3 Calibration to verify the response of a gauge over a spe-

The calibration of a pressure transducer pro- cific range as anticipated in the forthcoming
vides a set of coefficients which allow the test. Both these checks are essential proce-
mathematical description of the transducer dures in the process of pressure and tempera-
function between the pressure input and the ture data acquisition.
sensor output at static temperature. The sen-
sor is subjected over its full operating range 3.7.3 Pressure Transducer Technology
to a series of extremely precise known pres- Modern pressure transducers operate on the
sures (generated by a highly accurate preci- same basic principle of converting a pressure
sion Dead Weight Tester) under stabilised into a mechanical displacement or deforma-
temperatures. By calibration it is generally tion. The mechanical displacement or the de-
understood as a static calibration as under formation of the sensing element is then con-
dynamic conditions few sensors have their verted into an electrical signal which can be
pressure responses modelled. A recent tech- processed by the measuring system.. There
nology breakthrough using quartz technology are three basic types of modern transducers
has produced a sensor whereby a mathemati- as well as a combination of the different
cal representation of the sensors response types;
under dynamic conditions has been produced
thus allowing a dynamic correction to be ap- Strain Gauge
plied and thus enhance performance - the
sensor is called the CQG - Crystal Quartz Capacitance
Gauge.
Quartz Crystal
The calibration of gauges is extremely impor-
tant to ensure accurate, reliable data. 3.7.3.1 Strain Gauge Sensors
The strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive
resistor directly attached to the measuring
sensor. When the sensor is subjected to a
force (pressure) it undergoes a displacement
which in turn changes the resistors geometry
(length) and therefore imparts a change in re-
sistance. A mathematical relationship be-
tween this change in resistance and the ap-
plied force at a given temperature is the key
to strain gauge technology. There are many
types of strain gauge sensors;
Fig. 3-40 Transient response during pressure
variation.
The Paine sensor is a bonded wire transducer;
There are generally two levels of calibration two sets of strain wires are wrapped around
performed. The master calibration which is a tube sensing member (active legs). As pres-
performed in tailor designed laboratories sure increases, the tube bore is stretched
whereby the gauge is scrutinised over its en- causing a change in the wire resistance. Two
tire operating range. A master calibration can sets of strain wires are wrapped on the upper
take several days to perform. Pre and post part of the tube which is not exposed to the
job calibration checks are performed locally pressure (passive or reference legs). The four

sets of strain wires form a Wheatstone bridge 3.7.3.2 Capacitance Sensors

as shown in Figure 3-41(a). Capacitance sensors consist of a variable gap
capacitor sensing element whereby the sens-
ing element is formed by two metallic or
BONDED WIRE SENSOR SCHEMATIC
quartz plates. As the external pressure in-

R1
creases the deflection in the sensing plate cre-

R2
A R3
P
ates a change in capacitance which can be

-
mathematically related to the applied pres-

A
OUTPUT POWER
P
sure.
R4
+
THIN FILM TRANSDUCER SCHEMATIC
Fig. 3-41a Bonded Wire Sensor Schematic.

Compensation components
Sputtered resistors
Resistors A and P are respectively the active

and passive legs of the Wheatstone bridge.
Pressure
R1 and R2 are the balance adjustment and

compensation resistances of the bridge. R4
Measuring Diaphragm
Measuring Chamber
is the thermal compensation resistor and R3 Fig. 3-42a Thin Film Transducer Schematic
the sensitivity adjustment resistor. (Pressure Gauges Review).
The thin film sensor consists of a resistor Capacitance gauges have good stability up to
pattern which is vapour or sputter deposited temperatures of around 150C, they respond
onto a force summing element. An ingenious poorly to temperature transients and are sen-
development of this technology is the Sap- sitive to acceleration, orientation and me-
phire strain gauge whereby the stable de- chanical noise.
formation properties of a sapphire sensing
element is used to transfer the force to the 3.7.3.3 Quartz Crystal Sensors
sensing resistors. Quartz crystal pressure sensors are built
around a vibrating quartz crystal sensing ele-
BONDED WIRE TRANSDUCER ment. The crystal is forced by external elec-
tronic circuits to oscillate at its resonate fre-
Tube sensing member Balance,adjustement and
thermal compensation
resistors
quency. Pressure induced stress is applied to

the quartz crystal resonator causing its fre-
quency to vary in a precise manner. Quartz
has been chosen as a vibrating crystal because
PRESSURE
of its excellent elastic properties, long term

stability and ease of vibrational excitement.
Active strain wires Reference strain wires The way the quartz is cut (i.e. the orientation
of the crystal faces) determines its resonant
Fig. 3-41b Bonded Wire Transducer. frequency and its sensitivity to pressure and
temperature.
Strain gauges are in general rugged, low cost
and have good dynamic behaviour. they are Crystal gauges have historically been built
however susceptible to drift and have a lim- around variations of the HP or Hewlett
ited resolution.

Schlumberger
Packard quartz sensor, recent technology is sor design leads to the following two main
almost exclusively using the Quartzdyne improvements over previous crystal trans-
quartz sensor however a recent development ducer technology;
by Schlumberger has produced the CQG From a static point of view, the main
advantage is to have only one sensor
STRAIN GAUGE ON SAPPHIRE* giving both the pressure and the tem-
SENSING ELEMENT perature therefore suppressing all the
Sputtered strain gauges problems linked to the non-uniform
ageing of the pressure and temperature
RTD
transducers. (Normally separate sen-

Strain gauge
Vacuum
sors.)
Neutral fluid Four arms
precision
active
bridge
Sapphire Elastic
From a dynamic point of view, the

capsule membrane Bonding Electrical
Pressure feedthrough
* Schlumberger (ALPHA)
major advantage is the very small peak
error induced by transient conditions.
Fig. 3-42b Strain gauge on Sapphire (Pressure
Gauges Review). Furthermore these errors can be almost
completely suppressed by using a dy-
quartz sensor. It is based on a single quartz namic compensation algorithm. The
structure in which a resonator coupled with a mathematics of the compensation algo-
dual mode oscillator generates two simulta- rithm are based on the equations of the
neous bulk acoustic waves. The frequency of resonator and are very efficient due to
the first wave is mainly pressure dependent the simplicity of the thermal/time
while the frequency of the second wave is model of the CQG.
almost totally temperature dependent.
Quartz gauges are the most accurate on the
market, they have excellent resolution and
good long term stability. They are however
very expensive.
Fig. 3-44 below shows a comparison of the

CQG, HP and strain gauge when subjected
to a thermal shock.
3.7.4 Surface Data Acquisition

Modern systems use a series of strain gauge
transducers for measuring the pressures,
temperatures and differential pressures lo-
cated at strategic places on the essential sur-
face equipment. The key measurements re-
quired at the surface are as follows:
Fig. 3-43 CQG Dual Quartz Gauge.
The CQG design brings a major break-

through by the fact that pressure and tem-
perature measurements are done at the very
same location in the quartz material. The sen-

Flowhead: Tanks:
Pressure, temperature of tubing and cas- Temperature, shrinkage.
ing.
Burners:
Choke Manifold: High Efficiency burners require the pres-
Pressure, temperature upstream and sure, temperature and flow of compressed
downstream of the choke. air, oil and water to be monitored for cor-
rect burning.
Heater:
Pressure, temperature upstream and The sensors are specifically designed for use
downstream of the choke. Steam pressure on the surface and are linked into a comput-
and temperature. erised acquisition system. New sensors are
constantly being brought into the market as
Separator: technology progresses, most are 4-20 ma
Pressure, temperature, differential pres- type sensors compatible with most major
sure across the gas orifice meter (required service companies acquisition systems. Elec-
for gas flow rate), flow rate of oil, gas and tronic sensors are now available for the ma-
water, oil shrinkage, basic sediment and jority of the measurements required.
water- BS&W, oil and gas gravity, H2S,
CO2, and other gas contents.
THERMAL SHOCK RESPONSE

8010
Thermal shock from 120C to

130C at 8000 psi.
8005 Peak error Strain gauge 4 psi
Strain gauge
+ 1 psi
8000
- 1 psi
Peak error CQG 2.5 psi
CQG
Pressure signal in psi
7995 HP
7990
Peak error HP 15 psi

7985
Stabilization time Stabilization time CQG 18 minutes
S.G 17 minutes Stabilization time HP 39 minutes
7980
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
Time in minutes
Fig. 3-44 Thermal Shock Response Comparison.

Schlumberger
3.7.5 Downhole Data Acquisition of the test objective, ranging from high accu-
Downhole data gathering is performed using racy, high resolution CQG/Quartzdyne
pressure/temperature sensors attached to ei- gauges to rugged high temperature Sap-
ther battery powered recorder modules or phire/Strain gauges. The gauges are nor-
surface readout modules. The complete unit mally available in recording or real time read-
is often referred to as a pressure gauge. out mode. In recording mode the gauges are
pre-programmed to record at various sam-
3.7.5.1 Downhole Recording pling rates over periods corresponding to the
Downhole recording is when the complete type of test and the amount of data required
gauge (sensor, recorder plus battery) are in- from the test objectives. There is clearly a
stalled in a gauge carrier in the DST string or limit to the amount of data they can store and
hung off in a nipple profile and used to rec- the duration of the battery life although most
ord, process and store in its memory the gauges today have sufficient capacity for
pressure and temperature data during a well standard tests.
test. After the test is completed, the string is
pulled out of hole and the data retrieved from
the gauges. Battery Electric
Section Line Section
3.7.5.2 Surface Readout
Surface Readout usually involves the same
type of sensors as downhole recorders except
that the data is retrieved in real time usually Microcontroller
via an electric line which is attached to the
gauge. UNIGAGE EEPROM Data
Recorder Memory
Section
Whatever the technique it is clear that the
gauges are subjected to extreme conditions of ASIC
pressure and temperature and also have to
survive shocks as associated with TCP guns
firing or the turbulence of high flowrates.
This is important to understand, as one of
the key objectives of well testing is bottom- Sensor
hole pressure and temperature data needed Sub
for essential interpretation and the last thing Section
a client wants is to find out that his pressure
gauge failed to work properly or even at all.
Reliability and ruggedness are therefore es- CQG Customized Sapphire
sential features of any modern downhole Quartzdyne
pressure gauge. Fig. 3-45 Downhole Recorder and Surface Readout.
Modern downhole recorders incorporate field

proven ruggedised electronics suitable for dif-
ferent ranges of pressure and temperature.
They will also have a selection of pressure
sensors available to accommodate the needs

3.7.6 New Technology event of low battery levels and can take up to
Two of the main advantages of surface read- 4 CQG, Quartzdyne or Sapphire/Strain
out during well testing is that it confirms recorders.
functionality of the downhole equipment and
also it confirms that sufficient data has been
acquired for the relevant interpretation. One
of the major disadvantages is the presence of
cable in the well during critical phases of the Power LINC running tool
operation (i.e. during flowing periods). Serv-

ice companies have developed various tech-
niques over the years to overcome these
LINC
Inductive coupling
problems but usually some part of the test
strings functionality is lost or they involved
complex lengthy procedures Two recent
DLWA electronic board
DLWA
technology developments have overcome Independent gauge batteries

these hazards. (up to 4 gauges can be run)
3.7.6.1 DataLatch System

DGA Up to 4 independent gauges
This system combines the advantages of a

fullbore pressure and temperature recorder
Selective porting
system with optional surface read-out capa- Test

valve
bilities. Throughout the test, the system rec-
ords pressure and temperature above and Fig. 3-46 DataLatch system with its two main com-
below the downhole valve and in the annulus. ponents: The LINC Latched Inductive Coupling sec-
But at any time, wireline may be used to in- tion on top and a fullbore MSRT MultiSensor Re-
corder / Transmitter below.
terrogate the recorder memory and reprogram
it. The system allows surface read-out during
critical phases of the operation i.e. during 3.7.6.2 Wireless Telemetry
build-up and then the wireline is once again This new technique permits downhole data
removed prior to flow. Furthermore, the to be transmitted electronically without
wireline can be run at a relatively convenient wireline in the hole. The technique uses low
time during build-up and used to determine frequency electromagnetic transmission
that the design for the rest of the well test is through the formation for both open and
appropriate and to check that acquired data cased hole. Two antennae, one at the surface
meet the test objectives. and the other downhole are used as transmit-
ting and receiving devices. The downhole an-
At the heart of the system is an innovative tennae is located in the DST string, using an
connection that links the wireline and the re- insulating gap to create the dipole. The tech-
corder. The Latched Inductive Coupling tool nique relies on the resistivity of the forma-
uses electromagnetic induction principle for tion as the higher the resistivity the greater
the two way passage of electronic informa- the dissipation of the signal. The technique
tion and therefore eliminates the need for di- only works in certain operating environ-
rect electrical contacts adding to the reliabil- ments.
ity of the system. The tool can also be
powered directly from the surface in the

Schlumberger
3.7.6.3 Data Acquisition in Permanent suck the formation fluid into the tool creating
Completions a two tiered drawdown. The well is then al-
In permanent completions, apart from rou- lowed to build-up pressure completing the
tine pressure/temperature surveys or produc- mini-test. At the end of the test, the two
tion logging another technique is to have a pistons force the extracted fluid back into the
pressure/temperature sensor permanently wellbore and the tool is moved to the next
installed as part of the completion string. The point. Naturally the limitation on the amount
gauge is mounted on the outside of the tubing of fluid withdrawn means that the depth of
in a special gauge holding mandrel and con- investigation is limited and the technique can
nected to a cable which is strapped to the not replace true well testing but is an excel-
tubing all the way to surface. Ingenious ter- lent tool taking samples, localized reservoir
mination technology is used to feed the cable evaluation, and also confirming the need for a
through the wellhead (specifically for subsea test.
applications) where they are linked in to sur-
face signal processing systems. Long life and A recent advancement in this technology has
stability are clearly the key elements of such produced the Modular Dynamic Tester
installations. (MDT), this tool has significantly more
capabilities than the old Repeat Formation
3.7.7 Formation Interval Testing Testers and incorporates all the latest high
An alternative method of gaining a rapid technology pressure sensors (CQG). The
evaluation of a formations deliverability is tool is totally modular in design and includes
via the use of formation interval testing tools. a number of different modules which allow
These tools are normally run as part of the the tool to be configured for a variety of op-
open hole logging suite. They are conveyed erations. The key modules are;
on large heptacables and consist of precision
engineered electro-hydraulic tools capable of Single probe Module
performing a variety of tasks. Similar to the Repeat Formation Tester but
the tool has a variable pre-set chamber which
The tools were initially designed as a means is programmable during the mini-test to
of obtaining a reservoir fluid sample at an allow the operator to adjust it for tight for-
early stage of the drilling process. Later tools mations. It also has a resistivity cell which
however developed into high accuracy pres- measures the flowline fluid resistivity.
sure/temperature monitoring tools designed
to perform mini-tests at precise locations Sample Chambers
in an openhole section and thus gain an un- The tool allows the use of up to 12 samples
derstanding of the reservoir. to be taken if required. There is also a multi-
sample module which contains six 450 cc
The tool is capable of making an unlimited sample chambers designed for PVT quality
number of mini-tests and catching up to sampling.
two samples of formation fluid. The tool is
accurately positioned relative to the openhole Multi-Probe Module
logs using a gamma-ray correlation log. A Contains two probes mounted back to back.
powerful hydraulic section forces a packer This coupled with the single probe module
against the rock wall face and drives a probe allows vertical permeability analysis or ani-
into the sealed off area. Two pre-set cham- sotropic permeability determination.
bers are then opened via pistons which helps

Flow Control Module 3.8 Special Applications

Allows larger volumes of fluid to be with-
drawn from the formation for enhanced per- As has been emphasised throughout this sec-
meability determination. tion, well testing is not a straight forward op-
eration and there are many variations which
Pump-Out Module can effect the equipment selection in order to
Allows unwanted fluid to be removed from perform the test in a safe, controlled and effi-
the near wellbore area of the formation to cient manner while keeping the test objec-
help capture virgin formation fluid during tives firmly in mind. Two special applica-
sampling. tions warrant some discussion;
Packer Module High Pressure High Temperature -

Employs two inflatable packers used for HPHT
zonal isolation. Also increases the cross sec-
tional area of the interval to be tested (as High Flowrate
compared to a probe) thus allowing much
greater depths of investigation during testing. 3.8.1 High Pressure High Temperature
- HPHT
Optical Fluid Analysis Module Testing wells with wellhead pressure above
Uses infrared spectroscopy to analyse the 10,000 psi (in fact above 8500 psi would
flowline fluid to differentiate between oil and probably fall into the category of HPHT)
water. Reflective/refractive techniques also requires special equipment, precautions and
allow gas and liquids to be differentiated. procedures. It is certainly not a domain for
the novice. The very nature of these tests
require thorough pre-planning and usually
involve HAZOP or Hazard and Operability
studies way in advance of the actual test. A
Electrical power
module
Electrical power
module
HAZOP study is essentially a process where
Hydraulic power each phase of the test sequence is broken
down into segments and a safety analysis
module
study is performed to cover all eventualities

and contingencies required to handle them (a
Probe module
Sample modules
type of risk analysis). For example, if a

Probe module
safety analysis study was being performed
on the flowhead, a possible event could be
Sample module surface temperature rises above safe accept-
able limit of operation the contingency
Hydraulic power
module
would be to set a temperature sensor linked

Probe module Sample module
to the electrical shut down system which
would close the well in. By analysing the se-
quence of potential events in this manner, the
Fig. 3-47 MDT. idea is to capture all potential hazards ahead
of time and set in place procedures to elimi-
nate them. Equipment needs to be adequately
rated to handle the extreme conditions (TCP,

Schlumberger
DST, Subsea, Surface and Gauges), and spe- 3.8.2 High Flow Rates
cial seals and flanges are used, designed for In a similar manner to HPHT, high flow rate
such conditions. In addition extra shut down testing while not necessarily having the same
and safety devices are required to give total levels of pressure and temperature create
protection to personnel and the surface problems in that the equipment needs to be
equipment. adequately sized to handle large gas or oil
flow rates. Again these type of tests require
It goes without saying that this process takes adequate pre-planning and involve new de-
time and a great deal of experience to perform velopments such as large bore DST strings,
competently. large bore subsea test trees, large internal di-
ameter flowlines, high capacity separators or
several separators linked in parallel and high
capacity burners to dispose of the produced
hydrocarbons.


Section 4
Sampling of Reservoir Fluids
Section 4 Sampling of Reservoir Fluids

Schlumberger
4.0 Sampling of Reservoir Fluids
The purpose of sampling is to obtain a repre- fluid is altered by the selective loss of light or
sentative sample of reservoir fluid identical to heavy hydrocarbons.
the initial reservoir fluid. This condition is
absolutely essential because reservoir engi- While the liquids in a gas condensate reser-
neering studies, which are performed using voir may never reach a saturation where they
PVT analysis data, are always made on the can flow, the gas saturation in an oil reservoir
basis of the reservoir at its initial conditions. will almost certainly reach the point where
For this reason, sampling operations should gas flow occurs. Because of the relatively low
ideally be conducted on virgin reservoirs viscosity of gas, this flow of gas will increase
(having not yet produced) or in new wells rapidly, exhibiting the typical performance
completed in undepleted zones, containing trend of a solution gas drive reservoir.
fluids identical to the initial reservoir fluids.
Even if these phenomena are not reservoir-
Nevertheless, if sampling cannot be per- wide, the pressure drawdown associated with
formed at initial conditions, or if for any spe- flow will often be sufficient to drop the pres-
cial reason samples have to be taken in a well sure of the fluid in the immediate vicinity of
that has already produced a sizeable amount the wellbore below its bubble point or dew
of oil, the reservoir and production data point pressure and into the two-phase region,
should be analysed carefully. If the produc- as illustrated in Figure 4-1. A sample of such
tion fluids are still identical to the initial flu- fluid will not be representative of the original
ids, the sampling procedure will be very fluid existing farther out in the reservoir.
similar to that of new wells. On the other Steps must be taken to determine the reser-
hand, if the produced fluid is not identical to voir pressure, temperature, and the general
the fluid initially in place in the reservoir, one category of the reservoir fluid. If the relation-
cannot hope to obtain representative sam- ship between reservoir pressure and bubble
ples. point or dew point pressure can be esti-
mated, steps can be taken to ensure that the
4.1 Sampling Procedures Design sampled fluid is representative.
4.1.1 Samples Representivity Another concern in obtaining a representative

In designing a sampling procedure, we must sample is the degree of variation in the origi-
consider the effect producing conditions will nal reservoir fluid throughout the reservoir.
have had on the reservoir fluids we are sam- Large reservoirs having thick, vertical oil col-
pling. When the pressure in an oil reservoir umns have been known to exhibit variations
drops below the bubble point, gas comes out in fluid properties with depth. Variations
of solution and forms a separate phase. such as these cannot be accounted for in a
Similarly, when the pressure in a gas conden- specific sample. A pattern must be estab-
sate reservoir drops below the dew point, lished from several samples or producing
liquid begins to condense in the reservoir. In characteristics, from various wells, completed
either case, the minor phase must build up to at different intervals. In such cases, proper
a certain critical saturation within the reser- sampling procedures can ensure that the
voir rock before it will begin to flow. In the sample obtained is representative of
meantime, the composition of the produced the reservoir fluid at the sampling depth and

Fig. 4-1 Diagram of the pressure distribution within the formation (Reservoir Fluids Sampling Fundamentals).
sampling time. Timing is an important con- before sampling to remove all traces of drill-
sideration in obtaining a representative sam- ing fluid from the well and wellbore area.
ple of the original reservoir fluid. Obviously, Considerable thought and planning are often
it makes sense to sample as early in a reser- needed to co-ordinate fluid sampling with
voirs producing life as possible. Once pro- other testing procedures so that one does not
duction creates significant volumes of free gas adversely influence the other. For instance, in
on a reservoir-wide basis, obtaining a sample modern offshore development situations
of the original fluid may be impossible. Of- there is often an emphasis on accelerating
ten, a reservoir fluid sample will be part of a production. Drilling, completion, production,
well testing procedure that immediately fol- and testing activities may be occurring simul-
lows the completion of the first well in a res- taneously from a single platform. This may
ervoir. An example would be a newly discov- affect the time, space, or money allocated to
ered field where development plans may rely fluid sampling. On the other hand, accurate
on the early determination of expected re- fluid samples are necessary for the decision-
serves and production rates. In such cases, it making behind these development activities.
is important that the new well be cleaned up

Schlumberger
Estimates of fluid properties can be helpful. the fluids may be recombined in the correct
For example, correlations of bubble point ratios to formulate a representative sample. If
pressure can be employed with early test the well Is not producing with stable GORs,
data (perhaps from a drillstem test) to deter- or if separation facilities are not adequate for
mine if a reservoir fluid is understaturated. If accurate measurements, a surface recombina-
it is, a well in that reservoir might be pro- tion sample should not be considered.
duced for some time without fear of a free gas
phase forming and sampling of such a well Water production can be troublesome, even
could be deferred while more critical testing is in small amounts. If possible, no well that is
done. producing water should be considered for ob-
taining a representative hydrocarbon sample.
4.1.2 Producing Conditions If necessary, a water-producing well may be
The producing conditions and surface or sub- sampled if precautions are taken to obtain the
surface equipment can be important consid- sample from above the oil-water contact in
erations in designing a sampling procedure. the well or separator. Wells that have (or
The most important of these are; may have) gas coning into the production in-
terval should be avoided as candidates for
The type of fluid being sampled. sampling.
The stability and accuracy of gas rate,
oil rate, and GOR measurements. Flowing wells are the best candidates for
fluid sampling. Production rates are more
The proximity of gas-oil or oil-water
easily controlled, and measuring the bottom
contacts to the productive interval.
hole pressure is practical. In contrast, subsur-
Whether the well is a flowing or
face sampling on a pumping well requires the
pumping well.
removal of the pump and rods. For obvious
The dimension of downhole equipment.
reasons, wells on continuous gas lift are un-
The well location. suitable for surface sampling procedures.
However, if a gas lift well will flow at low
Dry gas reservoirs and highly undersaturated rates on its own, it may be conditioned and
oil reservoirs, where the produced fluids re- sampled the same as any flowing well.
main in a single phase under any flowing
conditions (including surface conditions), are The wireline bottom hole sampler is not ex-
relatively easy to sample on surface. An oil tremely large, but may be unsuitable in wells
reservoir at or slightly above the bubble point with tubing restrictions (subsurface safety
will undoubtedly yield free gas at bottom valves, downhole chokes, and the like), or
hole flowing pressures and require condi- twisted tubing. Any completion equipment
tioning prior to sampling. Conditioning is a that prohibits the sampler from reaching the
procedure whereby the production rate is producing interval will complicate the bottom
gradually reduced, resulting in successively hole sampling procedure.
higher flowing bottom hole pressures. This
simultaneously removes the altered fluid
from near the wellbore and moves fresh, unal-
tered reservoir fluid into the pores. If sam-
ples of oil and gas are taken at the surface, it
is vital that the producing rates and gas-oil
ratio be accurately determined in order that

4.1.3 Well Conditioning drawdown enough to bring the flowing bot-

The objective of well conditioning is to re- tom hole pressure above the bubble point
place the non-representative reservoir fluid pressure may result in heading, or it may
located around the wellbore with original res- take an impractically long time.
ervoir fluid by displacing it into and up the
wellbore. Pumping oil wells are conditioned in the same
general manner. If preliminary correlations
A flowing oil well is conditioned by produc- show the reservoir fluid to be saturated, the
ing it at successively lower rates until the pumping rate should be reduced in order to
non-representative oil has been produced. allow the pressure at the formation face to
The well is considered to be conditioned increase. After the GOR stabilises, the well
when further reductions in flow rate have no should be pumped for several days before
effect on the stabilised gas-oil ratio. taking surface samples. If bottom hole sam-
pling is to be done, the pump must be
If the GOR remains constant, the flow stopped after the well is conditioned and the
into the wellbore is monophasic, un- rods and pump pulled. The well can then be
saturated oil and the well can be con- swabbed at a low rate to ensure a representa-
sidered ready for sampling. tive sample in the bottom of the well before
the bottom hole sampler is lowered to the
sampling depth.
If the GOR decreases, the presence of a
free gas saturation is indicated. This gas
A gas condensate well is also conditioned by
may be present due to coning (the
flowing it at successively lower flow rates
drawing down of the free gas cap into
and monitoring the GOR. The GOR should
the producing interval) or due to the
generally decrease as the rate is decreased.
flowing bottom hole pressure being less
This is because the lower rate results in a
than the bubble point pressure. Corre-
lower drawdown, which brings the wellbore
lations can be used to determine the
pressure back out of the two-phase region.
normal gas-oil ratio to be expected
The heavier hydrocarbons will be produced
without any free gas production.
rather than condensed in the reservoir, thus
increasing the liquid volume at the surface
If the GOR increases, simultaneous
and decreasing the GOR. When the GOR
production of a gas and oil zone may be
stabilises, the well has been conditioned for
indicated. The lower drawdown allows
sampling.
less oil and relatively more gas to flow
from separate intervals. Such wells
The duration of the conditioning period de-
should not be sampled, because it is
pends upon the volume of reservoir fluid that
very difficult to determine when they
has been altered as a result of producing the
are adequately conditioned.
well below the bubble point pressure, and
how quickly it can be produced at low rates.
At low flow rates, some wells will head, or
Most oil wells that have not been produced
produce slugs of liquid followed by gas. This
for a long period of time require little condi-
irregular flow makes it difficult to measure
tioning; however, some wells may require up
the GOR accurately. Some wells may have
to a week of conditioning to achieve stable
such low productivity that even a low flow
GORs.
rate requires a large drawdown. Reducing the

Schlumberger
During the conditioning process, careful rec- The flowing bottom hole pressure is
ords should include; known to be greater than the reservoir
oil saturation pressure.
Flowing bottom hole pressure and The subsurface equipment will not
temperature (if possible). prevent the sampler from reaching the
Flowing tubing pressure and tempera- appropriate depth or make its retrieval
ture. difficult.
Oil and gas flow rates.
Separator pressure and temperature. 4.1.4.2 Surface Sampling
Stock tank oil production rate. Surface sampling involves the taking of sam-
Water production rate. ples of separator oil and gas, along with accu-
rate measurements of their relative rates, and
Any auxiliary data should be noted, such as reconstructing a representative sample in the
radical surface temperature changes, equip- laboratory. This method is often used when
ment malfunctions, and measurement meth-
ods. A large volume of both oil and gas are
required for analysis (as in the case of
4.1.4 Hydrocarbon Sampling Methods gas condensate fluids).
After conditioning the well, samples may be The facilities for separating oil and gas
taken with a bottom hole sampling device, or and measuring their rates are in excel-
individual samples of oil and gas may be lent condition and operated by thor-
taken at the surface and recombined to obtain oughly competent people.
a representative reservoir fluid sample. The The fluid at the bottom of the well is
choice of sampling technique is influenced not representative of the reservoir fluid
by: (i.e., gas condensate reservoirs and oil
reservoirs producing large quantities of
The volume of samples required. water).
The type of reservoir fluid to be sam-
pled. The main difficulty, while sampling on sur-
The degree of reservoir depletion. face, arises from the fact that liquid and gas
The surface and subsurface equipment. are in dynamic equilibrium inside the separa-
tor. Any drop in pressure or increase in tem-
perature of the separator liquid, which is at
4.1.4.1 Bottom Hole Sampling its bubble point, will result in the formation
of gas. For the separator gas, which is at its
Bottom hole sampling is the trapping of a
dew point, any increase in pressure or de-
volume of fluid in a pressurised container
crease in temperature will result in the con-
suspended on wireline inside the well to the
densation of heavy components. In such a
productive interval. This method is used
case, when a fluid becomes diphasic during
when
the sampling operation, it is probable that
disproportionate quantities of the two
Only a small volume of fluid is re- phases will be collected and the sample will
quired. not be representative. Also, before any sur-
The oil to be sampled is not so viscous face sampling is attempted, the sampling
that it impairs sampler operation. point should be checked to ensure there is no

possibility of contamination (oil or gas con- liberated and may flow through the reservoir
densate carry-over for a gas sampling point; along with the oil (two-phase flow).
water or sludge for a liquid sampling point). It is important to point out that when gas
and oil flow together through the reservoir,
If the well is under chemical injection (glycol, the amount of produced gas is always higher
methanol, inhibitors...) upstream of the sepa- than the gas initially in solution in the oil.
rator, the injection must be stopped and am- The total surface gas-oil ratio is given by;
ple time must be allowed for the chemicals to
be purged from the separator. If it is impos- k rg
sible to operate without chemical injection, GOR = R s + Bo o
then the chemical used and injection rate Bg g k ro
must be recorded. Where:
GOR Production gas oil ratio.
Generally, a bottom hole sample is preferred Rs Gas in solution in oil.
if gas and oil surface measurement capabili- Boand Bg Oil and gas volume factors.
ties are in question. However, if they are reli- o and g Oil and gas viscosities.
able, the surface sampling technique can give
krg/kro Gas/oil-relative
a statistically valid value of GOR measured
over a long period of time. Whenever possi- permeability-ratio
ble, separator liquid and gas samples should (proportional to the
be taken simultaneously in order to have the amount of free gas in the
same sampling conditions for both fluids. reservoir).
4.2 Sampling of Oil Reservoirs This equation shows that in a monophasic

flow, when there is no free gas and krg/kro is
4.2.1 Preliminary Conditions on Oil equal to zero, the GOR is equal to Rs and the
Reservoirs well stream is identical to the reservoir fluid.
In an oil reservoir, the saturation pressure or This is the case of undersaturated reservoirs
bubble point pressure may either be equal to with Pwf > Pb and new wells (even in satu-
the initial static pressure (saturated reser- rated reservoirs producing with small
voirs) or below the initial static pressure drawdowns) where there is no free gas and
(undersaturated reservoirs). If a gas cap is initial production has a GOR equal to Rs.
found above the oil, the oil is always satu-
rated. In a two-phase flow, free gas exists and
krg/kro is different from zero, GOR is greater
In undersaturated oil reservoirs, it is possible
than Rs and the well stream is different from
to produce the well on a small enough choke
size to ensure a flowing bottom hole pressure the reservoir fluid. This is generally the case
higher than the bubble point pressure. There of saturated reservoirs. These considerations
is no gas liberation and the flow in the reser- show that the first condition that must be
voir is monophasic. On the contrary, in satu- met to obtain representative samples is a
rated oil reservoirs the flowing pressure is monophasic flow in the reservoir.
always below the bubble point pressure. Due
to this fact, the gas in solution in the oil is

Schlumberger
To summarise: A possible estimation of the bubble

In oil reservoirs, samples are representative point pressure pb, by the STANDING
when the sampled oil contains in solution correlation and its value pb < pwsi will
exactly the same amount of gas as was in so-
confirm that the reservoir is undersatu-
lution in the initial reservoir fluid.
rated.
4.2.2 Pre-Job Required Data
Bottom hole and surface sampling can be
In order to determine whether the fluid flow done with the well flowing at stabilised con-
in the reservoir is monophasic and that the ditions at any flow rate which pwf > pb
reservoir is saturated or undersaturated, it is
necessary to estimate the bubble point pres-
4.2.3.2 Saturated Reservoirs (pwsi = pb)
sure and compare it with the reservoir static
and flowing pressures. For this purpose the These reservoirs are characterised by;
following data is required; A GOR only equal to Rs during a very
short production period. Then, the gas
Initial or present static reservoir pres- oil ratio increases slightly if the well is
sure (pwsi or pws). produced at a constant and low flow
Reservoir temperature. rate, and considerably if the drawdown
Oil gravity. is increased (due to the higher gas lib-
Gas gravity. eration in the reservoir).
Flowing reservoir pressure at one or
several flow rates (pwf). A possible estimation of the bubble
point pressure by the STANDING
Initial and present gas oil ratio (or pro-
correlation using GORi = Rsi and its
duction history for producing wells) at
one or several flow rates. value should be close to pwsi:
The above data in conjunction with the A bubble point pressure pb always
STANDING correlation (see Figure 4-2) en- equal to the initial reservoir pressure
able the estimation of the bubble point pres- pwsi, if a gas cap was proved from
sure. geological studies.
4.2.3 New Wells or Wells in Un- Bottom hole sampling can be done as fol-
depleted Zones lows;
4.2.3.1 Undersaturated Reservoirs The flow rate should be decreased pro-

(pwsi > pb) gressively and then the well closed.
These reservoirs are characterised by; During the flow rate reduction period,
the flowing pressure pwf increases and
A constant GOR equal to Rs. At very free gas dissolves in the oil. When the
high drawdowns, the GOR may in- well is finally closed and initial static
crease because the flowing pressure conditions are reached, the reservoir
p wf could be lower than the bubble fluids will be very close to their initial
conditions i.e.
point pressure pb.
pb = pwsi.

At these conditions, the well can be Bottom hole sampling can be carried out as
sampled and it will be opened at the for saturated reservoirs, but the time neces-
smallest possible flow rate (for example sary to reach static stabilised conditions
1/ choke) for 10 or 15 minutes and
16 could be very long and depends on the deple-
then shut in just before the sampler is tion of the reservoir.
actuated to fill it with fresh reservoir
oil. During this short flowing period, Surface sampling is only available if it is pos-
the drawdown will be practically zero sible to reach production conditions where
and gas liberation will be too small to the GOR is very close to GORi. Neverthe-
affect the validity of samples. less, if surface samples have been taken with
GOR > GORi, they can be recombined in the
Surface sampling can be done only if, at laboratory and then adjusted in order to get a
minimum stabilised flow, the GOR is very reservoir fluid having a specific bubble point
close to the initial GOR, but for more secu- pressure (for instance equal to pwsi). This
rity, bottom hole sampling should be done at procedure is advisable only when the real
the same time. bubble point pressure is known, but repre-
sentative samples cannot be taken.
4.2.4 Producing Reservoirs or Wells in
Slightly Depleted Zones b) If pb > pws:
4.2.4.1 GOR is equal to GORi The reservoir is very depleted and under two
In such cases, the flow is monophasic and phases. The initial reservoir fluid no longer
surface and bottom hole sampling can be exists and there is no way to obtain represen-
done as indicated in section 4.2.3.1 for under- tative samples.
saturated reservoirs. In this case
pws > pwf > pb. For surface samples, the bubble point pres-
sure can be adjusted in the laboratory.
4.2.4.2 GOR is higher than GORi
4.3 Sampling of Gas Reservoirs
In such cases, the flowing conditions are in
the two phase region, the bubble point 4.3.1 Preliminary Considerations on
should be determined using the initial gas oil Gas Reservoirs
ratio GORi and compared with the present Gas reservoirs can be classified in three dif-
static pressure p ws and flowing pressure ferent categories; dry gas, wet gas and gas
p wf . condensate reservoirs. In a dry gas reservoir,
the gas always remains entirely in gas phase,
a) If pws > pb > pwf: whether at reservoir or separator conditions.

Schlumberger
Fig. 4-2 Prediction of minimum gas flow rate required for liquid removal from gas wells.
A depletion from initial to abandonment spect to the reservoirs porous volume and it
pressure will not affect its state and the will not flow, the well stream composition
composition of the well stream will be con- will vary with the pressure. At separator
stant. conditions, the production is always in two
phases. Very often, wet and gas condensate
In a wet gas reservoir, the gas also remains reservoirs have a very similar behaviour and
entirely in gas phase in the reservoir (at res- it is sometimes not possible from well testing
ervoir temperature). A depletion from initial data alone to decide which type of reservoir
to abandonment pressure will not affect the it is. In gas condensate reservoirs, the dew
state of the reservoir fluid, or its composi- point pressure or saturation pressure may
tion, which remains constant. However, at either be equal to the initial static pressure
separator conditions, the well stream will be (saturated reservoirs) or below the initial
in two phases, liquid and gas. The tempera- static pressure (undersaturated reservoirs).
ture drop between the reservoir and the sepa-
rator causes the heavier gas components to In undersaturated reservoirs, it is theoreti-
condense as a liquid. cally always possible to produce a well with
pwf > pd (pd = dew point pressure), in order
In a gas condensate reservoir, as the pressure to avoid liquid condensation in the reservoir,
drops below the dew point pressure, there is and to have a well stream identical to the ini-
condensation of the gass heavier compo- tial reservoir fluid (production with GOR =
nents in the reservoir. The volume of con- GORi = constant).
densed liquid is generally very small with re-

On the contrary, in saturated reservoirs, the Bottom hole sampling is unsuitable for the
production is always with p wf < pd. Liquid following reasons;
deposit is condensed in the reservoir, and the
well stream is different from the initial reser- a) In the case of bottom hole gas sampling,
voir fluid. The liquid deposit being trapped in the liquid condensed in the bottom hole sam-
the reservoir, the separator gas liquid ratio pler, when removed from the well, can never
increases proportionally to the difference be- be completely transferred from the sampler
tween the flowing pressure pwf and the dew to the shipping cylinder. Very often, the
amount of this condensate is very small (only
point pressure pd.
a few drops wetting the walls of the sampler)
and during transfer at atmospheric tempera-
This shows that sampling operation will re- ture, part of it will remain in the sampler, the
quire flowing conditions with practically no transferred sample thus not being representa-
liquid condensation i.e.: tive. Even if the sampler is heated to reser-
voir temperature, complete liquid re-
GOR = GORi vaporisation could take a very long time and
or be impossible to check at the wellsite. In
pwf higher than or very close to pd. such a case, the only solution is to send the
sampling chamber, well secured inside a spe-
To summarise; cial transportation container, to the PVT
laboratory. The laboratory will then be able
In gas condensate, wet and dry gas reservoirs, to transfer and check the sample.
samples are representative when the sampled
gas contains the total amount of heavier b) From the commercial aspect, the liquid
components contained in the initial reservoir. phase is of great interest and its analysis re-
quires a volume of about one litre which can
4.3.2 Gas Reservoir Sampling Proce- easily be obtained at the separator, but never
dures by bottom hole sampling.
Since in gas reservoirs it is impossible to es-
tablish from well testing data whether it is a In addition to proper reservoir sampling con-
dry gas, wet gas or gas condensate reservoir, ditions, the surface sampling of gas wells will
and since in addition, for a gas condensate require another condition; the liquid con-
reservoir, the dew point pressure cannot be densed in the production string, between the
previously estimated, sampling should al- bottom of the well and the surface, should be
ways be done while assuming the most unfa- completely removed from the well and pro-
vourable conditions; gas condensate with a duced in the separator. This condition will be
dew point pressure equal to the initial static satisfied if the gas velocity is high enough to
pressure. carry the liquid phase. The charts in Figure 4-
3 gives such minimum gas flow rates versus
Furthermore, in gas reservoirs, sampling well head pressure for different tubing sizes.
should always be done at the surface, the
separator liquid and gas being recombined in
the laboratory. Surface sampling methods are
the same as for oil reservoirs.

Schlumberger
4.3.2.1 New Reservoirs or Wells in Un-

depleted Zones a) If GOR = GORi, then the well is produc-
At initial reservoir conditions, gas wells can ing at monophasic conditions in the reser-
always be sampled because the initial static voir and sampling can be done as explained
pressure is very close or equal to the dew in section 4.3.2.1.
point pressure and the gas liquid ratio is very
close or equal to the initial gas liquid ratio. b) If GOR > GORi, then the flowing pres-
Therefore, the well stream contains the total sure pwf is below the dew point pressure
amount of the reservoir fluids heavier com- pd, but there is no possibility of estab-
ponents. lishing whether the static pressure p ws is
higher or lower than pd. The research of
Surface separator sampling should be done
conditions required for proper sampling
with the well producing at the lowest possi-
ble flow rate, in order to have the minimum when GOR GORi, is too long to be ad-
drawdown, but compatible with; vised as standard procedure. Validity of
any sampling will only be confirmed when
Separator and well stability. GOR and p d is known, thus after measurement in
well head pressure should be constant. the laboratory.
Homogeneous flow in the tubing. Liq- 4.4 Sampling of Volatile Oil Reser-
uid deposit should be removed from the voirs
well bore by sufficient gas flow veloc-
ity. A volatile oil is a very light oil with a very
high Rs in relation to the bubble point pres-
Well conditioning is the same as for surface sure. In some cases, it can be confused with a
sampling of oil wells. Under these conditions, gas condensate reservoir, mainly due to;
even when the dew point pressure is equal or
very close to the initial static pressure, and High API gravity of separator liquid.
when the flowing pressure is slightly lower
than the dew point pressure, samples will be High GOR.
acceptable.
The STANDING correlation cannot be used
In wells having a very low permeability and a for estimating the bubble point pressure,
very great drawdown, the flowing pressure since the correlation is only valid for GORs
may be so much lower than the dew point less than 2000 scf/bbl. Due to these difficul-
pressure, that samples taken will be consid- ties, these reservoirs should be sampled as
ered modified. In this case, representative gas condensate reservoirs and the PVT analy-
sampling is impossible. ses will show what kind of fluid it is. If
proved to be an oil reservoir, then bottom
4.3.2.2 Producing Reservoirs or Wells in hole sampling can also be done as for oil satu-
Depleted Zones rated reservoirs.
The only data to be analysed is the gas-liquid
ratio:

Fig. 4-3 Prediction of Minimum Gas Flow Rate Required for Liquid Removal from Gas Wells.

Schlumberger
4.5 Bottom Hole Sampling can be established according to the build-

up data or according to the stability of the
4.5.1 Well Conditioning for Bottom wellhead pressure.
Hole Sampling
a) Sampling of a flowing undersaturated A static pressure gradient will be very
well (when GOR = GORi = constant) helpful in detecting a possible presence of
The well should be flowing for at least water.
24 hours, at a minimum stable flow rate
ensuring a maximum column height of When the sampler is at sampling depth,
monophasic fluid. the well should be opened on the smallest
possible choke only to fill the casing
The pressure at sampling depth must around the sampler with fresh reservoir
be at least 100 to 200 psi higher than oil, and then shut-in.
the saturation pressure in the fluid col-
umn. A good figure is 500 psi. 4.5.2 Bottom Hole Sampling Proce-
dures
The well should be clean - in order to The well must have been conditioned be-
eliminate traces of contaminated oil or forehand to insure that a single phase rep-
water, the stable flowing period should resentative reservoir fluid is in the well-
be preceded by a production period bore at sampling depth.
equal to 5 to 10 times the total volume
of the tubing string. A pressure and temperature survey should
be run to determine fluid levels and pres-
The flowing stability can be checked sures. This will help select the sampling
by; point and confirm the validity of the well
conditioning.
Stabilised gas flow rate, oil flow rate
and GOR. Pressures and temperatures should be
monitored during the taking of the sam-
Stabilised well head pressure. ples. This will insure that the well condi-
tioning remains valid during the time re-
quired for filling the sampling chamber(s).
Stabilised p wf (best way to ensure
Real time surface read out of downhole re-
flowing stability). corders is the best option, but it requires
the availability of a mono-conductor wire-
b) Sampling of a shut-in saturated well line unit. (In addition the availability of in-
(when GOR GORi) situ fluid density measurements is also
The flow rate should be progressively re- beneficial.) Otherwise, a pressure and
duced and then the well shut-in until a temperature recorder should be included in
stabilised static pressure is reached. A the tool string.
minimum of 12 hours should elapse before
sampling is made, with a good figure being The bottom hole sampler, is run in hole in the
24 hours. The shut-in period, however, same way as any downhole production tool.

Fluid Sampling
Sampling Possibilities and Procedures
Produced Well Reservoir and Flow Bottomhole Surface
Remarks
Fluids Position Characteristics Sampling Sampling
Rp = Rpi = constant Stabilized flow with Well flowing with

A pwsi > pb pwf > pb pwf > pb
Undersaturated
undepleted zones
New reservoir or
reservoirs
Ri > Rpi Progressive Flow rate reduction Reservoir with a
pwsi = pb reduction of flow rate; in order to get Rp gas cap
Saturated reservoirs well closed until close to Rpi ;
B stabilized condition; stabilized flow with
sampling with well minimum drawdown
producing at
minimum possible
Oil Reservoirs
flow rate
C
Rp = Rpi = constant Stabilized flow with Stabilized flow with
pws > pwf > pb pwf > pb pwf > pb
Rp > Rpi Progressive Flow rate reduction Well conditioning
Producing reservoirs
pws > pb > pwf reduction of flow rate; in order to get Rp could be very
or depleted zones
well closed until close to Rpi ; long; depends on

D stabilized condition; stabilized flow with the depletion.
sampling with well minimum drawdown
producing at
minimum possible
flow rate
Rp > Rpi No sampling Representative Surface samples
E pws < pb possibility sampling is can be recombined
impossible. in the lab in order
to have pb = pwsi .
Rp = Rpi = constant Not advisable Smallest possible pd cannot be
New reservoir
or undepleted
or flow rate but estimated but

zones
Rp very close to compatible with measured only in

F
Rpi homogeneous flow the lab on
in the tubing, recombined
separator stability surface samples.
Gas Reservoirs
Rp = Rpi Not advisable Smallest possible

flow rate but
Producing reservoirs
G compatible with
or depleted zones
homogeneous flow
in the tubing,
separator stability
Rp > Rpi Not advisable Smallest possible Validity of sampling
flow rate but will be known after
H compatible with pd measurement.
homogeneous flow
in the tubing,
separator stability
No possibility of Not advisable Smallest possible Whether sample is
or Doubtful
Volatile Oil
obtaining reservoir flow rate but representative will

reservoir
Cases
characteristics compatible with only be known

New
I
from well test data homogeneous flow after PVT study.
in the tubing,
separator stability
Fig. 4-4 Summary of reservoir fluid sampling possibilities and procedures.

Schlumberger
The running speed, when the sampler is sampling chamber, must therefore be trans-
run with an open chamber, should be be- ferred to a safe and certified shipping/storing
tween 100 to 200 ft/mn according to the container (sampling bottle, cylinder, recepta-
well conditions cle ...). This is done using an apparatus
known as a transfer bench. This operation is
When running a circulation type bottom as delicate as the collection of the fluids
hole sampler, upward and downward downhole and the procedure must insure that
movements at sampling depth should be the representivity of the sample is not lost
made over 20 to 30 feet in order to drain between the sampler and the bottle.
the sampling chamber completely.
Since, at surface temperature, the fluid
The sampling depth should be as close as trapped in the sampling chamber is almost
possible to the perforated zone to avoid always under two phase conditions, there
having a large pressure difference between could be a danger of trapping one or part of
the reservoir and the sampling depth. the phases in the circuits of the transfer
bench during the transfer operation. There-
fore, it is necessary to displace the collected
A clock operated system should be at the
sample in an homogeneous and monophasic
sampling depth about half an hour before
state. This is achieved by re-pressuring the
the closing time and removed about fifteen
sample, with the transfer bench, to about
minutes after closing.
1000 psi above its bubble point pressure or
static bottom hole pressure (when p b could
A minimum of three representative sam-
ples should be taken and sent to the labo- not be estimated). The transfer will then be
ratory for a complete PVT analysis. made by displacement at this constant high
pressure. Forcing gas back into solution, by
It is important to point out that a bottom re-pressurisation only, is not a rapid and
hole sampler, in which the valves are kept simple process. It takes time for an hydro-
shut due to the internal pressure being higher carbon mixture to reach its phase equilibrium
than the external pressure, is not suitable for under a given set of pressure, volume and
sampling undersaturated fluids or formation temperature conditions, and the time factor is
waters. When the sampler is pulled up hole, always a constraint at the wellsite. It has
the internal pressure will drop very quickly been discovered, however, that an agitation of
due to the drop in temperature and the risks the sample will speed up the equilibrium
of opening are very high. In such cases, it is process and it is a requirement for any sam-
most advisable to use a bottom hole sampler ple transfer bench to feature some kind of
in which valves are kept shut by positive sample agitation facility during transfer or
mechanical means. bubble point determination.
4.5.3 Bottom Hole Sample Transfer The transfer procedure will thus be as fol-
Procedures lows;
The sampling chambers of bottom hole sam-
Re-pressurisation of the sampling chamber
plers are generally not designed for trans-
1000 psi above the expected bubble point
porting the pressurised reservoir fluids or for
pressure or static bottom hole pressure.
storing them. As soon as the sampler is out
of hole, the sample, which is trapped in the

Agitation of the chamber and verification 4.5.4 Checking Bottom Hole Sample
that the pressure is stable. Validity
Theoretically, the best way to insure the va-
Determination of the apparent bubble lidity of a sample is to measure its bubble
point inside the chamber with agitation point pressure and compare it with the bub-
and pressure stability checks in between ble point pressure measured on a duplicate
each sample volume step. sample taken at the same conditions.
Displacement of the sample into the ship- The best field procedure is to measure the
ping bottle at constant pressure and with pressure in the sampling chamber, prior to
constant agitation. transfer, and establish a Pressure-Volume
curve from which a field bubble point pres-
In case of very viscous oil, it may be neces- sure can be determined. For several samples
sary to heat up the sampler and the transfer correctly taken in a well which was properly
circuitry to the bottom hole temperature. conditioned for sampling, these figures
should be within 2%. Consequently, at least
Sample displacement at constant pressure three samples should always be taken and
has historically been done with mercury due compared.
to its high cohesive forces and thus low wet-
tability properties (making it an ideal medium As previously mentioned, it is of the utmost
to totally displace fluids from sample cham- importance that the sample be agitated while
bers). However, the use of mercury is pro- measuring the pressure changes as no agita-
hibited in certain areas for health and safety tion will result in a lack of sharp compressi-
reasons and the use of mercury free sampling bility change and therefore in arbitrary bubble
equipment is now becoming the norm. This point measurement with an error which could
new technology involves special designed be as much as 50%. It will also affect the re-
equipment using pistons and/or membranes production of the pressure curve and there-
to separate the transfer medium from the fore the validity of comparing a duplicate
sample (to avoid contamination). This tech- sample.
nique however, does introduce a new prob-
lem as in there is always a certain amount of Figure 4-5 shows the pressure-volume plot
dead volume which cannot be removed. It is of a sample in which diphasic fluid was re-
important to check that the composition of compressed to 4000 psi. The pressure is re-
this dead volume is as close as possible to the corded together with the cumulative volume
composition of the fluid inside the shipping of hydraulic oil (transfer fluid) that was dis-
bottle. placed from the system at each step. No agi-
tation of the sample was performed.
A very important safety issue is to ensure
that when transfer is completed and the bot- Figure 4-6 corresponds to the same proce-
tle sealed, that a 10% gas cap is created dure as in Figure 4-5, except that the sample
within the bottle to allow for fluid expansion was rocked at 90 degrees for 4-5 times at
versus temperature during transportation or each step. In this case, the mass of the dis-
storage. This insures that the internal pres- placed oil was recorded using a high precision
sure will never increase beyond the pressure electronic balance.
rating of the shipping bottle.

Schlumberger
Figure 4-7 illustrates the same procedure as

in Figure 4-6, except that the volume of the Stabilised well head pressure and tem-
displaced fluid was recorded instead of the perature.
mass (as would happen in the field)
Stabilised pwf (best way to ensure flowing
This oil sample example clearly shows how stability).
the lack of agitation can result in wrong and
arbitrary field apparent bubble point pres- When stability is reached, the well should be
sure estimation. produced for at least 12 hours in order to ob-
tain accurate measurements of the gas-oil ra-
4.6 Surface Sampling tio. The GOR stability should normally be
better than 5%, but in difficult well condi-
4.6.1 Well Conditioning for Surface tions, variations of up to 10% may be un-
Sampling avoidable. In practical terms, time constraints
The stable flow period, during which the and therefore financial constraints may not
samples are to be taken, should be preceded permit such ideal conditions but nevertheless
by a cleaning-up period long enough to elimi- less, the longer the flow period, the better the
nate the drilling, completion or stimulation flow stability and the quality of the samples.
fluids. The well should then be flowed
through the separator. The flow stability Accurate knowledge of the GOR is essential
should be determined for the lowest possible for proper recombination at the PVT labora-
flow rate. The choice of such flow rate will tory of the fluid and gas samples in order to
depend on the productivity of the well. In reconstruct a representative reservoir fluid.
high productivity wells, there will be no
problem. In average or low productivity In the case of a gas well, the liquid condensed
wells, or when the productivity is unknown, in the production string, between the bottom
the choice of a flow rate giving regular flow of of the well and the surface, should be re-
the two phases, liquid and gas, to the separa- moved from the well and produced in the
tor might be difficult. In such cases, the flow separator. This condition will be satisfied if
must be maintained at the minimum steady the gas velocity is high enough to carry the
flow rate. When the GOR is steady between liquid phases as previously discussed in sec-
two flow reductions, the well is producing tion 4.3.2.
fluids representative of the reservoir.
On the separator side, the pressure must be
Flowing stability can be checked by; adjusted to minimise any liquid carryover at
the gas outlet. This can be checked against
Stabilised gas flow rate, oil flow rate the monogram of Figure 4-8 which gives the
and GOR, the temperature and pres- theoretical capacity of horizontal separators.
sure of the separator remaining un-
changed.

4000
3500
3000
2500
Pressure (psig)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Volume of recovered oil (cm3)
Fig. 4-5 Pressure-Volume Plot for an Oil Bottomhole Sample, Without Sample Agitation.
4000
3500
3000
Pressure (psig)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mass of recovered oil (g)
Fig. 4-6 Pressure-Mass Plot for an Oil Bottomhole Sample, With Sample Agitation.

Schlumberger
4000
3500
3000
Pressure (psig)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Volume of recovered oil (cm3)
Fig. 4-7 Pressure-Volume Plot for an Oil Bottomhole Sample, With Sample Agitation.
4.6.2 Oil Surface Sampling Methods

All oil surface sampling methods attempt to Separator liquid and gas samples should be
keep the separator liquid at or above its bub- taken simultaneously in order to have the
ble point pressure (if possible) until the same sampling conditions for both fluids. At
sample is transferred inside the sample bottle least two liquid samples of 600 cc should al-
(by keeping the sample at separator pressure ways be taken.
and below separator temperature).
As with bottom hole sampling transfer, and
The sampling bottle must be maintained at or for safety reasons, a gas cap of 10% must
below the separator temperature to prevent always be formed in the liquid sample bottle.
gas liberation which would interfere with the
filling operation. In cases where the separator
temperature is below the ambient tempera-
ture, the sampling bottle should be cooled in
a water/ice or water/salt/ice bath.

Fig. 4-8 Theoretical Gas Capacity of Horizontal Separators.

Schlumberger
Fig. 4-9 Surface Oil Sampling by Using a Piston Type Bottle.

Oil or Condensate Sampling Methods
Field of
Method Advantages Disadvantages Application Equipment
Mercury Liquid sample under Mercury safety No limits Mercury flask

displacement monophasic Stainless steel bottles
conditions Manifold, valve and
pressure gauge
Displacement No mercury Vacuum pump No limits Vacuum pump and gauge
Decreasing Sample Validity
using a piston or and gauge needed PSR-F or membrane

membrane type Dead volume type bottle
(Recommended Flasks
Technique) Hydraulic oil and pump
Manifold, valve and
pressure gauge
Displacement and No mercury Slight modification of Liquid of Flasks
equilibrium with liquid composition low viscosity Stainless steel bottles
separator gas from gas-cap Manifold, valve and
must be reported pressure gauge
Gas or air No mercury Risk of slight No limits Flasks
displacement Easy sampling modification of liquid Stainless steel bottles
composition from Manifold, valve and
gas-cap formation pressure gauge
technique
Water displacement No mercury Possible solution and Not to be used Flasks
Liquid sample under reaction of CO2 and if CO2 or H2S Stainless steel bottles
monophasic H2 S present Manifold, valve and
conditions pressure gauge
Fig. 4-10 Oil Condensate Sampling Methods.

Schlumberger
4.6.2.1 Piston Bottle Displacement

Method 4.6.3.1 Vacuum Method
The mercury displacement method is the This involves filling a container which has
most reliable method for liquid surface sam- previously been evacuated. This eliminates
pling, however, as previously mentioned, the any condensation, which could be due to gas
health and safety aspects associated with circulation, since once the bottle has been
mercury is slowly removing it from sampling filled, it is not re-circulated. In the laboratory,
procedures in uncontrolled field environ- any condensation is vaporised.
ments. The new mercury free sampling bot-
tles (piston or membrane type) have slightly The minimum vacuum (maximum pressure)
different but essentially the same procedures. allowed is 10 mm Hg (10 Torr), but the rec-
Such bottles contain a very low dead volume ommended vacuum of 1 to 2 mm Hg should
above the piston (or membrane) which will
normally be obtained before sampling is at-
have to be evacuated before sampling (1 to 2
tempted. It takes 1/2 hour to 1 hour to evacu-
mm Hg vacuum) A non compressible liquid
ate a 20 litre bottle to this recommended
replaces the mercury below the piston and void.
the procedure, as illustrated in Figure 4-9 be-
comes similar to the mercury displacement When sampling, no heating of the bottle is
method. The 10% gas cap is formed by re- necessary, nor should purging or re-
moving enough liquid from below the piston. circulating of gas be attempted. Poor vacuum
will lead to air contamination of the sample.
Other methods of oil sampling are also avail- Figure 4-11 illustrates this method.
able but not recommended. A summary of Other methods of oil sampling are also avail-
the different types is given in Figure 4-10. able but not recommended. A summary of
the different types is given in Figure 4-12.
4.6.3 Gas Surface Sampling Methods
When sampling gas at surface, enough gas 4.6.4 Special Surface Sampling Cases
sample volume should be collected in order to
allow recombination at reservoir conditions 4.6.4.1 High Pressure Samples
by the PVT laboratory. The total volume of
In most cases of high pressure samples, gas
gas sample to be taken per oil sample can be
and liquid can be readily distinguished at sur-
defined as follows;
face conditions. However, if doubt exists
while sampling a high pressure monophasic
VG > 2.5 * (GOR/P)
fluid, the mercury displacement method
should be considered.
where
VG = Minimum volume of gas in
4.6.4.2 Multistage Separation System
litres under separator
In the case of multistage separation (more
sampling conditions.
than one separator in series), gas and liquid
GOR = Separator gas oil ratio in
must be taken form the first (high pressure)
Std cu. ft./bbl.
stage separator. In exceptional circumstances,
P = Separator pressure in psi.
liquid samples could be taken from the lower
In all cases, an extra gas bottle must be filled
per set of surface samples.

stage separators, but only if samples of gas tion or solution. Laboratory analyses fre-
are taken from the same lower stage separator quently give reduced H2S concentrations due
and all higher stage separators. All gas flow to these phenomena. Thus in such cases
rates must also be noted. where hydrogen sulphide is present in a res-
ervoir fluid, on-site analysis (even by Draeger
4.6.4.3 Hydrogen Sulphide reactive tubes) is highly recommended. Con-
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S concentrations in a centrations in all produced fluids should be
sample can change due to reaction, adsorp- determined.

Schlumberger
Fig. 4-11 Surface Gas Sampling by the Vacuum Method..

Gas Sampling Methods
Field of
Method Advantages Disadvantages Equipment
Application
Filling under No heating Vacuum pump and No limits Vacuum pump
vacuum Fast gauge needed Manifold including
(recommended High volume 2 valves,
technique) sampled 1 vacuum gauge
and
1 pressure gauge
Mercury No heating Only stainless steel No limits Mercury flasks
displacement No vacuum pump bottles can be used, Stainless steel containers
may be low volume Manifold including valve
Decreasing Sample Validity
Risk of chemical and pressure gauge

reaction between Safety equipment
mercury and H2S
Large volume of
mercury needed
Air displacement
Purging High volumes Risk of condensation No limits Flowmeter
sampled from cooling Manifold including valve
No vacuum pump Heating advisable and pressure gauge
Circulation High volumes Risk of condensation No limits Flowmeter
sampled from cooling Manifold including valve
No vacuum pump and pressure gauge
Water displacement
Separator water High volumes Long duration No limits Manifold including valve
sampled and pressure gauge
No vacuum pump Separator water
Flasks
Salt water High volumes Long duration Preferably with Manifold including valve
sampled Possible change of no H 2S or CO2 and pressure gauge
No vacuum pump composition
Fresh water High volumes Long duration Preferably with Manifold including valve
sampled Possible change of no H 2S or CO2 and pressure gauge
No vacuum pump composition
Fig. 4-12 Sampling and PVT Analysis Sampling Techniques and Recommendations. (Surface Testing Services).

Schlumberger
4.6.5 Well Head Sampling of Oil and

Gas
4.6.5.1 Oil Sampling at Well Head

Oil sampling at the well head is possible only
when the well head pressure is higher than
the bubble point pressure at well head tem-
perature. For this condition to be achieved, it
Fig. 4-13 Example of DST Recovery of Formation
may often be necessary for samples to be Water. Changes in Ionic Composition are Apparent
taken at a low flow rate, typically less than as Produced Water Becomes More Representative of
10 tubing total volumes per day. Clearly, a Formation Fluid in the Lower Portion of the
Drillpipe.
good idea of the bubble point is needed. It is
recommended that separator samples be 4.7 Sampling of Formation Water
taken at the same time to act as a back-up in
case of unexpected two phase flow at the The goal of formation water sampling is also
well head or other causes of invalid sampling. to obtain a representative sample. The com-
Normal liquid sampling methods should be position of formation water is not generally
used but great care should be taken to make as dependent on the temperature and pres-
sure sample bottles and associated equipment sure changes, and sampling procedures are in
have a working pressure rated above the well most cases simpler than for oil and gas. Small
head pressure. volumes of formation water retrieved from a
drillstem test or formation tester can often be
4.6.5.2 Gas Sampling at Well Head used for analysis of dissolved salts. Samples
Since most gas condensate wells produce two are more often taken from the separator or
phases at the surface, gas sampling at the wellhead.
well head will only be possible on the rare
occasions when monophasic well head flow 4.7.1 Formation Water Sampling
is expected, with a well head pressure higher Methods
than the dew point pressure at well head
temperature. As in oil sampling at the well 4.7.1.1 Drillstem Tests
head, separator back-up samples should be
During a drillstem test, or DST (as discussed
taken. Most applications will be for dry gas
in Section 3), fluids may or may not flow to
wells where no liquid is formed in the separa-
surface, depending on the reservoir pressure,
tor. In this case, a well head sample will be
the productivity of the formation and the de-
identical to a separator gas sample. Normal
sign of the test. If formation fluids flow to
gas sampling methods should be used but
the surface, sampling may proceed just as in
great care should be taken to make sure sam-
the case of a production well test, as long as
ple bottles and associated equipment have a
care is taken to produce all of the drilling mud
working pressure rated above the well head
filtrate that has invaded the pore space in the
pressure.
near wellbore area. This cleaning-up process
may take some time, depending on how much
filtrate loss or lost circulation occurred during
drilling.

DSTs are not generally reliable means of ob- were analysed, they showed how errors can
taining oil and gas samples, unless all the re- be caused by incorrect sampling. In Figure 4-
quirements for a representative sample are 13, an analysis is shown of top, middle and
met. Water samples taken form DSTs are bottom samples taken from a 50 ft column of
generally reliable if tests are made on site to fluid.
ensure a representative sample. For example,
when water samples taken at intervals from The data shows an increase in salinity with
the produced fluid column within the drill depth in the drillpipe, indicating that the first
pipe on a well that did not flow to surface water was contaminated by mud filtrate.
a b c d e
Electric Electric Electric Electric Electric
Sample Pumpout Pumpout Pumpout Pumpout
Hydraulic Sample Sample Sample Sample
Single probe Packer Hydraulic OFA module Multisample
Single probe Hydraulic OFA module
Single probe Hydraulic
Single probe
Fig. 4-14 MDT tool configurations for sampling. (a) Basic tool. (b) Inflatable packer for low-permeability and
difficult conditions. (c) Pumpout module may be used to remove filtrate. (d) OFA module differentiates among
gas, oil and water. (e) The multisample module contains six individually controlled 450-cm3 PVT containers.

Schlumberger
If it is desirable to measure the dissolved gas 4.8.1 Bottom Hole Sampling

content of the formation water, the DST Equipment
must be shut in to allow the pressure at the
bottom of the well to build up. A sample of 4.8.1.1 Open Hole Sampling from For-
the formation water at formation conditions mation Interval Testing
may then be taken with a bottom hole sam- Although primarily an open hole logging de-
pler run through the drillpipe. Some DST vice for confirmation of formation fluid and
tools also contain a subsurface sampling de- indications of productivity and formation
vice within the tool string assembly that pressure, the formation interval testing tool
catches a sample at bottom hole flowing con- can also collect fluid samples for laboratory
ditions. analysis. The Repeat Formation Tester
(RFT) and Modular Formation Dynamics
4.7.1.2 Surface Sampling
Tester (MDT) as discussed in section 3 are
Two very basic methods exist; in the first, a two such tools which can be used for this
plastic or rubber tube is used to fill a sample purpose.
bottle from the bottom. Several volumes of
fluid are displaced before the tube is slowly The main advantage of this technique is that
removed and the container sealed. An alterna- it gives an early set of samples giving some
tive method is to place the sample container preliminary estimates before the well is cased
within a larger container, filling from the bot- and the reservoir produced. The main draw-
tom of the inner one until the brine overflows backs are that the samples collected are gen-
both containers. The sample is then capped erally from the near wellbore formation and
under water to prevent air contamination. may not contain fluids representative of the
actual hydrocarbon reservoir. The MDTs
4.8 Sampling Equipment
flexible operational mode coupled with its
resistivity and optical analyser sensors al-
There are a variety of sampling equipment lows greater quantities of fluid to be removed
available on the market for both surface and from the near wellbore and the fluid to be
bottom hole sampling techniques. Different monitored thus increasing the prospects of
equipment is designed to meet specific obtaining a more representative sample See
needs, and each service company will have its Fig. 4-15 and 4-16.
preferred tools. Whatever the equipment se-
lected, the end objective of obtaining repre- 4.8.1.2 DST Sampling Tools
sentative samples must be at the front of
The fluid sample trapping features of DST
ones mind and it should be clear that if the
strings have a lot in common with the Forma-
well has not been properly conditioned
tion Interval Testers. The one main impor-
and/or proper procedures are not followed;
tant difference is that the DST sampler can
then no matter what equipment is used the
take larger samples and after significant quan-
samples are not going to be of the quality re-
tities of fluid have been produced from a
quired.
zone and/or the well conditioned for sam-
pling. This being said most tools on the mar-
ket, while capable of catching large samples,
even if the well does not flow to surface, are
generally not capable of trapping samples
suitable for full PVT analysis. One exception

is the Fullbore Annular Sample Chamber solution during the sampling process, the
Tool (FASC).(Discussed in section 3.4.2.9 - main disadvantage is the risk of the sample
Figure 3-22) The tool is activated by a spe- chamber not being clean.
cific annulus over-pressure at any time during
the test. A sample regulator ensures that the Admission type samplers are run in the hole
sample is acquired in a controlled manner to closed. Once at the required sampling depth,
avoid gas being drawn out of solution. The they are activated either by battery and down
sample is trapped in a detachable chamber hole clock (pre-set at surface for operations
which can be sent directly to the laboratory on slickline) or via an electrical signal sent
or alternatively the sample can be transferred from surface. This in turn either sets off a
to a shipping bottle as previously described. small detonator which shears a plug thus al-
lowing the sample to enter the chamber or
4.8.1.3 Production Sampling Tools operates a solenoid valve. The sampling is
Through tubing production sampling tools, done via the sample pushing on a piston
whether run on electric wireline or slickline, which forces clean hydraulic oil through a
are best suited for bottom hole sampling of regulated orifice to avoid gas breaking out of
reservoir fluids since they can be accurately solution. When sampling is complete a seal-
positioned in front or just above the perfora- ing system is automatically activated.
tions. Thus, fluids sampled should not be
contaminated by fluids coming from higher Admission type samplers are the most com-
levels. Downhole pressure and temperature mon used in the oilfield and many variations
measurements (either from downhole record- on their design exist.
ers or in real time) can be easily combined
with the sample procedure which gives an- 4.8.1.4 Transfer Benches
other level of control in ensuring correct well Transfer benches are designed, as the name
conditioning and suitability for sampling. suggests, to transfer a sample from the sam-
pling chamber of the bottom hole sampler
Production samplers are small and light into a bottle that can safely be shipped to the
enough so as to allow simple field operations, PVT laboratory. In order to maintain the rep-
especially concerning bubble point pressure resentivity of the transferred sample, the
measurement and sample transfer. The inter- transfer must be performed at constant pres-
nal design of the sampling chamber and the sure and in single phase above the bubble
transfer circuit is such that dead volumes are point or dew point. This entails that transfer
kept to a minimum. benches must first enable a correct measure-
ment of the bubble point pressure before any
Circulation type samplers are run in hole transfer may actually be started.
open and the open sampling chamber must be
cleaned up with downhole fluid once the Modern transfer benches are designed for use
sampling depth is reached. While, open, the with mercury free systems.
tool must never go deeper than the sampling
depth and the clean up is achieved by moving
the tool up and down slowly for at least 5
minutes above the sampling depth. The main
advantage of this type of sampler is the re-
moval of the risk of any gas coming out of

Schlumberger
Gas detector
Lamp
@Q
Fluid flow Q@
@@@@

QQQQ
Q@
@@@@

QQQQ

Flowline
Liquid detector
Water Oil Gas
Fig. 4-15 The OFA Module With its two Sensor Systems; One for Liquid detection and Analysis
and the Other for Gas Detection.
4
Visible Near infrared
Crude B
Crude A
3
Oil-base Water
mud filtrate
Optical density
1 Condensate
Diesel
0
500 1000 1500 2000
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 4-16 The Absorption Spectrum of Water and Several Oils.

Battery pack
Clock
Air chamber
Break plug Hammer pin

Break plug
Regulator
choke
Detent
assembly
Braking
system Rod
Hydraulic oil Sample

fluid
Floating piston
Port holes
Sealing piston
Mercury
Fig. 4-17 Battery-Operated Sampler.

Schlumberger
4.8.2 Surface Sampling Equipment stances. As such, they are subjected to

Surface sampling equipment is a collection of stringent regulations in terms of design,
special fittings couplings and hoses required manufacturing, testing, certification, opera-
to connect the oil or gas sample bottles to the tion and transportation. They should only be
relevant points on the separator. In addition, handled by fully trained personnel.
vacuum pumps and hydraulic pumps are re-
quired for bottle preparation prior to sam- 4.8.3.1 Gas Sample Bottles
pling. Gas sample bottles are defined not only by
working and test pressure, but also by a
Modern systems can be provided which con- maximum sampling pressure verses tempera-
sist of self contained modules complete with ture. This is a direct consequence of the gen-
automatic flow control and monitoring eral gas law PV/ZT = constant. Since a gas
equipment to confirm the quality of the sam- sample bottle may be subjected to high tem-
pling process. With such systems the sam- perature after it has been filled, the initial
pling process is practically automated. filling pressure at initial filling temperature
must be such that the bottles internal pres-
sure will never be allowed to exceed the safe
maximum working pressure for which the
bottle was certified. (specifically during op-
erations in hot climates) There are many
types of designs for gas bottles each with
their own merit. The most practical feature
being ease of handling and transportation.
4.8.3.2 Oil Sample Bottles

Oil sample bottles are designed to contain
liquid samples which can be taken under very
high pressures. They are therefore much
more rugged in design than gas sample bottles
but nevertheless still subjected to stringent
regulations. The one key factor with oil sam-
ple bottles is to ensure that a safety gas cap
is made in the bottle after sampling as the
internal pressure can very quickly rise with
temperature for a fluid under monophasic
conditions. As with gas bottle there are many
different designs available the key points to
note, are the ease with which an oil bottle can
be cleaned and the elimination of as much
Fig. 4-18 Multipurpose Transfer Bench
dead space as possible. New bottles are al-
most entirely mercury free; either piston dis-
placement types or membrane types.
4.8.3 Sample Containers
Sample containers are mobile pressure ves-
sels containing hydrocarbon gases and liq-
uids together with other hazardous sub-

4.8.4 New Developments The report of the full PVT study on a repre-
Recent developments have seen the introduc- sentative reservoir fluid sample answers all of
tion of Monophasic Bottom Hole Samplers these questions and provides the necessary
whereby the sample is taken and maintained data. Nevertheless, in most cases, due to
and transferred under monophasic conditions. backlogs, expedition and transportation
Whereas this technique solves many of the problems, this report only becomes available
disadvantages discussed throughout this sec- several months after the well test. Mean-
tion, extra care must be taken as the equip- while, crucial decisions concerning the man-
ment uses some form of nitrogen pre-charge agement and the planning of the reservoir
which requires highly trained personnel to have to be taken and are based on estimated
operate it. Another technique currently under values of reservoir fluid physical properties.
development, is that of Inert Bottom Hole
Sampling - this involves the use of sophisti- 4.9.1 Field Estimation of Reservoir
cated metals which will not allow adsorption Properties
of gases from the sample into the body of the
sampling tool. 4.9.1.1 Field Estimation of Reservoir
Properties through Correlations
4.9 Fluid Analysis and Uses of Data Physical properties of reservoir fluids may
be derived from correlations. These correla-
The values of the physical properties of a tions can provide reasonable estimates given
reservoir fluid constitute an integral part of that the chemical nature of the fluid under
the data required for a comprehensive study test is similar to the one of the fluids that
of the reservoir and the optimal design of the have been used for developing the correlation.
oil recovery and production schemes. More The rapidity in obtaining answers at no cost
specifically, PVT data, corresponding to the is the advantage of this approach. There is
fluid under study, are needed to validate the however, a considerable risk concerning the
well test and to provide meaningful interpre- accuracy of these predictions as is shown in
tation. The optimum design of the well com- the example in Figure 4-19 where the estima-
pletion and the surface facilities is possible tions for p b (bubble point pressure in psia)
only after determining the type of fluids and Bo (oil formation volume factor in reser-
which flow through the well bore and are
voir barrels per standard conditions barrel)
produced through the separator, as well as
given by three of the best known correlations
their volumetric properties.
are compared with the values measured in the
PVT laboratory.
In addition, the accurate estimation of the
reservoir reserves and the design of an opti-
mum depletion strategy is feasible when re-
alistic fluid properties are available. It is well
known that an underestimation of the oil
formation volume factor by 20%, not unusual
when using current correlations, is enough to
reduce the expected reserves by the same
percentage.

Schlumberger
The three correlations used were: GLASO Correlation, which has been
derived from the study of 45 North Sea
STANDING Correlation, which has crudes.
been derived from the study of 105
Californian crudes. In addition correlations can only provide data
limited to certain conditions (e.g. bubble
LASATER Correlation, which has been point) and since the compositional analysis
derived from the study of 137 Cana- of the fluid is not taken into consideration,
dian, Western, Mid-Continental and they fail to predict the evolution of each
South American crudes. property as the main reservoir parameters
change during depletion.
PVT Lab STANDING LASATER GLASO
Alascan Pb 1802 1505 1504 1645

crude 1 Bo 1.20 1.20 1.12
Alascan Pb 1159 955 918 1011
crude 2 Bo 1.16 1.14 1.12
Angola Pb 4210 6308 4400 4775
Bo
Nigeria Pb 5768 8785 7500 6367
Bo 3.45 4.20 3.80 4.40
Fig. 4-19 Example Data.
4.9.1.2 Field Estimation of Reservoir bly reduced volume than that used in the
Properties with Portable PVT laboratory. The reduction of the sample vol-
Another approach for estimating the physical ume inevitably leads to reduced accuracy of
properties of reservoir fluids on the well site measurements.
is through the use of a portable PVT labora-
tory. This approach, although it offers good 4.9.1.3 Field Estimation of Reservoir
measurements, involves considerable invest- Properties with Fluid Properties
ment in high pressure and high temperature Estimator
equipment and requires the presence of well As compared to an estimation from correla-
trained, experienced personnel. As the PVT tions, a more reliable prediction of phase be-
study should always be performed under haviour and physical properties can be
conditions of perfect equilibrium, it takes achieved at the well site using a Fluid Proper-
several hours, if not days, of rig time to be ties Estimator. This service can be performed
completed. In addition, the weight and vol- on downhole reservoir samples as well as on
ume limitations imposed on the equipment to the surface gas and liquid samples taken form
be transported to the rig dictates that the the separator. Simple measurements of key
PVT equipment used on-site has considera- physical properties, specially selected to

characterise the reservoir fluid, are performed 4.9.2 PVT Laboratory Measurement of
on-site with easily operated portable equip- Reservoir Properties
ment. These measurements are used as cali- As soon as the samples arrive at the PVT
bration points to tune an Equation-of-State laboratory the first thing that is done is to
(EOS) based simulator which runs on the check their validity, in other words to ensure
field computer. The tuned thermodynamic they are usable and have not been contami-
model is used subsequently to predict the nated or destroyed by bad sampling / transfer
phase behaviour of the fluids at reservoir, techniques.
well and surface conditions, and thus to gen-
erate the principal PVT data necessary for Compositional analysis of the reservoir fluid
the preliminary reservoir and production en- is a key component of a PVT analysis and
gineering calculations. Hence by providing has several applications in reservoir and pro-
predictions based on measurements, the fluid duction engineering. The most important ap-
properties estimator combines the simplicity plication is establishing how much gasoline,
and speed of the correlation approach with kerosene, fuel oil and bitumen will be ex-
the accuracy of the portable PVT. tracted when refining a barrel of crude oil. It
also dictates how and where the oil will be
The service takes less than 3 hours to per- refined. Another application is detecting cor-
form once a sample has been brought to sur- rosive compounds that require special con-
face. The accuracy of the predictions is better sideration when defining production and
than 5 % and the range of the possible devia- transportation equipment. Composition is
tions for each of the main sets of estimations also required as an input to equation-of-state
is expected as follows; simulators used for reservoir description.
Techniques used include, gas chromatogra-
Bubble point pressure (pb): 0-3% phy, distillation and micro distillation and
mass spectrometry.
Oil volume factor at pb: 0-1%
Other studies available include;
Oil density at pb: 0-2% Black-oil PVT Studies.
Oil viscosity at pb: 5-10% Volatile or near-critical Fluid PVT

Studies.
Total GOR: 0-5%

Gas-condensate Reservoir Fluid PVT
Studies.
Compositional analysis 0-3%
Enhanced Oil Recovery Studies.
Figure 4-20 shows the basic flow chart for
the fluid properties estimator for a down hole
sample. While Figure 4-21 shows the same Stock Tank Analysis.
for a surface sample.
Formation Water Analysis.

Schlumberger
Reservoir Fluid
Composition C7+
GCGas Gas Comp. Tuning

Analyzer (y) C7+ Kij CH4 - C7+
Pc, Tc - C7+
Gas Flash
GOR
Reservoir Equation-of-State
Fluid Simulator
GC Liquid Liquid Comp.
Analyzer (x) C7+
Match
Points
Res. Fluid Flash Kit Refractometer Liquid Mol.
Sample (Vg, mo) (n) Mass pb at res. conditions
Volume factor
Densimeter Liquid Density Compressibilities
() Viscosities
Densities
Viscometer Liquid Separator GOR
Liquid
(o) Viscosity Tank GOR
Shrinkage factors
Transfer Bench Res. Fluid Relative volumes
(PVT) pb (T amb.) Res. fluid comp. C7+
Fig. 4-20 FPE Flow Chart - Reservoir Sample.
Separator Flow- Separator

meters (qg, ql) GOR
Pycnometer Shrinkage Reservoir Fluid

(density)() Factor Composition C7+
(1) + (2) + (3) Sep. Gas

Comp. C7+
Separator
Gas GCGas (1) Tank Tuning
Analyzer (y) Gas Comp. Kij CH4 - C7+
Pc, Tc - C7+
Tank (2) Tank

Gas GOR
Separator Equation-of-State
Simulator
GC Liquid STO
Analyzer (x) Comp. C7+
Match
Points
Separator Flash Kit Refractometer STO mol.
Liquid (Vg, mo) (n) Mass pb at res. conditions
Volume factor
Densimeter (3) STO Compressibilities
() Density Viscosities
Densities
Tank Liquid Viscometer STO Separator GOR
(STO) (o) Viscosity Tank GOR
Shrinkage factors
Transfer Bench Res. Fluid Relative volumes
(Recomb) (PVT) pb (T amb.) Composition C7+
Sep.streams comp. C7+
Fig. 4-21 FPE Flow Chart - Separator Samples.


Section 5
Basic Well Test Interpretation
Section 5 Basic Well Test Interpretation

Schlumberger
5.0 Basic Well Test Interpretation
5.1 Introduction
Comprehensive interpretation of acquired The reservoir model is used to predict the
data contributes to efficient reservoir devel- physical behaviour of the field, in terms of
opment and management by quantifying pa- production and fluid recovery, for different
rameters that characterise the dynamic re- operating conditions such as;
sponse of the reservoir. The objectives of
any well test interpretation is to obtain the Primary Production.
most self consistent and correct results that Secondary Production.
correspond to and confirm the pre-defined Tertiary Recovery.
reservoir model.
In order to perform realistic predictions, the
5.1.1 Reservoir Model reservoir model should represent the actual
The field development strategy is usually reservoir as closely as possible. It is built up
established with the help of models. Two using information available from geology,
key models are the; geophysics and data previously collected
from nearby wells. A reservoir model is never
Economic Model definitive, and must be adjusted as new in-
Reservoir Model formation becomes available when additional
wells are drilled. The parameters used for the
construction of the reservoir model are ob-
tained from;
RESERVOIR ECONOMIC
MODEL MODEL
Direct Measurements
On cores or cuttings while drilling.

FIELD DEVELOPMENT On PVT samples.
STRATEGY
Results of Interpretations
Fig. 5-1 Example Model.
The economic model takes into account pres- Seismic data.

ent and projected economic information such Electric log data.
as; Well test data.
Price of Oil and Gas. 5.1.2 Well Test Interpretation

Interest Rate. Well testing is a powerful tool for providing
Return on Investment. data for the model as it requires the reservoir
Cost Factors. to be in a dynamic situation. Different types
Exchange Rates. of well tests and the type of parameters
Political Climate. measured or calculated were discussed in sec-
etc. tion 3, to recap, a well test, depending on its
design may provide;

MEASUREMENT
Electric P.V.T.
Geophysics Well Test
PRESSURE
Logs Core
INTERPRETATION
Geophysical LogM Well

Model odel TestModel
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
TIME
RESERVOIR MODEL
Fig. 5-4
Fig. 5-2 Typical Input to Reservoir Model.
The pressure response, which is a function of
Permeability. reservoir characteristics and the production
Initial or average pressure. history can be interpreted by analysis of;
Near wellbore conditions (damage,
stimulation). Change in pressure, p versus change in time
Reservoir flow behaviour.
t;
Reservoir size.
Inflow performance response.
The analysis of this response and the
Communication between wells.
matching of the characteristics of the re-
sponse to a known model is the basis of well
A well test essentially consists of recording
test interpretation. It is based on the solu-
the downhole pressure response due to
tions of complex partial differential equations
changes in flow rate. A disturbance is created
which model the fluid through the porous
in the reservoir by changing the flowrate;
media in the formation. This type of analysis
(Fig. 5-3)
is often termed transient well test analysis.
p
FLOWRATE
PRESSURE
FLOW RATE
q (t)
TIME
TIME
Fig. 5-5 Change in Pressure Versus Time.
Fig. 5-3
and measuring the associated pressure re-

sponse; (Fig. 5-4).

Schlumberger
There are two main types of transient analy- 5.2 Defining the Reservoir Model
sis tests;
5.2.1 Inverse and Direct Problem
Pressure Drawdown Test The principles governing the analysis of well
After the well has been shut in for a tests are more easily understood when one
long enough period to establish static considers well test interpretation as a special
pressure conditions, the well is opened pattern recognition problem. In a well test, a
and produced at a steady rate while the known signal I (the constant withdrawal of
pressure fall off is observed with a bot- reservoir fluid) is applied to an unknown
tom hole gauge. system S (the well and reservoir) and the re-
sponse O of that system (the change in res-
ervoir pressure) is measured during the test.
Pressure build-up Test
After flowing the well for a long enough
period to establish quasi-steady state
conditions, the well is closed in while I S O
the pressure build-up is observed with
a bottom hole gauge.
Fig. 5-6 Inverse and Direct Problem.
The analysis of build-up data is preferred

This type of problem is known in mathe-
because achieving the stable flow rates re-
matics as the inverse problem;
quired for drawdown analysis can be difficult
and or lengthy to achieve. The generation of
O/I S
drawdown curves is simpler because of the
use of actual flow rates within the diffusivity
Its solution involves finding a well defined
equations.
theoretical system, whose response to the
same input signal is as close as possible to
Unfortunately, any discussion of well test
that of the actual reservoir. The purpose of
interpretation invariably involves complex
well test interpretation is to identify the sys-
looking equations which require a good un-
tem knowing only the input and output sig-
derstanding of mathematics to manipulate
nals and possibly some other reservoir char-
and solve. A detailed understanding of the
acteristics, such as initial or boundary
equations associated with the different mod-
conditions, shape of drainage area, etc.
els is beyond the scope of this document but
reference will be required to some of the basic
The response of the theoretical reservoir is
equations which form the core of the mathe-
computed for specific initial and boundary
matical models. Fortunately, modern well
conditions, that must correspond to the ac-
test interpretation techniques have developed
tual ones. This is called the direct problem;
structured approaches to identifying common
reservoir models and this coupled with user
friendly software helps unbundle the com- IxSO
plexity of the science and gives access to a
basic understanding. Interpretation relies on models, whose char-
acteristics are assumed to represent the char-
acteristics of the actual reservoir. If the
wrong model is selected, then the parameters

calculated for the actual reservoir will not be been identified and mathematical models built
correct. On the other hand, the solution of to define them, such as;
the inverse problem is not always unique. It
is possible to find several reservoir configura- Dual Porosity
tions that would yield similar responses to a
given input signal. But the number of alterna- The double porosity (or dual porosity)
tive solutions decreases as the number and reservoir consists of two homogeneous
the range of output signal measurements in- porous media of distinct porosity and
crease. permeability that interact. They may be
uniformly distributed or segregated but
Models used for analysis are always built in only one medium can produce fluid to the
the same manner. They include: well; the other acts as a source.
A Basic Model Dual Permeability

Inner Boundary Conditions The double permeability reservoir refers
to two distinct porous media, as in a dou-
Outer Boundary Conditions ble porosity system, but, in this case, each
medium can produce into the wellbore.
5.2.2 Basic Model
Most basic models in the oil industry have Multi-Layered
impermeable upper and lower boundaries,
and are of infinite lateral extent. Initially, the In multi-layer reservoir models, only one
pressure is uniform. Under these assump- layer delivers fluids to the wellbore. The
tions, flow eventually becomes radial in the other layers act as sources of fluids.
reservoir. We may have either a homogeneous
or a heterogeneous acting porous medium. Composite
5.2.2.1 Homogeneous Reservoir
Composite reservoir models, consist of a
A homogeneous acting reservoir is one that, mixture of the above systems.
with respect to flow, acts as though it has
identical properties throughout. This condi- 5.2.2.3 Radial Flow
tion is even diagnosed for a reservoir which is
Flow through non-fractured formations is
so randomly heterogeneous, it acts as though
approximately radial, at least for a few hun-
it is a single homogeneous reservoir. Many
dred feet surrounding the well, therefore an
petroleum reservoirs have been found to be
idealised cylindrical model may be used to
homogeneous and, in the early years, all res-
calculate flow rates and describe pressure dis-
ervoirs were considered to be homogeneous-
tribution with good accuracy. This is the ba-
acting for purposes of analysis.
sic flow regime used and assumed as a start-
ing step in the basic model. Other flow
5.2.2.2 Heterogeneous Reservoir
regimes do exist and the model can be up-
Heterogeneous acting reservoirs have been dated to account for them. Such as; spherical
the subject of many recent developments in flow, linear flow, bi-linear flow, etc.
well test analysis. Many different types have

Schlumberger
5.2.2.4 Infinite Acting Radial Flow 5.2.3 Inner Boundary Conditions

The reservoir production is established when To be useful for practical applications, the
all the fluid flowing at surface comes from the basic model must be associated with Inner
reservoir. boundary conditions. Inner boundary condi-
tions that are most common in practice are;
p (t) q (t)
Wellbore storage and skin.
Fractures.
Partial penetration.
5.2.3.1 Wellbore Storage

When a well is opened, initially the produc-
Fig. 5-7 Infinite Acting Radial Flow Regime. tion at surface is due only to the decompres-
sion of fluid in the wellbore. The reservoir
An apparent radius of drainage, rd, can be contribution is negligible. This is the wellbore
defined beyond which no pressure drop is storage effect.
measurable. (This is, however, dependent on
the resolution of the pressure gauge used and p (t) q (t)
emphasizes the importance of gauge selection

when analyzing well test data.)
Within the drainage area the pressure drops.

The minimum pressure is in the wellbore.
The pressure front, defined by rd, propagates
radially. This configuration is called Infinite
acting radial flow regime. It represents the
response from the reservoir as if the pressure Fig. 5-9 Model of Wellbore Storage Effect.
wave was spreading radially through an infi-
nite extent and the pressure response will not The plot below gives a simplified description
change (assuming the resolution of the gauge of the pressure distribution versus the dis-
has been reached) unless some outer bound- tance, r, from the well;
ary features are encountered.
p p
r r
p p
i i
SKIN, s = 0
rd
pressure profile pressure profile
Fig. 5-8 Apparent Radius of Drainage. Fig. 5-10 Simplified Pressure Distribution.

The reservoir is still at initial pressure, p i. p
Only the pressure in the wellbore has rw r
dropped. The wellbore storage effect pre-

p
i
vents the sand-face flow rate from instanta-

neously following the surface flow rate.
p s SKIN, s > 0
pressure profile
Fig. 5-12 Pressure Profile for a Damaged Well.

FLOW RATE
This causes an additional pressure drop

around the wellbore which is quantified by a
skin factor, s.
surface flow rate
For a damaged well , s > 0

sand-face flow rate
After stimulation, the ability to flow into the

elapsed time from opening of well
Fig. 5-11 Wellbore Storage Effect - Pressure Profile. wellbore is improved. Thus the pressure
drop measured in the well is smaller. This is
Similarly when the well is shut in, the reser- seen as a reduction in the skin factor which
voir will continue to deliver fluid into the may even become negative.
wellbore as the pressure at the shut-in point
builds up due to the fluids compressing and For a stimulated well , s < 0
the height of fluid in the wellbore. Down hole
shut in valves are used during well testing to In the literature, the concept of apparent
significantly reduce the effects of wellbore wellbore radius, rwa, has been used to repre-
storage during build-up periods. sent the skin.
p
5.2.3.2 Skin rw rwa

The communication between the well and the
r
p
i
reservoir is affected by: p

s SKIN, s < 0
Presence of mud cake.
Invasion of drilling fluids. pressure profile
Insufficient perforation density. Fig. 5-13 Apparent Wellbore Radius.
Partial penetration. 5.2.3.3 Other Flow Regimes

Sometimes infinite acting radial flow is not
established immediately after the end of the
wellbore storage flow regime. This can be the
case if:

Schlumberger
The well is fractured. 5.2.4 Outer Boundary Conditions

In a test of sufficiently long duration, another
The well partially penetrates the reser- flow regime will occur at late time due to the
voir. presence of outer boundaries, such as;
The reservoir is fissured. No flow outer boundary (sealing

faults).
The reservoir is multi-layered.
It may take some time before the equivalent Constant pressure outer boundary
homogeneous behavior of the whole system (water drive).
is reached. In a fissured reservoir, the fissure
response is much faster than the matrix re- Closed system.
sponse. During the first period of production
only the fissure system produces, the matrix For example, if there is a sealing fault near the
blocks still being at initial pressure. Thus two well, after rd has reached the fault, the shape
pressure profiles exist in the reservoir. of the pressure profile is changed.
pf for the fissure system.
pm for the matrix blocks.
p (t)
Once the matrix blocks start to produce into
q (t)
the fissures, pm, drops from pi to p f. When

both systems (fissures and matrix blocks)
have the same pressure the behavior appears
homogeneous See Fig. 5-14).
sealing
fault
p (t) q (t)
Fig. 5-15 Model of Sealing Fault.
r
pi
rd
pressure profile in the matrix
pressure profile in the fissures
Fig. 5-14 Fissured Reservoir.

p TIME t1
- Impermeable Upper and Lower
Boundaries
pressure front has not reached
the fault
p
i - Uniform Initial Pressure
Outer Boundary Conditions

TIME t2 > t1
pressure front has reached the
fault and is reflected but no effect
is seen at the wellbore
- No Flow
pressure profile without fault
- Constant Pressure
p
5.2.6 Various Phases during a Well
Test
The various phases occurring during a well
p
i
test are illustrated on a schematic reservoir

map.
reflected pressure profile
wellbore storage
actual pressure profile
fracture flow
radial flow (infinite acting reservoir)
p TIME t3 > t2 boundary effect
pressure reflection has reached

the wellbore, the effect of the fault
is seen in the measured signal
p
i

reflected pressure profile
actual pressure profile
Fig. 5-16 Pressure Profile for Sealing Fault. Fig. 5-17 Schematic Reservoir Map.
5.2.5 The Complete Model The example is a fractured well located near a
The complete configuration of an interpreta- sealing fault. First the wellbore storage acts
tion model would therefore be constructed in and there is no pressure change in the reser-
a similar manner to the following; voir. Then the reservoir starts to produce.
Inner Boundary Conditions Initially the flow is linear and normal to the
fracture. As the area of drainage expands, the
- Wellbore Storage anisotropy due to the fracture disappears.
- Skin Radial flow is established and the fracture is
- Fractures only seen as a negative skin factor. Eventu-
- Partial Penetration ally the pressure front is reflected back by
the sealing fault. When the reflection reaches
Basic Model the well, an additional pressure drop will be
observed indicating the presence of a bound-
- Infinite Lateral Extent ary.

Schlumberger
5.3 Model Recognition from the point considered, in order to smooth

the scatter in the differentiated data. At-
As a starting point it is required to identify a tempts to over smooth noisy data may dis-
theoretical reservoir model with pressure tort the actual pressure response. Smoothing
trends that resemble those observed in the may be increased up to the point when dis-
acquired data. It is important to note at this tortion starts.
stage that before thorough and accurate inter-
pretation can be performed, the data should
be validated. This procedure must be per-
Y
formed at the wellsite and preferably in real Y2
time. The techniques involved require a

B
knowledge of interpretation similar to those

Y1
described in this section.

X2
5.3.1 Log-Log Scale X1
To select the appropriate theoretical model

and identify the flow regimes the pressure
X
data is analysed. This is greatly simplified by

Y1 Y2
X2 + X1
X1 X2
a knowledge of straight line pressure deriva-
dY
()
dX B X1 + X 2
tive response trends associated with the for-
mation flow geometry. The change in pres- Fig. 5-18 Example of Derivative Mathematics.
sure during the test, Dp, and the pressure
derivative, Dp'Dt, are plotted versus time, Dt, 5.3.2 Time Periods
on a log-log scale. This scale is chosen over The change in pressure versus elapsed time is
other types of scales such as straight Carte- plotted on a log-log graph for an idealised
sian plots or semi-log plots as the mathe- drawdown test. Four different time periods
matical representations highlight the funda- can be identified.
mental characteristic shape of a response
without being distorted by the effect of its 1 2
x f, h d, w, l , k
3 4
magnitude.
C kh, s, p* r, A, p
LOG Dp & LOG Dp' Dt
In addition the derivative value has proven to

be even more sensitive and highlights other
features which would previously not have no flow
boundary
shown on semi-log or Cartesian scales. The fracture constant
derivative value is obtained by taking the

pressure
partial penetration boundary
radial
slope at the point required of the test data

wellbore fissures homogeneous closed
storage multilayers flow system
plotted on a pressure versus superposition LOG Dt
time plot. The algorithm takes a point before

(left) and a point after (right) the point (B) Fig. 5-19 Time Periods.
considered, calculates the two corresponding
derivatives and places their weighted mean at Period 4 includes late time data, where
the point of interest. boundary effects are predominate. This pe-
riod was the first to be investigated by well
Data may be noisy, so the two points are testing, in the 1920's and 1930's.
normally chosen to be adequately distant

Production wells were shut in at regular in- Partial penetration.

tervals and spot downhole pressure meas- Fracture.
urements were taken to obtain the average Natural fissures.
reservoir pressure. A material balance was Multi-layers.
then used to estimate the reserves. As all Period 1 always appears first. It is the well-
closed systems have the same pseudo-steady bore storage effect. It may obscure the pres-
state behaviour, no other information can be ence of period 2 data. The duration of period
extracted from the data. 1, proportional to the wellbore volume, can
be advantageously reduced with downhole
It was then realised that the validity of the shut-in tools. The test duration is then short-
spot pressure measurements was dependent ened as the subsequent periods, which give
upon the duration of the shut-in period. The parameters of interest are reached earlier.
less permeable the formation, the longer the
shut-in period necessary to reach average res- 5.3.3 Flow Regime Identification
ervoir pressure.
Identifying flow regimes, which show up as
Transient pressure testing was thus devel- characteristic patterns displayed by the pres-
oped in the 1950's and 1960's with the classi- sure derivative data, is important because
cal work of Horner and Miller, Dyes and each regime is a streamlined geometry for
Hutchinson (MDH). This corresponds to flow in the formation being tested. Thus for
period 3 in Figure 5-19. Data from period 3 each flow regime identified, there is a set of
are analysed to obtain; well and/or reservoir parameters that can be
Permeability - thickness product, kh. computed, using only that portion of the
Skin, s. transient data exhibiting the characteristic
Extrapolated pressure, p*. pattern behaviour. Presently there are only
eight flow regime patterns commonly ob-
The kh and s values from period 3 represent served in well test data. These are;
only a gross reservoir behaviour, and cannot
be used to describe the system in greater de- Radial.
tail. The kh value could represent a homoge- Spherical.
neous, a multi-layered, or a fissured reservoir. Linear.
In the same way, a positive skin could indi- Bilinear.
cate either a damaged well, or an undamaged Compression/Expansion.
well with partial penetration; and a negative Steady State.
skin characterises a stimulated well (as a re- Dual Porosity/Permeability.
sult of acidizing or hydraulic fracturing) or a Slope Doubling.
well in a fissured reservoir.
A commonly used tool for discriminating be-
Detailed information is only obtained from tween these eight identifiable subsurface flow
period 2 and has been the subject of many regimes on log-log plots, called the Flow Re-
recent developments. It describes the specific gime Identification Tool (FRID) is useful for
flow characteristics of the system before the understanding downhole and reservoir condi-
gross radial homogeneous behaviour is tions.
reached. If period 2 is present, parameters
detailing the well and reservoir structure are
then accessible;

Schlumberger
5.3.3.2 Spherical Flow
e
n)
at
st
w
Spherical flow occurs when flow streamlines

do near
dy
Radial w
ea
ra Li
st
Sp rd
do
converge to a point. This flow regime occurs
her f( o
eu
ica
l
Ps
for the partially completed well in Figure 5-
Radial Radial
23 (a) and the partially penetrated formation

ear
e
Lin
ag
ear
or
st
Lin
in Figure 5-23(b). For partial completion or

e
or
ar
Biline
lb
el
partial penetration near the upper or lower

W
bed boundary, the nearer bed imposes a

Fig. 5-20 Flow Regime Identification Tool - FRID. hemispherical flow regime. Both spherical
and hemispherical flow are seen on the de-
5.3.3.1 Radial Flow rivative as a negative half slope. Whenever
The most important flow regime is radial this appears, the spherical permeability can
flow, which is recognised as an extended con- be determined, which in turn yields a value or
stant or flat trend in the derivative. Radial the vertical permeability, kv, if the horizontal
flow geometry is described as streamlines permeability, kh, can be quantified from a
converging to a circular cylinder. radial flow regime seen in another portion of
the data.
With fully completed wells, the cylinder may
represent the portion of the wellbore inter- The importance of vertical permeability for
secting the entire formation as in Figure 5- predicting gas, water coning or horizontal
21(b). With partially penetrated formations well performance has highlighted the practical
or partially completed wells, the radial flow need for quantifying this parameter. A drill-
may be restricted in early time to only the stem test conducted when only a small por-
fraction of the formation thickness where tion of the formation has been drilled (or per-
there is flow directly into the wellbore, Fig- forated) may yield both vertical and
ure 5-21(a). When wells have been stimu- horizontal permeabilities, thus enabling op-
lated, Figure 5-21(c) or horizontally com- timised completion engineering or providing a
pleted, Figure 5-21(e), the effective radius for rationale as to whether a horizontal well
the radial flow may be enlarged. Horizontal should be drilled.
wells may also exhibit early time radial flow
in the vertical plane normal to the well, Fig-
ure 5-21(d). Finally, if the well is located near
a barrier to flow, such as a fault, the pressure
transient response may exhibit radial flow to
the well, followed by radial flow to the well
plus its image across the boundary, Figure 5-
21(f).
Whenever radial flow occurs, values for per-

meability and skin can be determined; when it
occurs in late time, the average reservoir
pressure can also be computed (classical
Horner analysis).

(a) Partial radial flow (b) Complete radial flow (c) Pseudoradial flow to fracture
Top of Fracture
Bottom Fracture
zone
of zone boundary
(d) Radial flow to horizontal well (e) Pseudoradial flow (f) Pseudoradial flow to
to horizontal well well near sealing fault
Actual Image
well well
Fig. 5-21 Different Types of Radial Flow Regimes.
10 3
Well A, radial flow
10 2
Radial
101
= Pressure
= Derivative
10 0
102 101 10 0 101 102
Fig. 5-22 Radial Flow Observed at late times.

Elapsed time (hr)
(a) Spherical flow to partially (b) Hemispherical flow to

completed zone partially penetrated zone
Fig. 5-23 Spherical Flow Regimes.

Schlumberger
(a)
10 3
Well B, single layer flowing = Pressure
= Derivative

10 2
I
101
I Radial
Sp
100 her
ica
l
10 1
102
10 5 104 103 102 101 100 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
(b)
10 3
Well B, two layers flowing = Pressure
= Derivative
II
10 2
I
101
100
I and II Radial
10 1
102
10 5 104 103 102 101 100 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-24 Data Set Showing Spherical Flow Regime Indicated By The Negative Half Slope Trend.
(Red Line in Top Plot).
Figure 5-24 is an example of a drillstem test Frequently, negative half slope behaviour is
that yielded vertical and horizontal perme- observed in well tests that indicate a high
abilities for the lower layer. These perme- skin factor. A complete analysis in this case
abilities were derived from the portion of the may provide vertical permeability and de-
data exhibiting the spherical flow regime composition of the skin into components
(negative half slope) trend shown by the red that indicate how much of the skin is due to
line in Figure 5-24(a). The reason for the the limited entry, and how much to damage
spherical flow in early time is evident from along the actively flowing interval. In turn,
the open hole logs, from the same well, which the treatable portion of the damage can be
shows only a few feet of perforations into determined, and the cost effectiveness of the
the middle of the lower layer. damage removal and/or re-perforating to im-
prove well productivity can be evaluated.

Effective Porosity tion of the streamlines, and the flow area

normal to the streamlines.
Oil
100 0
Moved Hydrocarbons Corrected Core Porosity

100 0 (a) Fracture linear flow (b) Linear flow to fracture
Depth (ft)
Shale Volume Fracture

Water
0 100 Fracture
boundary
Fracture
12,400
(c) Linear flow to horizontal well (d) Linear flow to well in elongated reservoir
II
12,425
Fig. 5-26 Linear Flow Regimes.
When formation permeability thickness is

known from another flow regime, the width
of the flow area can be determined. This pro-
vides the fracture half length of a vertically
12,450
fractured well, the effective production length

of a horizontal well, or the width of an elon-
Perforations
gated reservoir.
The combination of linear flow data with ra-

12,475
dial flow data (in any order) can provide the

OWC principle values of kx and kv for directional
permeabilities in the bedding plane. In an ani-
sotropic formation, the productivity of a
horizontal well is enhanced by drilling the
12,500
well in the direction normal to the maximum

Fig. 5-25 Open Hole Log Showing a Partially horizontal permeability.
Completed Interval.
Figure 5-27 shows a water injection well ex-

5.3.3.3 Linear Flow hibiting linear flow. Although no radial flow
Linear flow streamline geometry consists of is evident, the time of the departure from lin-
strictly parallel flow vectors. Linear flow is ear flow, as indicated on the figure, coupled
exhibited in the derivative as a positive half with an analysis of the data that follows the
slope. Figure 5-26 shows why this flow re- half slope derivative trend, provides two in-
gime is evident in vertically fractured and dependent indicators of both formation per-
horizontal wells, or in a well producing from meability and fracture half length, permitting
an elongated reservoir. quantification of both. The subtle rise in the
derivative after the departure from linear flow
Since the streamlines converge to a plane, the suggests a boundary, which was interpreted
parameters associated with this flow regime as a fault.
are the formation permeability in the direc-

Schlumberger
10 2
limited by a portion or all of the wellbore, a
bounded commingled zone, or a bounded res-
Well C, flow to
vertical fracture
101 ervoir. When the wellbore is the limiting fac-

tor, the flow regime is called wellbore storage,
ear
Lin
End of linear flow
10 0
and when the limiting factor is the entire
drainage volume for the well, this behaviour
is called pseudosteady state.
= Pressure
= Derivative
10 1
104 103 102 101 10 0 101
Elapsed time (hr)
One or more unit slope trends preceding a

Fig. 5-27 Test Data Showing Linear Flow.
stabilised radial flow derivative may repre-
5.3.3.4 Bilinear Flow sent wellbore storage effects. The transition
from the wellbore storage unit slope trend to
Hydraulically fractured wells may exhibit
another flow regime usually appears as a
bilinear flow instead of, or in addition to, lin-
hump.
ear flow. This flow regime occurs because a
pressure drop in the fracture itself accounts
The wellbore storage flow regime represents
for parallel streamlines in the fracture, while
a response that is effectively limited to the
at the same time, the streamlines in the for-
wellbore volume. Hence it provides very lit-
mation become parallel as they converge to
tle information about the reservoir. Further-
the fracture.
more, a predominance of wellbore storage
may mask important early time responses
Since the two linear flow patterns occur si-
that would otherwise characterise near well-
multaneously in normal directions, this flow
bore features, including partial penetration or
regime is termed bilinear. The derivative trend
a finite damage radius. This flow regime is
for this flow regime has a positive quarter
minimised by shutting in the well near the
slope. When the fracture half length and the
production interval. This practice can reduce
formation permeability are known independ-
the portion of the data dominated by well-
ently, the fracture conductivity, kwf, can be
bore storage behaviour by two or more loga-
determined from this flow regime. rithmic cycles in time. In some wells tested
without downhole shut-in, wellbore storage
effects have lasted up to several days.
After radial flow has occurred, a unit slope

trend that is not the final observed behaviour
may occur because of production from one
zone into one or more other zones commin-
gled in the wellbore, or vice versa. This be-
Fig. 5-28 Bilinear Flow Regime. haviour is accompanied by cross flow in the
wellbore, and occurs when commingled zones
5.3.3.5 Compression / Expansion are differentially depleted. When the unit
The derivative of a compression / expansion slope occurs as the last observed trend, as in
flow regime appears as a unit slope trend Figure 5-29(a) the assumption is that this
whenever the volume containing the pressure represents pseudosteady state conditions for
disturbance is not changing with time, and the entire reservoir volume contained in the
pressures at all points within this volume well drainage area. The late time unit slope
vary in the same way. This volume can be behaviour due to pseudosteady state is ob-

served only during drawdown. When the unit 5.3.3.7 Dual Porosity / Permeability
slope is seen after radial flow, either the zone Dual porosity / permeability behaviour oc-
(or reservoir) volume or its shape can be de- curs when reservoir rocks contain distributed
termined. internal heterogenities that have highly con-
trasting flow characteristics. Examples are
naturally fractured or highly laminated forma-
(a)
10 3
Psuedosteady state
tions. the derivative behaviour for this case

may look like the valley shaped trend shown
10 2
Buildup
in Figure 5-30(a) or it may resemble the be-
Pseudosteady state haviour shown in Figure 5-30(b). This feature
may come and go, during any one of the flow
101
Radial
Drawdown
regimes already described, or during transi-

Wellbore storage hump
tion from one flow regime to another. From

Buildup
10 0
this flow regime, parameters associated with

10 1 internal heterogeneity are determined, such as
interporosity flow transmissibility, relative
10 4 103 102 101 100 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
10 3
(b)
storativity of the contrasted heterogeneities,
or geometric factors.
Steady state
10 2
(a)
10 3
Dual porosity
101 Steady state

Radial 10 2
Wellbore storage hump Buildup
Drawdown
10 0 Radial: fractures Radial: total system

101
Wellbore storage hump Dual porosity valley
10 1
10 4 103 102 101 100 101 10 2 10 0
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-29 Flow Regime Trends Exhibited by Well-

bore Storage, Bounderies and Pressure Maintenance.
101
104 103 102 101 10 0 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
5.3.3.6 Steady State

(b)
10 3
Dual porosity or dual permeability
Steady state implies that pressures in the

well drainage volume are not varying in time
10 2
at any point, and that the pressure gradient

between any two points in the reservoir is
Radial: total system
101
constant. This condition may occur for wells

Radial: fractures
Wellbore storage hump
in an injection / production scheme. In build- Dual porosity transition
up and fall-off tests, a steeply fallingderiva-

10 0
tive may represent either pseudosteady state

or steady state.
101
104 103 102 101 10 0 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-30 Characteristics Patterns Exhibited by

Naturally Fractured and Highly Laminated
Formations.

Schlumberger
5.3.3.8 Slope Doubling tions. Parameters estimated from a special-

Slope doubling describes a succession of two ised plot may be used as a starting value for
radial flow regimes, with the second being at computerised refinement of the model for the
a level exactly twice that of the first. transient response in the second interpreta-
tion stage.
This behaviour is frequently explained by a
sealing fault, but because of the similarity The following examples illustrate derivative
between figures 5-30(b) and 5-31, it can also responses with their specialised plots;
be due to dual porosity / permeability het-
erogeneity, particularly in laminated reser- 5.3.4.1 Wellbore Storage
voirs. When slope doubling is identified with A unit-slope log-log straight line passing
a sealing fault, the distance from the well to through early time Dp and Dp'Dtdata is usu-
the fault can be determined. ally indicative of wellbore storage.
10 3
Single sealing fault Dp
Dp' Dt
LOG Dp & LOG Dp' Dt

10 2
Wellbore Storage
Radial: single fault
Radial: infinite-acting
101
Wellbore storage hump Slope doubling transition
10 0
LOG Dt
10 1
Fig. 5-32 Wellbore Storage.

104 103 102 101 100 101 10 2
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-31 Slope Doubling Caused by a Succession of

Two Radial Flow Regimes (Sealing Fault). Because Dp is proportional to Dt, the same
data points must also be located on a straight
5.3.4 Specialised Plots line passing through the origin when Dp is
The dominant geometry for the flow stream- plotted versus Dt in Cartesian co-ordinates.
lines in the formation determines which of Such a plot, specific to a given flow regime, is
the flow regimes patterns appears in the called a specialised plot (See Fig. 5-33).
pressure transient response at any given
time. The presence of one or more of the rec- 5.3.4.2 High Conductivity Fracture
ognised derivative patterns marks the need to A high conductivity fracture communicating
select a model that accounts for the implied with the wellbore yields a log-log straight line
flow regimes. Moreover, each of several eas- with half slope (Dp is proportional to Dt ).
ily recognised derivative trends has a spe- (See Fig. 5-34). The specialised plot in this
cialised plot that is used to estimate parame- case is a plot of Dp versus Dt , which
ters associated with that trend. In fact, the
yields a straight line through the same points
specialised plot for each straight derivative
(See Fig. 5-35).
trend is a plot of the pressure change versus
the elapsed time, raised to the same power as
the slope of the derivative line on the log-log
plot. Slopes and intercepts of these plots
provide equations for parameter computa-

The corresponding specialised plot is a semi-

log plot of Dp versus log Dt.
Wellbore Storage
Dp
Dp' Dt
Dp
LOG Dp & LOG Dp' Dt

Homogeneous System
0
0 Dt
Fig. 5-33 Wellbore Storage Cartesian Coordinates. LOG Dt
Fig. 5-36 Infinite Acting Flow.
Dp
Dp' Dt
5.3.5 The Complete System
LOG Dp & LOG Dp' Dt
The log-log behaviour of a complete model is

simply obtained as the superposition of the
individual log-log behaviour of each compo-
High Conductivity nent of the model.
Fracture Flow
The illustrations below show how model

LOG Dt components have been superimposed to give
Fig. 5-34 High Conductivity Fracture.
three typical examples:
Well A Well with wellbore storage /

Closed homogeneous reservoir.
High Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Well B Well with wellbore storage and a
low conductivity fracture / Closed
Dp
homogeneous reservoir.
Well C Well with wellbore storage /

Heterogeneous reservoir of infinite lateral
0 extent.
0
Dt
Fig. 5-35 Specialised Plot for High Conductivity Dp
Fracture. Dp' Dt Closed
System
LOG Dp & LOG Dp' Dt
Radial Flow
5.3.4.3 Infinite Acting Radial Flow

During infinite acting radial flow, Dp is a lin-
Wellbore
Storage
ear function of the logarithm of Dt. The value

of the pressure derivative is constant
(Horizontal Line) and equal to 0.5 (when
scales are in dimensionless parameters - ex- LOG Dt
plained later). Fig. 5-37 Well A.

Schlumberger
p Closed ting in the well at the surface can mask im-

portant flow regime trends. Furthermore, late
p' t Radial System
Flow
time trends frequently are distorted by su-

LOG p & LOG p' t
Fracture
perposition effects that could be minimised

Flow
Wellbore
Storage with adjustments in the test sequence or by
inadequate pressure gauge resolution that
could have been avoided with selection of a
more sensitive gauge. Missing or incomplete
LOG t late time trends may result from premature
Fig. 5-38 Well B. test termination that would have been
avoided with real time surface acquisition and
on site data validation. Even for well designed
p Radial Flow
Transition
p' t
tests, flow regimes may be difficult to dis-
Period
cern, but this is relatively rare.

LOG p & LOG p' t
5.4 Parameter Estimation

Wellbore
Storage
Once the reservoir model has been identified,

it is necessary to compute the model parame-
LOG t ters. This process essentially involves
Fig. 5-39 Well C.
matching the acquired data response to that
of the best fitting theoretical model and thus
5.3.6 Additional Information for Model
the key parameters of this best fit theoretical
recognition
model present a best approximation solution
Reservoir information collected from geosci- to the actual reservoir. Today this is done
entists helps in the selection of a reservoir with the aid of computer processing as the
model. Occasionally, the distinctions among equations and their solution require powerful
various model options consistent with the iteration techniques which if done manually
transient test data are not clear cut, and two would take an inordinate amount of time.
or more models may give similar responses.
In these cases the analyst may rule out most 5.4.1 Dimensionless Groups
model options by consulting colleagues
The theoretical model responses are repre-
working with other independent data. When
sented in terms of dimensionless groups to
the flow regime responses are poorly devel-
simplify their solution, the most common
oped or non-existent, interdisciplinary dis-
forms are;
cussion may suggest selection of an appro-
priate model and reasonable starting values
for the parameter estimation stage of the in- Dimensionless Pressure, pD
terpretation. Dimensionless Time, tD
Often, flow regime responses may be diffi-

These dimensionless groups define universal
cult to recognise because of a problem or
pressure and time scales independent of the
procedure that could have been addressed
actual magnitude of the physical parameters
before starting the test. This underscores the
involved (q, kh, ). During a test, for ex-
need for careful test design. For example, ex-
ample, the system response would be dou-
cessive wellbore storage resulting from shut-
bled if a given drawdown were to be repeated

at twice the original flow rate. The values of global description of the pressure response.
p D and tD , however, remain unchanged. A theoretical interpretation model can only
They characterise the system behaviour. be used if the corresponding log-log curve
matches all the data from very early time to
Dimensionless groups are combinations of the last recorded point. The various compo-
certain system variables. They are used to nents participating in the pressure response
vastly simplify the solutions to the partial are acting at different times in a well defined
differential equations which are mapped order. Log-log diagnosis allows each succes-
graphically for given theoretical models and sive flow regime to be identified. The spe-
displayed as type curves. Other groups may cialised analysis relevant to each flow regime
also be defined as deemed necessary. can then be performed.
The dimensionless pressure is usually writ- With the introduction of sophisticated inter-
ten as; pretation models, log-log diagnosis has be-
p D =A Dp come a powerful tool and is now considered
essential in interpretation. For a given theo-
retical model, not all type curves are equiva-
- where A is a function (kh, m, ) lent. The ease with which a given type curve
can be used is dependent on the choice of di-
The dimensionless time is usually written as; mensionless groups. The various flow re-
gimes must be clearly indicated, with limits
tD = B Dt computed from realistic approximation crite-
- where B is a function g(k, , ct, ) ria, so that appropriate specialised analysis
methods can be applied to the corresponding
In log-log co-ordinates; test data.
log pD = logADp = log Dp + log A This last point is particularly important, as

specialised analysis methods, which use the
slope of a straight line on the specialised
log tD = logBDt = log Dt + log B
plots, usually provide more accurate results
than quantitative log-log analysis.
Consequently, when the proper model is be-
ing used, real and theoretical pressure versus 5.4.2.1 Type Curve Matching
time curves are identical in shape, but trans-
The steps involved in manual type curve
lated one with respect to the other when
matching are outlined below;
plotted on the same log-log graph. The
translation factors for both pressure and time
1. Select the appropriate type curve suit-
axes, are proportional to the well and reser-
able to the identified model.
voir parameters. They can, therefore, be used
to compute these parameters.
2. Overlay the type curve with tracing
paper. Using tracing paper guarantees
5.4.2 Type Curves
that the plot of the data and the type
The model responses plotted in dimension- curve have the same scale.
less form on log-log scale are know as Type
Curves. Type curves are designed to give a 3. Trace the major grid lines.

Schlumberger
4. Label the axes. The reservoir is fully saturated with a

single phase fluid with constant vis-
5. Using the type curve grid showing
cosity and compressibility.
through the tracing paper as a guide,
plot the measured test data. Ignore the The reservoir is fully penetrated with a
curves and scale on the type curve well that has infinitesimally small ra-
during this plotting phase; use only the dius (line source) rw0.
base grid.
6. Now slide the tracing paper with the The well is flowed at constant rate and
plotted test data, keeping the grids par- reservoir pressure initially is at pi.
allel, until the data points match one of
the type curves. This step determines Using Darcys law, it is possible to generate
the translation factor. a basic equation for radial flow of an incom-
7. After the match is completed pick a pressible fluid in a homogeneous reservoir.
convenient match point on the data Starting from this basic equation and incorpo-
plot, such as an intersection of major rating the law of conservation of mass and
grid lines. Record values at that point the equation of state it can be shown that the
on the data plot and the corresponding pressure at any given time and radius is given
values lying beneath that point on the by the following equation;
type curve grid. This step measures the
translation factor. . qB 1 c t r 2
1412
p( r ,t ) = p i Ei
kh 2 4(0.000264)kt
Modern methods permit this step to be done
directly with the computer. An understand-
where ;
ing of the manual technique is a useful exer-
q = Volume rate of flow, bbl/day.
cise in understanding the basic solution proc-
k = Permeability, md.
ess.
h = Thickness, ft.
= Viscosity, centipoise
5.4.3 Parameter Approximation from
Type Curves P(r,t) = Pressure at point r and time t, psi.
Pi = Initial reservoir pressure, psi.
5.4.3.1 Basic Homogeneous Model B = Formation volume factor,
dimensionless
To understand the basics of interpretation
c = Compressibility, vol/vol/psi.
techniques it is relevant to start with the
= Porosity, fraction.
simplest model which is the basic homogene-
e u
ous model. The assumptions for this model, Ei = x du
Ei ( )
=
which can be considered as the starting point x u
from which more general and complex models (The exponential integral).
are formed are as follows;
This equation is known as the Line Source
The reservoir consists of homogeneous Solution or Exponential Integral Solution.
porous media with constant thickness It is possible to solve this mathematically
(h), permeability (k), porosity () and and plot it on a log-log scale to produce the
is infinitely large. Line Source Type Curve or Theis Type
Curve.

In this form the equation is very difficult to

use because of the many variables, therefore t D > 2.4.
used when
the following dimensionless groups are se- rD
2
lected;
10
kh( p i p w )
p
pD =
D
1412. qB
tD /r D2 p D'
t D /rD2 pD'
1
0.0002637 kt
tD =
and
2
-1
c t r w
10
D
p
r 10-2
rD =
-1 2 3 4
10 1 10 10 10 10
rw
2
t D /rD
Fig. 5-40 Basic Homogeneous Type Curve.
Now rearranging these equations

This type curve describes the pressure re-
sponse at any point , r in the reservoir. By
1 r 2
p D = Ei D looking at the pressure response at a dis-
2 4t D tance, r from the wellbore, the effects of the
inner boundary conditions (skin and wellbore
It can therefore be seen that there are two storage) can usually be neglected.
governing groups, namely; pD and tD/rD2
If we now return to the Basic Homogeneous
Model and the Theis Type Curve. From the
The above equation can be approximated to;
pressure match, transmissibility (kh/) can
be calculated as follows;
1 t
pD log e D2 + 080907
.
2 rD kh p
. qB D match
= 1412
p
This equation is called the log approximation
and is valid when t D > 100. From the time match, storativity (hct) can
2
rD be calculated as follows;
However;
kh 00002637
.
when t D2 > 10, the maximum error is only h c t = .
r 2 t / r D2
rD D
t Match

about 1%.
Type curves will always state the dimen-
when t D2 > 5, the maximum error is only sionless groups which exist for the general
rD model they cover and from these relation-
about 2%. ships actual first pass parameter estimation
can be determined.
It is usually accepted that the solution can be

Schlumberger
5.4.3.2 Basic Homogeneous - Specialised the two pressure drops to obtain the com-
Plot bined effect. This is known as superposition
It can be shown that a solution to the line in space and it enables us to handle multi well
source equation can be expressed as follows; situations by generalising the approach to
any number of wells.
141.2 qB kt
pw = pi log e 7 .43049 Another form of superposition, known as
2 kh c t r2
superposition in time, helps us handle rate
changing from natural log to base 10, gives; variations. Assume that a well produced at
rate q1 staring at t = 0 and after t = t1, the
162. 6 qB k
pw = p i log 10 t + log 10 3. 2275 rate changed to q2 and we are interested in
kh c t r 2
the pressure change at time t which is greater

than t1. The superposition implies that we
If we compare this to the equation of a
first calculate p due to rate q1, as if it con-
straight line y = mx +c, it can be seen that a
plot of pw versus log t will yield a straight tinued unchanged at time t. Then to account
line, when the log approximation is valid, for the rate change we algebraically add the
with slope m where pressure change due to rate (q2 - q1) for the
duration (t - t1). If q2 > q1 we add the
162.6 qB change, if q2 < q1, then we subtract the
m=
kh change. A combination of superposition in
space and time enables us to treat any num-
or rearranging for transmissibility ber of wells with any arbitrary flow rate his-
tory for each well.
kh 162.6 qB
= .
m Most type curves are generated on the as-
sumption of a constant drawdown from the
This type of semi-log plot is called a spe- initial condition of constant reservoir pres-
cialised plot. Values obtained from the spe- sure and a single step change of a single well
cialised plot should have good agreement producing from the reservoir. In reality this is
with those obtained from the log-log plot. seldom the case, as most transient periods
have been preceded by some form of variable
The Theis curve describes the response of rate history. On an exploration well this
one active well in a homogeneous reservoir. It could be a clean-up flow followed by a shut-
is therefore used for the analysis of interfer- in period followed by a main flow period. In
ence tests. a production well, one can imagine the com-
plexity of the previous flow rate history. The
5.4.4 Superposition effect of these varying rates causes perturba-
The principle of superposition as used in tions to the reservoir pressure and to ideally
mathematics implies that if we have two model for transient behaviour these effects
wells draining the one reservoir and we would need to be accounted for. Consider the fol-
like to calculate the pressure drop at a point lowing example; The pressure response dur-
in the reservoir, we can calculate the pressure ing an ideal, simple test in an infinite reser-
drop at that point due to each well as if it voir is shown in Fig. 5-41.
were the only one producing. We then add

be used, computed for the actual production

time, t p. The same is true for drawdown
type curves. We stated earlier that build-up
analysis was preferred due to the requirement
PRESSURE
p
Dd
p
of achieving a steady state during drawdown
and the problems associated with achieving
BU
this. To use a build-up analysis on

drawdown data can however be achieved if
certain criteria are met. Superposition in time
is used to obtain a build-up solution from a
tp
TIME
Fig. 5-41 Pressure Response for Ideal Simple Test.
constant draw down solution. Using this ap-
proach it can be shown that the general equa-
The bottomhole pressure is initially at pi.
tion of a build-up type curve is:
During a time t p , the well is flowed at con-
stant rate and the pressure drops. The well is pD = pD[(t)D] + pD[(tp)D] - pD[(tp + t)D]
then shut in for a pressure build-up. After an
infinite shut-in time the pressure will be back Similarly the general equation for a
to pi. drawdown type curve is;
In terms of pressure change pD = pD [(t)D ]
pBU (t=) = pDd (t=tp) Thus a drawdown type curve can be used to
analyse a build-up only if ;
therefore at the same elapsed time,
pD[(tp)D] - pD[(tp + t)D] is negligible.
pBU (t) pDd (t)
or t is small compared with t p or the
drawdown period was significantly long as
compared to the shut-in period. When using
drawdown
drawdown curves to match build-up data,
errors in the match can easily be made if the
LOG p
correct production time is not considered,

buildup
this is emphasised in the example above.

There are also specific cases when drawdown
curves can not be used, such as closed sys-
tp
LOG t tems at late times.

Fig. 5-42 Ideal Responses.
The illustration shows the drawdown and The weakness inherent in analysis with pub-
build-up responses on the same log-log scale. lished type curves can be avoided by con-
The build up curve deviates from the structing curves that account for the effects
drawdown response and tends asymptoti- of flow changes during the test itself.
cally towards pDd(t=tp) for large elapsed
time. This means that for log-log analysis of
build-up data, build-up type curves should

Schlumberger
Improved computing techniques have facili- 5.4.5.2 Skin Calculation

tated the development of these custom made- The general equation for skin s, can be de-
curves (multi-rate type curves) resulting in a rived as follows;
major advance in well test interpretation.
k
pi p t = 0) = m log 10 t p + log 10 323
. + 08686
. s
5.4.5 Semi-Log Analysis for Parameter ws (
ct r w
2

Estimation
Specialised plots, as mentioned earlier are
used to confirm the trends of the model iden- It can be shown that by combining the build-
tified through log-log analysis. In addition up equations with the above general equation
different models and or features will yield for skin and taking t = 1 hour, then;
parameter estimates from the specialised
plots. The analyst needs to become familiar p p wf k tp + 1
with the various specialised plots and their s = 11513
. 1hour
m
log 10 + 3.23 + log 10
c t r w 2 t p
features associated with the different models,
although these are included by default in
modern interpretation software models.
In the case that t p >> 1, then (tp+1)/ t p 1
5.4.5.1 Horner (or Superposition) and Log10 (1) = 0 and the equation simplifies
Method to;
When the log-log analysis indicates that the
radial flow configuration has been reached, p p wf k
the build-up and semilog analysis can then be s = 11513
. 1hour log 10 2
+ 3.23
m ct r w
performed. There are several methods avail-
able for doing this, the most common being
the Horner method. Using superposition, the 5.4.6 Other Key Type Curves
build-up equation can be written as: There are many published type curves cov-
ering a variety of models. As previously
mentioned, modern techniques permit type
162.6 qB t p + t curves to be tailor made to the model defined,
p ws (t ) = p i log10 however some key general type curves war-
kh t
rant discussion within the scope of this
This implies that a plot of the shut-in pres- course.
sure p ws (t) at any shut-in time t versus
5.4.6.1 Homogeneous Reservoir with
(t+t)/t on semi-log paper should give a Wellbore Storage and Skin
straight line through the infinite acting radial
This type curve was developed by Grin-
flow data. The straight line has a slope m and
garten et al in 1979. It covers the basic homo-
intercept p* at (tp+t)/t = 1. The slope can
geneous model but introduces the concept of
be used to calculate kh: wellbore storage and skin into the model.
162.6 qB
kh =
m

From the time match.

2
10 CDe 2s t
p 40 tp
D 10
1
20
t /C p ' 10 6
( )
]
C D e 2s Match
D D D
p '
D
10 10 4
3
s = 05
. log e .
10 2
D D
10 4
t /C
CD
10 10 -1
APPROXIMATE

-1 6
ENDOF UNIT 10 4
and
SLOPESTRAIGHT 3
From the curve match.

1 LINE 2
D
D
pp
10 -1
The shape of the curve is defined by the label
Cde2s. If CD and s are changed, but the
-1 2 3 4
10 1 10 10 10 10
t /C
Fig. 5-43 Wellbore Storage and Skin. Reservoir

with Homogeneous behavior. product CDe2s is kept constant, the curve is
not changed. In addition;
There are four dimensionless groups defined
as follows;
if Cde2s > 103 the well is damaged.
khp
pD =
1412
. qB if 3 < Cde2s < 103 the well is not dam-
aged.
0.0002637 kt if Cde2s < 3 the well is stimulated.
tD = 2
c t r w
0.8936C The period representing infinite acting radial
CD = 2 flow can then be used for semi-log analysis as
ct h r w
described earlier, using Horner.
s
where C represent the wellbore storage and 5.4.6.2 Homogeneous Reservoir with
CD the dimensionless parameter for wellbore Wellbore Storage and Infinite
Conductivity Vertical Fracture
storage and s the skin. Three governing
This type curve was developed by Bourdet
groups are; pD, tD/CD and Cde2s.
et al in 1985.
The type curve is used in a similar manner to 10
that described in section 5.4.2.1 with the

added point that the data is matched to one
CDf
0.0
t Df p '
of the CDe2s curves. The following parame-

D
0.003
1 0.01
0.03
0.1
ters can then be calculated;

0.3
and
10 -1
D
p
p
D
. qB D match .
t p '
kh = 1412
Df D
p 10 -2
From the pressure match.

10-4 10 -3 10 -2 10-1 1 10
t Df
Fig. 5-44 Wellbore Storage and Infinite Conductivity

kh 0.000295 Vertical Fracture. Reservoir With Homogeneous
C= . behavior.
t /C
D D Match

t

Schlumberger
There are three dimensionless groups defined 10 2 CD e 2s
as follows;
p 40
10
D -30
10
t /C p '
p '
D
D D D 10
10
khp
10
D
t /C
-6
pD =
10
D
10
10 -1
1412
. qB
and
-2
10
1 e -2s
D
00002637
. kt
p
-1 -2 -3
CD / (1-) 10 10 10
t Df =
=
2
-2 -3 -4
CD /1- 3x10
c t x f
3x10 3x10
10 -1 =
10 -1 1 10 102 10 3 104
t D/CD
08936
. C Fig. 5-45 Well with Wellbore Storage and Skin.
C Df = 2
Reservoir with Double Porosity Behavior.
c t hx f
There are five dimensionless groups defined
where xf represent the plane vertical fracture as follows;
half length. Three governing groups are; p D ,
khp
tDf and CDf. pD =
1412
. qB
Quantitative log-log analysis yields;
0.0002637 kt
p tD =
. qB D match .
kh = 1412 c t r w
2
p
From the pressure match. 0.8936 C
CD = 2
k 0.0002637 ct h r w
xf = . s
c t t Df
Match
t
From the time match. = r w2 km
kf
c t h x f 2(C Df )Match
C= . where is the interporosity flow parameter
08936
. which characterises the ability of the matrix
From the curve match. to flow into the fissures and is a function
of structural geometry such that;
5.4.6.3 Well with Wellbore Storage and
Skin. Reservoir with Double Po- 12
rosity Behaviour pseudosteady = for horizontal slab matrix blocks.
h m2
state interporosity flow
This type curve was developed by Grin-
15
garten et al in 1980. It covers the basic model = for spherical matrix blocks.
but with a heterogeneous matrix with double r m2
porosity and covers wellbore storage and Five governing groups are defined;
skin.
pD, tD/CD, Cde2s, and e-2s.

is the storativity ratio which is in general (C D e 2s)f + m

related to the percentage of oil present in the =
fissures. (CD e 2s)f
(Vc t )f From the last Cde2s curve match.
=
(Vc t )f + (V c t )m
( e 2 s) (C D e 2s)
f +m f +m
f denotes fissure and m matrix. =
There are three flow regimes modelled; CD
1) The fissures produce first, the pressure- From the e-2s curve matched during the
follows one of the wellbore storage and skin transition period.
type curves Cde2s.
5.4.7 Parameter Refinement
2) Transition period; the pressure follows a Once the reservoir model has been identified
e-2s curve. and the initial parameters calculated, the
simulated and observed pressure responses
usually differ slightly at this stage. Modern
3) The total system (fissures plus matrix)
analysis, however, is assisted by nonlinear
produces last; the pressure follows a lower
regression techniques which is a mathematical
wellbore storage and skin type curve
process that uses iteration to automatically
(Cde2s)f+m. fine tune the curve fit and therefore the pa-
rameters until the simulated model coincides
Quantitative log-log analysis yields; with the observed data for the essential com-
ponents of the transient response. It can
p readily be seen that the ease of this refine-
. qB D match .
kh = 1412
p ment process is very much dependent on the
initial correct choice of the reservoir model.
From the pressure match. As such, the first stage model recognition
represents the main challenge for the analyst.
kh 0.000295 The following example emphasizes this
C= . point;
t /C
D D Match

t Figure 5-46 shows a combined pressure /
From the time match. pressure derivative plot in Figure 5-46(a) and
the specialized Horner plot in Figure 5-46(b).
At first glance, these plots could be caused
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
by five possible reservoir configurations or

CD
characteristics;
From the curve match.

Schlumberger
1. A single sealing fault might be indicated

(a)
10
by the doubling of the slope in the gen-

eralized Horner plot.
1
2. The well might lie between two faults,

which are at right angles.
0.1
1 10 100 1000
3. The trough in the derivative plot may

Elapsed time (hr)
be the result of a dual porosity system. (b)
6000
4. This may be a dual permeability (two- 5000
layered) reservoir.
m 2 = 2m1
Pressure (psia)
4000
m1
5. This may also be a composite system. 3000
2000
The composite model was discarded since

knowledge of the reservoir revealed that the
5 4 3 2 1 0
Log of (t + Dt)/Dt
existence of such a system was not feasible.

Fig. 5-46 Pressure / pressure deriviate plot (a) and
Therefore, pressure derivative and pressure Horner plot (b) of measured data used in the model
plots were computed by assuming the first identification process.
four models.
The results are shown in figures 5-47(a)
through (d). As suspected the single sealing
fault, Figure 5-47(a), does not match the ob-
served transient. Figure 5-47(b) represents
the modeled results for a well located be-
tween two sealing faults, and again the ob-
served and modeled data are in poor align-
ment. Figure 5-47(c) was derived assuming a
dual porosity is a much better match than the
two previous models, although it is still im-
perfect. Figure 5-47(d) highlights how the
dual permeability or two layered reservoir
model gives an extremely good fit with the
observed pressure transient and derivative
curves.

(a) (b)

101 101
Well near a sealing fault Dual porosity model (transient transition)
100 100
101 101
Pressure change Pressure change
Pressure derivative Pressure derivative
Multirate type curve Multirate type curve
102 102
102 10 1
10 0
10 1
10 2
10 3
102 101 100 101 10 2 10 3
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
(c) (d)

101 101
Dual porosity model Dual permeability model
(pseudosteady-state transition)
100 100
101 101
Pressure change Pressure change
Pressure derivative Pressure derivative
Multirate type curve Multirate type curve
102 102
102 101 100 101 10 2 10 3 102 101 100 101 10 2 10 3
Elapsed time (hr) Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-47 Possible Solutions to Fig. 5-46.

Schlumberger
5.5 Verification of Results 5.6 Summary of Interpretation

Methodology
Several drawdown and build-up periods are
often made during a well test, and it is com- The following basic steps summarises the
mon to interpret every transient and cross- basic interpretation process;
check the computed reservoir parameters.
However, analysis of all the transients in a Model Identification
test is not always possible. In such situa-
tions, forward modeling may help confirm Model identification is performed by plotting
the validity of the reservoir model. Basically real data as pressure change and pressure de-
this involves simulating the entire series of rivative versus elapsed time on log-log scale.
build-ups and drawdowns using the selected Qualitative as well as quantitative informa-
reservoir model and parameters. tion on the reservoir is obtained. Comparing
the shapes of real and theoretical curves is
4000
essential for the selection of the most appro-

priate theoretical model, and for identifying
the dominating flow regimes for which spe-
Pressure (psia)
cialised analysis methods can be used.

3000
Parameter Estimation
Measured
Calculated
Quantitative information is obtained by

2000
0 100 200 300 400
matching the log-log plot of the test data

Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-48 Typical example of forward modeling in against a type curve derived from a theoreti-
which the model is used to reproduce the entire test
data set. cal model that includes the various features
identified in the actual data. The model not
Because the simulation continues for much only allows the pertinent parameters to be
longer than an individual transient, the effects calculated but also specifies their significance.
of reservoir boundaries are more likely to be For example, kh and s have a different signifi-
noticed. If the simulation does not match the cance in a homogeneous system than in a
observed pattern, then the assumed model double porosity system. Specialised analysis
should be reconsidered. If, for example, an is performed on the relevant data as defined
infinite acting reservoir model has been as- from log-log diagnosis.
sumed from the analysis of a single transient,
the forward modelling technique would show Results Verification
whether the model was correct. If the reser-
voir was assumed to be infinite acting when, If an inconsistency is found in the checking
in reality, it was closed, the simulation would procedures the whole process must be re-
not reveal realistic reservoir depletion. started.

gas properties with pressure are accounted

RAW DATA for by introducing the real gas pseudopres-
sure function (from Al Hussainy et al.,
1966).
p
2p x dp
m(p ) =
MODEL p 0 (p ) x z(p)
IDENTIFICATION
log-log analysis and the real gas pseudotime function (from
Agarwal, 1979)
p
dt
t a (p ) =
specialized p 0 (p) x c t (p)
analysis
then all the equations used for gas well test-
ing analysis may be obtained from the liquid
equations by replacing p with m(p) and t by
ta(p). Consequently, all the liquid solutions
WELL & RESERVOIR
PARAMETERS can be applied, and the same techniques used
for the analysis of oil well testing are appli-
cable to gas well testing.
5.7.1 Simplifications to the

checking Pseudofunctions
procedures Analysis based on pseudopressure may be
used for all ranges of pressures. However,
simplifications can be made for certain limits.
Although these limits are approximate, apply
to certain temperature ranges, and depend on
gas properties, the following rule of thumb is
FINAL
RESULTS
usually valid. Refer to Figure 5-50(a).
Fig. 5-49 Interpretation Methodology - Flowchart. c t z

nt
ta
ns
co
5.7 Gas Well Testing

=
/p
z
There are two main differences between gas

well testing and liquid well testing. First, be- z = constant
cause gas properties are highly pressure de-

pendent, some of the assumptions implicit in
liquid well testing theory are not applicable (b) (a)
to gas flow. Second, high fluid velocities of-

ten occur near the wellbore and an additional 2000 3000
pressure drop is caused by viscous inertial

Pressure (psia)
effects. This additional pressure drop is Fig. 5-50 Typical pressure dependency of the viscos-
ity-real gas deviation factor product (a) and viscos-
termed rate dependent skin. The variations of ity-total compressibility product (b).

Schlumberger
For pressures between 2500 and 3500 psi, no 5.7.2 Multi-Point Well Testing
simplification can be made and use of m(p) is The second problem posed by gas wells is
mandatory. addressed by multi-point well testing. In a
conventional well, the additional pressure
For pressures over 3500 psi, the term mz/p is drop induced by high gas velocities, together
constant and m(p) is proportional to the with the one caused by formation damage,
pressure and the analysis can be performed will show up as a high skin factor. To distin-
using pressure instead of m(p). guish between these two effects, gas wells are
usually tested with a sequence of increasing
flow rates. Theoretically, two transients
101
would be enough to separate these two skins,
but in practise it is common to make a multi-
100 point test. The skin factor is determined for

each transient, and a plot similar to the one
shown in Figure 5-52 yields the formation
damage skin or true skin.
101
Pressure change
Pressure derivative
Multi-point or back-pressure tests are con-

Multirate type curve
102
ducted not only to estimate true skin but also

102 101 100 101 10 2 10 3
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-51 Type-curve match for a gas Well Testing to determine deliverability curves and abso-
pressure data set (from Hegeman et al., 1993. lute open flow potential (AOFP). The AOFP
of a well is defined as the rate at which a well
When pressure drawdowns are large, the would produce at zero sandface pressure.
changes in the product mct are important, see Although this rate cannot be achieved, regula-
Figure 5-50(b), and pseudotime must be tory authorities use this to set the maximum
used. For small pressure variations, however, allowable rates. Deliverability curves are used
the effect of changing gas properties is mini- to predict flow rates against any particular
mal and real time may be used. For conven- back-pressure. For gas wells the relationship
ience, the pseudofunctions are normalised between rates and bottom hole pressures is
with reference to conditions at static reser- given by the so called back-pressure equa-
voir pressure. Then, pseudopressure is ex- tion;
pressed in dimensions of pressure, and pseu-
dotime is expressed in units of time.
( )n
q = C p2 - p2
ws wf
Figure 5-51 shows a type curve matching for
a gas well test, the log-log plot of the nor- where C is called the performance coefficient
malised pseudopressure variations versus and n is the inertial effect exponent.
normalised pseudotime changes is superim-
posed to p D versus tD/CD type curves, Deliverability curves can also be used for de-
which include variable wellbore storage. The termining the number and location of wells in
reservoir parameters are obtained the same a given field, designing compressor require-
way as for oil wells, but with the appropriate ments and establishing base performance
units and corresponding conversion factors. curves for future comparisons.

an isochronal test, the well is flowed at four

or more different rates for periods of equal
duration. Between flow periods, the well is
shut in until static conditions are reached.
Measured skin, s
The last flowing period is extended until sta-

Slope = D bilised flowing conditions are reached (See
s Fig. 5-54).
s t = s + Dq 5.7.3.3 Modified Isochronal Tests

0
Flow rate, q In practice, the true isochronal test is often
replaced by a modified test sequence having
Fig. 5-52 Measured skin versus flow rate in a multi-
rate transient test. flowing and shut in periods of equal duration.
This modified test sequence is faster because
5.7.3 Types of Gas Well Tests it is not necessary to wait for stabilisation.
Like the isochronal test, however, the last
Back-pressure tests are commonly conducted
flowing period is extended until stabilisation
with an increasing rate sequence. However,
is reached. this test is called the modified iso-
gas well test sequences vary according to sta-
chronal test. The results of back-pressure
bilisation times.
tests are conventionally presented as log-log
5.7.3.1 Flow-After-Flow Tests plots of (p2ws-p2wf) versus flow rate. The
High productivity formations are usually resulting straight line is used to obtain the
tested with a four point back-pressure test, exponent n, which varies between 0.5 (high
commonly called flow-after-flow test. In inertial effects) and 1 (negligible inertial ef-
such a test, the well is flowed at four differ- fects). For isochronal or modified isochronal
ent stabilised flow rates for periods of equal tests, the resulting curve is termed the tran-
duration. At the end of each flow period, the sient deliverability curve. The stabilised
rate is changed without closing the well (See curve is drawn through the extended data
Fig. 5-53). point using a line parallel to the transient de-
liverability curve. The modified isochronal
5.7.3.2 Isochronal Tests test does not yield a true stabilised deliver-
ability curve but rather a close approxima-
Because stabilisation times can be too long in
tion.
low productivity formations, an isochronal
test is preferred to a flow-after-flow test. In

Schlumberger
pwi
pwf1
Bottomhole pwf2
pressure
pwf3
pwf4
Cleanup Initial T T T T Final shut-in

shut-in
Elapsed time (hr)
Q4
Q3
Gas
flow rate Q2
Q1
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-53 Schematic of Rate Sequence and Pressure Variations in a Flow-After-Flow Multipoint Test.

pR
pwf1
Bottomhole
pwf2
pressure
Initial shut-in
pwf3
Final
pwf4 shut-in
Clean-
T T T T
up
Elapsed time (hr)
Q4
Q3
Gas Q2
flow rate
Q1
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-54 Schematic of Rate Sequence and Pressure Variations in an Isochronal Multipoint Test.
pwi pwf1 pwf2
Bottomhole pwf3
pressure
Initial shut-in
pwf4
T T T T T T T Final shut-in
Clean-
up
Elapsed time (hr)
Q4
Q3
Gas
flow rate Q2
Q1
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-55 Schematic of Rate Sequence and Pressure Variations in a Modified Isochronal Multipoint Test.

Schlumberger
5.8.1 Interference Testing

1000
pR
These tests require long duration produc-

tion/injection rate changes in the active well.
The associated pressure disturbance, which is
100
1 n
recorded in the observation well, yields valu-

(p 2ws p2wf) 106 (psia)2
Stabilized deliverability
curve (p2R p2wf)
able information regarding the degree of hy-

draulic communication within the inter-well
10
Transient deliverability
curve (p2ws p2wf)
region
1
When monophasic conditions prevail within
the investigated region of the reservoir, the
pressure response can be analysed to esti-
mate inter-well reservoir properties. The
Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 AOF
0.1
analysis technique uses the same type curve

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Flow rate (Mscf/D)
matching approach as for drawdown tests,

Fig. 5-56 Log-Log plot of Modified Isochronal Test but with a different type curve. This is be-
Data. cause, unlike single well tests, the pressure
response is observed at some distance from
5.8 Multiple Well Testing the location where the perturbation was
originally created.
In single well testing, the primary target is
the nearby well region. However, when there 5.8.2 Pulse Testing
is a need to investigate the inter-well region, Pulse testing is a special form of multiple
more than one well is directly involved in the well testing which may last from a few hours
test. In multiple well testing, the flow rate is to a few days. The technique uses a series of
changed in one well and the pressure re- short rate perturbations at the active well.
sponse is monitored in another. These tests Pulses are created by alternating periods of
are conducted to investigate the presence or production or injection and shut-in. The
lack of hydraulic communication within a pressure response to these pulses is meas-
reservoir region. In addition they are often ured at one or more observation wells. Since
used to estimate inter-well reservoir trans- the pulses are of short duration, the pressure
missivity and storativity. Examples of multi- responses are small. therefore, high resolution
ple well testing are interference tests and gauges are usually required to measure these
pulse tests. Vertical interference tests are small variations.
sometimes classified as multiple well tests.
These tests are conducted to investigate ver- The advantages of pulse testing compared
tical communication and estimate vertical with interference testing derive from the rela-
permeability, and are performed between two tively short pulse length; the reservoir pres-
sets of perforations or test intervals within sure trends and noise are automatically re-
the same well. Multiple well tests are more moved using the appropriate analysis
sensitive to reservoir horizontal anisotropy techniques.
than single well tests. Therefore, multiple
well tests are often carried out to describe
reservoir anisotropy - directional permeabili-
ties.

resulting pressure pulses were monitored in

the observation wells for 12 days. The ob-
served pressure responses were analysed
Observation well
rw r
with history matching techniques. The ana-
Active well rate = q
lytical solution of the diffusivity equation for
a homogeneous rectangular reservoir with
mixed boundary conditions yielded an excel-
lent match between measured and simulated
pressure response.
The test indicated good hydraulic communi-

Rate at active well
cation within the area of investigation. It was

also possible to determine the inter-well res-
ervoir properties and geometry of the area.
Dt
Moreover, the fact that constant pressure
t1
boundaries were needed to match the data
implied that there was no leakage toward the
Elapsed time
neighbouring field as previously suspected.

The small amplitude of the signal detected in
two of the observation wells suggested the
presence of free gas in the upper part of the
Bottomhole pressure
Observation well
structure. this was confirmed by other
sources of information. This knowledge was
useful in locating future water injection wells
Established trend and in managing the reservoir more effi-
Time lag ciently.
Dt
t1 5.9 Other Specialised Testing Types

Elapsed time
Fig. 5-57 Interference Test. There are many other types of testing tech-
niques such as layered reservoir testing, hori-
The example in Fig. 5-58 and Fig. 5-59 illus- zontal well testing, impulse testing, meas-
trates how pulse testing was used to under- urement while perforating and so on and so
stand the degree of hydraulic communication forth. The techniques involved in analysing
within a Middle eastern reservoir and to the data from these tests are often complex
check a suspected fluid migration toward a and require a solid grounding in interpretation
nearby field. The test involved six wells in- techniques.
cluding the active well. The pulses were cre-
ated by an alternating sequence of injection
and shut-in periods of 36 hours each. The

Schlumberger
Pressure maintenance
No-flow boundary
Mode
led re
servo
ir area
C-4
C-5
C-1
C-8
C-3
C-7
Fig. 5-58 Schematic of the field showing the configuration of producing and injection wells. The yellow rectangle
delineates the area modeled by the reservoir study (from Torre et al., 1993.
15
Observed pressure variation (psi)
13.5 Simulated pressure variation (psi)
Test rate sequence (10,000 BWPD)
12
10.5
7.5
4.5
1.5
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Elapsed time (hr)
Fig. 5-59 Test sequence and corresponding observation well pressure response (from Torre et at., 1993).


Section 6
Nodal Analysis
Section 6 Nodal Analysis

Schlumberger
6.0 Nodal Systems - (Systems

Analysis)
6.1 Introduction Separator pressures from 40 to 120 psi may

A nodal approach is presented for applying have very little effect on the flow rate from a
systems analysis to the complete well sys- low productivity well (perhaps 10 B/D), but
tem from the outer boundary of the reservoir may have a very decisive effect of the flow
to the sand face, across the perforations and rate of high productivity wells (perhaps 500
completion section to the tubing intake, up B/D). A complete systems analysis shows
the tubing string including any restrictions the effect of varying the separator pressure
and downhole safety valves, the surface on compressor horse power and, hence, the
choke, the flow line and separator. Using a economic feasibility of buying more or less
combination of; horse power. The various profit indicators
such as pay-out, rate of return, net present
1. Well inflow performance. value, etc., can be used to make the decision.
2. Downhole multipurpose flow conduit per- In other cases, the changing out of the flowl-
formance (vertical or directional conduit ine may permit the same separator pressure
performance). but reduce the wellhead flowing pressure and,
3. Surface performance (including choke, hence, increase production considerably.
horizontal or inclined flow performance
and separator). It may be that the downhole and horizontal
conduits have not been properly sized. Too
The performance of either a naturally flowing small a tubing size may retard the production
or artificial lift well will be determined. The rate as well as too large a tubing size. Also,
effect of various changes in one component low flow rates can be inefficient in large tub-
of the system has an over-all effect on the ing sizes and undesirable heading conditions
entire system. Typical wells are selected in may exist.
order to show the effect of various changes,
such as; 6.2 Inflow Performance Curves
1. Separator pressure. In performing a system analysis on a well, it

2. Flowline size. is necessary to have good test data on the
3. Surface choke size. well so that the reservoir capability can be
4. Tubing size. predicted.
Analysis shows whether or not the particular Referring to Figure 6-1, we note that the IPR
well is limited in its production rate by the (Inflow Performance Relationship) curve
reservoirs ability to give up fluids or by the may be shown as;
producing system. The selection of various
parameters, such as separator pressure or 1. A straight line (constant PI - Productivity
size of flowline is related to economics. For Index denoted J).
example, the selection of the separator pres- 2. A curve which shows that the PI is de-
sure in a gas lift system is extremely impor- creasing with rate.
tant in determining compressor horse-power. 3. A combination of 1 and 2.

The constant PI normally occurs for single 4. Fetkovichs Equation for oil wells4
phase liquid flow above the bubble point
pressure, and the curved line shows the PI to n
q 0 = J 0 P r 2 P wf 2
be decreasing below the bubble point pres-
sure because of two phase flow conditions in
the reservoir (liquid plus gas). Figure 6-2 5. Fetkovichs Equation for predicting
shows a series of IPR curves for future reser- future inflow curves for oil wells4
voir pressure conditions.
P n
q 0 = J 01 r 2 P r 2 P wf 2
The following methods and respective equa- P r 1
tions may be used to predict the shape of
IPR curves. where J01 was determined at Pr1 and we are
interested in making flow rate predictions
1. Constant PI when the static pressure is Pr2.
q L = J(P r P wf ) 6.2.1 Tubing Intake Curves

Figure 6-3 shows a tubing intake or vertical
2. Changing PI multiphase flow curve being added to the in-
flow performance curve in order to determine
a. Vogels Equation1 for undamaged the flow rate. If the simplest case of a con-
wells, FE = 1.0. (FE= Flow stant wellhead pressure is assumed, then this
Efficiency). curve is easily constructed by assuming flow
rates and determining the corresponding
q0 P P 2
= 1 0.2 wf 0.8 wf flowing bottomhole intake pressure for a set
q 0 (max) Pr Pr
tubing size, GOR, wellhead pressure, depth
and fluid properties. Any number of vertical
b. Standings Modification to Vogels multiphase flow correlations may be used
Equation for damaged or stimulated with the most popular being those of Hage-
wells2, FE = 1.0. dorn and Brown5, Orkiszewski6, Duns and
Ros7 and Beggs and Brill8. Modern software
q0 2 allow these individual curves to be generated
P P
= 1 0.2 wf 0.8 wf
q 0 (max) Pr Pr directly with the computer as opposed to
referring to the thick volumes of pre-
where generated curves.
Pwf = Pr-(Pr - Pwf) FE
3. Standings Relationship for predicting

future inflow curves3.
J *2 (K ro / o B o ) 2
=
J *1 ( K ro / o B o) 1
Introduction to Well Testing 6-4

Schlumberger
2000 P1
P2 (1) C
ONS
TAN
(2) T P.
I.
I.P.
R.
Pwf (PSI)
P3 (3)
1000 CO
MB
INA
TIO
NI
.P.
R.
0
0 400 800 1200 1600
q0 (BOPD)
Fig. 6-1 Inflow Performance Curves.
2000 P1
P2
P3
I.P.
R. 1
Pwf (PSI)
I.P
.R.
2
1000 I.P
.R
.3
0
0 400 800 1200 1600
q0 (BOPD)
Fig. 6-2 Future Inflow Performance Curves.

Tubing Size : 2.992 in. I.D.

2000 PI = 2.000 B/D/Psi
1600 P.I.
GOR = 600
Pwf (PSI)
1200
Intake
Tubing
800
Rate possible Obtained

400 (The intersection of both curves)
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
q0 (BOPD)
Fig. 6-3 Tubing Intake Curve in Combination with IPR Curve.
6.2.2 Horizontal Flow Curves. 6.2.3 Other Considerations

For the more practical oil field problem, a The effect on production rate of various re-
horizontal flowline is generally incorporated strictions, such as surface chokes, downhole
into the system. A constant separator pres- chokes, safety valves, and completion restric-
sure can be expected, but as the flow rate tions, can all be properly accounted for.
changes, the wellhead pressure will increase These can be adequately handled in the entire
and, hence, the tubing intake pressure will system, for any producing oil or gas well.
also increase. The same type of plot can be
made as in Fig. 6-3, except the wellhead pres-
sure changes with each flowrate.
The manner of solution is to assume a flow

rate, find the wellhead pressure by using a
horizontal multiphase flow correlation, and
then, using that wellhead pressure, find the
tubing intake pressure. The wellhead pres-
sures can be plotted on the same graph as
noted in Figure 6-4, or the wellhead pressures
may be used for an alternate solution as
noted in Figure 6-5.

Schlumberger

2000 Flowline Size : 3.000 in. I.D.
PI = 2.000 B/D/Psi
1600 P.I. GOR = 600

Pwf (PSI)
ke
g Inta
and Tubin
ontal
1200 Horiz
bination
Com
800
400 Rate Possible

re GOR = 600
Wellhead Pressu
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
q 0 (BOPD)
Fig. 6-4 Intake Curve from Combined Flowline and Tubing Multiphase Flow.

500 Flowline Size : 3.000 in. I.D.
PI = 2.000 B/D/Psi
400
Pwf (PSI)
300 Rate Possible

Ver
tica
l
200 GOR = 600
ntal
100 Horizo
GOR = 600
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
q 0 (BOPD)
Fig. 6-5 Alternate Solution to Exhibit 6-4.

6.3 The Nodal Concept
Figure 6-6 is a schematic of a simple pro- 3. Flow through horizontal pipe.

ducing system. This system consists of three
phases: Figure 6-7 shows the various pressure losses
that can occur in the system from the reser-
1. Flow through porous medium. voir to the separator. Beginning from the
reservoir these are noted as;
2. Flow through vertical or directional con-
duit.
P1 = Pr - Pwfs = Pressure loss in porous medium.

P2 = Pwfs - Pwf = Pressure loss across completion.
P3 = PUR - PDR = Pressure loss across regular, choke or tubing nipple.
P4 = PUSV - PDSV = Pressure loss across safety valve.
P5 = Pwh - PDSC = Pressure loss across surface choke.
P6 = PDSC - PSEP = Pressure loss in surface flow line.
P7 = Pwf - Pwh = Total pressure loss in tubing string which includes P3 and P4.
P8 = Pwh - PSEP = Total loss in surface flow line including surface choke.
Gas Sales
Flowing Wellhead
Pressure
Horizontal Flowline
Separator
Stock Tank
Vertical or Inclined
Tubing
Intake
Flow Through
Porus Media
P, K, IPR
Fig. 6-6 Simple Producing System.

Schlumberger
The various well configurations may vary Figure 6-8 shows locations of the various
from the very simple system of Figure 6-6 to nodes. This figure is the same as Figure 6-7
the more complex system of Figure 6-7, or except only the node positions are shown.
any combination thereof, and present day
completions more realistically include the
various configurations of Figure 6-7. In order
to solve the total producing system problem,
nodes are placed to segment the portion de-
fined by different equations or correlations.
P8 Gas Sales
Pwh
P6
Separator
P5 Psep
PDSV Stock Tank
P4
PUSV P1 = (Pr - Pwfs) = Loss in Porus Medium

P2 = (Pwfs - Pwf) = Loss across Completion
P3 = (PUR - P DR) = Loss across Restriction
P7 P4 = (PUSV - PDSV ) = Loss across Safety Valve
P5 = (Pwh - PDSC) = Loss across Surface Choke
P6 = (PDSC - Psep) = Loss in Flowline
P7 = (Pwf - Pwh) = Total Loss in Tubing
PDR P8 = (Pwh - Psep) = Total Loss in Flowline
P3
PUR
Pwf Pwfs Pr
P2
P1
Fig. 6-7 Possible Pressure Losses in Complete System.

3 2 1A
1
4
1B
Node Location Remarks
1 Separator
2 Surface Choke Functional
3 Wellhead
4 Safety Valve Functional
5 5 Restriction Functional
6 Pwf
7 Pwfs
8 Pr
1A Gas Sales
1B Stock Tank
6 7 8
Fig. 6-8 Location of Various Nodes.
3 P3-1 = Pwh - P sep)
Node Location
1 Separator
P6-3 = (P wf - Pwh) 3 Wellhead
6 Pwf
8 Pr
P8-6 = (Pr - P wf)
6 8
Fig. 6-9 Nodes for Simple Producing System.

Schlumberger
The node is classified as a functional node 6.3.1 Example Problem 1 - Using Node
when a pressure differential exists across it 8 to Find the Flow Rate Possible
and the pressure or flow rate response can be (Node 8 = Pr) - Given data:
represented by some mathematical or physi-
cal function. Flowing oil well
Node 1 represents the separator pressure, Separator pressure: 100 psi

which is usually regulated at a constant value. Flow line: 2", 3000 ft long
The pressure at node 1A is usually constant WOR: 0
at either gas sales lines pressure or gas com- Depth: 5000 ft mid perf.
pressor suction pressure. The pressure at GOR: 400 scf/B
node 1B is usually constant at 0 psig. There- Pr: 2200 psi
fore, the separator pressure will be held con- IPR: PI = 1.0 B/D psi
stant at the higher of the two pressures (assume constant)
needed to flow single phase gas from node 1 Tubing size: 2-3/8"
to node 1A or to flow single phase liquid
from node 1 to node 1B. It will be assumed Find the oil flow rate using node 8 as the so-
that the separator pressure is constant for lution point?
any flow rate, and it will be designated as
node 1. Procedure:
Notice that in the system there are two pres- 1. Select flow rates for a trial and error pro-
sures that are not a function of flow rate. cedure: Assume flow rates of 200, 400,
They are Pr at node 8 and PSEP at node 1. 600, 800, 1000 and 1500 B/D.
For this reason any trial and error solution to
the total system problem must be started at 2. For each rate, start at PSEP = 100 and add
node 1 (PSEP), or at node 8 (Pr) or both all the pressure losses until reaching Pr at
nodes 1 and 8 if and intermediate node such node 8. From Figure 6-9, we note that
as 3 or 6 is selected as the solution node. these losses would be P3-1 + P6-3 +
Once the solution node is selected, the pres- P8-6 or loss in surface flow line + loss in
sure drops or gains from the starting point
tubing string + loss in porous medium.
are added until the solution node is reached.
These various losses for the assumed rates
The following four examples show this pro-
are noted in Table 6-1
cedure for the four possible nodes shown in
Figure 6-9. Although all nodes are not
3. Plot the created pressure vs flow rate
shown, the same node numbers are main-
(Figure 6-10). This represents the system
tained as in Figure 6-8. Note: Pr can be a
performance from the separator to Pr.
function of flow rate or drainage distribution
in the reservoir. However, for the flow rates
4. Plot Pr at the given 2200 psi (Figure 6-
investigated in this section, Pr is assumed to
10).
be constant.
5. The intersection of the reservoir pressure
line and the system performance line gives
the presided flow rate (900 BOPD).

Horiz. Multi- Vertical Multi- IPR Total

phase phase Loss
Flow Flow
q PSEP P3 P3-1 P6 P6-3 P8 P8-6 P8-1
200 100 115 15 750 635 950 850
400 100 140 40 880 740 1280 400 1180
600 100 180 80 1030 850 1630 600 1530
800 100 230 130 1220 990 2020 800 1920
1000 100 275 175 1370 1095 2370 1000 2270
1500 100 420 1320 1840 1420 3340 1500 3240
Table 6-1
6.3.2 Example Problem 2 -Using Solu- 3. Determine the pressure loss (P8-6) from
tion Node 6 to Find Flow Rate node 8(Pr) to node 6(Pwf). For a constant
(Flowing Bottomhole Pressure) PI assumption this can be calculated from
Given data: Same as Example Problem 1 the equation P8-6 = Assumed Rate/PI.
These values are noted in Table 6-3.
For this solution, pressure drops must be
added from node 1 to node 6 and subtracted 4. Plot P6 vs q from both step 2 and step 3
from node 8 to node 6. (Figure 6-11). Node 6 is called the intake
node since this point is the intake from the
Procedure: reservoir into the production tubing.
1. Since the predicted flow rate is already The intersection of the PI line and the so-
known from Example 1, the same flow called intake curve is the predicted flow rate
rates will be assumed: 200, 400, 600, 800, for this system (900 BOPD, Figure 6-11).
1000 and 1500 B/D. The presentation based on the selection of
node 6 as the solution node is good if it is
2. Determine the pressure loss from node 1 desired to evaluate changing Prs or different
(separator) to node 6 (Pwf). For each as- IPR curves. Notice the answer is the same as
sumed flow rate, start node 1 (PSEP) and Example 1 and this is true regardless of the
add P3-1 + P6-3. Table 6-2 shows node selection.
these results.

Schlumberger
Horiz. Multiphase Vertical Multiphase

Flow Flow
Assumed PSEP Pwh P3-1 P6 P6-3
Rate
200 100 115 15 750 635
400 100 140 40 880 740
600 100 180 80 1030 850
800 100 230 130 1220 990
1000 100 275 175 1370 1095
1500 100 420 320 1840 1420
Table 6-2.
Assumed Pr P8-6 P6= Pwf

Rate
200 2200 200 2000
400 2200 400 1800
600 2200 600 1600
800 2200 800 1400
1000 2200 1000 1200
1500 2200 1500 700
Table 6-3

2500
Pr Pr = 2200
to
2000 ep
Ps
m
fro
ce
Pr psi
an
1500 m
rf or
Pe
m
s te
1000 Sy
900 BOPD
500
0
0 500 1000 1500
qo BOPD
Fig. 6-10 Solution to Example Problem 1.
2500
2000 IPR
Cu
rve
1500
P wf , psi
ve
e Cur
rm anc
1000 P erfo
Intake
tem
Sys
500 900 BOPD
0 500 1000 1500
qo , BOPD

Schlumberger
6.3.3 Example Problem 3 - Using Solu- 3. Determine the pressure loss from node 8
tion Node 3 to find the -Flow Rate (Pr) to node 3 (Pwh). For each assumed
(Flowing Wellhead rate, start at Pr and add P8-6 + P6-3
Pressure) These values are tabulated in Table 6-5.
Given Data: Same as Example Problem 1.
4. Plot P3 vs q from both step 2 and step 3
For this solution we have selected the well- (Figure 6-12). Node 3 is called the flowing
head as the location of the solution node. wellhead pressure (Pwh).
Therefore, this is a common point at which
we add the pressure losses from node 1 to 5. The intersection of the flow line pressure
node 3 and subtract pressure losses from drop line and the downhole performance
node 8 to node 3. curve is the predicted flow rate for the
system (900 BOPD, Figure 6-12). The
Procedure: presentation based on the selection of
1. Assume the same flow rates as for the node 3 as the solution node is good if it is
previous examples: 200, 400, 600, 800, desired to evaluate different flowlines or
1000 and 1500 B/D. wellhead back pressure. Notice the pre-
dicted rate of 900 BOPD remains the
2. Determine the pressure loss from node 1 same.
(separator) to node 3 (wellhead). For each
assumed rate and for PSEP = 100 psi we
find P3-1 and P3(Pwh). These values
are tabulated in Table 6-4.
600
Ve
rti
ca
Node 3 Solution
la
nd
500
IP
R
Pe
rfo
rm
400
an
ce
C
ur
Pt f , psi
ve
300
e
C urv
ance
er form
200 mP
ste
ta l Sy
izon
Hor
900 BOPD
100
0
0 500 1000 1500
qo , BOPD

P3-1
q PSEP for Horiz. Multiphase P3 = Pwh
Flow
200 100 15 115
400 100 40 140
600 100 80 180
800 100 130 230
1000 100 175 275
1500 100 320 320
Table 6-4
q Pr P6 P8-6 P3 P6-3
200 2200 2000 200 610 1390
400 2200 1800 400 440 1250
600 2200 1600 600 450 1150
800 2200 1400 800 330 1070
1000 2200 1200 1000 180 1020
1500 2200 700 1500
Table 6-5

Schlumberger
6.3.4 Example Problem 4 - Using Solu- 2. Plot P1 from Table 6 vs q (Figure 6-13).
tion Node 1 to Find Flow Rate
(Separator) 3. Plot PSEP at the given 100 psi (Figure 6-
Given Data: Same as Example Problem 1. 13).
In this example, the separator pressure is 4. The intersection of the separator pressure
held constant at 100 psi and is designated as line and the system performance line is the
node Therefore, all pressure losses from node predicted flow rate (900 BOPD, Figure 6-
8 (Pr) to node 1 (separator) are determined 13). The presentation based on the selec-
and then subtracted from node 8. tion of node 1 as the solution node is good
if it is desired to evaluate different separa-
Procedure: tor or header pressures. Notice that the
1. Assume flow rates of: 200, 400, 600, 800, predicted rate of 900 BOPD remains the
1000 and 1500 B/D. same.
For each rate, start at Pr = 2200 psi and

subtract P8-6 + P6-3 + P3-1. This
information is noted in Table 6-6.
600
Sy
st
em
Pe
rfo
500
rm
an
ce
C
ur
ve
400
fro
Psep, psi
m
Pr
tp
Ps
300
ep
200
900 BOPD
Psep = 100 psi

100
0 500 1000 1500
qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-13 Solution to Example Problem.

From IPR From Vertical From Horiz. Multi-

Multiphase phase Flow
Flow
q Pr P6 P8-6 P3 P6-3 P1 P3-1 P8-1
200 2200 2000 200 610 1390 595 15 1605
400 2200 1800 400 550 1250 524 26 1676
600 2200 1600 600 450 1150 412 38 1788
800 2200 1400 800 330 1070 255 75 1945
1000 2200 1200 1000 180 1020 P1<0 P3-1>180 P8-1>2200
1500 2200 700 1500 P3<0 P1<0 P8-1>2200
Table 6-6
6.3.5 Discussion of Example ample, the flowline curve shown on Figure 6-

Problems 1 through 4 12 shows that for a production rate of 1100
It is important to notice that when starting at BOPD the created wellhead pressure is 300
the reservoir (node 8), the slope of the re- psi.
sulting systems curve on the pressure-flow
rate diagram at the solution node is zero or The total producing system will produce
negative. This can be observed in figures 6- only where the created pressure at any node
10 through 6-13. This is expected since any is equal to the required pressure at that node
systems curve developed by starting at Pr for the stated producing rate. This occurs
(regardless of the solution node) includes res- where the two curves intersect as shown in
ervoir performance in the form of PI or IPR. figures 6-10 through 6-13. Notice on Figure
A pressure flow rate curve generated by 6-12 for 1100 BOPD, the required pressure
starting at Pr actually displays the required is 100 psi at node 3 (wellhead pressure) and
pressure at the solution node for the reservoir the created pressure is 300 psi. Therefore,
to produce the stated flow rate. For example, this system will not produce 1100 BOPD.
the vertical and IPR curve shown on Figure Obviously, the rate possible must be the
6-12 shows that if a flowing wellhead pres- same irrespective of the node selected to
sure of 100 psi could somehow be created, solve the problem. Different nodes are se-
the reservoir and well would produce 1100 lected for convenience based on which sys-
B/D. tem parameter is to be studied. For example,
suppose in our example problem it is desired
In contrast, notice that when starting at the to know what this well will produce with a
separator pressure (node 1), the slope of the 3" ID flow line. A new flow line system
resulting systems curve on the pressure-flow curve could be generated and overlaid on Fig-
rate diagram at the solution node is zero or ure 6-12 as shown on Figure 6-14. Node 3
positive. This is again shown clearly in fig- was selected for the solution node because of
ures 6-10 through 6-13. The pressure-flow clarity of presentation showing the flow line
rate curve generated by starting at the separa- pressure loss. Notice that the same vertical
tor pressure displays the created pressure at and IPR curve applies regardless of the flow
the solution node for each flow rate. For ex- line system.

Schlumberger
600
Ve
rti
ca
l
an
d
500
IP
R
.
Pe
" I.D
rfo
,2
line
rm
w
an
400 Flo
ce
C
ur
Ptf, psi
ve
300
.
Flowline, 3" I.D
200
900 BOPD
1040 BOPD
100
0 500 1000 1500

qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-14 Effect of Change in Flow Line Size.
3 P3-1
P5-3
Node Location
2-7/8" or 3"
Tubing 1 Separator
5 3 Wellhead
5 Taper Connection
6 Pwf
8 Pr
2-3/8"
Tubing
P6-5
Liner
6 P8-6 8
Fig. 6-15 Tapered Strings.

6.4 Changes in Flow Conduit Size
Thus far, the discussion has pertained to the 2. Determine the pressure loss from node 1
rather simple system shown in Figure 6-9. (separator) to node 5 (tapered connec-
Notice that on this system there is only one tion). For each assumed rate and starting
flow line size and one tubing size. Of course, with PSEP = 100 psi we add P3-1 +
it is possible and sometimes advantageous to P5-3. Table 6-7 summarises these re-
change one of these pipe sizes in the middle sults, and both 2-7/8" and 3" tubing are
of the string. To evaluate a system of this evaluated above the tapered connection.
nature, the solution node could be placed at
the point where the pipe size changes. 3. Determine the pressure losses from node 8
to node 5. for each rate, start at Pr = 2200
6.4.1 Example Problem 5 - Tapered psi and subtract P8-6 + P6-5. These
Tubing Strings results are noted in Table 6-8.
Suppose that in the previous example for
some reason it was necessary to set a liner 4. Plot P5 vs q from both step 2 and step 3
from near 3500 feet through the producing (Figure 6-16).
zone at 5000 feet and this liner was of such
ID that 2-3/8" tubing was the largest size 5. The intersection of the two performance
tubing that could be installed. Let us investi- curves at the tapered connection predicts a
gate the possible production rate increases by flow rate of about 1020 BOPD for 2.5" ID
installing larger than 2-3/8" tubing above the tubing and 1045 BOPD for 3" ID tubing.
liner from 3500 feet to the surface. Refer to Remember, for a 2.0" ID tubing string the
Figure 6-15. predicted rate was 900 BOPD. Notice
that the increase in rate from 2.0" ID to
Given Data: Same as Example 1. 2.5" ID is much more significant than the
increase in rate from 2.5" ID to 3" ID. As
The solution node (node 5) selected to solve pointed out previously, this problem
this problem is located at the tubing taper could have been solved by placing the so-
(Figure 6-15). In this example, the pressure lution node at any point in the system.
drops must be added from node 1 to node 5 However, this approach can simplify the
and subtracted from node 8 to node 5. Main- procedure depending on the manner in
taining the same nomenclature as in Figure 6- which the curves or computer programs
8, we have designated the tapered connection available are formatted. This same proce-
as node 5. dure could be used if a change in flow line
configuration occurs at some point along
Procedure: the path of the horizontal system.
1. Assume flow rates of 200, 400, 600, 800,

1000 and 1500 B/D.

Schlumberger
Horiz. Multiphase Flow (2-7/8" Tubing)

Vertical Multiphase Flow
q PSEP P3 P3-1 P5 P5-3
200 100 115 15 475 360
400 100 140 40 500 360
600 100 180 80 600 420
800 100 230 130 718 488
1000 100 275 175 820 545
1500 100 420 320 970 550
Table 6-7a
Horiz. Multiphase Flow (3" ID Tubing)

Vertical Multiphase Flow
q PSEP P3 P3-1 P5 P5-3
200 100 115 15 420 305
400 100 140 40 475 335
600 100 180 80 560 380
800 100 230 130 660 430
1000 100 275 175 780 505
1500 100 420 320 900 480
Table 6-7b
From PI From Vertical

Multiphase Flow
q Pr P6 P8-6 P5 P6-5
200 2200 2000 200 1400 600
400 2200 1800 400 1300 500
600 2200 1600 600 1170 430
800 2200 1400 800 1000 400
1000 2200 1200 1000 820 380
1500 2200 700 1500 360 340
Table 6-8

2500
Tapered String Scenario
2000 5000' to 3500' 2"

3500' to 0' 2-7/8"
3500' to 0' 3"
Ptaper , psi
1500
Belo
wT
ape
r Pe
rform
anc
eC Tubing
urve
1000 2-7/8"
3"
ce Cu rve
Per forman
Taper 1045 BOPD
500 Above
1020 BOPD
0 500 1000 1500
qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-16 Tapered String Solution (Example 5).
3
1
Horizontal Flowline
Node Location Remarks
1 Separator
2 Surface Choke Functional
3 Wellhead
6 Pwf
8 Pr
6 8
Fig. 6-17 Surface Choke Problem.

Schlumberger
6.5 Functional Nodes
In the previous discussion, it has been as- 6.5.1 Surface Wellhead Choke
sumed that no pressure discontinuity exists Refer to Figure 6-17 for a physical descrip-
across the solution node. However, in a total tion of the well with a surface choke in-
producing system there is usually at least one stalled. The same nodes as set out in Figure
point or node where this assumption is not 6-8 are maintained.
true. When a pressure differential exists
across a node, that node is termed a func- Since the wellhead choke is usually placed at
tional node since the pressure flow rate re- node 2, this will be the solution node selected
sponse can be represented by some physical to solve the problem. It is necessary to solve
or mathematical function. Figure 6-8 shows this problem in two parts. The first part of
examples of some common system parame- the solution is exactly the same as previously
ters which are functional nodes. shown. Inspection of figures 6-17 and 6-12
show that the vertical and IPR performance
Of course, there are many other surface or curve actually represents the upstream
downhole tools or completion methods pressure from node 2 (Pwh, Figure 6-12)
which could create pressure drops with flow and the horizontal system performance
rates as those shown in Figure 6-8 (such as curve actually represents the downstream
safety valves, perforations, etc.). pressure from node 2 (PDSC, Figure 6-12).
Thus far, we have considered no pressure
It is important to notice that for each restric- drop across the node and, therefore, the pre-
tion placed in the system shown in Figure 6- dicted rate is where upstream pressure equals
8 the calculation of pressure drop across that the downstream pressure (Pwh = PDSC).
node as a function of flow rate is represented However, we know the wellhead choke will
by the same general form. create a pressure drop across functional node
2 for each flow rate. This created P can be
P qn calculated with one of many pressure drop
equations for choke beans. Therefore, the
That is, the pressure drop, P, is propor- solution procedure is to find and plot the re-
tional to the flow rate. In fact, there are quired P vs q from Figure 6-12 and overlay
many equations available in the literature to the created P vs q from the choke bean per-
describe these pressure drops for common formance calculations.
system restrictions. It is not the purpose of
this section to discuss the merit of the differ-
ent equations, but rather to show how to use
them once the selection has been made, con-
sidering the entire producing system.

6.5.2 Example Problem 6 - Determine less than 70% of the upstream pressure
Effect of Surface Choke Sizes (Pwh) or PDSC/Pwh < 0.7. Suppose we
Using Node 2 as the Solution are interested in investigating well per-
Node formance for the following choke bean
Given Data: Same as Example 1 sizes: 16/64", 20/64", 24/64", 28/64". Ta-
ble 6-10 shows these results.
Procedure:
1. Generate the total system analysis curve The Ps calculated are unique to the ex-
using node 2 as the solution node exactly ample system since the downstream pres-
as done in Example 3, (Figure 6-12). sures were calculated for the example sys-
tem. Notice that in each case a check was
2. Select arbitrary required pressure drops made to ensure PDSC/Pwh 0.7 so that
across node 2 (P = Pwh - PDSC) and de- Gilberts equation would apply. If this is
termine the flow rate for each P as not the case, a subcritical flow equation
shown in Figure 6-18. (Notice Figure 6-18 must be used to calculate P across the
is the same as Figure 6-12 with Ps dis- choke.
played). These results are noted in Table
6-9. 5) From the tables generated, plot the choke
bean performance as shown on Figure 6-
3. From step 2, plot the required P vs q as 20.
shown on Figure 6-19.
6) Overlay the results shown on Figure 6-19
4. Calculate the created pressure drop vs and Figure 6-20 to produce Figure 6-21.
flow rate for choke beans of interest. The
equation used for these calculations is: Figure 6-21 displays the total system per-
formance for different wellhead choke sizes.
The system performance curve shows the
C R0.5 q
Pwh = required P for various flow rates consider-
S2 (from Gilbert) ing the entire system from reservoir to sepa-
rator. The choke performance curves show
where the created P for various flow rates consid-
ering choke performance for different choke
Pwh = Flowing wellhead pressure, psi. sizes. The intersection points of the created
and required Ps represent the possible so-
R = GLR; MCF/STB. lutions. For example, the rate will drop from
900 BOPD to 715 BOPD with the installa-
q = Gross liquid rate, STB/D. tion of a 24/64" wellhead choke. Figure 6-22
shows another presentation that is often used
S = Choke bean size, 64ths of an inch to evaluate wellhead chokes. The presenta-
tion shows the entire system performance,
C = Constant, assume 500 for this which sometimes is advantageous. The same
problem. techniques discussed in this paper are used to
generate this type of analysis. Notice that
Gilbert noted that his formula is good this solution gives the same answer.
when the downstream pressure (PDSC) is

Schlumberger
600
U
ps
tre
500
am
of
N
od
2
e
de
2
400 o
(W
ofN
el
am
lh
e
str
e
P = 400
P = 300
Ptf, psi
P = 200
P = 100
ad
wn
Do
C
300
ho
ke
)
200 Pu = Pd
q = 410 BOPD
q = 560 BOPD
q = 690 BOPD
100 q = 800 BOPD
0 500 1000 1500

qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-18 Surface Choke.
500
400
300
P, psi
200
q 0 = 900 BOPD at P= 0
100
0 500 1000 1500

qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-19 Total Systems Performance Curve for Surface Choke Problem 6.

P = Pwh - PDSC q, B/D

100 800
200 690
300 560
400 410
Table 6-9
16/64
q PDCS Pwh
BOPD From From PDSC/Pwh P=Pwh-PDSC
Fig 6-18 Gilbert
300 128 370 .35 242
400 140 494 .28 354
500 160 617 .26 457
600 180 741 .24 561
20/64
q PDCS Pwh P=
From From PDSC/Pwh Pwh-PDSC
Fig 6-18 Gilbert
300 128 237 .54 109
500 160 395 .41 235
700 200 553 .36 353
900 250 711 .35 461
24/64
q PDCS Pwh, psi P =
From From PDSC/Pwh PDSC - Pwh
Fig 6-18 Gilbert
500 160 274 .58 114
700 200 384 .52 184
900 250 494 .51 244
1100 300 603 .50 303
28/64
q PDCS Pwh, psi P =
From From PDSC/Pwh PDSC - Pwh
Fig 6-18 Gilbert
800 227 322 .70 95
1000 275 403 .68 128
1200 330 484 .68 154
Table 6-10

Schlumberger
500
16/64 20/64
400
24/64
300
P, psi
200
28/64
100
0 500 1000 1500

qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-20 Choke Bean Performance.
500
16/64 20/64
400
Sy
ste
m
Pe
rfo
24/64
rm
300
ce
a
an
nc
P, psi
m
for
e
r
e Pe
ok
200 Ch
28/64
100
0 500 1000 1500

qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-21 Systems Performance for Various Wellhead Chokes.

2500
16/64 Choke
20/64 Choke
IPR
Cur
ve
ce
an
2000
rm
rfo
28/64 Choke
24/64 Choke
Pe
ke
ta
In
em
No Choke
Pressure , psi
1500 st
Sy
1000
Vertica
l IPR 16/64 Choke 20/64 Choke
Perfor
mance
24/64 Choke
28/64 Choke
500 ce Curve No Choke
lPerforman
Horizonta
0 500 1000 1500
qo , BOPD
Fig. 6-22 Surface Choke Evaluation.
6.5.3 Example Problem 7 Flowline Size = 2-1/2 in. ID.

In order to further illustrate the effect of cer- Casing Size = 7 in.
tain variables, such as tubing size, flowline Separator Pressure = 100 psi
size, etc., two problems will be worked. One Well produces 100 % oil
is a high productivity well (high rate) and the
other a low productivity well. The high rate Data for Well B:
well is designated well A and the low rate
well as well B. Same as Well A except:
Data for Well A: Pr = 2300 psi, Pb = 2300 psi and one test
shows 500 B/D for Pwh = 180
Depth = 8000 ft.
Pr = 2800 psi Figure 6-23 shows the solution to these
J = 15 B/D psi problems assuming no restrictions are pres-
GOR = 400 SCF/STB ent in the production conduits. Table 6-11
Tubing Size = 2-1/2 in. OD summarises the results:
Flowline Length = 4000 ft.

Schlumberger
Tubing Size: 2.441 in. I.D.

Flowline Size: 2.500 in. I.D.
5000
GOR = 400
4000
Pwf (psi)
3000
Well A
Well B
2000
Pressure GOR = 400

1000 qB Wellhead
qA
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

qo (BOPD)
Fig. 6-23 Solution to Determine Possible Rate for Well A and Well B.
.
WELL A WELL B
qo (BOPD) 2320 850
Pwf (psi) 2650 1380
Pwh (psi) 550 200
Table 6-11
6.5.3.1 Effects of Separator Pressure separator pressure from 40 to 200 psi as

In analysing these wells, it is important to shown in Figure 6-24. Note, that for the high
see the effect of different separator pressures productivity well, the change in separator
while maintaining everything else constant. pressure has a significant effect on the flow
Several computer runs were made varying the rate. Table 6-12 shows the results:
qo (BOPD)
Psep (psi) Well A Well B
40 2350 855
60 2340 852
80 2330 850
100 2320 848
120 2305 845
140 2290 842
160 2270 840
180 2245 838
200 2215 835
Table 6-12

6.5.3.2 Effects of Flowline Size

The flowline sizes were varied between 2" has a great deal more effect for Well A than
and 4" nominal sizes with everything else for Well B. Table 6-13 summarises these re-
remaining constant. This information is plot- sults:
ted in Figure 6-25. Note that the flowline size
qo (BOPD)
Flowline
Size (in) Well A Well B
2 1480 690
2-1/2 2320 850
3 2950 890
4 3650 925
Table 6-13
6.5.3.3 Effects of Tubing Size

The tubing sizes were varied between 2" and increase in rate, while Well B shows lower
4" sizes and all other variables were held con- increases in flow rates. Refer to figures 6-26
stant. Again, it is noted that for all Well A and 6-27. Table 6-14 summarises these re-
the larger diameter tubing sizes show a large sults:
qo (BOPD)
Tubing Size (in) Well A Well B
2 1800 730
2-1/2 2320 830
3 2600 910
4 2700 950
Table 6-14

Schlumberger

2600 Flowline Size: 2.500 in. I.D.
GOR: 400 scf/bbl
2400
Well A
qo (BOPD)
2200
1000
Well B
800
600
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Separator Pressure (psi)
Fig. 6-24 Effect of separator Pressure.

P sep: 100 psi
4000 GOR: 400 scf/bbl
3500
Well A
3000
qo (BOPD)
2500
2000
1500
1000 Well B
500
0
1 2 3 4
Flowline Inside Diameter (Inches)

Fig. 6-25 Effect of Flowline Size.

P sep : 100 psi

Flowline Size: 2.500 in. I.D. 2"
5000 GOR 400 scf/bbl
2.5"
4000
3"
4"
Pwf (psi)
3000
Well A
Well B
2000
Pressure
1000 Wellhead
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

qo (BOPD)
Fig. 6-26 Effect of Tubing Size.

P sep: 100 psi
3000
GOR: 400 scf/bbl
Well A
2500
qo (BOPD)
2000
1500
1000
Well B
500
0
1 2 3 4 5
Tubing Inside Diameter (Inches)

Fig. 6-27 Effect of Tubing diameter .

Schlumberger
6.6 General Discussion on the Effect

of the Variables
Systems analysis can be used to include the ficient flow conditions, a situation which is
effect of different variables on the production analogous to small flow rates for a given large
rate of a well. tubing size in lower productivity wells.
The effect of separator pressure is more sig- Since vertical multiphase flow correlations
nificant for higher productivity wells than for differ considerably in predicting that rate at
lower productivity wells. This may be very which flowing bottomhole pressure begins to
important, for example, when gas lift is im- increase for the next smaller rate, the example
plemented on a well where the increase in problem was worked with the Hagedorn and
production rate due to a decrease in separator Brown, Duns and Ros, Orkiszewski and
pressure may be compared to the economics Beggs and Brill correlations, respectively, as
of the compressor horse-power. shown in Figure 6-28. Table 6-15 summarises
these results: In choosing a combination of
An increase in flowline size can represent tubing-flowline sizes, the nature of the inflow
significant additional production rate, espe- performance relationship should be consid-
cially in high productivity wells. The flowl- ered under present and future conditions. As
ine should always be at least as large as the shown in Figure 6-29 an increase in tubing-
tubing size, or one size larger. At the same flowline sizes causes a significant increase in
time, consideration should be given to the flow rates, especially for Well A, for which
fact that too large a flowline may not be used all possible rates occur at stable and efficient
for low flow rates, which is not normally in- conditions. However, for Well B, all possible
dicated by the standard horizontal multi- rates after the tubing-flowline increase occur
phase flow correlations as an adverse condi- under unstable pressure conditions very close
tion. to those at which the critical rate exists. If the
GOR would decrease (GOR = 140
The increase of tubing size can considerably SCF/STB), then eventually Well B will not
affect the production rate of a well. Signifi- flow under the higher capacity tubing-
cant additional production rate may be flowline configuration. Although the produc-
achieved in high productivity wells after tion rates would be smaller under the lower
tubing size increase. However, there is a limit capacity configurations, this particular tub-
to the increase in tubing size with which the ing-flowline configuration not only would
mechanism of two-phase flow will still be ensure efficient and stable flow, but also
efficient. As the area for flow increases, the would cause the well to flow for a longer pe-
fluid velocities decrease, creating excessive riod of time.
fallback, which causes very unstable and inef-
Correlation Critical Rate (BOPD)

Hagedorn and Brown 70
Duns and Ros 350
Orkiszewski 400
Beggs and Brill 310
Table 6-15

6.7 Graphical Representation of the curve can be shifted to the right by re-
Total Producing System for One Well moving any of the restrictions and is nor-
mally also shown without restrictions.
Refer to Figure 6-30, which shows most of 5. Choke Performance Curve. A Choke per-
the components and variables that exists in formance curve is shown on this plot. In
any one well. The most common way of this case, it is sized to give the flow rate of
plotting this information is to use pressure qL for P choke.
on the ordinate vs flow rate on the abscissa,
although it may be reversed in some cases to 6. Horizontal Flowline Curve. This curve is
permit a pressure depth plot on the same ex- prepared by assuming flow rates and,
hibit. starting with the separator pressure, ob-
taining the pressure required on the down-
Each curve or straight line in Exhibit 6-30 has stream side of the choke.
very important significance in evaluating a 7. The separator pressure is a reasonably
complete system and each will be briefly dis- constant value for all rates.
cussed.
8. The stock tank pressure is a constant
value at all rates.
1. Static Pressure, Pr. The static pressure is
the starting point for all systems graphs
Several changes or improvements may be
and is shown as a straight line. This would
made after studying an exhibit similar to Fig-
also represent an infinite productivity in-
ure 6-30. The first question may be: What
dex line.
dominates this well at the present time? It
2. Sand Face IPR Curve, Pwfs. This line rep- appears to be the tubing intake curve which
resents the flowing pressure that exists at consists of pressure losses in the horizontal
the sand face for different flow rates. It is flowline, surface choke and tubing string.
only the same as the measured flowing The curve can be immediately shifted to the
bottom hole pressure when no restrictions right and, therefore, the rate can be increased
exist in the completion of the well, such as by enlarging or even removing the surface
generally exist in the perforation or per- choke. Larger flow lines and even larger tub-
haps a gravel pack. ing sizes will also shift this curve to the right
3. Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure, Pwf. This and give higher production rates.
represents the flowing pressure that exists
at the center of the perforated interval and One of our objectives would be to try to
is that pressure measured by running a make the Pwf and Pwfs line coincide. There
pressure recording gauge in the well. also appears to be quite a large p across the
completion, which suggests the need for
4. Tubing Intake Curve. This represents the
greater shot density in perforating or possi-
pressure required at the bottom of the
bly a restricted gravel pack or other comple-
tubing string to allow certain production
tion problems. The separator pressure can
rates to enter the stock tank and, there-
possibly be lowered, which will also increase
fore, includes pressure losses in the flow
the rate. If the objective is lower producing
line and tubing string, surface chokes,
rates, then this can easily be accomplished by
safety valves and any other restrictions. It
installing a smaller surface choke.
should be noted that the tubing intake

Schlumberger
6.8 Summary
A nodal system has been presented in order tems graph shows immediately what can be
to effectively evaluate a complete producing done to accomplish this. Many wells may
system. All of the components in the well, not have sufficient perforations, or pipe sizes
starting from the static pressure (Pr) and may be inadequate. These types of problems
ending at the separator, are considered. This can be easily detected. Frac or acid jobs may
includes flow through the porous medium, or may not be necessary. It may be that the
flow across the perforations and completion, well is tubing dominated and not reservoir
flow up the tubing string with passage dominated. In that case, a stimulation treat-
through a possible downhole restriction and ment is not necessary unless tubing sizes are
safety valve, flow in the horizontal flow line increased.
with passage through a surface choke and on
to the separator. Good systems analysis can greatly improve
the efficiency of a well or group of wells.
With the aid of multiphase flow correlations This approach can dictate whether either well
on computer, a systems graph can be quickly stimulation or decreases in certain compo-
prepared. This graph can then be analysed to nents in the system may result in improving
determine what dominated the well. If higher the production rate of a well, thus reducing
or lower rates are the objective, then the sys- excessive expenditures.


5000
4000 rill
ndB
gs a
Beg os
Pwf (psi)
dR
s an own
3000 Dun nd Br
na
g e dor Well A
Ha ski
k i s zew
Well B Or
2000
1000
Well B
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

qo (BOPD)
Fig. 6-28 Critical Velocity Prediction with Different Correlations.
P sep 100 psi
5000 GOR = 400
GOR = 200
GOR = 140
4000
Pwf (psi)
GOR = 140
3000
GOR = 200
Well A
GOR = 400
2000
2.441" Tubing + 2.5" Flowline

1000
Well B 3.958" Tubing + 4.0" Flowline
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

qo (BOPD)
Fig. 6-29 Effect of the Nature of IPR Curves on Tubing-Flowline Size.

Schlumberger
1 Static Pressure
P Formation
2 IPR
Curve
fo r Sand
Face P
ressure
P Completion
3
e Flow
tak
In
ing
Pre
ssu
b ing rve re in
P Tubing Tu Cu We
llbo
4 re
e
urv
eC
rm anc
P Choke erfo Curve
P l Flo wline
oke izonta
5 Ch 6 Hor
P Horizontal
Line Rate qL
7 Separator Pressure
Surface
P Facilities 8 Stock Tank Pressure
Fig. 6-30 Graphical Representation of Total Producing System.


Section 7
Work Session
Section 7 Work Session

Schlumberger
(Note: Section 6 has self contained work sessions in developing the Nodal Analysis
concept)
Work Session for Section 1
1. Define porosity and permeability, explain briefly how they can effect a reservoirs
performance?
2. As an example of the effect of grain size on a wetted surface, compare the wetted surface area
of a 1 m3 rectangular conduit with a 1 m3 rectangular conduit filled with 0.1 mm diameter sand
grains. (Porosity of the sand grain filled conduit is 20%)
Hint: Wetted surface = particle surface x number of particles.

Number of particles = volume of cube divided by volume of sand grain.
Figure 7-1

What conclusion do you draw from the result?
3. Define irreducible water saturation, discuss the relationship between this and permeability?
4. Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?

Schlumberger
5. Using the chart provided, figure 7-2, find Rsb, the solution gas-oil ratio at bubble point
pressure, under the following conditions:
pb = 900 psia
T wf = 140 F
g = 0.7
o = 40 API

Figure 7-2

Schlumberger
6. Given that the density of air at standard conditions is 0.001223 gm/cc or 0.0762 lb/cu ft, find
the weight of 500 scf of gas with g = 0.55.
7. Find the density of gas at standard conditions when g = 0.7.
8. Find owf, the density of oil at well flowing conditions when;
Bo = 1.21
Rs = 350 cf/B
g = 0.75
o = 30 API
(Note a conversion factor of 1/(5.615) must be applied to the top right hand term of the
equation for to convert from metric to English units)

9. Repeat the same example with the chart provided, figure 7-3.

Schlumberger
Figure 7-3

1. Draw a typical completion diagram for a dual string oil producing well.? Explain how the well
could be selectively produced from the upper zone only?

Schlumberger
2. List the advantages disadvantages between a tubing retrievable and wireline retrievable surface
controlled sub-surface safety valve?

1. List several key objectives of well testing.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of through tubing perforating and high shot density
perforating.

Schlumberger
3. Draw a typical DST string diagram for cased hole applications. Include TCP guns and an
appropriate firing system.

List 5 key points which should be noted from an operational viewpoint and/or from a data
enhancement viewpoint.
4. The attached diagram, figure 7-4 shows a typical layout for a surface test onshore. Label the
key items.

Schlumberger
Water
from ?
Optional
diesel supply
for ?
Optional
gas supply
from ?
for a ?
Fluids from well
Coflexip,
Chiksans
or fixed
piping
Tubing flare lines
Laboratory
cabin
Safety valve Rig floor
Oil flare Gas flare
Burning pit
Figure 7-4

5. Discuss the merits between strain gauge and crystal gauge pressure sensors. List one
application where you would use each type of sensor.
6. Discuss the difference between the resolution of a pressure transducer and that of a pressure
gauge.
7. Discuss the importance of calibration with respect to data quality.

Schlumberger
1. Outline the procedures required to condition a well prior to bottom hole sampling.
Why is this important?
2. Discuss some practical limitations to pre-conditioning prior to sampling.

1. Re-write the following expressions;
(a) Loge ab =
(b) Loge a/b =
(c) Loge xn =
2. Solve the following integrals;
1
(a) dx =
x
(b) x n dx =
3. Starting from a basic cylindrical model for the flow of an incompressible fluid through a
homogeneous system as shown in figure 7-5; and given that from Darcys law and the
equation of state, it can be shown that;
Q k dP
=
2rh dr
Show that the radial flow equation can be derived as follows;
2kh(Pe Pw )
Q =
r
log e e
rw

Schlumberger
Figure 7-5
where Q = volume rate of flow, cc/sec.

k = permeability, darcys.
h = thickness, cm.
= viscosity, centipoise.
Pe = pressure at external boundary, atm.
Pw = pressure at internal boundary, atm.
re = radius to external boundary, cm.
rw = radius to internal boundary, cm.

4. A homogeneous infinite reservoir is flowed for 48 hours at a constant stable rate of 4600
bbls/day. The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 4438 psi and the final flowing
pressure was 2835 psi. Data derived from core analysis, and the logging program revealed the
following data;
h = 75 feet. ct = 15 x 10-6 psi-1.

= 1.4 cp. rw = 4 inches.
Bo = 1.47
= 22 %.
A strain gauge recorder placed beneath the tester valve revealed the following data;
Time (Hours) Pressure

After Shut-In (psi)
0.00 2853
0.17 3430
0.33 3480
0.50 3529
0.67 3571
1.00 3636
1.50 3726
2.00 3840
2.50 3960
3.00 4070
3.50 4141
4.00 4180
5.00 4229
6.00 4247
8.00 4267
10.00 4283
12.00 4297
14.00 4307
16.00 4315
18.00 4323
20.00 4330
22.00 4335
24.00 4342
26.00 4345
28.00 4351
30.00 4354
32.00 4358
34.00 4362
36.00 4366
38.00 4368

Schlumberger
Using the Horner semi-log method, calculate the Horner time and then plot the data on a semi-log
graph and calculate the following;
(a) Initial Reservoir pressure (from the graph)
(b) Permeability.
(c) Skin Effect.
162.6 qB p p wf k
Use; kh = s = 11513
. 1hour log 10 + 3. 23
m m c t r w2

5. A homogeneous infinite acting reservoir with wellbore storage and skin is subjected to a
constant drawdown test and build-up. The well was flowed at a constant stable rate of 900
bbls/day. The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 2500 psi. Data derived from core
analysis, and the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 53 feet. ct = 1.0 x E-05 psi-1.

= 1.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet..
Bo = 1.2
= 15 %.
A crystal gauge recorder placed beneath the tester valve revealed the following data;
Time (Hours) Pressure Pressure Derivative

After Shut-In (psi)
1.27 E-03 2.72 E+01 2.98 E+01
1.69 E-03 3.57 E+01 3.45 E+01
2.54 E-03 5.25 E+01 4.96 E+01
3.38 E-03 6.85 E+01 6.32 E+01
4.23 E-03 8.39 E+01 7.62 E+01
5.08 E-03 9.88 E+01 8.84 E+01
6.77 E-03 1.27 E+02 1.10 E+02
8.47 E-03 1.53 E+02 1.37 E+02
1.21 E-02 2.13 E+02 1.60 E+02
1.69 E-02 2.65 E+02 1.79 E+02
2.54 E-02 3.50 E+02 2.22 E+02
3.38 E-02 4.16 E+02 2.34 E+02
4.23 E-02 4.69 E+02 2.37 E+02
5.08 E-02 5.13 E+02 2.34 E+02
6.77 E-02 5.79 E+02 2.21 E+02
1.27 E-01 7.06 E+02 1.79 E+02
1.69 E-01 7.54 E+02 1.58 E+02
2.54 E-01 8.13 E+02 1.34 E+02
3.38 E-01 8.50 E+02 1.23 E+02
4.23 E-01 8.76 E+02 1.16 E+02
5.08 E-01 8.97 E+02 1.13 E+02
6.77 E-01 9.29 E+02 1.09 E+02
8.47 E-01 9.53 E+02 1.06 E+02
1.27 E+00 9.95 E+02 1.02 E+02
1.69 E+00 1.02 E+03 1.01 E+02
2.52 E+00 1.06 E+03 9.91 E+01
3.38 E+00 1.09 E+03 9.76 E+01
4.23 E+00 1.11 E+03 9.80 E+01
5.08 E+00 1.13 E+03 9.79 E+01
6.77 E+00 1.16 E+03 9.74 E+01
8.47 E+00 1.18 E+03 9.71 E+01

Schlumberger
Plot the data on a log-log graph of elapsed time versus pressure change (derivative) and using the
appropriate type curve, figure 7-6, determine;
pD
(i) Pressure match =
p
(ii) Time match t D / CD =

t
(iii) Curve match C De2 s =
Then calculate the following using the equations listed below;
(a) Permeability.
(b) Wellbore storage ratio.

(c) Skin Effect.
p kh 0.000295
Use; . qB D match
kh = 1412 C=
p t /C
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
CD =
0.8936C
2

CD
ct h r w

Schlumberger
Figure 7-6

bbls/day. Data derived from core analysis, and the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 50 feet. ct = 4.2 x 10-6 psi-1.

= 2.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet..
Bo = 1.05
= 25 %.
A crystal gauge recorder placed beneath the tester valve recorded data which produced the log-
log plots and semi-log plot shown in figures 7-7 and 7-8.
Using the appropriate type curve determine;
pD
p

t
(iii) Curve match C De2 s =
(a) Permeability.

Schlumberger
(c) Skin Effect.
Using the semi-log plot, determine;
(d) Permeability.

(e) Skin Effect.- Given that s can be determined to equal 2.43, discuss the values for K and
s as determined by the different methods.
Use the following equations;
p kh 0.000295
. qB D match
kh = 1412 C=
p t /C
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
CD =
0.8936C
2

CD
ct h r w

Schlumberger
Figure 7-7

Figure 7-8

Schlumberger
7. A double porosity infinite acting reservoir with wellbore storage and skin is subjected to a
constant drawdown test and build-up. The well was flowed at a stable rate of 900 bbls/day.
The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 4200 psi. Data derived from core analysis, and
the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 53 feet. ct = 1.0 x E-05 psi-1.

= 1.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet..
Bo = 1.2
= 15 %.
Time (Hours) Pressure Change Pressure Derivative

(psi)
1.00 E-03 3.47 3.48
1.25 E-03 4.24 3.83
1.50 E-03 4.99 4.45
2.00 E-03 6.43 5.58
2.50 E-03 7.77 6.56
3.00 E-03 9.05 7.46
4.00 E-03 11.41 8.99
5.00 E-03 13.55 10.22
7.50 E-03 18.15 12.37
1.00 E-02 21.92 13.65
1.25 E-02 25.06 14.34
1.50 E-02 27.71 14.58
2.00 E-02 31.92 14.36
2.50 E-02 35.08 13.66
3.00 E-02 37.50 12.68
4.00 E-02 40.88 10.60
5.00 E-02 43.05 8.73
7.50 E-02 45.87 5.36
0.100 47.09 3.41
0.125 47.70 2.35
0.150 48.07 1.86
0.200 48.53 1.58
0.250 48.88 1.66
0.300 49.19 1.88
0.400 49.80 2.41
0.500 50.39 2.92
0.750 51.78 4.04
1.000 53.07 4.95
1.250 54.26 5.73
1.500 55.36 6.38
2.000 57.34 7.39


(psi)
2.500 59.08 8.11

3.000 60.61 8.61
4.000 63.19 9.23
5.000 65.29 9.55
7.500 69.25 9.85
10.000 72.10 9.94
12.500 74.34 9.96
15.000 76.14 9.97
20.000 79.01 9.98
25.000 81.24 9.98
30.000 83.06 9.99
40.000 85.93 9.99
50.000 88.16 9.99
75.000 92.21 9.99
100.000 95.09 10.00
Plot the data on a log-log graph of elapsed time versus pressure change (derivative) and using
the appropriate type curve determine;
pD
p

t
(iii) Curve match ( C D e 2 s )f =
(iv) Curve Match ( C D e 2 s )f+m =
(v) Curve Match e2s =

Schlumberger
(a) Permeability.
(c) Skin Effect.

(d) The Storativity ratio .
(e) The interporosity flow parameter .
p
. qB D match .
kh = 1412
p
kh 0.000295 0.8936C
C= . CD = 2
t /C ct h r w
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
. =
( e 2 s) (C D e 2s)
f +m f +m

CD
CD
=
(C De 2 s)
f+m
(C De )f
2 s

Work Session
Answers
Work Session Answers

Schlumberger
(Note: Section 6 has self contained work sessions in developing the Nodal Analysis
concept)
1. Define porosity and permeability, explain briefly how they can effect a reservoirs
performance?
Porosity is defined as the percentage or fraction of void to the bulk volume of a rock. Only the
effective or interconnected porosity is usefull in reservoir engineering as this represents the
ammount of void which can contribute to flow.
Permeability is the ease with which, under non-turbulent flow conditions, a fluid can flow
through a porus rock. It is therefore a function, among other things of the degree of
interconnection between the pores of the rock.
2. As an example of the effect of grain size on a wetted surface, compare the wetted surface area
of a 1 m3 rectangular conduit with a 1 m3 rectangular conduit filled with 0.1 mm diameter sand
grains. (Porosity of the sand grain filled conduit is 20%)
Hint: Wetted surface = particle surface x number of particles.

Number of particles = volume of cube divided by volume of sand grain.
Figure 7-1
Surface area = 4 m2 for the rectangular conduit.
Surface area for the filled conduit = Surface area of spheres x number of spheres.
(1 ) = 3 (1 ) 3 (0 .8)
= 4r2 x
4 3 r 0 .0001
r
3
= 24000 m2.

What conclusion do you draw from the result?
Grain size plays a crucial role in a rocks permeability as the smaller the grain size, the
greater the surface area in contact with the reservoir fluid and thus the greater the friction to
flow.
3. Define irreducible water saturation, discuss the relationship between this and permeability?
Irreducible water saturation defines the amount of water saturation that cannot be reduced by
displacement by a non-wetting phase no matter how great a pressure is applied to the system.
(The amount of water that cannot be displaced from the system).
Irreducible water saturation is effected by the grain size, as the smaller the gain size the
greater the capillary forces in the system and also the greater the surface area of the gains for
the water wet phase to be affected by (problem 2 above). As grain size is also directly related to
permeability it follows that there is a direct relationship between the irreducible water
saturation of a system and its permeability. This is a very important concept in reservoir
engineering as this leads onto the concept of residual oil or irreducible oil saturation i.e. the
amount of oil contained in the system which can not be displaced.
4. Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
Saturated hydrocarbons exist when the carbon atoms in their molecular structure are
connected with single bonds.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons exist when the carbon atoms in their molecular structure form
carbon to carbon double bonds. These compounds can add hydrogen to their structures under
appropriate conditions and are therefor said to be unsaturated (with hydrogen).

Schlumberger
5. Using the chart provided, figure 7-2, find Rsb, the solution gas-oil ratio at bubble point
pressure, under the following conditions:
pb = 900 psia
T wf = 140 F
g = 0.7
o = 40 API
Using the chart in figure 7-2, proceed as follows;
(a) From right to left: draw a line through o = 40 and g = 0.7 to locate a point on line B.
(b) From that point, draw a line through pb = 900 psia to line A.
(c) From there, draw a line to Twf = 140 F.
(d) Read the answer which is Rsb = 220 scf/bbl.

Figure 7-2

Schlumberger
6. Given that the density of air at standard conditions is 0.001223 gm/cc or 0.0762 lb/cu ft, find
the weight of 500 scf of gas with g = 0.55.
Weight = Vg x air x g.
= 500 x 0.0762 x 0.55
= 20.95 lbs.
7. Find the density of gas at standard conditions when g = 0.7.
g = air x g
= 0.7 x 0.001223
= 0.000856 gm/cc.
8. Find owf, the density of oil at well flowing conditions when;
Bo = 1.21
Rs = 350 cf/B
g = 0.75
o = 30 API
(Note a conversion factor of 1/(5.615) must be applied to the top right hand term of the
equation for to convert from metric to English units)
141.5
osc = = 0.876
1315
. + 30.0
air g Rs 0 .001223 x 0.75 x 350

osc + 0.876 +
owf = 5.615 = 5.615
Bo 1.21
= 0.771 gm/cc.

9. Repeat the same example with the chart provided, figure 7-3.
Using the chart in figure 7-3, proceed as follows;
(a) Draw a line from g = 0.75 through Rs = 350 cf/B to line A.
(b) Draw a line from point a to o = 30 API and establish point b.
(c) Draw a line from point b through Bo = 1.21 to the answer
owf = 0.77 gm/cc.

Schlumberger
Figure 7-3

1. Draw a typical completion diagram for a dual string oil producing well.? Explain how the well
could be selectively produced from the upper zone only?
Refer to figure 2-7b.
The lower string well could be shut-in at surface and only the upper zone produced, or a plug
could be set in the landing nipple below the packer in the long string, the sliding sleeve opened
and the well produced either up both strings from the upper zone or through either.

Schlumberger
2. List the advantages disadvantages between a tubing retrievable and wireline

retrievable surface controlled sub-surface safety valve?
A selection from the following;
Tubing Retrievable:
Advantages;
Large internal diameter implies larger flow rates.

Less turbulence therefore less erosion.
Fullbore access for intervention work.
Can contain a profile to accept a wireline retrievable valve in the event of problems.
Disadvantages;
Can not readily retrieve the valve for repair or maintenance (although some modern
versions have critical parts removable)
Cost.
Large size make them difficult to handle and maintain.
Wireline Retrievable:
Advantages;
Can readily be retrieved for repair or maintenance.

Cost.
Easy to handle and maintain.
Disadvantages;
Smaller internal diameters giving restriction to flow and creating turbulence and
erosion.
Needs to be removed for intervention work - especially the smaller sizes.

1. List several key objectives of well testing.
Select any of the following;

Productivity well tests are conducted to;
Identify produced fluids and determine their respective volume ratios.

Measure reservoir pressure and temperature.
Obtain samples suitable for PVT analysis.
Determine well deliverability.
Evaluate completion efficiency.
Characterise well damage.
Evaluate workover or stimulation treatment.
Descriptive tests seek to;
Evaluate reservoir parameters.

Characterise reservoir heterogenities.
Asses reservoir extent and geometry.
Determine hydraulic communication between wells.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of through tubing perforating and high shot density
perforating.
Through Tubing Perforating
The wellhead and completion string are in place and tested before perforation.
The underbalanced differential from the reservoir into the wellbore provides perforation
clean-up.
Perforations may be made as required over the life of the well, with or without a rig on-
site.
Operating Times are low , giving good efficiency.
Restricted gun size and length.
More debris especially when carrier type guns not used.
High Shot Density Perforating
Large gun sizes can be used implying optimal perforation program.

Long gun strings can be used.
reduced Perforation debris.
Requires a rig.
Mis-runs are costly in time and therefore money.

Schlumberger
3. Draw a typical DST string diagram for cased hole applications. Include TCP guns and an
appropriate firing system.
Use figure 3-12 or 3-25 as reference.

Many choices, some typical ones are;
Ensure all components are correctly rated in terms of expected maximum pressure, differential
pressure and temperature.
Ensure internal diameters are sufficient for any wireline/slickline runs required throughout the
test.
Ensure correct explosives are chosen in relation to expected temperatures.
Ensure gauges are calibrated over the expected temperature and pressure range
Ensure gauge resolution and memory capacity is adequate for the test expected.
4. The attached diagram, figure 7-4 shows a typical layout for a surface test onshore. Label the
key items.
Use figure 3-30 as guidance.
Many choices, some typical ones are;
Ensure all components are correctly rated in terms of expected maximum pressure, and
temperature.
Ensure equipment is designed to handle any hostile effluents such as H2S, CO2 etc.
Ensure equipment is designed to handle expected flowrates.
Ensure surface piping is thoroughly flushed to clear of any debris.
Ensure all measurement devices have recently been calibrated.
Ensure gauge resolution and memory capacity is adequate for the test expected.

Schlumberger
Gauge tank Separator Heater
Water
from separator
Optional
diesel supply
for diesel-fired
heater
Optional
gas supply
from separator
for a gas-fired heater
Oil manifold Fluids from well
Choke manifold
Transfer Coflexip,
Flowhead Chiksans
pump
or fixed
piping
Tubing flare lines
Laboratory
cabin
Safety valve Rig floor
Oil flare Gas flare
Burning pit
Figure 7-4

5. Discuss the merits between strain gauge and crystal gauge pressure sensors. List one
application where you would use each type of sensor.
Strain:
in general they are rugged, low cost and have good dynamic behaviour, they are ideal for
hostile environments where high pressures and high temperatures are expected, also can be
placed close to TCP guns as they can handle the expected shocks.
Crystal
They are extremely accurate and do not drift as much as strain gauges. they are however
costly and can be fragile. they are ideal for testing gas wells with high permeabilities where
resolution is crucial, they are also ideal for permanent installations.
6. Discuss the difference between the resolution of a pressure transducer and that of a pressure
gauge.
The resolution of a transducer is covers the function of the transducer only, transducers are
however, part of a more complete assembly namely the pressure gauge, which includes
additional electronics. the resolution of interest is the resolution of the complete assembly as
this is what is used to make the measurement.
7. Discuss the importance of calibration with respect to data quality.
A pressure gauge has as a basic reference a master calibration, this verifies the response of
the gauge over its entire operating range and provides a set of coefficients to mathematically
model the gauges response to the actual value being measured. Master calibrations need to be
up to date in order for the gauge to give reliable and meaningful data. Pre and post job
calibrations can yield even better data as they are performed over the expected pressure and
temperature range just prior to and after the job.

Schlumberger
1. Outline the procedures required to condition a well prior to bottom hole sampling.
a) Sampling of a flowing undersaturated well (when GOR = GORi = constant)

The well should be flowing for at least 24 hours, at a minimum stable flow rate ensuring a
maximum column height of monophasic fluid.
The pressure at sampling depth must be at least 100 to 200 psi higher than the saturation
pressure in the fluid column. A good figure is 500 psi.
The well should be clean - in order to eliminate traces of contaminated oil or water, the
stable flowing period should be preceded by a production period equal to 5 to 10 times the
total volume of the tubing string.
The flowing stability can be checked by;
Stabilised gas flow rate, oil flow rate and GOR.
Stabilised well head pressure.
Stabilised pwf (best way to ensure flowing stability).
b) Sampling of a shut-in saturated well (when GOR GORi)
The flow rate should be progressively reduced and then the well shut-in until a stabilised
static pressure is reached. A minimum of 12 hours should elapse before sampling is made,
with a good figure being 24 hours. The shut-in period, however, can be established
according to the build-up data or according to the stability of the wellhead pressure.
A static pressure gradient will be very helpful in detecting a possible presence of water.
When the sampler is at sampling depth, the well should be opened on the smallest possible
choke only to fill the casing around the sampler with fresh reservoir oil, and then shut-in.
Why is this important?
To ensure that the samples are representative.
2. Discuss some practical limitations to pre-conditioning prior to sampling.

Time used to condition the well can often be too long and therefore expensive in rig time. A
sensible compromise needs to be derived.

1. Re-write the following expressions;
(a) Loge ab = Loge a + Loge b
(b) Loge a/b = Loge a - Loge b
(c) Loge xn = n Loge x
2. Solve the following integrals;
1
(a) dx = Loge x + c
x
n x n+ 1
(b) x dx = +c
n+1
3. Starting from a basic cylindrical model for the flow of an incompressible fluid through a
homogeneous system as shown in figure 7-5; and given that from Darcys law and the
equation of state, it can be shown that;
Q k dP
=
2rh dr
Show that the radial flow equation can be derived as follows;
2kh(Pe Pw )
Q =
r
log e e
rw

Schlumberger
Figure 7-5
where Q = volume rate of flow, cc/sec.

k = permeability, darcys.
h = thickness, cm.
= viscosity, centipoise.
Pe = pressure at external boundary, atm.
Pw = pressure at internal boundary, atm.
re = radius to external boundary, cm.
rw = radius to internal boundary, cm.
Q k dP
Starting from = separating the variables gives
2 rh dr
Pe
Q re 1
dP = dr
2kh r r
Pw w
integrating between the limits gives,

Q r
Pe Pw = log e e
2kh rw
re-arranging gives;
2kh( Pe Pw)
Q =
r
log e e
rw

4. A homogeneous infinite reservoir is flowed for 48 hours at a constant stable rate of 4600
bbls/day. The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 4438 psi and the final flowing
pressure was 2835 psi. Data derived from core analysis, and the logging program revealed the
following data;
h = 75 feet. ct = 15 x 10-6 psi-1.

= 1.4 cp. rw = 4 inches.
Bo = 1.47
= 22 %.
A strain gauge recorder placed beneath the tester valve revealed the following data;
Time (Hours) Pressure

After Shut-In (psi)
0.00 2853
0.17 3430
0.33 3480
0.50 3529
0.67 3571
1.00 3636
1.50 3726
2.00 3840
2.50 3960
3.00 4070
3.50 4141
4.00 4180
5.00 4229
6.00 4247
8.00 4267
10.00 4283
12.00 4297
14.00 4307
16.00 4315
18.00 4323
20.00 4330
22.00 4335
24.00 4342
26.00 4345
28.00 4351
30.00 4354
32.00 4358
34.00 4362
36.00 4366
38.00 4368

Schlumberger
Using the Horner semi-log method, calculate the Horner time and then plot the data on a semi-log
graph and calculate the following;
(a) Initial Reservoir pressure (from the graph)
From graph, extrapolated pressure p* = 4440 psi
(b) Permeability.
m = 205 psi/cycle from the graph.
162.6 qB 1626
. q B
So using kh = , k=
m mh
1626
. x 4600 x 1.4 x 1.47
so k = 100 md.
205 x 75
(c) Skin Effect.
p p wf k
Using s = 11513
. 1hour log 10 + 3. 23
m c t r w2
4092 2853 100

s = 11513
. log 10 + 3.23
205 0.22 x 1.4 x 15x10 -6 x (0.33)2
s = -6.31
162.6 qB p p wf k
Use; kh = s = 11513
. 1hour log 10 + 3. 23
m m c t r w2

bbls/day. The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 2500 psi. Data derived from core
analysis, and the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 53 feet. ct = 1.0 x E-05 psi-1.

= 1.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet..
Bo = 1.2
= 15 %.
Time (Hours) Pressure Pressure Derivative

After Shut-In (psi)
1.27 E-03 2.72 E+01 2.98 E+01
1.69 E-03 3.57 E+01 3.45 E+01
2.54 E-03 5.25 E+01 4.96 E+01
3.38 E-03 6.85 E+01 6.32 E+01
4.23 E-03 8.39 E+01 7.62 E+01
5.08 E-03 9.88 E+01 8.84 E+01
6.77 E-03 1.27 E+02 1.10 E+02
8.47 E-03 1.53 E+02 1.37 E+02
1.21 E-02 2.13 E+02 1.60 E+02
1.69 E-02 2.65 E+02 1.79 E+02
2.54 E-02 3.50 E+02 2.22 E+02
3.38 E-02 4.16 E+02 2.34 E+02
4.23 E-02 4.69 E+02 2.37 E+02
5.08 E-02 5.13 E+02 2.34 E+02
6.77 E-02 5.79 E+02 2.21 E+02
1.27 E-01 7.06 E+02 1.79 E+02
1.69 E-01 7.54 E+02 1.58 E+02
2.54 E-01 8.13 E+02 1.34 E+02
3.38 E-01 8.50 E+02 1.23 E+02
4.23 E-01 8.76 E+02 1.16 E+02
5.08 E-01 8.97 E+02 1.13 E+02
6.77 E-01 9.29 E+02 1.09 E+02
8.47 E-01 9.53 E+02 1.06 E+02
1.27 E+00 9.95 E+02 1.02 E+02
1.69 E+00 1.02 E+03 1.01 E+02
2.52 E+00 1.06 E+03 9.91 E+01
3.38 E+00 1.09 E+03 9.76 E+01
4.23 E+00 1.11 E+03 9.80 E+01
5.08 E+00 1.13 E+03 9.79 E+01
6.77 E+00 1.16 E+03 9.74 E+01
8.47 E+00 1.18 E+03 9.71 E+01

Schlumberger
Plot the data on a log-log graph of elapsed time versus pressure change (derivative) and using the
appropriate type curve, figure 7-6, determine;
pD
(i) Pressure match = 0.52/100 = 0.0052
p
t D / CD
(ii) Time match = 11/0.1 = 110
t
(iii) Curve match C De2 s = 100
(a) Permeability.
p
. qB D match
Using kh = 1412
p
1412
. x 900 x 1.2 x 1.5 x 0.0052
k=
53
k = 22.44 md.
kh 0 .000295
Using C = gives
t / C
D D Match

t

22 .44 x 53 x 0.000295
C=
15
. x 110
C = 2.13 x 10-3 bbl/psi.

(c) Skin Effect.
0.8936C 0 .8936 x 0.00213

Now C D =
2
C D = = 284.68
ct h r w 0.15 x 0.00001 x 53 x 0.29 x 0.29
Using s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match

C D

100
s = 0 .5 loge
28468
.
s = -0.52
p kh 0.000295
Use; . qB D match
kh = 1412 C=
p t /C
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
CD =
0.8936C
2

CD
ct h r w

Schlumberger
Figure 7-6

bbls/day. Data derived from core analysis, and the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 50 feet. ct = 4.2 x 10-6 psi-1.

= 2.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet..
Bo = 1.05
= 25 %.
A crystal gauge recorder placed beneath the tester valve recorded data which produced the log-
log plots and semi-log plot shown in figures 7-7 and 7-8.
Using the appropriate type curve determine;
pD
(i) Pressure match = 5.8 x 10-3
p
t D / CD
(ii) Time match = 200
t
(iii) Curve match C De2 s = 10000
(a) Permeability.
p
. qB D match
Using kh = 1412
p
1412
. x 150 x 1.05 x 2.5 x 0.0058
k=
50
k = 6.45 md.

Schlumberger
kh 0 .000295
Using C = gives
t / C
D D Match

t

6 .45 x 50 x 0.000295
C=
2.5 x 200
C = 1.9 x 10-4 bbl/psi.
(c) Skin Effect.
0.8936C 0 .8936 x 0.00019

Now C D =
2
C D = = 38.45
ct h r w 0.25 x 0.0000042 x 50 x 0.29 x 0.29
Using s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match

C D

10000
s = 0 .5 log e
38 .45
s = 2.78
Using the semi-log plot, determine;
(d) Permeability.
m = 204.5 psi/cycle from the graph.
162.6 qB 1626
. q B
So using kh = , k=
m mh
162.6 x 150 x 2 .5 x 1.05

so k = 6.26 md.
204 .5 x 50

(e) Skin Effect.- Given that s can be determined to equal 2.43, discuss the values for
K and s as determined by the different methods.
The semi-log method is a good approximation to the results and can also be used as a control
to the log-log method. We would assume that the log-log method gives more accurate
approximations as it is based on a more complex model and more closely modelled function.
p kh 0.000295
. qB D match .
kh = 1412 C=
p t /C
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
CD =
0.8936C
2

C D
ct h r w

Schlumberger
Figure 7-7

Figure 7-8

Schlumberger
7. A double porosity infinite acting reservoir with wellbore storage and skin is subjected to a
constant drawdown test and build-up. The well was flowed at a stable rate of 900 bbls/day.
The initial static pressure prior to flowing was 4200 psi. Data derived from core analysis, and
the logging program revealed the following data;
h = 53 feet. ct = 1.0 x E-05 psi-1.

= 1.5 cp. rw = 0.29 feet.
Bo = 1.2
= 15 %.

(psi)
1.00 E-03 3.47 3.48
1.25 E-03 4.24 3.83
1.50 E-03 4.99 4.45
2.00 E-03 6.43 5.58
2.50 E-03 7.77 6.56
3.00 E-03 9.05 7.46
4.00 E-03 11.41 8.99
5.00 E-03 13.55 10.22
7.50 E-03 18.15 12.37
1.00 E-02 21.92 13.65
1.25 E-02 25.06 14.34
1.50 E-02 27.71 14.58
2.00 E-02 31.92 14.36
2.50 E-02 35.08 13.66
3.00 E-02 37.50 12.68
4.00 E-02 40.88 10.60
5.00 E-02 43.05 8.73
7.50 E-02 45.87 5.36
0.100 47.09 3.41
0.125 47.70 2.35
0.150 48.07 1.86
0.200 48.53 1.58
0.250 48.88 1.66
0.300 49.19 1.88
0.400 49.80 2.41
0.500 50.39 2.92
0.750 51.78 4.04
1.000 53.07 4.95
1.250 54.26 5.73
1.500 55.36 6.38
2.000 57.34 7.39


(psi)
2.500 59.08 8.11

3.000 60.61 8.61
4.000 63.19 9.23
5.000 65.29 9.55
7.500 69.25 9.85
10.000 72.10 9.94
12.500 74.34 9.96
15.000 76.14 9.97
20.000 79.01 9.98
25.000 81.24 9.98
30.000 83.06 9.99
40.000 85.93 9.99
50.000 88.16 9.99
75.000 92.21 9.99
100.000 95.09 10.00
Plot the data on a log-log graph of elapsed time versus pressure change (derivative) and using
the appropriate type curve determine;
pD
(i) Pressure match = 0.5 / 10 = 0.005
p
t D / CD
(ii) Time match = 210
t
(iii) Curve match ( C D e 2 s )f = 10
(iv) Curve Match ( C D e 2 s )f+m = 0.3
(v) Curve Match e2s = 8 x 10-3

Schlumberger
(a) Permeability.
p
. qB D match
Using kh = 1412
p
1412
. x 900 x 1.2 x 1.5 x 0.05
k=
53
k = 215.8 md.
kh 0 .000295
Using C = gives
t / C
D D Match

t

215.8 x 53 x 0.000295
C=
15. x 210
C = 0.011 bbl/psi.
(c) Skin Effect.
0.8936C 0 .8936 x 0.011

Now C D =
2
C D 0.15 x 0.00001 x 53 x 0.29 x 0.29 = 1470.2
=
ct h r w
Using s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match

CD

10
s = 0.5 log e
1470 .2
s = -2.5

(d) The Storativity ratio .
(C D e 2 s)f +m
Now =
(C D e 2s)f
0 .3
= = 0.03
10
(e) The interporosity flow parameter .
( e 2s)f +m (CD e2 s)f +m

Using =
CD
0 .008 x 0 .3
= = 1.6 x 10-6
1470 .2
p
. qB D match .
kh = 1412
p
kh 0.000295 0.8936C
C= . CD = 2
t /C ct h r w
D D Match

t
s = 05
. log e
( )
C D e 2s Match
. =
( e 2 s) (C D e 2s)
f +m f +m

CD
CD
=
(C De 2 s)
f+m
(C De )f
2 s

Schlumberger
REFERENCES
Chapter 1
Source documents;
1. Reservoir and Production Fundamentals - Schlumberger 1980.
2. Reservoir Fluids Sampling Fundamentals - Schlumberger 1990.
Chapter 2
Source documents;
1. Perforating Services Manual - Reference number SMP-7043-1 - Schlumberger 1995.
Individual documents;
1. Packers and Completion Accessories Catalog - Camco 1986.
2. Subsurface Safety Systems - Camco 1991.
Chapter 3
Source documents;
1. Modern Reservoir Testing - Reference number SMP-7055 - Schlumberger 1994.
2. Perforating Services Manual - Reference number SMP-7043-1 - Schlumberger 1995.
3. Downhole Testing Services Catalogue - Reference number SMP-7015 - Schlumberger 1991.
4. Surface Testing Services Catalogue - Reference number SMP-7042 - Schlumberger 1992.
5. Pressure Gauges Review - Reference number M-073596 - Schlumberger 1990.
Chapter 4
Source documents;
1. Reservoir Fluids Sampling Fundamentals - Schlumberger 1990
2. Surface Testing Services Catalogue - Reference number SMP-7042 - Schlumberger 1992
3. Wireline Formation Testing and Sampling - Reference number SMP ?- - Schlumberger 1996
Introduction to Well Testing Ref-1

References
Chapter 5
Source documents;
1. Modern Reservoir Testing - Reference number SMP-7055 - Schlumberger 1994.
Individual documents;
1. Well Test Interpretation Course Manual - written by Flopetrol, Melun France 1983 - Updated 1991..
Chapter 6
Source documents;
1. A Nodal Approach for Applying Systems Analysis to the Flowing and Artificial Lift Oil or Gas Well
- Joe Mach, Eduardo Proano (Schlumberger) and Kermit Brown (University of Tulsa).
2. Systems Analysis as Applied to Producing Wells - Joe Mach, Eduardo Proano (Schlumberger) and
Kermit Brown (University of Tulsa).
Individual References;
1. Vogel, J.V., Inflow Performance Relationships For Solution-Gas Drive Wells, J. Pet. Tech. (January
1968) 83 - 92.
2. Standing, M.B., Upflow Performance Relationships for Damaged Wells Producing by Solution - Gas
Drive, J. PET. Tech. (November 1970) 1399 - 1400.
3. Standing, M.B., Concerning the Calculation of Inflow Performance of wells Producing From Solution
Gas Drive Reservoirs, J. Pet. Tech. (September 1971) 1141 - 1142.
4. Fetkovich, M.J., The Isochronal Testing of Oil Wells SPE Paper No. 4529, 48th Annual Fall Mtg.
of SPE of AIME, Las Vegas, Nevada, (September 30 - October 3, 1973).
5. Hagerdorn, A.R. and Brown, K.E.: Experimental Study of Pressure Gradients Occurring During
Continuous Two Phase Flow in Small Diameter Vertical Conduits, J. Pet. Tech. (April 1965) 475 -
484.
6. Orkiszewski, J., Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Vertical Pipes. J. Pet. Tech. (June 1967)
829 - 838.
7. Duns, H., and Ros, N.C.J.: Vertical Flow of Gas and Liquid Mixtures in Wells, Proc., 6th World
Pet. Congress (1963) 451.
8. Beggs, H.D. and Brill, J.P.: A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes, J. Pet. Tech. (May
1973) 607 - 617.
Introduction to Well Testing Ref-2

Well Testing

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Introduction to Well Testing

CQG Customized Sapphire

Schlumberger Wireline & Testing

Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 2

Section 1.0 Basic Reservoir Engineering

1.1 Introduction - (Course Objectives)........................................................................... 1-3

1.2 History .................................................................................................. 1-3

1.3 Geology Recap .................................................................................................. 1-4

1.3.1 Rock Classification ...................................................................................... 1-4

1.4 Interacting Forces, Saturation And Displacement...................................................... 1-9

1.4.1 General .................................................................................................. 1-9

1.5 Fluid Properties .................................................................................................. 1-13

1.5.1 Components Of Hydrocarbon ......................................................................... 1-14

1.6 Phase Behaviour .................................................................................................. 1-17

1.6.1 Phase Behaviour Of A Single Component System ............................................. 1-17

Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 3

1.7 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms .............................................................................................1-22

1.7.1 Oil Reservoirs..............................................................................................1-22

Section 2.0 Completion Technology And Types

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................2-3

2.2 Completion Components .........................................................................................2-3

2.2.1 Production Tubulars .....................................................................................2-4

2.3 Completion Techniques ..........................................................................................2-12

2.3.1 General ...................................................................................................2-12

2.4 Completion Types ..................................................................................................2-12

2.4.1 Natural Completions .....................................................................................2-14

2.5 The Effects Of Drilling On Completions..................................................................2-17

2.5.1 Pre-Formation Drilling..................................................................................2-17

Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 4

Section 3.0 Practical Well Testing

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 3-3

3.1.1 Productivity Well Testing............................................................................. 3-3

3.2 Test Design .................................................................................................. 3-6

3.3 Tubing Conveyed Perforating - Tcp ........................................................................ 3-10

3.3.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-10

3.4 Drill Stem Testing Tools - Dst................................................................................. 3-19

3.4.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-19

3.5 Subsurface Safety Systems ..................................................................................... 3-26

3.5.1 General .................................................................................................. 3-26

Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 5

3.6 Surface Testing Equipment ..............................................................................................3-28

3.6.1 General ...................................................................................................3-28

3.7 Data Acquisition ...................................................................................................3-36

3.7.1 General ...................................................................................................3-36

3.8 Special Applications ...............................................................................................3-46

3.8.1 High Pressure High Temperature - HPHT .........................................................3-46

Section 4.0 Sampling Of Reservoir Fluids

4.1 Sampling Procedures Design ...................................................................................4-3

4.1.1 Samples Representivity .................................................................................4-3

4.2 Sampling Of Oil Reservoirs ....................................................................................4-8

4.2.1 Preliminary Conditions On Oil Reservoirs........................................................4-8

Introduction to Well Testing (Aug 1996) TOC - 6

4.3 Sampling Gas Reservoirs........................................................................................ 4-10

4.3.1 Preliminary Considerations On Gas Reservoirs.................................................. 4-10

4.4 Sampling Of Volatile Oil Reservoirs........................................................................ 4-13

4.5 Bottom Hole Sampling ........................................................................................... 4-15

4.5.1 Well Conditioning For Bottom Hole Sampling ................................................ 4-15

4.6 Surface Sampling .................................................................................................. 4-19

4.6.1 Well Conditioning For Surface Sampling......................................................... 4-19

4.7 Sampling Of Formation Water ............................................................................... 4-29

4.7.1 Formation Water Sampling Methods............................................................... 4-29

4.8 Sampling Equipment............................................................................................. 4-31

4.8.1 Bottom Hole Sampling Equipment................................................................. 4-31

4.9 Fluid Analysis And Uses Of Data ........................................................................... 4-36