3.

Study of flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insect)

Pollination is a prerequisite for fertilization in plants.

Pollination may be self or Autogamy or
By cross pollination through biotic or abiotic agents Geitonogamy and Xenogamy.

Abiotic agencies are wind and water.

Biotic agencies are insects, birds, bats, snails and other animals.

Anemophily or Wind Pollination is the simplest form of pollination through wind.

AIM: To study the characteristic or adaptive features of flowers those are pollinated by
wind Anemophily and insects- Entomophily.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Fresh flower specimens, Magnifying glass and Dissection microscope.

PROCEDURE:
Collect fresh flowers and study the features like type of petals, stamens and types of
pollen grains, presence of nectar glands.
Draw labelled diagrams of the flowers and record your observations.
Observations: The following characters are observed:

The characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers:

1.Flowers are usually large, brightly-colored and scented to attract insects. If the flowers
are small they may group together to form conspicuous inflorescences.
2. Nectar is often present to attract insects.
3. Pollen is fairly abundant. Pollen grains are large sticky and heavy, usually with rough
surfaces so that they can readily cling onto the insects bodies.
4. Stamens may not be pendulous.
5. Stigmas are usually not feathery and do no protrude. They are sticky so that pollen
grains settling on them are not easily displaced.
6. Nectar guides may be seen on the petals.

The characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers:

1.Flowers are usually small, dull-colored and scentless and thus not attractive to insects.
2. Nectar is usually absent.
3. Pollen is abundant as wastage is higher. Pollen grains are small, dry, smooth and light
so that they are buoyant and easily blown about by air currents.
4. Stamens usually have long, slender filaments that sway in the slightest wind and pollen
grains are hence shaken out from the anthers.
5. Stigmas protrude and are large and feathery so that they provide a large surface area to
catch pollen floating in the air.
6. Nectar guides are absent.
4. Study and identify stages of gamete development (permanent slides)

Sexual reproduction is a process that involves the formation of male and female gametes
and their union to form a single cell that represents the beginning of a new individual
with diverse genetic identity.
Gametogenesis is the formation of gametes for sexual reproduction. Gametogenesis is
carried out in the gonads; spermatogenesis is the production of sperms in the testis and
oogenesis is the formation of ova in the ovary.

AIM:
To study the transverse section of Mammalian testis.

Materials Required:
Permanent slide of the specimen, compound microscope.

Observation:
1. The testis is covered by a thick fibrous tunica albuginea.
2. The seminiferous tubules are embedded in the interstitial tissues.
3. The wall of each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium from which
sperms originate by meiosis.
4. Various types germinal cell development are onserved from outside to the lumen
as follows:
Spermatogonia----Spermatocytes-----Spermatids----Spermatozoa---Sperms.
5. Pyramid-shaped cells called Sertoli cells are interspersed between the germinal
cells and provide nourishment for the growth of the spermatocytes.
6. Cluster of spermatozoa are observed with their heads embedded in the Sertoli cells.
7. Certain specialized cells called Leydig cells that are endocrine in function occur in
the interstitial tissues.
AIM:
To study the transverse section of Mammalian ovary.

Materials Required:
Permanent slide of the specimen, compound microscope.

Observation:
1. The ovary is covered outside by a thick fibrous tunica albuginea.
2. The next layer is the germinal epithelium which during embryonic life proliferate
thousands of primordial follicles.
3. The stroma is composed of fibrous connective tissue which is differentiated into
outer cortex and inner medulla.
4. The cortex contains thousands of tiny undeveloped ovarian follicles.
5. Medulla contains only blood vessels and nerve fibres.
6. Different stages of oogonia surrounded by follicular cells are found in the cortex.
7. A fully mature ovarian follicle is called a Graafian follicle. It has an outer
multilayered membrana granulosa formed of 2 - 3 layers of follicle.
8. The graafian follicle has a follicular cavity or antrum filled with a colourless
follicular fluid.
9. After ovulation the remnants of the follicle turns into the corpus luteum made up
of large conical yellowish cells that serves as a temporary endocrine gland.
10. The regressing corpus luteum or corpus albicans is also observed.
5. Study meiosis in onion bud cell through permanent slide.

Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are produced.
Meiosis involves a reduction in the amount of genetic material.

Aim: To study meiosis in onion flower buds by observing permanent slide preparation.

Materials required: Permanent slides of meiosis, compound microscope.

Observation:

Meiosis is made up by two subsequent processes.

Prophase I
DNA replication precedes the start of meiosis I.
It is a long phase that is subdivided into different stages:
leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakinesis.

During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair and form synapses, a step unique to
meiosis.
The paired chromosomes are called bivalents, and the formation of chiasmata caused by
genetic recombination becomes apparent.
Chromosomal condensation allows these to be viewed in the microscope.
The bivalent has two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming
from each parent.
The nuclear membrane disappears.
One kinetochore forms per chromosome rather than one per chromatid, and the
chromosomes attached to spindle fibres begin to move.

Metaphase I
Bivalents, each composed of two chromosomes (four chromatids) align at the metaphase
plate.
The orientation is random, with either parental homologue on a side.

Anaphase I
Chiasmata separate.
Chromosomes, each with two chromatids, move to separate poles.
Each of the daughter cells is now haploid (23 chromosomes), but each chromosome has
two chromatids.

Telophase I
Nuclear envelopes may reform, or the cell may quickly start meiosis II.

Meiosis II
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis.
However, there is no "S" phase.
The chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical because of recombination.
Meiosis II separates the chromatids producing two daughter cells each with half the
number of chromosomes (haploid), and each chromosome has only one chromatid.
6. Study of embryogenesis-Blastula stage through permanent slide.

Aim: To study the blastula stage of embryogenesis through permanent slide.

Materials required: Permanent slide of blastula and a compound microscope.

Most animals, including humans, go through the development of the zygote into an
embryo proceeds through specific recognizable stages of blastula, gastrula, and
organogenesis.

During the first stage of development, the fertilized egg, or zygote, divides quickly in a
process called cleavage.
The first divisions of the zygote create the morula, which is a solid ball of cells.
Solid morula develops into hollow, fluid-filled blastula

Then the blastula forms when the dividing cells, or blastomeres, create a layer called the
blastoderm surrounding the central cavity, or blastocoel.

Blastulation occurs about five days after the egg is fertilized.

The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-
filled or yolk-filled cavity (the blastocoel).

Mammals at this stage form a structure called the blastocyst, characterized by an inner
cell mass that is distinct from the surrounding blastula.

Observation:

Thus the blastocyst contains

a cluster of cells called the embryoblast or inner cell mass,
a blastocoel
an external layer of cells called the trophoblast.