1st FISC

TABLEOF CONTENTS
- Continued

THIRDSESSION- RESERVOIR
SEDINENTATION
RFaSERVOIR SEDIMENTATIONSURVEYS - OBJECTIVES ANDNETHODS.byAlbertS. Fry. ........ 115
Discussion by Harold N. Murray, John A. Morrison, Charles 18. Thomas,J. W. Johnson,
andCol.C.L.Ha3.l ............................... ..12 3
-ANALYBISANDUs OFRESERVOIR SEDINENTATION DATA,by L. C. Gottschalk ........... 131
DisCussion by M. G. Barclay, Y. A. Churchill, Gail A. Hathaway, L. C. Gottschalk, and
Victor H. Jones . 138
El?mWrs OF E33mdmu 0N 6&&*&0i3ii.&~~*0~ i&s'&'ti~~o;Rs,'~ kie;t*E: E0idG* . 142
Mscussion by Lester C. Walker, Oliver Johnson, Clarence Pedersen, H..O. Westby,
GerardH. Matthes, and AlbertE. Coldwell ..................... .15'7
Select Papers FOURTHSESSION-RIVEHS,FLOODWAYSANDCANALS
EFFECTSOFDA&SONCHANNELBEGINEN.by,J.W.Stanley ................... .163
Mscussion by D. C. Bondurant, S. W. Stanley, and R. H. Rupkey .. ; .......... 166
CAUSESANDEFFECTS OF CHANNEL ANDFLOODWAY AGGRADATION, by Victor H. Jones ......... 168
Mscussion by Robert c. Lord Stafford c. Happ ................... .178
STABILIgATIONOFBANKSOF STREANS OF THELGVfER ALLUVIALVALLEYOFTHEMISSISSIPPIRIVER,
hyCharles Senour .. ................................. 185
Mscussion.by Bllliam H. Berry, John T. O'Brien, and E. 0. Stephenson.......... 193
OPERATIONANDNAINTENANCEOFCANALS.byA. R. Goloe .................... 200
DiecussionbyR.H.RupkeyandNarendraK. Berry .................... 204

FIFTH SESSION
- LABORATORY
INVESTIGATIONS
DEVELOPNENT OF THEMKXANICSOFSEDIMENT TRANSPORTATION, by Vito A. Vanoni . . . . . . . . . 209
Msoussion by M. A. Ma son, Parker D. Trask, and H. A. Einstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
APPLICABILITYOFUNXLSTUDIES TOSEDIMENTPROBLEMB INNAVIGATIONCHANNEIS, by
H. B. Simmons ,G. B. Fenwick, and C. B. Patterson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Mseussion bp D. J. Hebert aud Robert T. Knapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
~~TO~~~~~~THTHE:~~~~~W~~BEBIETRoDoFSIzE~~pSIs,$r
. . . . . . . 235
M&u&on by &t&'E: ieis&; &*'A: ia&: E;1: kil; ~.'~~t~h~li 1 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . 243
SIXTHSESSION
- SEDINENTATION
CONTROL
HOWEFFECTIVE ARESOIL CONSERVATION MEASHRES IN SEDIMENTATION CONTROL? by Carl B. Brown . . 259
Mscusaion by H. V. Peterson and Evan L. Glory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
DESIGNANDOPERATIONOFDEBRIS BASINS,byB. H.Dodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...274
Mscusaion by H. C. Storey, W. J. Parsons, Jr., and J. H. Douma . . . . . . . . , . . . . 294
WATERSHEDMANAGEMENTFORSEDIMENT CONTROL,by ReedW. Bailey and GeorgeW. Craddock . . . . 3 02
MscussionbyRalf R. Woolleyandlf. J.Endersbee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
 FOURTHSESSION- RIQRS,FLOODWAYSAND CANALS
H. W. Murray,* Presiding

J. W. Stanley.=

Introduction

The principal purpose of this paper is to show how some of the information gained from
measurements on the Colorado River, aft&r constxuction of Hoover Dam, may be used in investiga-
tions of other streama to determine the effect of construction of dsms. To that end, It Contains
a brief review of Colorado River measurements, with general discussion of the applicability to
other streams. For a more detailed review of the Colorado River measurements the reader is re-
ferred to the "Annual. Report of River Control Work and Investigations, Lower Colorado River Bash,
Calendar Year 1945," iBSUSa by the Regional Director of the Bureau of Reclamation, Region 3,
Boulder city, Nev.
Applicability of Colorado River Data to Other Streams

Degradation Immediately Downstream from Dams

Probably the greatest source of surprise to those who study for the first time the action!3
of the Colorado River after construction of Hoover and other dams is the fact that the rate of
scour aownstrettm from the dams has been rapid, an8 that there is progressive lowering of the
stresmbea as the years pass. When it is realized, hudever, that most of the drainage below
Hoover Dam is quite arid and therefore the contribution of sediment from txibutsxies and waEJhes in
that area IS smdl in quantity, it is seen that the tendency must be for the clear water to scour
the channel as long as erodible material remains in the stream bed. The scouring action will con-
tinue downstream to the point where the stream has picked up a capacity load as aetmmima by the
elope ana discharge.
On streams where the contribution of sediment from trtributsries snd side washes is appreciable,
it mey happen that the rate of scour on tie main stream bed is slow. Under extreme d,rcum&,s,nces,
there could even be gradual aggradation. This could happen where upstream water depletions were
conelderable, and the remaining regulated flow was insufficient to keep the channel clear. The
condition would also be s&graVated should the txfbutarles deposit on the main stream bed material
coarser than the regulated flow could remove.
On streams where sg@?adatiOn takes place to the extent that it $ecomes objectionable it msy
be necessary to build debris dame on the tributaries to trap the se,cUment before it reaches the
main stem. If this is impracticable, chsnnelization and levee building will be reqdr& on the
main stream.

w Chief, H&&ographic Surveys Section, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
* Engineer, Office of River Conlrol, Region 3, Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder City, Nev.
Aggradation Upstream from Dams
It has been noted on the Colorado River that any obstruction in the channel will cause
aggradation on the stream bed for some distance upstream. Examples of this tendency occurred
for many years before Hoover Dem was constructed. One of the outstanding examples is in the
alluvial valley section near Needles, Calif., where a gradual rise has been in progress for many
years, averaging about one-third of a foot per year since the beginning of records. A pert of
the obstruction in this instance ms.y have been the narrow canyon section at the upper end of
what is now Ravasu Lake, and a pert mey have been gravel bars deposited in the stream from side
washes. Similarly, Laguna Dam, built in 1909, caused deposit of sediment on the river bed for
many miles upstream. Imperial, al so a comparatively low dam, has caused deposit for a distance
of 55 miles upstream.
Probably the two most important factors influencing the distance to which the deposit will
reach upsixeem from a dam are the slope of the stream end the size gradation of the materiel
carried in suspension. Another factor to be considered in relation to the above two is the
quantity of material normally brought into the stream from tributaries. In a river such as the
lower Coloraao, the slope generalLJiwo6i.d be termed medium, the material now transported would
be termed coerse, and the quantity of sediment washed into the stream is negligible in proportion
to the mount transported by the s+xeam itself. The combination of these factors would tend to
make such distances on the Colorado average.
On streams where the character of the river bed material is exceptionally fine, the tendency
would be toward short distances over which aeposit would occur, the aistances lengthening as
amount of material from side drainegs increased. With coarse bed material and appreciable quan-
tities of material from side drainege, the deposit will occur over long distances.
Slope Changes Caused by Construction of Dams
When Hoover Dam was closea, the river bed slope for about one hundred miles downstream
avereged approximately 1.5 feet per mile. Now, twelve years later, the slope for the first
thirteen miles is 2.1 feet per mile, for the next thirteen miles, 1.9, and for next 39 miles, 1.7.
feet per mile. Over the next 30 miles, the slope has been reduced to 1.3 feet per mile. The
next ten miles of river, in the swempy valley near Needles, Calif., is flowing on an average slope
of 1.8 feet per mile.
Samples of bed material t&en at the river sections show that material now exposed near the
dam, encl for 26 miles downstre.Gm, is too coarse to be moved. This slope therefore is stabilized
at approximately two feet per mile, The slope at which the next 39 miles will beccme stabilized
is dependent upon the remaining depth to the coarse gravel. Under natural conditions it will be
many years before appreciable scour will take place at the lower end of the next reach, where
about four feet of deposit has now accumulated. It is probable, however, that this condition will
be relieved by artificial means within the next few years.
The scour which has taken place below the Perker end mperial Dams has not been accompanied
by steeper slopes, the scour in general being more nearly uniform because of more nearly uniform
material in the river bed.
It appears from experience on the Colorado thai if the bed material becomes progressively
finer docmstreem, or if depths tc coerse material increase with distance downstream from the dam,
the ultimate slope in the scoured area will be steeper than the initial. If the material is uni-
form in character at various aepths and distances, the ultimate slope should be about the same as
the initial. And only if the material is fine for a considerable depth near the dam, increasing
in coatxcsness with distance from the dam, will the final slope in the scoured area be less steep
than the initial.
Incj.ggradea'areas, onthe other hand, the ultimate slope normallywillbeless steep than
the initial regardless of the character of the material, because eggradation usually is caused
by an obstruction in the channel. Under this condition the building up begins at the obstruction
and progresses upstream. !l%is is true of the aggraded ereae Ubediately upstream from Imperial
Dam, the present average slope over the first 22 milee upstresmbeing 0.7 feet per mile compared
with about 1.0 at the time of Closure of the dam. For the next 22 miles the slope now averages
1.0 feet per mile compared with 1.3 initially. An exception to this general rule is noted, how-
ever, in the velley section in the vicinity of Neeakm , Calif. Depth of deposit in this area has
averaged nearly four feet. Yet, an initial average bed slope of 1.6 feet per mile in the lower
ten miles of the valley has increased to 1.8 at present. The reason for this condition appears
to be that the deposit was not caused entirely by an obstruction at the lower end.; but partly by
deteriorating channel conditions which resulted in excessive awsmp growth, forcing the water to
filter through the vegetation, dropping its sediment load as it progressed downstiesm. Somewhat
similar condition at the upper end of the waded area upstream from Imperial Dam may partially
explain why the deposit has extended such a great distance.
Effect of Dcunson Meendering
A C-II tendency of alluvial stresms in their virgin condition, heavily laden with sediment,
is toward considerable meander. There is much evidence of this action having taken place in
the early history of the Colorado in those sreas where the river flows through valley sections.
Observations on this river since construction'of the &mas indicate that the tendency toward
meander is eliminated elmost entirely in those areas subject to lowering. In the a&graded areas
the tendency appears to still exist, although the result usually is form&ion of swsmp land
rather than an actual meandering river.
In the area below Hoover Dam, where a stabilized river bed has formed, the river is confined
to canyon sections. There is, therefore, no opportunity for meander in this area, and the ques-
tion as to whether meander will occur sfter the maximum lowering has taken place is unanswered
by this example. Downstream from Parker Dam, lowering is still in progress, with no terdency
toward meander. In fact, in this sxea, the river has shortened its course by about five miles
by cutting across an ox-bow. Inthe areabetweenLe,gunaDamandthe Internationalboundary, the
river flows through a deposit of rather fine material, and has scoured its bed to depths of
four to ten feet. There has been only minor tendency to meander in this area, but the scouring
action is continuing.
There is m evidence to indicate that a river would begin to meander after it had scoured
its bed to a maximum depth. Neither is it entirely reasonable to expect that it would start to
attack the banks after its load had been eliminated if it were not attacking them before. A
tentative cor+clusion regarding mean&er, therefore, is that a river free of sediment load will
tend to maintain a relatively straight chsnnel.
Estimating Future Scour of River Bed
There are many va;riables affecting the rate, as well as the smount, of scour which will take
place in a river bea after construction of d.sms on the stream. Therefore, the problem of pre-
dicting the exact rate and amount to be expected is a ccmplicatd one. A hint of a possible
solution is found, however, in the records of measurements on the Colorado River.
Early in the study of sedimentation on the Colorado it was found that the suspended load
carried by the river varied approximately as the square of the discharge, other variables remain-
ing constant. After about ten years of record hsd been accumulated, it was decided to test the
applicability of this theory to the smount of sediment the scouring Colorado River had actually
ccpried. Results of the computations for the srea between Hoover Dam and Davis Dsm exe shown on
Figure A. It will be noted that the chart begins with the year 1937, this being the first year
in which measurements were extended as far downstream as Davis Dam. Considering that all data
used in prepsring the disgrsm sre from field measurements, without laboratory-type control, the
points have a surprisingly small degree of scatter. Future rat&s ana voluppss of scour could be
estimated from the chsrt with reasonable accuracy if future actual discharges wefe known.

The possibility of applying the method

to other stresns for the purpose of estimat-
ing the scour to be expected, titer con-
struction 09 dams, Is interesting. It will
be nOtea that the diagram sh0wf3only the
rata of scour plotted sgainst time, snd
therefore the effects of such variables as
slope, alinement, and size composition of the
river bed are eliminated. If a smooth cuz~
could be maintained by applying corrections
to the rate of scour, the corrections to be
determined by slope and slinement changes
and che.ngeSin size composition, the chart
should then be applicaljle to other stresms.
'Measurements Which Should De Made for Study of Rivers
Measurements made on the Colorado River since construction of Hoover Dam have been of in-
estimable value from the standpoint of resesrch as well as operating procedure. They are be-
lieved to be adequate for the solution of most operating problems. For purposes of research,
however, they would have had greater value had they been more extensive in certain respects.
It would be desirable, for example, to measure the water surface elevations at close in-
tervals, say one-half mile, or even 1,000 feet, if possible. Sam-plea of river bed material
8hOula be taken also at the above intervals of distance. The water surface elevations should be
measured about once every two months, and the bed samples taken once or twice each yeear. Before
beginning the program of measurements, borings should be made at these locations to determine
the character of material below the stream bed. The Soundin@; of cross-sections, spaced generslly
at one or two, or even five, mile intervals, would need be made only once each yesr or two, ex-
cept in areas of especial interest. Gaging stations should be established at close enough in-
tervals so that the dischsrge in any given area could be aStermined accurately. !Durbiaimeter
meamremrmta to Indicate how far the clear water extends below the surface should be made at ten
to twenty mile interval8 at the same time the water surface elevations are measured. Samples
of suspended sediment should be taken at the ssme time and-locations as the turbidimeter measure-
ments. Accurate aerial surveys shouldbe made every two or three years as 811economical and
convenient method for checking on laterialmovement and other changes adjacent to the river.
Such a program of measurements should furnish empls information for purposes of research on
problems connected with the river.

DISCUSSIOR
D.C. BONDURANT.* I have had the opportunity of going through the Colorado River area with
Mr. Stanley. There is very little I could add to his paper. He is to be highly commendedfor
the wsy in which he has analyzed an izunense smount of data for presentation in the limited time
available.
Mr. Stanley has stated that there appears to be little if any tendency for meandering in a
degrading channel below a reservoir. I believe that this question is deserving of further anaJy-
sis, particularly in respect to the formative period before the degrading channel become8 stabil-
ized. In the beginning the degradation will tend to reach a maximum immediately below the dam
sndwilthenwork downstream. In this period it is inevitable that the slope will be flattened
temporarily. In order to regain a slope approximating the original, the channel must be straight-
ened with a consequent cutting on the inside of the bends, This effect will depend in large
measure on the depth to material which will provide an armored bed and on the alopes and channel
dimensions required for the controlled releases; but it is almost axiomatic that a stream will
tend to create a channel wherein the energy requiredlfor flow approaches as nearly the critical
as physical conditions will permit. Below the Conchas Dam in New Mexico and below the John
Martin Dam in Colorado the tendency to cut the inside of the bends is noticeable; degradation
below both these structures being yet in the formative stage.
On the Missouri River one'of the criteria for the design of a stable channel was to obtain
a given slope, generally by controlling the location and curvature of the meander. There ie
quite a geographical difference between the Missouri River and the Conchas Dam; but there appeera
to be a similarity of action.
Since I cannot add greatly to Mr. Stanley's paper, it might be of interest to you to note
that we are now attempting to design a project which will be dependent on the application of
analyses such as Mr. Stanley has presented. Instead of de8igning a structure wherein degradation
is merely incidental we are attempting to design a project wherein a controlled degradation csn
be obtained by the proper use of the struotures.
Aggradation on Rio Grade is a very serious problem and one of the highly important results
reqUb3a in OU32 iXTVSStigatiOn i8 the COnb?Ollea aegLX,a&iOn Of the Sb%am %II Order t0 X?edUCe ftiOa
dsmsge, improve drainage, and reclaim some land8 which have become seeped to the point that they
are nolongeruseful. The most satisfactory solution to date is the provision of reservoirs
which will not only povide flood control and regulation of flow but which will also result in a

* Albuquerque District, Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army, Albuquerque, IV. Mex.
166
definite degradation. Such degradation has been accomplished with the aid of some channel works
and a flow of approximately 2,000 c.f.s. in Rio Grande below Caballo Dam, which is evidence that
it can be done elsewhere.
I have a few preliminary figures which were derived for the study at hand. I do not want
these data accepted as final because a more comprehensive study is now being made; but they are
illustrative. The acceptable maximum controlled releases will aggregate 5,000 c.f.s. through
Middle Rio Grande Valley as compared to the 2,000 c.f.s. discharges below Caballo Dem. Results
of 30 or 40 surface bed samples show that below Caballo there are now remaining practically no
materisls of size leas than one-tenth millimeter while similar samples above Elephant Butte
Reservoir show about 25 percent smaller than one-tenth milltiter. It is logical to believe
that originally the proportion of fine materials below Caballo exceeded the proportion of fines
above Elephant Butte. A.few samples of suspenrled sediments taken at Albuquerque with the D-43
sampler (which is by far the most accurate sampler to date with respect to the larger particle
sizes) show that the suspended materials compare closely in analysis with the bed materials.
This verirles the belief that the material will be moved. These data, to be used for design,
are closely allied to the data derived from experience by %?r. Stanley and are presented as a
matter of interest in that respect.

J. W. STANLEY. There is an additional point I should like to mention in connection with Mr.
Bondurant's comments regarding meander of streams. As stated in the paper which I present&,
our conclusion is only tentative. It msy be that our experience on the Colorado River, where
the tendency to meancler appears to have been reduced appreciably, has influenced us unduly. In
this connection, however, I wish to refer back to a point which Mr. Matthes brought up yesterday
regarding the effect of dissolved solids on sediment deposit in the delta regions. I amsure
that the effect of dissolved solids on the deposits along the Colorado River, and probably on
most rivers, is a very important one. There are places on the Colorado River where the banks
appear to be composea almost entirely of fine sand, standing on sn almost vertical slope. The
sand grains appear to be-looeely cemented together, and the scouring action of the river seems
to have little effect on the banks, except in isolated instances, So far as I know, the psrtic-
ular effect of dissolved solids on sehiment deposits has not been studied to any extent on the
Colorado River, but I wanted to get it into the record here as one of the things to which more
consideration should be given.

(QUESTION) I rould like to ask if samples have been taken ef the bed material down deep,
and ifse &nd out what ie there as an aid in helping to predict just hew scour will occur.

Cur measurements in that reepect are not nearly
early days, before construction of Hoover Dam, there
bed and the banks irmnecliately below Hoover Dam, and
as extensive as would have been desirable, and there
then.
as extensive as we should like. In the
were a number of borings made in thelriver
some further down the river. They were not
has been no work of that kind done since

R. H. RUPKEY* I was employed on the construction of Headgate Rock Dam, below Packer Dam, and
concerning that subject (the type of material), in excavating the out-off trench we noted very
little difference in the type of material. Across the stream, as we went deeper, there were
some very thin strata of gravel, but below that was fine material again, mixed with d.ebris aM
trash, pine needles, etc., an& I think that there will be no great change in the material as the
bed is scoured deeper.

* office of Indian Affairs, Phoenix, Ariz.

:167
 By Victor H. Jones++

Abstract
The problem of channel and floods aggradation a8 a reflection of accelerated modern
erosioa rates ie described. Accelerated a@radation refere to modern increasee in &ream aud
valley eedimeoltatiou rates uuder cultural 3nfluencee ae oontzasted to namnal geologio rates.
The chief cause of accelerated aSSmd&ion is accelerated erosion produce$ by removal of vege-
tation and exploitloe agriculture on uplauds. The ten chief effects of accelerated deposition
are lieted. S03.l Conservation fmrveys of accelerated alluvial depoeition in 4 tqpicail. valley8
are described: (1) the Little Tallabatchie River Basin in northern Mdsaiseippl, (2) the White-
water River Barrin in Xlrmesota, (3) the Briar Creek Basin in the West Croee Tlmbere of Texas,
and (4) the Middle Rio GmndeValley, Erosion ratee a8 reflected in eediment deposite'&amred
inthesevalleyerangefrom0.~ inches to 0.09 Inches enmallyduringtheperioda of accelerated
erosion. Difficulties 3.nevaluat%nSacoelerated deposition in the areaa of clay &mdsilt soil.6
andunder4iagrockformtione are explained.
GeneralStatenmntof theProblam
hrbg the past 20 yeare several new types of @3oloSioal end e@neeriuS research have Deen
developed or improved to aeeiat the broad national program of conservation a& land bprovwmnt
and flood oonixol. Oneof these Is.8 etudy of aacslerated deposition of sediment in channels,
floodweys, and resermira. Inthlhiareport special~ie is placedupontheproblems of ac-
celerated ageradation ae related to these program. In order to introduce the mbjeot of thie
discuesion the following definition ie proposed: Accelerated agSradat%oonrefers to modern in-
0reaeeBinetreamendvalley sedimentationrates~ cultural~luences ae aontraetedto
nonml geologia rates.
sedimsnfatlon, slxeem bank erosion, and scour of valley lax&e by floo& watere are natural
geological processee whioh ocmr at various rata in all alluvial valleya. Sedimentation, at
relatively slow rates, is reeponaible for the formation of the fertile, alluvial oalley depoelta
which support muohof the meet prod otlve egri&%ire in the world. Romal rate8 of eedimmta-
tionarerelatlvelyelow. There l?2 iv04 thin depoelte of fine-textured, fertile eedlment laid
downby normal seaeonal floode exe lare4 beneficial to pemanent, productive a&culture. It
is neither possible nor desirable to prment eJJ. mch eed%mentationin all valleys.
Modem alluvial deposition, howemr, is proceedinS at rate6 COmiderably hi&er than normal
3nmanyvalleyebothlarSe andmall intheWnltedStateswhere aoceleratederoelonhaa developed
upon the surround.ing up-. The chief objeatives of the current stream and valley etudles are
to deternIlne theme accelerated rates of depoeition end the* effecta upon the national eov,
to erplaintheirrelationehipe to acceleratederoeion,and,todevieenriaue toreduce eedZnmxta-
tion dtulagea.
The za%.Iol~al cause of acoelerated aSgradation ie accelerated erosion reaultlng from ammval
of natural vegetation aud cultivation or graelPg of upland areas without eroelon control. other
contribut~factora ina~aresebsvebeaneffluentsbeariogefroagohsmicrdleAPrminduetsial
planta, acid fuum from ore refinerlee, and eroeion in road ditches. Clear5ng and cultivation
of sombottmshaareaulted in~reaeedbaukeroeionwhichprodum?dlarSe quantitlee of sandmd
graveL In the early d.qe of the peizoleum inaustry conelaerable- meat3 of,land were denudedof
vegetaticmby eelinewaterefromthewelle. Artificial ehucttlree such aa amIk3,Inages, ena
roadfilUlnval.leys~te acteleratedlocal depoeition.
The Chief effects of acuelerated deposltion may be alaiselfid info ten oateS&.eei

* Re@nmal%dimentatio~Spe~ialie;E;~
-. ._ BegiOn IV, SO~!,C!~sroati~n Service, Fort Worth, TeX.

1681
 1. Burial of fertile alluvial soils by less fertile sediment.
2. Filling of chamele, causing increased flood heights and frequencies.
3. Impairment of draInage, withaccompany~rlse inhel&tofwater tekle
and lncreaae in mtmpyareas.
4. Dsmeges to navigation on large sk%m~~~and In harbors (not thoroughly proved).
5. Increases in cost0 of treatslent of water supply (from inffe=ea turaiaits).
6. damages to grm crops.
7. Damages
to roads, bridges end railroads.
8. m?mn amagee by sediment deposition andtncreased flood heQhts.
9. Dsmages to reoreationd. facilities.
10. Accessmy scour damages (not satisfactorily prove&).
Occ~nces of substantial valley sedimentation damage are not limited to auy specific
physiographic or topographic type. In the unit43astates accelerated valley deposition Is known
.. in three generd. type8 o;P physiographic environments, and the distribution of these areas Is,
3ndlcafealnFlgurel.

a. Thi pS9damm env3ronmmtZM1ud.es narrc~~beltsbarderinghighmountalnrsnges suchas

theWaeatch~tinUteh~epeotacularand~dameglsgboulderdeposl~sndmudflaws
have &estraymdbothfarmlads durbaudevelopmnts. Studies by the Departmnt of Agriculture
andotherFetkuxblan8Stateagencieehave shawnthatremooalofforestcoverorooerep-azingon
aajacent high nmdain area83 haa wea these proceseea. The piedmcmt envkroment also
include0 relatively broad belts such as the Ap~~~~hi~ Piedmont Plateau where continuous crop-
ping on laud surfaces of mature drainage, moderate elopes, and eoft underlying rocks has con-
tinued for fmveral generations. The Appalachian Piedmont, however, is not a Piedmont area in
the same sense as areaa borderinghi&Westernmountains. The erosion problem in the Agpelachiau
Piedmont has been studied by many investigators. Sediment&Son dsmeges also have been noted and
described in Ws area by Bennett lf, Sharpe and Eargle 9/, Rapp and Rittenhouse w, Glenn d,
and others. During recent years some evaluations of the sediment damage problem have beenmade
in connection with flood control surveys of the Pee Dee, Roanoke, Potomac, end other streams in
the Piedmont belt.
b. Below "breaks" in plains and plateaus. Accelerated valley sedimentation is known along
theeaeternborderoftheHighPlalnsinTexae,Oklahormtl,andaoslsmore zxxtbem localities.
Some evaluation of valley damages In this belt have been made in branches of the Red and Canadian
Rivers in the southern plains and in the Platte and Republican Rivers in the northern plains.
c. Inareas of mature topogrphy andrelatively soft rooks where original vegetation has
been depleted. This type of 0ccurZLce includes large areas of fertile land in the Coastal
Plains, the C!enM Lowland, and the Great Plains. Accelerated erosion and accming valley
deposition have developed in some ereas of glacial drift, especially in loess-covered bluff
sections bordering large vslleys; in the driftleas area; la the Redbeds section; and in several
distinctive belts of the Atlantic end Gulf Coastal Plains. Topographies of these scattered areas
rangefromhillytonearlylevel,butthe drainage patterns inmost are inamature stage of
development. The soile and under- rock formations range widely in texture and lithologs
from gravels t&rough sands to silts and clays, but moet of the formations ere sedimentery end
moat of them are unconsolidated or only slightly consolidated. The predominant types of erosion
in these diverse problem areas range frcrm extreme end devastating gully development to compera-
tlvely uniform sheet erosion. Benkeroeionandvalleytrenohingere irarportantineome instances,
and wind erosion play5 a part in others.
The fcrregoing outline has been presented to show the widespread occurrence and national im-
portauce of the valley sggradatlon problem. Considering the present status of valley sedimsnta-
tion investigations, no claims to accuracy are made for i&e Problem Area Map. The hatchured areas
are merely indicative of known belts of serious, accelerated, valley deposition. Its greatest
deficiency probably is in western United States.
Descriptions of Typical Examples of Accelerated Valley Aggredation.
In order to present the relationships between types end rates of erosion end sedimentation,
the methods of study, and the economic relationships, four typical exemples of accelerated valley
se~ntation will be briefly described.
1. The Little Tallehatchie River Basin in Northern Mississippi. This description is based
upon the original report by Eapp and Rittenhouse y. The technique now used for surveys of
valley sedimentation was developed by Rapp end Rittenhouse during a detailed &My of Tobitubby
and micagcj Creek Basins in 1935-36. These two-creeks are smallsouthern tributeries of the
Little Tallahatchie River. They have a ccm-
bineddrainage 8;reaof 88 squaremiles. onthe
maturely dissected Rorth Central Rills belt
of the EasternGulf Coastal Plain, inwhich
th5 local relief ranges from 50 to 150 feet.
The brownish silt-loam soils ere underlain by
loess, beneath which lies the unconsolidated
Holly Sprw send of Eocene (Wilcox) age.
During about 100 years since development
of agriculture in the region practically all
of the land in the area has been at scme time
plautedto cottonor corn.The resultingero-
don haa produced extensive gully systems,
and deposits of send, silt and clay have
Figure 2. Gullied slope in liuxrioaae Creek burled most of the original bottom lend soils.
drainage areaafewmilesnorthof Oxford,Miss. Figure 2 shows a severely gullied hillside a
(Soil Conservation Service photograph). few miles north of Oxford, Miss.

,
JJ j/ 4/ 2/ e/ See"References"at close of oonanents.
 Bor& ranges were established on Tobitubby end IWrrlcane Creeks during the eurvey. Borings
through the modern sediment to the original Gil were made in a number of place5 on eachrsnge.
Thk texture and mineral compoeition of the deposits were studied, and volumes of 3iwclern eeclimmt
were calculated.
The chief types of se&@-en%deposition
in the two valleys are (1) channel fill de-
posits, (2) vertical accretion bsposits, (3)
flood plain splays, (4) alluvbl fw deposits,
(5) lateral accretion deposits, a~ (6) than-
1181lag deposits. These deposits have caused
several types of damage as shown by the block
diagsm, including (1) swamping, (2) burial
of old soil, (3) filling of the channels end
raising of floo& heights, (4) we to grow-
ing crops. Figure 3 illustrates typical re-
lationships between various types of the
valley deposits.
Table 1 shows the important figures
F3xure 3. on volumes an& rates of deposition in the
- (F&m US% Tech. Bull: 66) 60 drainage areas.

Quantity unit
AEd ..*..............................,.*............... 100 ,years
Drainsge area cf . . . . . . . . . . . . ..>.........................a 78 Square miles
Sed3mentation:
Total sed-lment ..*......,................a............ 20,881 Acre feet
Average annuel accumulation:
From enttre drainage area ......................... 208.8 Acre feet
Per equsremile ................................... Acre feet
Per acre of drainage area ......................... 18% Cubic feet
77.5 TOXISY
Indicated rate of erosion
Aver- annual removal of surface
f30ii ........................ .......... .......... 0.05 lilGht3S

This &es not include 1,000 acre-feet estimated.deposit cg Tidl&dchi0 River flood
plain or 1,300 acre-feet estimated suspended sediment csrried downstreem.
period of accelerated erosion at the time of the survey (1935-36) as determined from
history of the region.
Cained drainage area of the two creeks.
Average weight per Cubic foot - 85 pounds.
2. Whitewater River Basin, Minnesota. The Whitewater River drains an area of 250 square
miles of the driftless srea in southeastern Minnesots and joins the Missieslppi River approximate-
ly 90 miles below Minneapolis 6J,lOJ. In many ways it is typical of valleys of its size in that
PhySiOgraphiG province. SurVeys of sedimentation in the valley were made i.3 1939-41 as a research
project of the Sedimentatidn Section of the Soil Conservation Service. Some of'the data were
used subsequently in a Flood Control Report.
The underl.yFns rock formations are nearly horizontal Cambrian sand stollrae Gapped by resistant
&XbViGE&ll ~hllit9S. Stream erosion has produced a dendrltic drainsge pattern and a local relief
of several hundred feet auring the present erosion cycle. The main valley and if.8 chief

5/d See "References" at Close of COE3J?BltS.

171
tributeriee have three distinct phases: (1) a shallow ~~pl.andsection, (2) a cauyon section where
the streams have cut into the dolomites, and (3) a lower deep-valley section. Dur5ng the Wiscon-
sin glacial epoch thick deposits of fluvio-glacial sands and gravels were deposited in the deep
Halley sections, and tefiaces 0f these deposit6 ~8 the chief 80~~8 0f the mDdernsediment.
Althougb the dai3nOe is not complete, it is efhimatea that the perioa of accelerated erosion is
about 80 yeen (prior to 1940). A major cause of accelerated erosion and deposition has been
clearing, followed by cultivation and grazing Of valJ.ey lands. This involved cultivation Of
many terrace remnants cm0sea of loose sand ma gravel Overlain by silt loem soils, and removal
of trees and other vegetation along the stream banks. Cleaxing and cultivation of same valley
slope8 and upland areas also has contributed to increased runoff and erosion.
The principal effects of.accelerated deposition in Whitewater River and tributary valleys
are ae follows:
a. Bank erosion and chamel widenin& Under the present regime of accelerated rurmff
and erosion, channel migration has Increased. Lateral accretion aewsits on the insides of bends
are largelg~ccmposed of-sand and relatively coarse gravel which pre%st use of the sxea for my
useful. purpose for long period8 follawing deposition. An increase in cbatmelxiath at 8053
places has occurred in all three main bran&es of the valley a&me Elba, and belaw the gOrges.
Some valley trench- also has occurred in the upper reaches of many tributaries. Happ estimsted
that 291 acres of lsd have been destroyed in the drainage area, and that the average rate of
such destruction IS 7.28 aores S.DSI~. Similar tlesixuction by channel widening on a large
scale has 0Ocunreaawing the last 50 years in valleys of a nuniber of larger rivers in the
Southern Great Plalna.
b. Alluvial fan formation. The fOrmation of alluvial fsns has been a ma&r factor in
causing sedimentation &meges in the Whitewater River syetem. Gully developmrent in the unoon-
60lidatea, Pleistocene, sand and gravel terrace renmmts is the chief source of the coarse seai-
malt. This proceee is active all along the main valley and ite majar tributaries below the can-
yon sections, where clearing and cultivation have exposed the terraoe edges to adive erosion.
During the Whitewater survey95 sandfans sndll4boulderfans were investigateit. The wegate
area of the fat& in 1939 was 578 acres, and the -gate volume of sediment wes 1,326 acre-feet.
Except for a few areas in the expanded chmmel weys, all of the areas occupied by fans had suf-
fered substantial damage, such as burial of fertile silt-loam soils, burial Of roads and bridges,
and damages to bulldIngs ur other inslLU.ations. Figures 4a and 4b ~showgully development in
the terraces and concurrent fan depoeition.

Flgure4a.Smll sardfanbel~wgully Inhigh Figure %b. Active gully in h.Qh terrace Of

terrace, Whitewater R-lver axea, Minnesota WhitewaterRlverVelley,Mlnneaote
Aggradation of valley bottms. Vertical acoretion deposit8 In the whitewater Valley
systm&ecovereanearlythe entirebottmland areatith sedimentranglngto6feetindepth.
The eatlmated volume of this deposit is 18,000 acre-feet. Insdditionto demxsingthefertfiity
of the bottodsnds, the valley aeposithss ag4padeathe chame~la, axbl fllledinanamowfirst
bottcm. Coneequently,flooda spread.wlddy as soonas the channelbanks are overtOpped,andthey
Inundatemore landaswell aa higher landthanRormr4. Byc0ntp8risonofpastamlpresentva3ley
cross-sections atd .sreas of valley Inundated by specific floods In four am@Le segumnts, predio-
tions of future effects of sedimentation on flood heights were made. An example of the met 8x-
trem caees is one sewnt incham the town Of Elba where tb mea ~JIIU&LW by the 1938 flood

172
was 241 acres (Figure 5). It was predicted that sedimentation continuing at the present rate for
25 years would cause inundation of 22 aaaitional acres in thie mgwnt, and an imrease of sbge
of 2.1 feet by a fi00a of the 881118volume. Figure 6 shows the contact of old soil overlain by
modern sandy sediment in Kiefer Creek tributary of Whitewater River.

Figure 5. Plan and profile In Whitewater River Figure 6. Three feet of modern sandy sediment
Valley at Elba, Miun., showing effect of modern overlying original alluvial topsoil in banks of
se&tm3ntation on flooding end projectea future Kiefer Creek near its mouth.
effects. (Soil Conservation Service photograph)
Location MOP 3. Briar CreekBasin, Wise County
BRIAR CREEK BASIN ~Tdnity River Basin), Texas. A f3eaimenta-
SEDIMENTATION SURVEY tion survey of Briar Creek Basin was made in
Wise County, Texos 194.6 as a unit of the Flood Control Planning
surveys in the Trinity River Basin, where
a Department of A&culture Flood Control
Operations Program is now under way. Briar
Creek, including Walker Creek and the smaller
tributaries, drati an area of 14.6 square
miles in the central part of the West Cross
Tubers belt of the Southern Great Plains in
Texas. The ama originally was a rollng
land with mature drainage and a local relief
of 100 to 200 feet. It was mverea by a
t5md.l post oak type forest c3ndwell aevelop-
ea bluestem grass series. The averwe snnual
rainfall is approximately 31 inches, but it
is characterized by great Irregularity. The
soils, before settlement of the region,
LEGEND ranged from sandy loam6 on thf~ uplanda to
Trinity nond outcrop are0 dark clays in the valleya. They were de-
1L Brim Creek Basin veloped by a very long period of weathering
from the underlying Paluxy sand of the
Trinity formation (Lower Cretaceous), which
is chiefly fine, unconsolidated white sand
Figure 7. Location map of Briar Creek with sane silt and day. Figure 3 is E&me.p
area) Trinity River Basin, Texas showing the location and general relation-
ships of Briar Creek Basin.
Following &rly settlement of scattered parts ok the area from 1880 to 1890, a substantial
proportion of Briar Creek Basin had been cleared end placed under culddvation by 1896. This date
has been accepted as the approximate beginning of accelerated erosion in the basin. Clearing
ad cultivation of cotton, corn, and small grain cropa on much of the bottomlads and slopes com-
pletely upaet the natural balance between erosion and deposition. Deep,-dendritio Sully systems
first aevelopea upon the upper slopea, and the s&ly aedzimext from them was carried into valleys.
Later, attempts to eatsblish better drainsge in the bottoms by ditching, initiated valley trench-
ing, and the main channels are now small canyona 20 to 35 feet deep and 25 to 100 feet wide
(Figure 8). As thevalley trenchesbecame deeper inthemainvalleys, overfallsmigratedup-
streamto the extmme heada of the uplan&gully ayatems. Consequently, most of the sandy sediment

173
now being produced by erosion of the gullies is carried down&ream through the main valley
trenches to the lower part of Briar Creek Valley or into Big Sandy Valley. The walls of the
veJ.ley trenches now show a complete section of the pre-modern and modern aS.luvim, as well as a
substantial thickness of the underQdng Paluxy sand (Figure 9).
The present distribution of secllment is indicated by a series of cross-sections plotted
frcan borings made during the sedimentation smey (Figure 10). The upper sections show a spec-
tacular valley trench which didnishes in depth down&ream. The cross-hatched areas show the
relationships between the earlier part of the modern deposit now perched 20 or more feet above
the bottoms of the valley trenches, and 3he broader deposits in the lower valley where the buJls
of the deposition now occurs. (Figure ll,)

Figure 8. Valley trench near head of Briar Figure 9. Modern a@ sediment 6 feet deep
Creek, Wise County, Texas. This trench was over old eoil in Briar Creek bank, Wise County,
cut in a 50-year period. Texas.

--
810 ! ! ! ! ~ ILL-LJIJIJI-cCi

Figure 10. Cross-sections showing valley F@ure 11. Map of Briar Creek-sin ahowiq
trench (III upper sections) and thickness of sediment (lined areas), and sediment ranges.
sediment deposit in Briar Creek Valley, Wise
County, Texas.

174
 Table 2 is a mmary of eedlment~volumes and sediment production rates in Briar Creek Basin.
A total depodt of 3,603 acre-feet of sediment haf~ accmulated in the valley during a 50-year
period from a 14.64~square mile drainage area. This 1s a rate of 4.92 acre-feet per square mile
ezmually, and does not include suspended sediment or sediment deposited on Big Sandy Creek
valley.
TABLE 2. SUMMARY C@DATA ON
SEDIMElWATIONRATESANDVOLUMES
IN BRIAR fIX?EEKBASIU, WISE COUTLY,

Quantity unit
Age d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..~................ 50.0 Years
Dratnag 8 area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 square miles
Sedimentation:
Total sediment lJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3603.2 Acre feet
Average annual accumulation: 4
Fratu entire drainage area . . . . . . . . . . . . ..a..............*. 72.06 Acre feet
Per square mile of drainage asea . . . . . . . . . . ..i........... 4.92 Acre feet
Per acre of drainage area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335.0 Cubic feet
14.2 d Tone
Indicated erosion rate:
Average mnual removal of surface soil ..................... 9.092 lilCh00

d period of accelerated erosion to date of eurvey (Aug. 1946) aa detmmlned from

history of the region.
y Not including euepended sediment or sediment carried dawns~een~ into Big Sandy
Creek Valley.
9 At an estimated average density of 85 pounds per cubic foot.
The effects of accelerated deposition In Briar Creek Valley may be ~umaxlzed as follows:
a. The origlml, dark, clay loam soil hea been buried beneath much less fertile candy
deposits. This has destroyed the wheat production in that area. The valley now
provides some good watermelon fields and some poor pasture.

b. The lower 16 milee of valley ie of little use because of "lamps conditions, channel
changes, and rapidity of deposition.
c. Accessory valley trenching has dlmupted tramportation, created daugeroua hazarde to
grazing anfmals, and created a drought condition In the reaches of valley occupied
by the trenches.
d. Actually it la difficult to separate the damage effects of eroeion and deposition
spec~9ioally, since the cmibinationhaspracticallyrulned agriculture inthe area.
4. The Middle Rio Grende Valley. The Middle Rio Grande Valley 18 one of the most important
areas of irrigatedagriculture IntheUnitedStatee. Its irrigated land3 yield am&l crop6
worth more than $2,000,000, and it is a major unit in the agricultural economy of New Mexico.
Many surveys and studies of surface water, ground water, suspended eediment, and flood damagea
have been made in the intereet of valley development during the pad 50 yeare, an& 8ever.d
Federal and State agencies are now cooperat$ng in asaenibling an integrated report on the area.
The following review of the sedlmlltgtion problem is based chiefly upon reports by Stafford C.
Eapp, formmly of the Soil Conservation Service u 8f.
The PiIiddle Rio Grade Valley hae been defined SB the major Beeppent of valley extending up-
stream for a distance of approximately 150 mllee from the head of Elephant Butte Reeervolr to
Cochiti at the mouth of Santa Fe Creek. The total drainage area above the reeervolr Is ellght~
I/ 8J See "Referenced' at close of cammente.

175
more thau 24,000 square miles, of which 11,661 square miles is in uorthern New Mexico and
southern Colorado above the cmyon section. Available records of suspended sediment in the
munt&noue northern area Indicate that relatively small amounts of sediment are contributed to
the Middle Valley froxu this upper section.
An.area of 12,515 square miles contributes water and sediment directly to the Middle Valley.
Althou& much of this lateral tributary area contributes little direct surface ruuoff, it con-
tati large area0 of high pediment aep00itte often called "mesas," Ood.eting 0f ~00~0mm3a
seaiments. The pediment deposits are easily eroded in nmuy places end contribute to hi& con-
centrations of sediment in streams, often rang- from 4 to 10 per cent, which are carried into
the valley by m tributaries folloxiag infrequent heavy rainfall, somettis 00dinea with run-
off from melting snow.
The pr0blam~ 0f fl00a ma sediment damage on lands prote&ea by the leveed fi00aww of the
plriddle Rio Graude Conservancy District have become iucreasiugly serious during the past 20 years.
The levees have been breached by flood waters in numerous places, allowing flooding of i.rriSatea
laude aud deposition of sand aud gravel on fertile valley aoils. Bank erosion and channelmlgra-
tion and charnel avulsioue probably have been accelerated by excessive loads of saudy sedtint
iuthemainatreem. Flood heights appear to have increased because of decreased channel
capacity.
From 1936 to 1941 the Soil Conservation Service cmriea on a program of studies to obtain
accurate data on the sedimentation problem for use in planning erosion control measures in the
mrrounding drainage area. Records of suspended sediment were assembled from various sources,
and a series of valley cross-sections was established for future measurements of seatint accumu-
lation. Ninety cross-sections, or ranges, were established acrosa the valley mui 28 of these
had been surveyed previously at different times by aweral agencies inoludiu~ the Bureau of
Reclamation, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, the Miadle Rio Graude Couservanoy.
Dietriot, and the Fish aud Wildlife S&vice. A study of sediment sources as Indicated by heavy
minerals in the river sauda was made by Gordon Ritteuhouse.
Alth0yg-h the 5-yeer period (1936-41) of the soil Conservation Service Surveys was too short
to indicak lon&-time trends accurately, the resurveys of the old ranges, the historical data
assexibled, and the careful study of sedimentation in the valley by Ram and his associates
Yielded the first specific Information on rates of sedimentation and their relationships to the
econcmq of the veJ.ley. The main conclusions can be aunmarized as follows:
a. The floodway between the levees in the upper 133 miles of the valley was aggr&a
at an average rate of about 1 foot in I.2 years a-ins the period 1936-Q.
b. m the lower 14 miles of valJ.ey just above Elephant Rutte Reservoir, where no true
floodway exists, the rate of madation of both river channel and flood plain was about 1 foot
in 5 years.
c. These rates, by ccanparison with re-surveys of old cross-sectious in a few scattered
segmenta are alao applicable to the longer period 1918-36.
a. The average amual seatint accumulatdon in the valley for the period 1936-41 was
12,000 acre-feet. This is an auuual contribution of 0.5 acre-foot per square mile of drainage
area. If eUowance Is made for deposition in the reservoir the total annual sediment output
mounts to 0.7 acre-foot per squme mile.
8. The chief typea of damage are:
(1). Burial of fertile soils by sand snd gravel, chiefly by alluvial fans.
(2). Breaka in levees and flooding of farm laads ,
(3). Disturbance of drainsge r+ud fillinS of canals, 'CausinS swampy conditions and
heavy maintenance costs.
(4). &creased bauk outtinS and charnel chaagea.
Thesetypesof a-are sffectiaglarSerandlaxSerareasoflaud.
f. The chief sources of sediment are the lateral. tributaries in which ohamel incision

176
snd BZTO~O development em fumxlehing highly turbid runoff from torrential stormed. Another
source 18 bauk erosion of alluvilml in the Im3.nvalley.
MisceuaneOuaValley Sedimfmtation Prablems
The Blacklsnd problem. Relatively little information is available on the conseq~oes of
accelerated valley sed..imntation where the sediment is pre dconinantly clay and silt. In the BI.aok
Prairie of the Weetaulf CoastalPlain inTexas we havemdemnyborings in somevalleys where
thevolume ofmderndarkoLay@osits causes large damagesbycropburlal, channel filling,
and impairment of draw, wlthout successfully identifying any old soil horizons. In such
situations we are reconnmn&lngthe establlshumnt of eeriea of cross-sections for future messUre-
meat of rates of accumulation in Qploal valleys where evaluations of flooq and erosion control
work are necessary.
During the past yesr, however, recoxxdesauce studies in the Little River Baain of cen+md.
Texas have revealeaanareaof theBlackPra3riewhmemoderndeposite osnbenmmredwith some
certahtq. In the valley of Turkey Creek near Tsylor, Tex., an average aepth of 3 feet of
brownish to dask grsy cw and silt haa been deposited on the entire flood plain of 10 mile6
bm&ham12,600aaree area. This deposit can be aieinguifba from the ariglnal alluvial soil
In most places. Turkey Creek drainage Is In the outcrop area of the Tsylor marl. It Is antici-
pated that more detailed data on thie problem will be available for a later report.
Another area where fine-textured modernsediment has been suoceesfully measuredby borings
on ranges Is the Little Sioux River Basin in northwestern Iowa. The sediment in thie locality is
chiefly derived from loeee. The most imporrtant damageia caused by fim.ng of ait0hOa and ae-
p6sition of slluvlsl fans.
Debrlebaeins.Al~theWsrratchEaouatainfrontinUtah,the fringes of the CentralValley
inCalifornia, em&inotherpiedmntlocations nweeternUnitedSt&es debris baelns havebeen
00mi2-uOteatb impounavery Coaxse sediment. Mostareaa of this type are highvalue lan&s,ntoetly
irrigated, and situated on fertile soil8 of pediment deposits. In someinstances tots3 aeetmc-
tion of such lands has resulted. from the deposition of large boulder accumulations by infrequent,
torrential runoff. Deta.led studlea of typicaldebriebasti areneeaedto answer ammiber of
lmportant queetlons such asz
1. What heights of dameand capacities of basine are justified in epeoiflc localities
to protect~omuchland?
2. Can erosion oontrol and waterflow retardation measures80 mau0e the output of
damagingsedimentthatthe landebelowwlllultlmatelybe permsnentlyprotected?
Channel and floodwsy sggrsdatlon in la&e river valleys. Msny problems conceanlng the effects
Of ~~~h%ted bl?oeltion in mm&able rivers are et3.U unsolired although mm notable reporta
have been publlshea on this subject, Amongthem are Trmbridge~e Ir/ report on t&e Mississippi
Delta, Fiske*e 2f recent report on the allu~lal valley of ths &i%asiseippi, an13several reports
Py etsff membersof the Corpe of Euginsers' ?ZxpeHmsntStation at Vicksburg. IVomummy of this
subject is attempted here.

Accelerated deposition ti ahannela and flooawsys la a natlonsl problem. The -lee sum-
marized In We paper sre only ssmplee of ths accelerated deposit8 inmanyvdleys, large and
small, which are causing widespread damageto s&culture, transportation, industry, and rearea-
tional facilltles. It is urgently mccarmrendea that all sgencles particlpatlng In the land aon-
eervation,reclamat1on, sndflood controlpregrsms, evaluate thevalley eedlmentatlonproblems
on a aontinulng basis and make such dats currently available.
References
1. Bermett, H. H. 9xia2-a Change8in soil6 f-2-a the standpoint of *0~1022, JO-, hi.
Soa. Agmn. V. 23, pp. 434-435, 1931.

2. Fiske, H. H. "Geologloal Investigation of the AI.~E&LI. Valley of the Lower Mlselselppi

See "References" at close of commnts.

177
River," Mies. River Ccmm., Vlckabur& Miss., 0. 1, 1944.'
3. Glenn, L. C. "Denudation and Erosion in the Southern A~alachian Region, and the
Monongahela Rasin, Geol. Sum. Prof. Paper 72, lgll.
4. Happ, S. C., Rittenhouse, G., and Dobson, 0. C. "Some Principles of Accelerated Stream
ad Valley Sedipaentation," USDATech. Bull. 695, May 1940.
5. Hap& s. c. "Sedimentation In South Carolina Piednmnt Valleys," Am. Journ. Sci., Vol.
243, t&z-. 1945, pp: ~3-126.
6. Happ, S. C. "Sedimentation
,
in Whltewater River Valley, Minnesota," USDA-SCSunpublished
report, 1940.
7. Napp, s. c. "S&lcanoe of Terhare and Density of Alluvial Deposits in the Mddle
Rio Grand0 Valley," Se&. Petrology, Vol. 14, Iio. l,,Aprll 1944, pp. 3-19.

8. %pp, s. c, "SedSmrntation in the Middle Rio Grend VsXLey," USDA-SCSunpublished report,

1943.
9. Ireland, H. A., Sharpe, C. F. S., and Esrgle, D. H. "Principles of Gully Erosion in the
Pieamont of south Carolina," USDATech. Rull. 633, Jan. 1939.
10. NelaI30he1, Sherman K. "Accelerated Sedimsntation in Parts of the Whitewater Valley,
Mjnuesota," USDA-SCSunpublished report, Aug. 15, 1940.
Il. Trowbridge, A. C. "BulldIng of the m3slesippi Delta," Bull. AAFG,Vol. 14, no. 7, pp.
867-901, 1930.

DISCUSSION
ROBERTC. LORD.* My cements are limited to a brief generalized enlargement of the sedimentation
problm of the Middle Rio Grade area in New Mexico.
For the first130 miles below the Colorado-New Mexico State line, the Rio Grade flows be-
tweenthe easternandwesternprongs of theSouthernRockyMounta%ns. Belowthe easternprong,
the watershed is fomsdbymountainrangea sf the Rasin and Range Province whichrunroughly
parallel anti seldammore than 10 miles east of the Rio Ore&e. To the west and south of the
western prang, the drainage basin lies in the Colorado Plateau Provinoe. This region oonsists
of irregularly distributed mesas, plains end hills with Isolated volcanic masses, such as Mount
Taylor, rising above the general plateau levels. Vleweil~as a whole it can be considered as a
plateau, the surface of which 1s trenched by a network of ephenmxl tributaries contributing
flows and sediments to the RIO Grade.
Intheertenel~~theRochy~ountaineintoN~MericoandthemountainrangesaftheBasin
and Range Province, the cores of the main.ranges are compoeeil of Pre-Csmbrlan igneous aadmet-
amorphic rock types t&at erode at a relatively slow rate, Uponthefldcs of these core0 BT8
varying thicknesses of Paleozoio sandstones, shales and limestones. The esndstones awl shales
axenotable contributors to the valley sedirmnts.
Theportionof the dralnsge arealyingnithinths ColoradoPlateauProvlnce la unaerlaluby
relatively flat-lying sedmtd of the Mesozoic age. within.the overall conlplex geological
hlstmy of ths replan, a period of relative quiesceme occurred auring the Mesozoic time, al-
lowing for the almost continual aep0siti0n of more than 9,000 feet of sedlmnts in shallow seas.
The sediments are essentially thick formations of gray-black shales; red, white snd yeUaw sand-
stones; ana coal lwar3ures. Agypsumrmwiber,havingawideextentanilvsrgingfrosl20to40inoh
thlclmeee, OCCUTSin the sanastone of the lower Me4302010a&J. These sedirments erode very easll.7
andcontxibuteamajorporticnof the sedimnt enterlngtheRioGraude.
The Middle Rio Grande Vslley itself is contained la the Rio Grade demesion, whiah is
at;rmc~~adepresslonf~dbpfaultingd~~the lastgreatdeformtionof theRocky
Mountains. -This &epres+nwaa filled tithe late Tertlarytimebywhati~ now ideatified as
* R@Ion 5, Rureau 04 Reolematlon, NBuquerque, 19. Me&

178
Santa Fe 00aiments--a i00se, poorly 00m0iiab3a aewt that ~0ni~ibutes great quantitiee of
sediments to all streams 02~0s~~ it.

The major seaimsnt osrrying trlbutsrles; namely the Rio Chatus, Jemez Creek, the Rio Puerto
anatheRioSalado; enter theRioGrsnde fromthewest.ernsMe of the d??alnagebasin. Intheir
upper reaches, these streams drain areas underlain by the soft, easily eroded sediments of the
Colorado plateau Province and in their lower reaches cross the sediment contdbuting Santa Fe
Sediment8 Of the Rio orande bpZ?W3EIiOn.
The climate 09 the ma3.e valley IS sami--ia. Average annual precipitation ranges from
about 30 inches in the high mountainous area to about 16 Inches at Taoe and between 8 and 10
inches at Albuquerque andSauMsrclal. In the mountains, much of the precipitation occurs in
the form of 81111~ which melts rapidly in the spring causing about 60 percent of the szmual run-
off to 00~~ awFog the 8prbg flood period. In contrast, the greater part of the precipitation
in the mountainous and plateau region in the southern part of the Middle Valley occurs as rain-
fall of cloudburst proportion awing the summer and early fall. m3 ai8Obe 0f the &he~~~d
streams In the southern area laDcharacterized by turbulent flash floods with high momsntery pesk
flows and relatively smaJ.l volumes of water carrying a high percentage of sediments.
All of the wateroourses, except the main tributaries above the confluence of the Rio Grade
adRIo Chtuqhave periodiaflow;moefare drywashes during the greater part of the year. The
result- channel condltlons are typical of an eroding semi-aria region. Sedimsnte are dep08itea
in the collecting watercourses in quantities greater than the normal flow of the stream csn
csrryaway,kesulting ln"deltafens," aggradea channsls and choked arroyos. When storm3 occur,
flash floods move the sediment obstructions from the arroyos and deposit the load in the channels
of the major klbutaries. Additional sediments are Elddea to the load of the stresms as steep,
often vertical, chsnnelbanks are undercut or 'l~l~ugh off** am% flooa-perioas.
The process is repeated by the main tributaries to the Rio Grande. The result is the
formation of a low delta dam in the channel of the Rio Grade which locally reducea the main
stream gradient causing the sedimmt laden waters of the Rio Grade to deposit their load as
velocities of flow are aeoreaf3ea. In time, the Rio Grade reworks the deposited eedlments
csrrylugthefiner materialdama~amtoElephsntButteReservoiraadaggradingtheRio~~
floodway with the heavier sandloads which It cannot carry away.
The cycle of the Rio Grade In disposing of the tr1butxit-y sediments is for it to flow in one
part of its flood plain until, by deposition of sealments which the river cauxmt carry frapp the
valley, the river bed has been built up to the level of its behe and then, by avulsions, to shift
across the vsTlley flom, repeatLng the process. Thevalley Inhabits&s, inorder toprotecttheir
developments, have attempted to prevent the Rio Grande from going throu& its natural cycles by
confining the river within leveea. The river bea Is now approach- an elevation equal to or
higher tbanthe adjacent land.
using the sediment data collected by the Soil Conservation Service, t&e Inferatltional
Boundary Commission and the Bureau of Reclsmatlon, it is estimated that under present corditions
an average of about 37,000,OOO tons of sediment ee brought gLlmually into the valley between
Coohit. and Sen MarciaI.. Of' this amount, about 25,OCO,OOOtons are emmlly aeposltea and
diverted within the valley In a volume of about 13,500 acre-feet. The iverege origin of these
eeaim3nts expreseea in percentage of the total aterege annual tonns(g3 of seainrent brought into
the valley is:

&s&2 Percent
Rio Graude above Cochitl, exoludlq
theRloCham................ 3.5
RloChams................... 13.7
JemezCreek.................. 10.0
RloPuerco................... 45.4
RioSalado................... 10.1
Mnortributaries............... 17.3
Tbbl................... loo.0
179
 This valley sggradation has caused serious damage to the Middle Rio Grande Valley. The
eedlmexrtatlon dsmsgea sr.3 obscured by lack of authentic sediment damage records end by the in-
terrelatlon of flood alla sedimsntation dEalages. The total sedimentation aamages, exclusive of
flood damages, 5s estimated to be not less thsn $9,000,000 for the period 1895 to 1942.
The rural population, and Mlrectly to a l.mge extent the urban population, are depez@nt
upon lrrlgable sgrloultural land13 far thefi llvellhood. Population trends em difficult to
predict. Itlslikely that=& lncreaf3ewllloccur,barrlngaeharp change lnthebirthanddeath
rate, even without benefit of lmmlgratlon. With an increasing population and a static or dimin-
ishlng sgrlculturd development, the already serious oondltlon wlll be aggravatd and especlaUy
so if the rurdl population in the aggradlng reach of the Rio Grade between Cochiti and San
Mfxrcial are forced to abanbn their land because of the aggradatlon of the Rio Graude flodwey.

STAFFORD C. HAPP.* Moat of the Soil Conservation Service studies cited by Dr. Jones, and otherr
of simllarnature,were undertakentoprovlde afacfualbsckgro~farprogoeedcont~uing
6tudiet3af the effect of soil eroalon on fluvial sedimentation. The localltiee were etualed be.
cause there was some evlaence that soil erosion was the probable cause of rapid or harmPul sedl-
mentatlon, and, lu all the cases cited by Dr. Jones, thle opinion appears to be eupported by the
investigations made to date. Of course smh conditions are not general throughout the whole
country. The condltlons described are generally ertrenm rather thau average, aud probably valley
degradation by f3tzmu11eroelon is mare ccnmon t&au va3ley aggradatlon by sediment amunulatlon.
There Is evidence of considerable sggradation of stream channels and flood pla%ns in m
small valleys, or the headwatar portions of moderat+ sized. vsJ.l.eys, ln several regions where there
Is sever0 eroslon of silty soils derived from loesslal formations, cm severe gully- of sendy
substrata. Elsewhere, as lnreglons of clsyaolls, sediment accmmlatlon in the valleys appesrs
tobegenemsllyrsreorofsmallmagnltude. It 10 uncertain whether this difference Is due to
different rates of erosion m different patterns of sediment dlstrlbution; perhaps both are Im-
portatltfactora.
Concentration of Sediment in Headwater Valleys
The ooncentratlon of aedlmnt ln armall or headwater valleys Is one of the most notable
features of the effects of eo$l erosion. For example, it appears that the rate of sediment a+
cxxmlatlcnrwlthln the PO-sqdare mile Whltewatm drainegebasln, in southea~~ternMlnnesota, ls
at least three times as great as the rata of suspended load contribution from the whitewater to
the Missleslppl. Approximately almllar p%%portlonaof eeaiment aistributlon are indicated by
eimilas but less complete data for the Klckapoo drainage area of 768 square miles ln Wisconsin,
andere probablyapproachedalao insnumber of other smllerdraluagebaslns luWleconsinatd
northern Mll3sisslppi. These are the areas of zmximum he&rater concentration of sealment so fe3
as nowknowqbutthere are probablymmyother areaswhere ama,jorpartof the sedlmentfrcm
soil eroelon 1s being depositedwithin a few miles, or a few tens of miles, of its origin. On
the aother hand, there Is no present proof that soil emsion 1s a major cause of channel or flood-
way aggradation In major valleye, although It 16 reasonable to suppose that the sediment produce&
by eoil erosion does contribute to some increase in aedlmmtation rates, relative to those pre-
vlously pct-avalllng, In major valley0.

Moat of the Soil Conservation Service valley lnvestlgatlons were oerried out by borings to
measure the "modern" sediment resting on an older wk,topsoll horizon which ls believed to have
marked the relatively more stable elluvlal surface prior to accelerated soil erosion. This msthod
generally~a.ianot provide evidence ooncernlng ahmgee in streamchauuels, although in scab3plaoes
the present streem~bed Is above the elevation of the burled "pre-ndern" topsoil, sd hence pre-
emably has been sggradea. !Fhls cordltlon 1s notgeneretlthroughoutthe areaswhsremodernflood
plain aggradatlon was studied, but wes found at plsoea in Coon Creek Valley, Wlsconsln; in emall
valleys tributary to the Little Tallshatohle in northmn Mlsslealppl; and ln same mue3.l valleys in
theSouthCarolinaPled3~&.

In the Klbpoo Valley In Wlecon0fn, surveys of the chaunel sectlens beneath 12 ralbmy
bridges showed average chsmel aggcad.atlon of about 0.05 feet per year, or one foot in 20 years,
+Ceologist, Kimeas City Dlatrlct, Ccrps of' Engineers, Dephnt of the w, Kansas City, Moo

180
for varying periods of 7 to 35years. Thie ia approsimately equal to the rate of overbank flood
plain aggradatlon estimated on the basis of boring surveys, whioh would indicate approximately
equal rates of flood plati and ohanne aggradation (Rkpp, 1944). Probably similar relations
between rates of flood plain and chauuel aggradation are the general rule, but this is not yet
pIWQ0lL
Comparative surveys of cross-sections beneath eight railway bri@es on the Galena River, in.
the southem part of the DrIftless Area in Wisconsin end Illinois, showed au aversge fillinS of
about 0.75 feet for periods varying from 29 to 37 yeare, but this was due to mirmMn~ of the
channel by acoumulatlon on the banks,~without ageTatlcltion of the deepest psxt of the ohauwl.
Ihe average depth of ovezbank flood plain madation in this part of 42~1welley wss about four
feet, according to data from boAuS surveys, which would seen to.ind)cate that owerbsnk aggrada-
ticm is considerably more rapid than chauuel sggradation, but such aompsrison is of uuoertaiu
significance because part of thie chamel has been dredged at times in an attempt to xaintain
a shdlow navigaclon channel, aud part of the "mderr2' sedimntxeasured on the owerbsnk flood
plainuudoubtedlywas placedthere as spoilfrcmthe chsnneldredgiu& The relatike extent of
ohannel~~tlonthuemayhsvebeenmuoh~eater &appears framthese data.
Sedimentation in the Galena area is complicated by 1srSe woluum of waste n&erlals from
lead mining, which add oonsiderably to the loads of oertain tributaries. These mine wastes ap-
psreutlydonotcontrlbuts any largeproportlonof the totsl emouutof "modern" sediment,but
a etudy of the carbonate content of stresxbed materiala indicatedthattheseminewastee~b-
ably contrlbutedabouttwo-thirds of thebedsedimentfound inthelowerpsrt of the&alma
River in 1940 (Adme, 1944).
In aonm of the m&U tributaries of the Little Pallahatohie, seeam chanuels are occasionslly
found to be completely filled with mud, so that a channel awulsion is forced and the abandoned
charmel left as a sand ridge stsud$ng slightly higher thau the boxdering flood plain. The physical
processes emdtopographloresults are similar to those conmonlyfoundonalluwlalfsns sndat
the head of sandy deltas, but it is not clear exaotly why such "chaunel plugs," as theyhawe been
termed, hawe foxmdwhme there is no abrupt flattening of the streamslope. Probably fortuitous
local obstacles, suoh as a driftwood jsm, haye been the immediate oause, with the abrmrmlly
large saud load, resulting frcm sewere Sully erosion, sfabillziug the obstruction by relatively
rapid sedinmn~ burial. Similar complete ohauxel ooclusion has been observed in a few place6
In the South Carolina Piedmont (Rapp, 1945), and in very mwill mlleyt~ of the upper Wasiasippi
Basin and other scattered localitles. It has never been observed on streame of more than a few
tena af square milee drainage area, except where associated with delta or alluvial fan sggmda-
tion.

Artlfiolaliy straightenedor enlm?gedohauuels,usually iutmdedbotht,o improve draina@

audreduoe mxrbsnkflooding, present special sedimentationproblems. If "adequately" designed,
built and mainfained, they will, by definition, be free of auy appreciable agSmdat,lon. Many
have notbeen 80 designed, built, or xaiutaiued, however, aud in maoh pl&tms the ~~1s are
commouly wadedor ewencoxpletelyfilled. Soil ero~3ion, ard espeoially gully-, obviow4
inoreases the sedinasnt lo& snd hence the rates of aggridation u&m the chatmele are inadequate,
end probably the sediuent loads in maay places are so great that it is impossible to design aud
build adequate channels ~01the available slopes. Distinction between the conditious of escessiwe
load aud inadequate ori@m.l capacity Is ara*rfine point,howewer. Inmstoases of obwious
etion of artif'i~ial chsmels, it is possible that the sggradation could have been prevented
or reduced to negligible proportIons by more adequate design, construction, or maintenance.
AlluwialFaus
Allwislfans are ~mcmgthemostserious sites of ohennelsggradatian, snd~preesirtg
eedimentatlonproblems are associatedwithsllwlalfangrow-&. Mo6tof thefaus ofaLajor size
originated prim to the influence of accelerated erosion because of ~tural topoSraphia conditions
whloh caused a relatively abrupt flattening of the etream gradient and hence a relatively Sweat
loss in sediment-tmmporting capacity. The fan at the lpouth of the Chippewa River in Wisconsin,
whleh hae denmad the Mieeieelppl and formed Lake Pepin, is a &assic exmrple. In the lower part
of the Whitewater walley of eoutheastern Mimesota,
riwedfrox@lying of highallwisl temace6, now
Studies of-the age of trees growinS on the faus, wi VariOuEJ depths,
led to au estimate of only 26 years for the average pe accelerated aggradation af the
fane formed below Sullies in the high terraces. Most
they range up to 100 acres or mre in size. Similar but generally lees extreme conditione pre-
va3.l in parts of the Zunibro, Buffalo, Trempealeauand Black Rivers, all within a radius of 100
milea. Loual attempt9 to maintain artificial channels across tbeae fans have not been SUGC8SS~-
ful, except occasionally where there is an outlet directly i~to a stream of muohlarger capacity.
Another en& generally lesger type of alluvial faa causes serious sedimentation problem6.T.n
the Mlsalssippi valley from Illinois to Missisdppi, and the Missouri valley in Missouri, northr
eastern$ansaa andwesternIow8. In these places the seUment carried by the fan-building
streams is largely ailtratherthau sand,butthemahervallep3 are eowi&e edhave suchlow
slopes that the sedimentcannotbe carrledacroes thefloodplainto the channel of themain
stream. This proceee of ~ada$lon by fan growth has been going on for many centuries, and has
built up muchof the original lowlana sufficiently to make it relatively ~~-dr~wt3a a.xzd cafe
frcrmmost fleods; but at the 6ametime it has blocked natural 13.~8 of drrtinsge in manyplaces,
an& continued fan deposition causes relatively frequent overflows fram ths tributary stream.
!Phelanda involved are comparatively extensive and fertile, and there have been manyatmts
at reclamation by channel improvementand.levee-confinement of the local floods, but commori&
heavy maiuwe costs are involved fur periodio cleaning of the ohenuels and raising of the
levees. Detention basins have often been built in an attempt to confine the sediment on rela-
tiwly smell ar less valuable areas, andthua protectlsrgerormorevalusble lands. Tbie ia
a promising method, but in most casea it has been Inadequate and.hence unsatisfactory. The
Soil Conaerwtlon Service inwsti@ed such conditions in Doniphan County, Kansas (Bruwn, 1937),
and eomsdata WC@ obtained also in the aourse of Department of &riculture eurveys of the Little
Sioux drainage basin in western Iowa end various small drainege areas tributery to the l&ississippl
d&rVid. plain in northern kk!BeiBSippi CLtldWeSiBm ~iIlO%S. It iS an iIrfj0r-t p=&lm f.n
the improvement, and particularly in plane for so-called internal drainage; of &III~~& landg
protected by levees. It is OM Of the phafsesOf Channel aggradation that urgently needs more
Stuas.
Topographic Features of Aggrsding and Degrading Valleys
Most streama and valleys canbe classified as either aggra&&ional or degradational in
type, accordlag to the topographic form of the flood plains. Whereeggradation ha6 been ap-
preciable, the nature2 levees borderFag the stzeem channel are lgplcally the highest parts of
the flood plain, and-r thanthoseborderingold, aban&& chaMelswhere thesehavebeen
preserved. !Chelower parts of the Mississippi River, Rio Grende, and certain other rivers of
the Gulf of Mexico end South Atlantic coastal plains are examples of such s&grading streams, due
to the effects of delta growth where the streams reach se&level. Such sg@?adationis a naturd.
geological condition, but the rate of -a&&ion maybe too slew to be measurable within periods
of accurat6 record. Most valleys of the eastern and central United Statee, on the other hand,
have terraced flood plains, with the alluvial terraces generaLQ progressively higher at greater
distanoes from the channel. lC&wal lewee are usually present, but they are lower then all but
possibly the lowest alluvial terraces, and the latter are abovemostfloods, or, insome in-
stances, are entirely above any floods of record. These valleya have long been in the process
of &egr&atbn; although there maybe large amountsof sediment deposited In them at times and
in various places, the rate of sedimentation Is generally exceededby raterr of erosion by bank
cutting and channel sco7rring.

In someplaces it appears that soil erosion has increase& sedimsntatlon rates sufficiently
to rever0e the natural geological characteristic6 and cause flood plain aggcadat%onwhere &6-
raaation was formerly the rule. Thle, in effect, smounts to ageradation of the natural floodww
or first bottom, end lncreas~ flooding of the alluvial terraces. Dr. Jones has mentioned an
exemple of this oondition in the WhItewater Valley, but the most outstandiag caee 60 far Invest&
gated is the Klckapoo Valley in Wisconsin (Eapp, 1944). There several towns were built on al-
luvial terraces which were probably subject to very tirequent flooding at the time of settle-
ment, but the ccmrpsratively narrow first-bottom flood plain has been waded severs,l feet by
sediarant presumably derived chiefly from soil erosion, and floodinS Is now evidently a muchmore
serious threat to the towm. Consldbrable sreas of similar terraces used for egriaulture are
s-4 effected, but the potential damageis lese concentrated, outside the townsites. Esti-
mat&ebar& on wrioue types of field data, fcnr the DepartjPent of Agriculture drainage basin
survey, indicate t&at continued floodway aSgradation will probably cause iacreases rangbg up to
146 percent for the extent of tovmits floo&ing, and 226 percent for the number of buildings in-
volvd 3.nfloodf3 Of ce*k -b&9 within a period of about 30 yeears.
The till-Et@3 of Co0nValley, on CoonCreek inVernon Coun*, WiSmn~ln, IS &p in&axme w&re
sedimsntation studies indicate that flooding will probabu occur in the future due to flood
182
 si-huxtad has not yet been mr-
are rare, so far as now krmwn,
and ?iTard. b8bit8tions 16 prob-

en&al Texas ch8nnsl8 appear

epoeits of very
ttoln flood. plain
Ifthlsle
proases of fmn.s le SltirEtion.
of the UnBolved p-2

ddle Rio Prob

agst l-iV@? bed h9YEtiOIL

frm CLmajor flood wh.Iah saoured
oven until further records a8n be ob
berrna do aontiaue to river bed does not, the lenes will. beam rare effeatloe
andthe ahanrmlmaybe forced to deepenitmlf eti-
a~~t~o~.

ld.lssourl River

st, or that
euah aondltio ated eoll eroelon, rl=m3r

~~~~~~l~w~ah
but for euch a lar

183
edge to water's edge for varioue dates since about 1913, and the eoundinga taken in come&ion
with dieohargemearmrementsat various bridges slnce1929. Thelongeatgagerecorda appear to
shown0 evidence of ~adationsofar aa canbe j*eafmthe trend of lowwaterreadinge,
but by samemethods of comparleonappear to show a slQht dawnwardtrend of a0ubtfd d.gnm-
canoe. The other re~0ra8 f3h0wthat there have been 00neiaerable 13haugef3 in the channel CTOBB-
sectione'fraa time to time, but further studlee would be necessary to aidiiogui8.h any general
ixenaa from 6hort-term cycllo Yl3riatiOn43.
Cceaparisonsof ten croaa eectione in the lower sir mil.ee of the Khneaeor Km River, whioh
joints theMiiesouriatKaneae City,erewlthlnthe cone ofbackwater effeotfraaa=theMleeouri.
This part of the Kaw is In the urban area, aud is.confixM within levees that a-m oloee to the
normal ohenneli3o thattherehaabeenpraaticallyno overbenkflowelnce themajorflood of
1903. Campufatiom from mrvey reaorde chow an aver* river bea eggradatlon of 1.3 feet frcm
1904 to 1913 and 1.5 feet fra 1913 to 1918, followed by degradation of 1.7 feet from 1918 to
1931. ThLe leaves a net aggradatlon of X.1 feet from 1904 to 193LI whkh ila within the limite
of variation that probably oocur during Mmvala of a few years..
Overbankohangesa.lo~thelowerMlesouri canbe eatimatedbycamrparleonof datefram
topographic mapsof the flood plainwlth a cantour intervd of two feet, eurveyed -1931, amI
mapsof eimilar contour interval, covering large parta of the flood plain, surveyed in 1885-1890,
orrecm&3oflevelllneamrpbetweenpermanen t be&h laarke in 1886. Casnparieona on 13 eectlene
from the two set6 of map6showednet aggmdation on eix emI net aegrdation &n 8even eectlone,
with average egxtvalent to less thau h&f a foot of degredation. Mast of the dusngeewere am
to channelshi9tiag,withbankeroeionslightlyexceedingthe anlountoffill~onoppoelte
eldes, but the apparent eli@t net change is obvious4 much lese then either the probable varia-
tions thatocourwithin periods of afewyeare, or the obviouelimite of aocmacy of the data.
These eeotiom were loeated where -pointe couldbe detenninea onbothmaps, atvuariable
intervale in a distance of about 300 river miles, all below Kensae City. Comparieonebetween
dmilar &ata from the 193ln1ape and 8 eectione plottea from 1886-1887level llnee, in a distance
of ll0 river miles between Leaverrworthand Waverly, aleo showno aignifloant net ohmge in -I&s
overbdc elevations.
References
A&me, ClWord. Wine wade as a Source of cklena River Bea sediment.'* Journal of Geology,
Vol. 52, pp. 275-282, l&4.
Brown, Carl B. "Protecting Rot- fromEroaional Debrle: a CaeeEietory," U. S. Soil Con-
servation Servioe, Soil Ccmeemation, Vol. 3, pp. 93-96, 1937.
Eapp, stasfora c. "Effect aP Sedimsntation onF1ood.e in the Mckapoo Valley, Wisconsin."
Journal of Geology, vol. 52, pp. 53-68, 1944.
Eapp, Staffoml C. "Sigaificamce of Texture andDeneity of AlhvialDeposita intheKt&I.leRio
QrandeVa3J.ey." Journal of Sedimentmy Petrolo&y, Vol. 14, pp. 3-19, 1944-A.
Rapp, stafforii c. "Se&lmentation in South Carolina Piedmont Valleys." American Journal of
Science, vol. 243, pp. 133426, 1945.
Rittenhouee, C#ordon. "Sourcea of ModernSande in the Middle Rio QranaeValley, new Mexico."
Journal of ~olo,qy, Vol. 52, pp. 145-183, l$b.
 STAB~I~IoNOFB~oFS~oFTBEL~~~
VALLEY OF ~MZSSISSIPPIRIVER

By Charles Senour

The lower M~~~eissippi ~andere for 970 miles from ite confluence with the Ohio River at
Cairo, Ill., to the sea, through a flood plain of generally low relief embracing some 30,000
square milee that would be subject to overflow in absence of leveea. The width of the plain
ranges from 25 miles to 80 milee with an average of about 40. Its general outlines and major
features are depicted on Plate 1. According to the findings of the Miaeissippi River C&mia-
slon's Consulting Geologist, Dr. H. N. Fiek of Louisiana State University, whose recently pub-
lished "Geological Inve&igation'of the Alluvial Valley of the Lower Miesisaippi River" is
authority for the geologic data herein, its history insofar a~ present problem related to its
eediments are concerned began some 25,000 to 30,000 years ago as the late Wieconsin ice age
began to wane.
The imprisonment of moisture in the ice cap had caused a gradual lowering of the sea to an
elevation eon!e 350 to 400 feet below ite present level. The northern end of the flood plain was
some 100 feet above preeent ground surface. As a result, the southward flowing streams and
their lateral tributeriee had incised broad and deep valleya and in doing 80 had eroded and
mrried into the Gulf of Mexico some 1,500 cubic miles of sedimente.
Plate 2, idealized from trwverse profiles developed by boringa, depicts the probable con-
dition at this stage in the region's history.
A0 the glaciers retrecybed, the level of the ocean rose. The broad glacial va,lleye filled,
with eeaiments brought down by tributaries, and as the 8ea oontinuea to rise, even the divide8
between the valleys were mantled with deep deposits and disappeared from view save for an oc-
casional high ielend, and of course, the remnants of the old high plain to the north.
These (Plate 2a) continue to rear their slopes above the general level under such pictur-
esque names as Sicily Island, Macon Ridge, Crowley'e Ridge, and the like. The process wa8 oom-
pleted when Bea level attainea its present elevation about five thousand years ago. By thie
tlnw the tributaries had replenished the valley with some 1,000 to 1,200 cubic miles of sediments
replacing those which it had lost under the era of receding sea level, and the eituation aepicted
in Plate 2 had became that of Plate 3, upon whioh the original, buried profile is also shown for
purposes of comparison.
The present river lice within these recent aepoeite. Where its cour8e follow8 t+t of an
ancient valley the geo!.ogically recent sediments extendto great depths below the present
thalweg. Where the present course croeees an ancient divide 'it occasionally reaches to or al-
most to the surface of the glacial plain. But with few exceptions, such for instance as reaches
where the stream touches the eecarpmfnt Its regimen is predominantly influenced by the char-
acteristics of the post glacial (recent j sediments.
These have been deposited in a pattern that is at once simple in ita broad aspect6 and
bewildering in lta detail. The steeply eloping, braided streams which characterized the era of
the retreating ice cap carried even gravels to the sea. Ai the 888 rof3e amw mel.ting of the
ice cap, &ream slope wae reduced progreesively northward, and gravel deposits began to atop
farther and farther up&ream. The coarse sedimenta were succeeded by progressively finer de-
poeits, which; near the Gulf comprise the greater part of the alluvial ~&BE but in the north are
oomparatively thin. Thus throughout the alluvial valley, the basic pattern Is a bottom zone of
gravel overlain by coaras eands and finer aan& pbabg upvara Into silts or clays. In the more
~lteeply sloping northern portion of the valley where the gravel8 are not deeply buried the
thalweg frequently redoes into the coarse or gr~el4 aande which overlie then. The river here
flawebetweenbanke.ccoqposed h7?ge40lBanda@itdlng finertowardthesurfaceanduauallycapped
* Chief Engineer, Miseieelppi River Commieslon, Corps of Engineers, Deparmnt of the Army,
Vicksburg, Mice.
 ,-- ,/,, .- ULLCr8 -...
OLora
kLLUU
loL*IL ksri/-------,~._-.m_._._..___..
PLAINS
howFLc.m i_..._.-
---_____-. ,/,/,,; ,; -SC@-----.
-.::::
-12(

PLATE I

186
with a thin surface mantle of silt or sandy
silt varying in thickness from almost nothing
to 10 or 15 feet. As flow proceeds southward
with gradually reducing em-face slope the com-
position of the banks grdually change% to
finer and finer sander with deeper cappings of
silts or silty clays, until below Baton
Rouge, both bed and. bsnks are of finely di-
vided,difficultlyepodible, fairly homogenous
silts and clays, and the gravelly sand% and
gravel% with which the aggxading process be-
gan lie deeply buried below the present river
bed.
Upon this basic arran@ment of sediments
PRESENT MEANDER

PLATEJ2-A. - CROGS SECTIOl'l OF QUATERNARY DE-

POSITS- Mississippi River Alluvial Valley PLATE 3. - TRAIiSVERSEPROFILE OF ALLUVIAL VALLEY
Region - Present Stage -

there ha% been superimposed in the vertical zone occupied by the river a secordary pattern - a
rearr~ement through meander. The river has occupied its present meander belt some 15 tiles in
width between Cairo and Memphis about 2,000 years, between Memphis and Donaldsonville, La.,
1,500 to 1,000 years, so&h of Donaldsonville 600 year%. During that time it hae occupied and
abandoned many channsls - as may be seen from Plate 4.
Sometimes it abandon a channel suddenly by means of a cut-off across the thin neck of an
unduly elongated bend. This leaves a horseshoe-shaped abandoned channel whose upper end is
quickly plwed with esnd. The plug divorce% the dd chaMe1 from the river's flow except.at
high water and it accordingly becomes a lake, which ultimstely fills with lacustrinal depoeits -
namely, ei1ts and clays, These consolidate in the course of the years to form arcuate plugs of
relatively erosion-resistant materials in a matrix of easily erodible sand.%, and 8s the river
perhaps a century or ao later begins to work back over its former territory they profoundly in-
fluence its alignment. q is generally believed that they are primarily respoiible for the
con~picuoue lack of unif'ormity which that aligrm@nt exhibits. In experiment8 at the Waterways
Experiment Station at Vicksbulg, model stream% flowing through homogeneous materials invariably
looped themselves into graceful meander6 even when the pilot channel originally incised was
straight. But in no case did such meanders get out of shape enough to form a cut-off. They
were, on the contrary, etrikingly regular in form and they migrated downstream at approximately
equal rate%. Plate 5 contrasts the regular pattern developed by one of the ndel rivers with
that of a stretch of the Mississippi.
The lower Miasieeippi is not aggrding it% bed. The data developed by Fisk indicate that .
it apparently ceaEled doing %o when sea level reached its present elevation. The depths of its
ancient cour%e%and the elevations of the natural levees along their banks are to all intent%
the asme as the corresponding elements of the present stream. Observations covering more than
314 of a century on the present stream likewise fail to show any evidence of a general. aggracla-
tion.
 Thue the sediments currently incoming
from its tributaries are not sufficient in
volume to constitute a major factor in the
stabilization problema of the lower
MissiEtsippi. The sediment movementa which are
of greatest concern to those charged with its
control exe in general quite local. They con-
sist in the erosion of sand from the concave
bank of a bend and its deposition as a sand
bar immediately downstream, on the same side
of the river. This is something of an over
simplification, for part may carry on through
to the next bend,a small part moves diagondly
across the bed to come to rest on the opposite
shore,e.nd come ia deposited to form shoals
called croesing bar8 extending diagonally
ENNESSEE
acroaa the channel from the tail of one point
bar to the head of the next. It may not be
generally appreciated that the vast movement
of bed load sediment in the lower Mieeissippi
- bank caving between Cairo, Ill., and Angola,
La., aggregates about ~OO,OOO,OOO cubic yards
a year - is basically a trading process in
which the transaction is eseentially completed
MODEL PROTOTYPE within a very few miles., and after completion,
etande for a long time. By this last is meant
that when the sand comes to rest upon a point
bex,it ha6 passed from the eroding zone to the
accreting zone and is likely to remain in place
many years before the changing pattern h& brought it again to the concave bank of the stream.
There is anintimate relationship between the character of the sediments through which it
flows and the croaa section of the river. Where flow ie through easily ero&ed sands, as in the
portion from the Ohio to the Arkansas, surface slope is steep and depths comparatively shoal.
Crossings here an& there build up to within less than 9 feet of low-watersurface and have to be
areaged. The benda, of course, exe deeper - say 30 to 50 feet. Below Baton Rouge, where the
course lies through eroeion-resistant 80118, low water depths in exce8a of 35 feet generally ob-
tain even on the crossings, while the bends frequently attain depths of 100 feet or more and oc- .
casionally 160 to 165 feet. Plate 6 contrasts typical bend cross sections in easily erode& ma
eroslou-resistant sediment.
Plate 7 illustrates the two factors'involved in a caving bend. The concave bank of the bend
retreats as the opposite point bar, fed by a caving bank up&ream, advances, and the river movea
over bodily without significant change in depth or width so long as the two processes remain in
step. If the receding bank encounter6 an erosion-resistant deposit which halta or retards ita
retreat while,the opposite bar continues to advance by accretions, the crone section narrow0 an&
deepens until current velocities are sufficient to by-pass that eurplue of incoming loaa which
unaer previoue conditions u0d.a have come to
rest on the point bar.
Identical effect@ exe produced by protee-
ting an eroding bank by revetment, aa illustra-
tea by Plate 8.
On the lower Mississippi the great depth
an4 volume of flow, the wide -range in stage -
60 feet or more at m stationa - the swift
currents and the heavy drift which accompany
high water have in general ruled out all tie-
vices save revetment as a mesonsof stabiliziw
the banks in caving bends. COMPARATIVE CROSS SECTIONS
OF DEEP AND SHALLOW BENDS
When it is realized. that at bankful stage
the revetment covers a loose sand slope some
80 to 100 feet in height, which is required to
turn through e.n angle of 90 degrees or 80 a
 I
of a sand bank, thie is fairly smooth in most
: caf3es. Where the stratification is varied it is
lea8 favorable. Since the bank ia caving the
gad% operation cannot far precede the appli-
cation of the revetment.
Various materials have been employed for
revetment. Mattresses formed of woven willows,
of willow fascines lashed together with strand,
of bundles of willows compressed encl held to-
------ FEB.,943 gether by timber frsgee, ana of woven boar&s,
- JAN.,945 have been used. They are submerged by means of
atone ballast, with additional ballast added
after they are on the bottom. On the main
DISTANCE IN l.DDD FEET
river they have given place for one reason or
PLATE 7, -PROG3FSSIVEBANKCAVTNG
Section at Mile 504.4 ABP
flow of over a tillion second feet with msan
velocity often in exce0s of 10 feet a second,
it can be appreciated that it is often under
severe ana prolonged attack.
The characteristic caving bank at low
water when most of the revewnt is placed con-
sists of a vertical cliff extending some 20 to
40 feet above the water surface, and a gentle
LEGEND
+40 __ lMMEDlATELY AFTER REVT. OCT 1940
---- SEPT. 1946
L?tEam RIP RAP REVETMENT

+-
- ARTICVLATED CONCRETE MATTRESS
PLATE9. - SQUARESOFARTFXLATED CONCRETE
MKFFRESSBEINGLOADED
OKBARGE
2
L 0

5 another to the currently standard articulated

concrete mattress, which for many years now has
MILE 711.8 AHP
5 successfully withstood competition from all
F -40
other types, some of which however continue to
5
be used for certain special situations.
Y
w
Plate 9 shows the unit in which articulated
-80 reveiment is cast. It is 4 ,feet by 25 feet in
0 4 8
IA-.-I
!2 16 20
outsiae dimension; covers 100 square feet of
DISTANCE IN 100 FEET benk, and is known as a "square." It is com-
posed of 20 slabs, 4 feet by 14 inches, by 3
PLATE 8. - CROSSSECTIOl!E!sHm ElqEcti OF \9- j space& one inch apart, and cast
inches thic

but unfortunately not always plane slope aver-

?zing about 1 on 3 to 1 on 5 below the water
surf ace. The slope below the water surface
cannot be graded to any great depth because of
the current, but before any revetinsnt is placed
upon it, it is always carefully explored for
snags and if any are found they are removed.
The upper bank is graded to the slope previ-
ously determined by analysis of soil borings
to be proper for stability. The grading is
accomplished by dragging the spoil down the
bank. The process is carried to a depth'af
15 to 20 feet below the surface of the mter,
distributing the spoil from the upper bank as
evenly as possible to form a mre or less
emooth underwater slope. Thence aowmmra the
bank must be paved .in the configuration to PLATE 10. -ARTIC~DCONCRETEMAlTRESS
which nature has sculptured it. In the case BEINGLAUNCEED

.
through a non-corrosive mesh fabric. with projecting loops-by meana of which similar squares may
be attached to aides and enda to form an articulated, flexible sheet with a good deal of tensile
etrength. The non-corroeive fabric has a diameter of .I82 inch and a tensile strength of 4,000
pounas. The concrete hae a compressive etrength of 2,000 pounds per sq. in. Each square of mat
weighs about 3,300 pounds.
The equares of mat&ess exe cast and stored at a centrally located shore inetallation until
needed, when they are transported by barge to the site of the revetment operation and there at+
sembled to form mattresses which are placed upon the river bed from a specially constructed
'launching barge (Plate 10). The launching barge, operating broadaide to the bank, ia equipped
with transverse inclined ways upon which the mat squares are placed to form a blanket 25 feet
wide normal to the ehore line aid 140 feet long up-and-down&ream. Between each two squares
paasee a steel cable leading from a shore anchorage to a spool and "figure 8" below decke on the '
launchingbarge. The projecting loops of adjacent square8 are joined to each other and to t&e
cables by meant of special twist wires and cable clamps, and a section of mat 25 by 140 feet is
ready for launching.
Since the barge cannot get @to the water's edge by reason of its draft, ita shoreward side
!e equipped with retractable fingers somewhat longer than the 25-foot mat unite. The mat cables
are now looped over th6 ends of the fingers an& the fingers are extended shoreuara, carrying the
matwiththem. The cables are then made fast to th? shore anchorages and the fingers are re-
tracted, allowing the shoreward edge of the mat to rest upon the bank a few feet above the water
line, while the riverward edge still occupies the lower end of the launch- ways. Immediately,
new squares qe placed upon the ways an& joined to each other, to the launch- cables, and to
the riverward en&3 of the first eet of squares. The launching barge is then withdrawn riverward
(along a string-out of barges moored upstream) until the ways are all but cleared. when a new

PT,AT'Ell.VllCWSoFABAlTIsDIKEs
set 0f sqme0 is &08dbiea apd iaunchea,and 80 0n until enough mattress has been built to carry
the protection to and a little beyond the thalweg of the stream. This may be anywhere from a
couple of hundred to four or five hundred feet offshore. At the end of the operation there msy
be something like 60 to 100 feet of mattress hanging down curtain-like from the launching barge
in turbulent currents of high velocity. !l!he launching barge continues to m0ve offshore along
the string-out barges until the last of the mat is safely on the river bottom. Then the launch-
ing cables are cut and their ends releaeed an& the plant is moved back to shbre to begin a new
mat upstretuu, lappm at least 5 feet upon the one just laid. This is repeated until the whole
area designated has been covered.
.
The upper bank paving follows the subaqueous revetment closely in order to avoid complica-
tions by reason of rises in stage. It msy consist of articulated squares placed one at a time
by means of a cr&ne upon a b-inch gravel blanket (provided to cliscourage leaching of the finely
divided bank materials through the open e$+eb in the mat) or of riprap, or of a lean sand-
asphalt mix (about 6 percent asphalt cement) placed by clamshell and raked to an even surface to
give an uncompacted pavement about 6 inches thick. The sand-asphalt mix has proved 80 eatisfac-
tory that it is rapidly displacing other types of upper bank paving.
Its lateral loovement arrested, the-river ss a rule a0on begins to deepen at the toe of the
revetment, which latter, being both flexible and strong, is designed to adjust itself to the
steepened slope induced by the increase in depth. Sometinaes the aeepenhg is too rapid, or too
great, or of such character aa to destroy the outer edge of the mattress. In such cases the
outer portions must be renewed.
In the hopes of finding a means of obviating this troubleaome ana expensive maintenance re-
quirement, the Mississippi River Commission is installing t@is year some low abattis dikes ex-
tending beyond the toe of a new revetment (Plate ll). Mead studies have indicated that this
should force the point of deepening riverward of the revetment.
Recently a very thin version of 'the standard =ticulated concrete mat, known as roll-type
r&etmsnt, has been placed at several locations experimentally. It is cast as mesh-reinforced
units 24' wise by 601 long by 1 l/8 thick composea of panels or slats 4" wide ana separated by
only l/8". Individual units, joined end to end to make a mat of the require& length, are
rolled upon a large steel &cum and the lstter is then placed at the water's edge and rolled
down the under-water slope, unrolling an& laying the mat ae it proceeds. The roller is then
recovered and a second mat placed, overlapping the first by 3.2 feet so that on completion there
is a double layer of mat with very thin openings aa these staggerea.
Current opinion is that the openings in the present standard revetment are too large and
experiments are underway to reduce them without sacrificing flexibility.
The most recent sn&y in the revetment field is the so-called %sss asphalt" m&ho& in
which a sand-asphalt mix containing about 12 percent asphalt cement is released from bottom
sump barges at a, temperature of about 350 F. in mmse~ of 250 to 300 tons. Upon reaching the
sloping river bed it spreads and then congeals to form an impervious coating 8 to 15 inches thick
where the slope is reasonably uniform. !The process is too new.to permit a proper appraisal of
its merits'and shortcomings, but it does poseess the a&adage of simplicity of manufacture e~~3
placement and of being usable at any stage of the river up to actual flood stage, a& if uni-
formlty and thickness of cover can be dependably controllea it should effect a material saving
in cost over that of exticulatea concrete.
For rspair work and for prevention of flsnking at the ends of articulated concrete revetment
riprap stone, concrete blocks, or asphalt blocks are frequently employed. These have th.0 ad-
vantage of introducing a high degree of bottom roughness which slows aowncurrents in the im-
mediate vicinity of the river bed. The ideal form for the blocks is the tetrahedron and large
numbers of these were used some years ago, but the high cost of their production hae resulted in
changing t0 89 82-pouad COnCrete block XL" x 14" x 8" and. to a sand-asphalt blook of about twice
that volume. The asphalt blocks eze cast in a series of water jacketed ~~JIB mounted on a barge.
After the blocks have chilled enough to hold their shape while fal+ing, the pane turn upside
amanddroptbir contentsthroughawell inthe barge. !I!he assumption iii usually made that
equal nunibersof ths blocks will lad on each face and the numbedaepositea per unit area of
bank 18 at least 50 per cent in excess of the number required to cover the sxea on the bade of
such assuqtion.

Aside from the Mississippi itself, the only streams of significant size in the 10wer allu-
vial valley requiring bank stabilization are the Arkansas and the Red. ~0th EUWtoo ~hail~

192
during the revetment Beeson to accommodate the large plant involved in the UBB of articulated
concrete. The u~~ual treatment ie revetment by means of rock-ballasted woven willow or lumber
mattress. Both have given fairly good reeulte when well covered with atone. The upper bank ia
usually paved with riprap atone. -

On both the Arkansas and Red., permeable pile dikea (Plate 12) have been tried of late years
with very satidactory results. They are employed solely to prevent bank recession - not to
produce a navigable channel. The system usually consists of a dike at the upper end of the
bank caving, running at a flat angle with the bank for a distance of 500 to 1,500 feet, supple-
mentea by B seriee of 2 to 5 spur dikes running normal to the shore line out to a line drawn
roughly parallel to the bank line from the outer end of the trailing dike. The spacing of the
spur dikee is normally l-1/2 times their length. The dikes usually compriee two or more row6
of s-pile dolphins spaced 15 feet apart and connected by,atringers. The clumps are driven
through lun&er or willow foundation mats which in the case of, the spur dikes extend 25 feet up-
stream and 52 feet downstream from the line of the dike and, in the case of the trailing dike,
extend 60 feet upstream and 30 feet downstream. The tope of the piles are at about mid-bank stage
and the dikea are continued up the'top of the bank by single piles, with stringers, protected
against! flanking by riprap pavement extending about 50 feet up and down stream.

p-I.&FE12. - PILE DIKE UNDERCONSTRUCTION

Od both the Red and Arkansas the device of cut-offs between adjacent bends has been succea-
fully ueed to relieve caving bank situationa. Thie method hag been particularly useful (111the
Ark-. The Red ie so small - about half the size of the Arkansas - that the attack may some- '
times be diverted from a caving bank without resorting to a cut-off but by dredging a new shan~l
on the bar aide and depositing the s$oil again& the erstwhile receding bank. The chances of
success of such undertakinga are enhanced by the uBe of dredging plant capable of dredging to
considerable depths, thereby not only providing an attractive alternate c-1, but obtaining
more difficult~erodible spoil for placement againd the caving bank.

WILLIAM H. BERRY.* The destructive effects of silt, its behavior, method% of mea&ring silt
loads in streams, the importance of maintaining vegeta$ive cover on the.upper watershede,

* District Soil Conservationist, Office of Jbdian Affairs, Phoenix, Ariz.

I

193
including forests, grass lands and vegetative streams have all been discussed, but what are we
actually doing to combat these destructive forces of erosion? Will our efforts be wasted in at-
tempting to combat them? These are two questions%lth which we tie confronted; in fact, they
were presented to the group yesterday.
There have been preceding papers which have discussed what we are doing and several of
those to follow will do likewise. In this discussion I hope to bring out one thing which we
are doing. Primvxily because I want to emphasize the fact that our efforts are not wasted
when directed along these lines. It is hopea that it will assist to answer the question whether
more than ten percent of our silt can be held in place.
It is generally accepted that seventy-five percent of the silt load carried by most streams,
especially those in the Southwest, comes from lateral erosion. The caving of vertical banks due
to undercutting by stream meanders or other natural causes produces hu@;edeposits which axe
washed downstream with the next rise as silt to be deposited in some dsm or clog an irrigation
development.
Mr. Senour in his paper discussed methods of combating this along river channels. There is
a section lying between these rivers and the forested areas which as a rule is traversed by
numerous gullies. It is from these that much of the silt carried by the rivers originates.
Many of these have quicksand or other unstable bottoms which do not m&e desirable footings
for rigid tspe construction.
A flexible type jetty known locally as "live willow spider" has been utilized along several
washes on the Navajo Reservation for the past five or six years very satisfactorily. Willow
logs are cut while dormant and fabricated into a jetty similar to the conventional tetrahedron.
These are shingled along the edge of a cut bank in such a manner that nq portion of it is direct-
ly exposed to the current. The flow adjacent to the bank is stilled, the silt load and debris is
dropped, creating an ideal sprouting bed for the willows. The stream is pushes away from the
vertical bank, which soon begins to round off. The trees grow rapidly and a raw gully has been
stabilized.
When willow logs are not available other materials are utilizea anti willow cuttings are in-
terspacea among them. Plants which produce favorable habitat for wildlife, firewood or other
economic features are often u&h in this connection. The main thing is to establish a vegeta-
tive wall at the base of the bank assisted by a mechanical device until it has become estab-
lished. The result will be a stabilized bank which has heretofore furnished seventy-five per-
cent of the silt load carriecl by that stream.
This method of treatment is inexpensive, averaging from 40 to 60 cents per lineal foot of
bank, depending upon local conditions. This technique has been developed to the point that
local Indians have constructed several miles in order to protect their farm lands, trrigation
headings, etc.

JOHN T. O'BRIEN.* Mr. Senour's account of the construction of permeable pile dikes as shown gn
Plate 11 as they are used on the Armas and Red Rivers shouldbe of esp&ial interest to those
engaged in flood control problema on the intermediate and small-sized streams, although the
trmformstion from the giant-scaled streams like the Red River to the Lilliputian-sizea "cricks"
may not permit linear reduction of all of the values. An elaboration on this stabilization
classification alone, to reveal in detail the results obtained by use of this type of revetment,
would be appreciated by many. A permeable type of revetment is usually lighter and less ex-
pensive than an impermeable type and is more interesting hydraulically for it generally involves
slowing the velocity of the water surrounding the fence and thus retarding the attack on the
banks behind it rather than simply sealing the bank off as in the impermeable revetment. In
this connection the writer feels that a brief review of some permeable reveiment methods wed
on amsll but significant streams in another section of the country is pertinent.
The revetment for many intermediate and small-sized streams in the Southwest and especially
in southern California is a rail and wire or pipe ana wire fence. The rail ana wire fence is
usually constructed of standard rails driven 20 to 25 feet into the stream bed at the toe of the
bank slope. The rails are tied together at the top by a cable and to them is fastened fencing

* Hydraulic Engineer, Cooperative Laboratofy, Soil Conservation Service and California

Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.
 with openings of two to three inches as shown
in Fig. 2. When the installation is pipe and
wire, the boiler pipe is usually driven into
the bed about 6 feet. The practice is to con-
struct a double fence on the outside Of CUrV88
and a single fence on the inside of curves and
in the tangent sections. In some cases the
space between the double fences is filled with
brush,as shown in Fig. 3.
I
A fence of either of these types is con-
structed in a vertical position at the toe of
'a sloping bank and is free of any bank soil
pressures. Its main action as a bank revet-
merit derives from whatever retardation it
exerts upon the water flowing between it and
the bank it is intended to protect. The fence
does act in a secondary capacity as an ef-
fective guide for debris in keeping them in
the main channel and away from the stream
banks, but it is as a means of retarding the
velocity of the flowing water in contact with
the banks that the erection of any fence of
this type in the main must be justified.

Many of the early fences were built in

streams whose grades were unstable and as a
result during the higher flows the fences were
undermined and collapsed into the stream.
Heavy silt loads sometimes buried expensive
fences but the general lowering of the stream
profile, the deep local scour, and the widen-,
ing of the stream behina the fenbe seemea to
be responsible for most of the failures. To
Fig. 1. This shers a grad. stabilizer that is alleviate the first condition, grade sta-
constructed of l/&inch steel plate and standard bilizers of the type shown in Fig. 1 have been
railroad rails. Upstream is to the right. The constructed. Deep local scour has been com-
top of the stabilizer in the center of the picture batted by driving the pipe or rails to a
is set at channel grade. Note that the structure greater depth below the stream bed an& ex-
is built well into the banks to prevent its being tensing the fencing to some distance below the
run around by the water. stream bed. Themost fundamental trouble,
that of the.widening of the stream behind the fence, was reduced considerably by the construction
of rail or pipe and wire spurs between the fence and the bank that run from the fence at 450 with
the flow to fasten into the stream bank at about 50 feet center to center. These measures, in
addition to improvea construction techniques, generally have produced a fence that at least has
a better chance of remaining stable during the high heavy scouring flood flowa.

The Soil Conservation Service at the California Institute of Technology has unaertsken a
field and laboratory investigation of the behavior'of a fence of the type described as it acts
as a bank revetint. In general the field investigations have shown that at very high floods
the stream alignment was assisted and the tendency to meander was retarded, bbt at critical
locations such as the outside of bends, the fence was in many cases overturned by cross currents
or unaercut by the action of the local or general bed scour. In the straight or nearly straight
reaches the fence seemed to play an important part in reducing bank erosion and confining the
flood within the channel. The small debris,, such as leaves and twigs compacted by sediments,
that adheres to the wires of the fence in varying amounts, appears to account for much of the
effectiveness of the fence.

Fig. 2 shows a rail an& wire fence that has recently gone through a flood of about3000 C.f.s.
The waves shown breaking upstream are so-called sana waves. These cause a large part of the
disturbed cross currents that flow through the fence ana lap away the bank behind it. The thick
tufts of leaves and twigs compacted by sand that have fastened themselves to the fence play an
important part in the fence as a reveiment. Figs.3 an& 4 show a pipe and wire installation that
has effectively weathered a flood that overtopped the fence by about 2 feet in a curved section
of the channel. Large amounts of sediment were deposited behind the fence and twigs and leaves
between the inner and outer fencings.

195

Fig. 2. This shows a rail and wire revetment.
The flow is from left to right. Note the
debris on the fence and the sand waves in the
_ _
Fig. 3. The pipe and wire revetment 18 Con-
structed to protect the bank from the flows
t hat come in from the right and sweep around
'tzurve downstream. N&e that the-fence is
well braced on the curve and is partially
filledwith
-- brush.
Fig. 4. Here is a view of Fig. 3 after a
flood that overtopped the fence by about 2
feet. Note the sediment deuosition behind the
fence and the increase in the debris between
the fencing downstream from the curve.
196
The lack of vegetation on the banka be-
hind the fences has-been particul+rly notice-
able in many fiela installations. Tnis ae-
ficiency has been due in some cases to the
lack of water to sustain the vegetation, but
in others the planting of the vegetation and
its maintenance does not appear to have been
part of the work plans.
Laboratory studies with sediment laden
water generally confirm the field observations
that the debris on the fence is a very im-
portent factor in reducing the effect of the
cross currents set up by the sand waves and
that vegetation, spas, or any other aaaition-
al roughness between the fence and the bank
all aid markedly in slowing down the water
that tends to erode the banks. Thia lheans
that if a vertical fence used as a bank re-
vetment is to be fully effective it must have.
the assistance of additional retardation
either on the fence, between the fence and
the banks, on the banks, or a "devoutly to
be wished" combination of all three.
E. G. STEPHENSON.* The paper presented by
Mr. Senour covers in general the various
methods applied in this country by the Corps
of Engineers for the stabilization of banks
of alluvial streams. Work for improving the
Missouri River for navigation has been under
way for a g00a many years. The types of
structures used to shape the channel and
stabilize the banks have been principally the
pile dike =a revetment. The revetments have
consisted principally of rock paving for the
upper bank surface with under water protec-
tion of either willow or lumber mattress.
Difficulties encounterdin the construction
and effects of the river improvement works,
as given for the Lower Mississippi River,
have been true on the Missouri River in some
proportion to the size of the two streams.
Pile dike structures are essentially shaping
structures. The various forms of revetments
are essentially stabilizing structures. How-
ever, the application of the proper use of
dikes and revetments involves considerable
overlapping in functions for the two types of
construction, that is, in many cases, dikes
can be used for bank stabilization work and
revetments properly installed are natural
shaping structures. The following comments as
to the use of dikes and revetments are derived
from experience on the Missouri River and as
such are not presented as being fully applica-
able to all other rivers.
The predominan t weakness of pile dike
structures in river control work is. that the
* Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army,
Missouri River Division, Omaha, Nebr.
inetallationfd are not permanent. Pile dike aystema are excellent for securing accretion in
alluvial streams; however, the installation of a pile dike system is only the initial step. All
portions of the piling above the low water line have a relatively short life, usually about 10
to 15 gears for untreated piling. In addition, the outer ends of the structures are subject
to continuous attack by the current. Thua, any pile structure has a relattirely high maintenance
coat unless it can be incorporated into a permanent bank protection installation. Th8 completion
of the dike system into a permanent bank stabilization structure should be accomplished at the
ea;rliest practicable date following the securing of the desired emount of accretion.
!Chevarioua types of bank revetments, from the simple mattreaa either of lumber or willow
ballasted with stone, to the mre expensive types such as the concrete mattress and concrete or
rock paving, appear to be adaptable on streams ranging from the small to the large rivers such
a8 the Missiaeippi. Where the stream does not bear directly against the structure, maintenance
of the revetmsnt is a minor problem. However, when the atream directs its flow against the
structure, the ultimate deepening of the cheael leati to lowerlng ?f the mattress, which in
turn causes severe damage to the structure and in aome caees total destruction. Attempts to
strengthen the revetment so as to with&and the full attack of the river have not always been
fully effective. In many cases, the scour ultimately extends to bed rock or to the maximum
depth of scour peculiar to the stream. %d.nforcement of the revetment to withstand the direct
attack of the river increaees the coat of the construction. For this reaeon, improvement work
on the Missouri River has resulted in a continuous &u&y to determine the best,me*hode of con-
struction together with the moat logical mew of minimizing the river attack.
Stabilizing the bahk of an alluvial stream came8 deepening of the chaqnel. Bend8 of short
radii tend to produce excessive depths within the bend as compared to bends of greater radii for
the same location. Thus, bends of shorter radii produce the greater attack on the bank atabili-
zatiofi work. Thie general characteristic has been found in laboratory studies. The following
ie a quotation from the report dated 1 &y 1945, "A Laboratory Study of the Meandering of Al-
luvial Rivera,W conducted by the Miasisaippi River Commiselon -- "It is important to not8 that
bank stabilization may cause general over-all deepening or it may cause only local deepening
along the concave bank: of benda or both &pending upon alignment. Where alignm8nt consisted of
easy bends, general over-all deepening of the chennel occurr@, and where the alimnt consisted
of sharp bends, the deepening was largely confined to the betide." The radii of the benda should
be consistent with the probable discharge. For example, on the section of the Miesouri River,
Sioux City to Omaha, where discharges ranging from about 5,000 c.f.6. to 200,000 c.f.s. are
normally encountered, benda with minimum radii of about 5,000 feet are considered acceptable,
9,000 to 10,000 feet are desirable ana maximum radii of 13,000 to 14,000 feet are net objection-
able. On the lower river near the mouth, where diEcharges range from about 15,900 to 500,000
C.f.El., the comparable radii are about 7,000 feet minimum, 12,000 to 15,000 feet deeirable, and
about 20,000 to 24,000 feet maximum.
Channel depth in the bend ie also affected by the direction of flow into the bend.. For
exemple, if the entrance of the flow into the bend produces a direct attack on the concave bank,
it haa the eam8 effect ae that of a sharp bend. Accordingly, the c-e1 depth in the bend is
in 8om8 direct proportion to the entrance flow angle. The more direct the attack, the greater
the aepth. The entrance of the flow into the bend at-about the same location and direction
auring both hfgh and low water flows is also iery important. The most favorable ret&t8 toward
stabilizing the location of the croeaing from one bend to another have been accomplished by
what ie commonly known as hooking the crossing. This is effected by making the bende an open
epiral in lieu of true curves with the shorter radii at the lower end of the bend. Over hooking
should be avoided and aametimee the amount of hook necessary ie 80 emall that it cannot be ob-
served except in a actual field layout.
Bend8 of too great a length also contribute to the development of excessive channel depths,
eepecially &a.ring prolonged high water stages. .The reason for this appeara to be that auring
high flows, the curr8nt cutpl acroe6 the bend, diverging widely from the course of the low water
flow. The low water channel around the bend becomes ailted up, thus when the river &age fall8
and the low water flow attempts to return to ita 0ia channel, it8 cour88 is restricted -a the
flow ie concenixated inuuediately agednst the concave bank. Unprotected banks in euch cases axe
characterized by more rapid erosion. Protected banks receive 8evere attack against the revetment
structure. It ham long been lmown that eroeion of b&a in concave bend.a becomes the mod
eerioue juet following a high water perioa. The explanation has ueua1l.y been that thie was due
to the saturation of the material in the bank by eubmergence during the high water periods.
There ie a eubstantial wnount of proof, however, that the increaeed erosion is due to the wide
divergence of tie high and low water flows. It ie a sound theorythatthe minimumemountof
erosion or the minimum munt of attack again& etabilization structures ie obtained when the

197
low and high water flows follow the 86m~ couree. Bend 19ngths that ChaDge the dire&ion-Of the
chaonelby more than about 120 should receive special consideration to insure that local ground
conditions wlll not permit a major amount of the,flow cuttingacross the bend at high stages.
The use of dike structures to retard the flow acroes the convex aide of 'the bends Is the stand-
ard procedure with epecial consideration in bends of great length. Short bends that change the
direction of flow only about 300 appear to be about the mi&azn desirable. However, in reaches,
construction of short bends that change the direction of flow only a few degrees have been found
effective where the ddke work coincides with the natural tendencies of the reaches. Old channels
available for presage of high water flows produce detriBlenta1 conditions by producing cross cur-
rents when the chute flowa leave and return to the designed channel. Dike work or types of con-
strmction designed to eliminate the old channels by filling themwith accretion ia of prime Jm-
portance. The final goal should be to completely fill the old channel so as to eliminate it.as
a-high water chute.
Reaches or ertsemely long flat bends produce minimum amounts of erosion during high water
periods. However, during lovi water periods, equare croesings often develop. The attack on
adjacent banks resulting from such equare croasdngz can produce erosion conditions or attacks
on protective works equally severe to those occurring in bends. fkxoralngly, reaches or long
flat bends are very desirable for ac commodation of high water flows but are not desirable for
low water flows. The low water crossings inherent in reaches or long flat bends are very un-
desirable from a navigation standpoint.
Also, false points in the aligrzzent of stabilization work in concave bends are highly con-
ducive to destruction of the etabilieatfon work. Such false points produce excessive narrow
and deep channels againet the concave banks.
Conditions a8 described herein that produce the min5mum or maximum attack of the current
upon the river banks have been observed for many years on the Missouri River and, on the whole,
they appear to be fully consistent with observations obtained by laboratory study.
The following criteria are presented for consideration when planning for the control of
erosion on alluvial streams.
a. On streams where erosion occurs at only occasional locations, the stabilization of
the bank in the erosion area by means of revetment is usually sufficient. !l%e type of revetment
used should be consistent with the size of the stream, that is, lighter revetments for the small
streems and heavy revetxenta for the larger streams. Alluvii?al etreame with only occaeional areas
of erosion aremostcommon among the smaller rivers.
b. Alluvial rivers that produce bank erosion in the majority of the bends are not nor-
mally subject to bank erosion control by construction of stabilization work at occasional iso-
lated localities. Changes in flow direction within the uncontrolled sections will eventually eet
up a direct attack.against the protective work, which in turn will severely dsmage the stabiliza-
tion wak or destroy it.
c. The radii of the bends should be consietent with the discharge expected. The bends
should'be aesifped so a8 to produce high and low water flows along the same course to the maxizmzz
extent possible.
d. Bends too sharp should be avoided. SWlarly, bends too f&at are undesirable ea-
pecially when they reach a degree of flatness approximating that of .a reach.
e. The km&h of a bend ehoulfl be as long as possible but should not be long enough to
favor cross bend flow at high stages.
f. The location of the main flow line from one bend to another should be stabilized.
!Che entrance to the lower bend should be as near parallel to the alignment of the bend as
possible.
g. Dike work or other work to produce accretion should be extensive enough to definitely
shape the permanent course of the channel. Dikes along the concave banks of the bends should be
designed for incarporation into the final bank protection work when sufficient aocretlon has
occurred. Dikes on the convex side of bends should be extensive enough to acquire sufficient
accretion to force the major portion of the high water flows to follow the designed channel.
h. Revetments should be constructed on the concave banke of the bends only when the
198
channel above hm been properly shaped 80 as to produce the midmum attack on the struct~.e.
1. !Phq3alignment of the revetment structure OR the concave side of the bend should be
free from false points.
It la a well eetablished viewpoint that the auccese of the etabilization of the bank of an
alluvial stream is dependent on starting the work at some stabilized point ana progresslydy
working amtret33i therefrom. Stabilization of banks at ieolated locations in a piece meal
mmner has not met with other than temporary success. This theory has been demonetrcated by
model study an& is fully condetent with the findings reported by the Miesouri River Commlsaion
more than 50 year8 ago. Each of the above principles is not presented aa being applicable to
all rivers; for example, on ~om0 rivers, the full shaping kna stabilizing of the channel would
be an unnecesearg refinement, on others, especially large river8 such as the Miesimippi, aonm
of the criteria would be impracticable au& to the magnitude of the undertaking.

199
 OFERk!J?IONAI?D MAINTENATCEOFCAEALS

by A. R. Golze

The title assigned for this paper, 'lOperation and Maintenance of Canals," would allow for
very general treatment. Since, however, this is a sedimentation conference we expect to focus
our attention princi.palQ on the maintenancfl, or cleaning, that irrigation canals, laterals, and
drains require because of silting,
I might say that, in general, the principal items of canal.@aintena e have to do with the
upkeep and repair of oanal structureS, t'ne protection and repair of canal linings, the stabili-
zation and. continued maintenance of the backs where canals are unlined, an5 last but not always
least, with cleaning. The amount of cleaning required depends generally upon two things--the
weed or moss growth in the canal, and the silt deposited in it. These two items will vary a
great deal depending upon whether the canal is lined or unlined, and depending upon the source
of the water in the canal.
On some irrigation projects the silting of canals and laterals, together with the resultant
increase in aquatic weed growth, constitutes a major problem, ranking with structure maintenance
in importance. These two items, incidentally, go hand in hand. Trying to decide which precedes
the other is like getting into the @d argument of which came first, the hen or the egg. Weed
growth slows velocities and therefore causes silting, while silting very definitely encourages and
and makes easier the growth of the weeds, particularlg in lined canals. In unlined canals, the
weeds do not require this encouragement.
Silt moves in every river and stream to some degree, especially during high water stages.
The smount of silt reaching the stresm depends largely upon the watershed and its condition.
Vegetation coverage in ths drainage basin is a most important factor affecting the silt load
carried by a stream. A watershed area overgrazed, burned, or poorly logged will contribute a
DBXIIUUZU silt load. Sometimes the silt can be even more directlyxnsn-made. In some portions of
the Northwest the streams do not generally carry a heavy load of sediment as much of the runoff
is frommelting snow, and since the beds of the streams are usually rockY or gravelly, stream
erosion is limited. Extensive mining operations along some of the rivers or their tributaries
can completely change this picture, however. Of the mining operations, consisting of placer,
hydraulic, and dredging operations, the old hydraulic mining was the worst offender in this re-
gard; but allminingcontributesto the silb load where it is carried on in the stream bed or
close enough to the channel of the stresm to be reached by high water.
The amount of silt getting fmm the rivers to the irrigation canals depends upon the type
and condition of the diversion tmrka. Where we have a large, deep pending area above a canal in-
take the river velocity may be slowed to such an extent that all but the finest silt will settle
out, At diversion works where the velocity above the headgate remains high there is no settling
and the canal k&es its percentage of silt in pro??ohion to the aJ.&ount of m&r taken from the
river.
In such cases the velocity in the canal is usually lower than in the river and when the
silt-laden water is diverted the heavy materials in suspension are deposited quickly, presenting
a problem in the maintenance of the main canals carrying the water supply to the project laterals.
In 5ome cases, as on the North Platte project, a desilting basin is formed by widening of the
main canal immediately below the headgate works so as to reduce the veloci+y to an even greater
emkent than might occur naturally, causing deposition of the silt'which then sluiced out of this
desilting basin back into the river below the diversion structures.
Under the original COnditiOnEI on the lower Colorado River, before the water was desilted
Prior to diversion, as is now done at Dsperial Dam, the Imperial Irrigation District was faced
Wibh the continti problem of removing silt from canals snd he&works ln order to maintain suf-
ficiellt flow through the& It is estimated that each year about 130,000 acre-feet or 1~18 of
~tant Director, Branch of Operation and Maintenance, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D.C.
(Presented bY F. E. RYmsl, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D.C.).

200
silt were carried down the Colorado River. Upon being divert& the haerV%Sr8flt va8 depo82ted
at the heading ad in the nuxin canal nearby, choking down their capacit%ee. In add%tlon to the
chokingoftheheedworks allof the cauala amilateralabecembsdly silts&. ThBfine %*lt
continued in suspension and va8 carried to the f8rmrs' la&s where it vas finalQ &po&teit.
In the fam laterals, after the gradient was built up for a periad by alltim& it would becc9ss
necessary for the farmer to shoml the silt out >f the laterals or rebukld the?& In am QWWJ
the silt covered the fcwm land so completely-that releveling of the femn ~8s neaeeearg to iaeurs
proper vatey distribution. Unfortunately,'unlike the silt of the Nile, the Colorado silt vheu
deposited on the land did not add to Its. fertility; instead, in that particular avea, kt would
seal the interstices in the mil aud prevent proper aeration and percolation of the Irri&atiti
water. Because of the silting, the headworke of'the old Imperial Caual wewe mowed neverat tirrs
and finally, when the I@perlalDslnwas constructed, elaborate desiltiug voxke vere built at the
head of the AIll-Amricau Canal to reduce the silt menace.
Froni the foregoing it would. seem that if irrigation water could ia e&U czwma be dluertd
from a reservoir or a bep stilling pool, silt would be eliminated. from the car&s and lateral.
Thi8 is not alvaya the case, particularly in connection with uulined csnale. When clear rater
enter0 into the ciu+l system it may, dependent on fte velocity, pick up silt a8 It 3wwes along,
erodipgthe c&uialbanks andecouringthebottominthe samemanner thatriyerbeds are degraadd
b&h W@ dams because of the action of the clear vater release& from the reservoir.
There ere other veye inwhZch ailt-laden water in canals and laterals can be of benefit.
For aonv of the Bandy mesa lands 3n the far Southvest the absence of silt is a distinct die-
advantage. The 8011 amenilrent that silty water provide8 would ha+e been of llvr,joraasistance %.lI
making the Yuva Mesa and East ?&sa lands of the Gila project agriculturally excellent. Without
silty water other nteans mu8t be fol&-efed in developing proper sOi18 for optimum agriOI.IlturSl
use.
Gin the North Pla&,e project, about mid-Irrigation season or a llttle.krter vhen the irriga-
tion deavnds are hearg, the dietriots request the Bureau to carry the vat&r elevation in the
Guermey Reservoir at a low stage 80 that more silt can be transported through the reservoir an8
Induced into the canals for the purpose of ti$MnIng, or sealin&, the canal banks and decreasing
seepage losses.
lb most caeee, however, f&p 8ilt must efther be prevented from entering the c-18 and
laterals or it must be rsnwr& later from its place of deposit. Since the 8ource of sm of the
a/it is from eroalon in the canals and laterals thevselves, fron wind-bLown top soil f'rom ad-
jacent fT&.ds from s-torn runoff, and from va8te vater of *@ation, permanent reduction of
silt can only be achiered by control of these silt sourcea along with others. !l!hebank3ana
bottons of canals and laterals way be controlled by same stabilieing method, such as lining
the entire structure, placingxiprap at the prinoipal place8 of erosion, or in the case of
svaller laterale, by plant&S ve@ation on the banks. .
Within the pa8t year, the Bureau of Reclamation has inaugurated, or perhape I should say
inteneified, a program of research and experimentation a* at developvent of satisfactory
lov-coet canal liz+n@3. AsIde fron the questions of bank erosion, weed grovth,et cetera, the
urgent need for such dereloznasnt ie shovn clearly br the fact that as numb as l/3 to l/2 of the
total water diverted can be lost in a SO-mile reach of unlined canal. Thie exceseive seepage
eventually results in waterlogging of nearby fields, .&tar which those la@ go out of pro&do-
tion, or demand63cq~ made for construction of expensive drains, and patintenance of an additional
system of water channels becones necessary.

The ati hoped for achiwment, and the progress made to that time, in this low-cost cane.1
lining study were excellently stated by Walker R. Young, Chief Engineer of the Bureau 00 Recla-
ration, in an article which W&Spublished in the February 6, 1947, iesue of t&e &gfnaering &sve
Record.
Typee of lining being studied include hydraulic cmnt mixtures, asphaltic materiels, and
earth materiala. Fram the pro@=ess of the study it appeare that several-types of the canal
linings may be acceptable m the standpoint of effectiveness and eervioe life, and be cheap
enough to be economically feaeible for an Irrigation project. Oqe thingthataustbe considered
In connection with the lighter-weight materiale, the conipacted earth xvater%als, and even the
8Oi1 cements, is the potentiti~janger to breaking the seal of the 33nI.n~ if sediment an& weed
grovthnustbe cleanedfromthe canal

2ol
 where protection frapn eroelon 3s needed in relatively ehort stretchee, the 0aaalbank IR%y
be stabilized by gravel or riprap. heome CAB~Bwillowbranches, ea&ebrush,or.eiaailar
materials held in place by wire have been tied tith good reeulta inetead of riprap, because of
the a&wxkae or high co& of'rock or gravel. On the smaller latmale pod eta+ oi gram are
often eufficlent far be& protection. Where 8il;t tend6 to acuumulate on the inner 6M.e of
'ehxcpbende,hewyrlprspgingof the oppoeitebankaudbedof the caWl,orthe conetcuction
of mall rock @oina or training wall8 from the ,oppoaite bank ~121 serve to reduce this m-
cunnllatim. In eueh o(lgea, the eilt may be ca&ied dmnetrm to locations whme ita mval
18 more advau~ous.
Theremoralafla~tfroBadra~leaniarpoirtantitemInsrdertoineure~~~n~l
of groundwater. The source of this eilt ie ueuallyfromthe entrauce Of ummtrolledetonsand
irrigation water from ad$acent lands, fromwasting of eilt-bearing vater, or frc&t eluiciug from
the irrigation eyetem into the drains. Theneedfor cleanIngdrains la grsatly increasedwhere
velocltiee are elarr; permitting exceseire growth of tulee and 0-r weeds.
Methoda of renuvZq silt depend largely on conditic%m,and the a@x@ of'ailt imolved.
&agU.nee andotherlaechanicalexccivatora, suchae theRuthDredger,.are umdonpro$~&ewhere
cleaningmanyailes of chalmele is anannua~requlreDlentanath8 amountof~cl.sanlng~ ln-
valved warrants an inmMmmt in the eqtipnmnt,. Owing to the eiee of ma& c+naI8,..a~dra@.i@e
ie generally used for the removal of silt from tbmn. QnamLllerproJ&Ae and in rSoX&edplJWert
on larger projecta, remmal of'silt i& usually accompliehed by team4rawn ecrapera and mm&
methoda. The rem)yal of isolated silt pluge ie sonmtimee sccospliehed by manual. methodm or by
ueingditchIngpowder if the depth of the accmulatedm&&alis mall or thelengthof'the
l@eral or drain to be cleaued is ehort.
In addition to the usual commercial equlpmmt, lpany projecte hare built dltoh-;a~
equipmmt to auit their own particular needs. Tbie equipmentmsyveryframawinchlvnmtedon
thebackofa trucktohaula elip or scraperuptheb@eto thelargewater-propelledemmper
developed in connection with the CentralTalley~o@& of California and ue& to clean the
contra Coeta canal.
On the larger'projecte much of the eilt re~val ie neceaaary in the lateral mystem becawre
of the checking of water required to m&e deliveries to fanas. Checking reducee velwrity of tb
water, causingthe eilftodepoeitnearlyunlfomly throu&outtbelengthof the lateral. Ui&ar
theee conditione olsaniag is ueually acctmpllahed with.a ditch cleaner or a ball dmgllne wit;b
alongboom. The remvalof eiltwithaRuthDredger or otherexca~tingnm%ne ie usually
accompliehed during the irrigation eeaeon, while the ecraper or mu~ualaethode aan be used onQ
durw the non-irrigation aeaeon.
TherenWalof~Mltfrcmthe~psin canulsia not mguirea8i3 oftenam fro~~l.ateral~becau~s
the water flom at higher velocities in the oafs canale, aud with greater cro8.m-e~~nf~ a
10-r time is requtr8d to impair capacity. Thla le not alwaye true, of wurae, ad undtxc
certain conditiona silt resxmal froxumsin canale may be required more often than frcm laterals.
This will occur, ae ~~~~Ioualy atated,nearthe headof amin caualwhem there is adietinot
1overXngof wloclty frcm that iu the river from which divereion ie being made, aad also where
eea~tentarelerincamrlstbstarepartlinedsndpartunlinea. Intho8eca~3eetheuuUned
portion is greater in UIFOBBeectiontban the 1-d portion to provide for carrying.the e~*lllb
amount of water ata reduced velocity. !&la reduced velocity acte to cause depoeitian 0f.tl.m
eilt load, and frequent olssning of the unlined portlone may be required.
Inlinedcmale along:eteephilleidee,where the aommit.ationof siltoftenreeulte fro=
etor~~uater inflcn frm adjacent hi&er land, it ie frequently poeeible to elte cle~13~1&by
buildirrg,overpartrsse or cwere over the canal to prevent milt-laden etom water from enter*,
or by the construction of underdrain culverte. Stormwaterculverte uuder'canale eoaetimaebe-
conk9 cl-d, neoesaltating cleaning or reconetmactlon to prevent the entrame of ail% and other
lllaterlal into the canal eeotion. In modern practice, where a canal. croeaes a draw or storm
water drain, sIphan 8333gmmallyprovided.
The coat of remy* silt from Irrigation dietributlon eyr3ttme rariee with eTerg project
andwlthere~canalandLaterdLvithinapr0Ject. SN identical operations will vary
frm project to project because of different madines, skill and reeoumefulneae of'operatore,
and the ellt conditione. ,Each section of canal or lateral to be clean&d preeente lte individual
problem of aoceee; right-of-way in which to work; right-of-way to diepose of the excanted EEL-
terial; type, quantity, snd moieture content of the silt deposit; type end dmelty of weedaj
heQht of bar&e; and etrength and condition of Lm, all of which affect the rate at whQh

ax

I
pemoxinel can work and, consequently, the overall Co&.
On the Central Valley project in California, the concrete-linea Contra Costa Canal wae
cleanea with the water-propelled scraper to whioh I referred previously at the cost of $6.50.per
tile in 1946. rf the OE+TZSI. i8 cleaned tKi03 amuauy by this dh0a, the annual coet per mile ia
$13. It is believed that thie does not include any proration of the original co& or deprecia-
tion of the equipuent, which was developed on the project and constructed of pipe framing, ldeq
ma BORWscrap nmteriati that were available there. The ecraper could not be used in unlined
canala or in lined canal13 where the silt aepoaiti3 were extrenaely heavy. The tmaller concrete-
lined Raet Coniza costa Canal was cleaned with more conventional methode in 1946 at a coat of ap-
proximately $37 per mile.

The Turlock Irrigation District in California has a total of I.25 milea of lined cam18 b
which OCCUTEI a very mderate amount of ailting. The presence of the eilt, however, BB in all
lined canals, encouragea the growth of algae and certain type8 of moesea and leada to decreaeee
in the canal13~ carrying oapacitiea that are greater than the mauOti0n6 in crose-Bectional,arem
would idi~ate . For i&it3 Z.MBOn,the aiBiXiUt remoVe0the Eilt dBpOBitEand Other aebria at the
close of the irrigation CWMOReach year. ueing equipment developed in the ai8trict, consisting
of a truck equippedtithaboamandecraperafiaPgsme nt which lainimizea the hana work required,
the average coat of 'cJleaul.ng all eizes of the canals is $5Q per mile.
On the orleuia project in northcentral California, the averaSe coet of.cleaning.canale and
laterals in l&6 wu $178 per mile. This includea tilntenance and depreciation on the equip==%
aewellaethel.ab0randfuel. The cleming equipment coneiated of a l-&ton truok, a trailer,
andtwoecra x-8. Annual co&a per mile for cleau3ng other unlined canal8 in these aame areas
varied- from E 5 to $350 with a8 much 88 $l,OOO per mile in any particular year.
On the Shoehone -project in northwestern Wpnnhg, 3.8 miles of the Deaver Canal (194 eecond
feet) were cleaned tith a dragline ln 1945 at a coat-of about $1,633 per mile. This figure in-
cludes allowanc e for depreciation on the equipmnt. Smlllateralswere Oie0323aonthe Shoshahe
project la& ye& with a one-way Chatten ditcher pulled with a traotor at a cost of about $50
per mile. Excavation in cleaning the laterals wXth MEI machine averaged about- one cubic yard
of material for every 15 13neaz feet.
The Rucyrua-Ruth excavator, or Ruth Dredger, ie used on mauy irrigation projects for clean-
fnglaterale and8mallunlined canals. On the Belle Four&e project in South Dakota 29 miles
of laterals were cleaued in 1946 with a Ruth Dredger at a cost of $85 per mile. Aleo in 1946,
a&roxi.mtd.y 8 mimes of Laterale on the ml& River project in northern tintaua were cleaned at
a coet of about $147 per mile. Between 50 to 75 miles of laterals on the, Dower Yellow&one
project in eaetern Mo&aua were cleaned each year during the yease 1932 to 1946, inclusive, at
an average cod of $75 per mile. Depenaing upon the size of the lateral and the variation of
silt deposit, weeds, willows, tules, and other vegetative growth, the cost of Gleaning lateral8
with thie type of excavator variee from $50 to $150 per mile of lateral.
Before the deeiltiag work0 were installed for the I&peri;al Irrigation Dieixict at Duperial
Dculi; the cost. to jt-smnm eilt front its canal system averaged over $700,000 annually. This wa8
approx&tely $250 per mile for the lengths of oanala aud laterala cleaued each year in the en-
tire system. The ooet of allt removal from the distribution eystexm eince confdxuOti0nof
Inrperial Dam hat3 been only a small fraction of the prevloue co& and the depoeit in the AU-
American Canal itself haa been negligible. It aleo tight be noted here that suspended material
carried In the Puma Canal before Roover and Imperial Da?i~ were built was 30 tbm the amand of
the material that is emried now.
The construction of Dkperial Dauband the deeilting works there co& a total of about
$lO,OOO,OOO, of which $4,526,000 wae chargedto the aesiltlng WO&S alone. If this an&m&
were to be amortized in 40 yeara without interest, the annual coat would be $113,150. !Rie
operation ad nsintenance costa of the aeeilting worke in 1946 amounted to $69,200. Amuaning
this figure aa an average-the total annual co& of the Imperial Daa aesilting works would
be leas thau$2OO,OOO,-which repreeenta a 8avW.g reeulting from this oonetruction of approx$-
mately $500,000 per year.

On the Boiee project in Idaho there is one serious silt problem that 16 caused by minzlng
operatia along &~0re@ Web, a tributary of the Boiie River which enters that stream below
Arro~roCg Pam but above the diver&on d.amand headwork for the project's min canal. ~eepite
-&h cO~,tructf.~ Of 7JdClring walls to divert the eaud aud gravel towardfj the center of the
hre~ apd. reW*e it -b paes over open sluice gates which carry l.arSe quantities &own&ream,

203
there are still large amunta of sandthatgettitothe canal. Thesandpilingup inthe canal
reduces its capacity until it can affect the project water supply. The canal is concrete lined
for most of the first air miles of its length, but.the lining is broken at several points and the
canal,widens into earth sections. The concrete sectiona have a bottom width of 40 feet. The
earth sections widen to 60 feet and in some places to 1'79 feet on the bottom of-the canal. Drag-
lines and bulldozers are used to remcve the silt at the close of the irrigation season each fall.
The average coet of removing the silt in the first three miles of the total length of the canal
averages $3,000 per year. In some yeam, over 20,000 cubic yards of coarse sand are removed.
At one tide section of the canal the disposal of the removed silt became a problem. By adver-
tieing that the silt was available to the public, the county and private individuals completely
removed the great pile of material that had accumulated up to that time. Since then, the public
has remaved the silt each fall as fast as it is taken from the canal.
Between the ertremes of these cited examples are as many different cost .esults as there
are canals and laterals that have to be cleaned. It can clearly be Been, holever, that in ad-
dition to ailother advantages to be gained from lining of irrigation canals and laterals there
is a b& f3avhg in the. operation and maintenance costs.
I ml& say, in closing, that silt in irrigation canal and lateral distribution system is
not at3 serious a problem as it is in some of our reservoirs. In a few cases, in fact, it is
beneficial in aiding to seal the banks of unlined,canals and laterals a&n& water losses and
in sealing-or addin& to the fertility of farm la$s upon which it settles. Generally, however,
it is a nuisance, the remcval of which is both ex!penslve and tims-consuming. We are looking
forward to the day tfist observance of real conservation practices will be practiced by the
owners and operatora of all watershed lands In order that the silt may be retained in the place
it belongs.

DISCUSSIOR
R. B. RUPKEY. * In general, the sta-nts presented by MessrB. Golze and Byrns agree with the
expergence of the Ind3an Service in the operation and maintenance of canals under its Juriedic-
tion, and Messrs.Golze and Byrns have covered about every phase of the subject.
The Indian Service is responsible for operation and maintenance of canals which divert from
a great variety of stream types, from rock-paved streams in the high, cool, mountain areas
to the fine sdt:lined rivers of lower elevations such aa the Colorado in the hot lower basin
couutry. Sedimentation in canals is generally not a serious problem along the high mountain
streamsbutis avery important one in streams inlower elevations. Afewof our streams in
high altitudea carry rather heavy bed-loads, particularly streams flaring through areas of
decomposedgranite. In these cases there is a heavy bed-load even during low stream flow.
Most of our ditchee are smsll and the Indians perform cleaning and other operation end
maintenance work as a conmnanity affair without assistance from the Indian Servfce, except in
caseB of major repairs to etructuresar repairs to canale damaged by major floods. In the
caeeB of our larger projects, such as the San Csrlos project on the Gila River and the Colorado
River project on the lower Colorado River, the Indian Service maintains a complete operation
and maint6nance force and levies assessments tc cover the project 0 & M co&s.
Practically all of our major diversion works have provisions for desilting the bed load and
heavier suspended material. Most of these deeilting works depend upon trapping the silt Just
below the headwerks end sluicing back into the river channels. These sluicing structures must
be operated periodically to be successful. At somt~diversion dams the<bed load material is by-
passed just in front of the canal intake, leaving the heavier suspended material to be settled
out snd sluiced from the desilting worke below the intake. These desilting methods, of course,
require the by-$assing and loss of a certain quantity of water which often can hardly be spared
by the project, Y& aarmecases the water becomes so valuable that deeilting operations are not
cafiied on as often as they should be.
One of our &pet desilting operation was formerly at the Colorado River Indian irrigation
project near Parker, Arie. Before Parker aad Hoover Dams were built, approximately lCC,OOO cubic

* Aseistant I%lstrict Irrigation Rn@neer, office of Indian Affairs, Phoenix, Ariz.

yards of silt were removed each yesr at the diversion works for this project. Accurate records
of smiting operations were maintained for many years at this project and it was found that
from 27,000 to 133,000 cubic yards were removed annually with an average amount of 101,000 cubic
yma8. !The,water .aivertea varied from 19,000 to 33,000 acre-feet per year. The average amount
of silt removed per acre-foot of water aivertea was 4 cubic yards. Eaa this silt settled in the
canal and lateral system it would have meant the necessity of removing about 24 cu. ydr.per acre
of land irrigated, at a cost of about three dollars per acre. Actually, a considerable quantity
of silt passed into the canal system also and the use of a Ruth Dredger was required in removal
of about 30,000 cubic yards per year, or slightly over one cubic yard per acre-foot of water
diverted. The removal of silt at the desilting works thus reduced by about 75 percent the
cleaning which would have been necesssry without it, making the coat about one dollar per acre
instead of four.
After the closure of Parker and Hoover Dams, the river began tc clear and by 1941 only a
fraction of the former amount of silt was.trappea ernddisposed of.
Another project on.which cleaning of silt from canals and laterals is an important matter
is the San Car108 project on the Glla River, although currently the lack of water is a much
greater problem.
The mjor source of water for this project is the San Carlos Reservoir above Coolidge Dam.
Eowever, a considerable quantity comes down the San Pedro River, and it is practically always
heavily laden tith silt. In average years about 700,000 cubic yards of silt are cleaned from
the canals and laterals of the project, while about 300,000 acre-feet of water are diverted.
In other woras. about two cubic yards of silt uer acre-feet of water diverted must be cleaned
from the canals and laterals. Ai 12 cents per-yard the snnual cost of this work is about
$84,000, or one dollar per acre of land irrigated. A considerable qxzu&lty of 8896 and silt
is removed by sluice gates in the diversion dam and in the canal a short distance below the dsm,
but I do not have figures for the quantity.
On some of our projects, floods after heavy storms are allowed to pass without diversion
because of hicjh silt content. It ia felt that the amount of silt which would be deposited in
the oanale would bs too great. Unfortunately, such floods often occur on streams which have a
low normal flow and use of a considerable amount of flood flow is often necessary,
As Mmers. Golze and Byrns state at the conclusionof the* paper, silt In tiigation canal
and lateral distribution systems is not as serious a problem as It is in some reservoirs. The
Indian Service has haa experiences of loss of major portions of storage capacities in several
reservoirs, the Black Rock Reservoir on the Zuni River being an outstanding example. ThisQ3a
reservoir on the main stream which has been in operation since 1906. Seventy percent of its
original capacity of 15,000 acre-feet was lost awing the first twenty years of its operation.
After the capacity was reduced to about 3,000 acre-feet the,operation policy nas changed80 ae
topermitgsssage of summer floods through the damandanemptyreservoir. !Fhereservoiris
emptied by June 30, and other reservoirs now furnish water required during the remainder of the
80ason.
Our policy in recent years has been to build off-stream reservoirs where possible and where
stream condit*ons indicate a heavy eilt 1-a.
Along with the benefits of silt eliminstion, there has been one undesirable result on o=
Colorado River project. This fs the rapid growth of moss under the water surfaoe. Messrs.
Golze andByrn6 state that the increase inaquaticweedgromthgoes hand-in-handwith silt-of
canal6 and laterals. While this is true withmsnytypes ofweeds, we have foumd, h.the case
of the Colorado Rivar project, that there has been a material increase In moss growth in the
clear water since the elimination of silt folloMng the closure of Parker Dam. Phis condition .
would not exist In the higher altitudes wfth colder water. Along the lower Colorado River, mesa
growing from canal bat-tam up through clear water will reduce'capacity 50 percent or more if
allowed to grow unohacheaall season. Killing by chemicals Is resorted t0 ti e0meclbees.. We
havefoundtltat drainfng the canals andper&ttingdrylngofthemossfor two or three days,a
short t* hefore peak capacity is m-a, is the cheapest and possibly the most effective
msans of handling the problem.
As stated by Wssrs. Golze and Byrns, silt is beneftoial in 80111%oases a8 a sealing agsnt
Zn tiinea CdDalB and laterals and in increasw fertility of some farm lands. In our experieno&
however, W cost of oonibating the silt probler is far greater than the value of its beneficial
featmes and we also will welcome the day of conservation practice on all watershed lands in
order i;hat as much of the silt as poaaible may be retained in the place where it belongs.

NARENDRA K. BERRY.* Being a Junior Engineer of the Government of India under training with the
Bureau of Reclamation, I have nothing to say by way of comment. Listening, however, to the
various interesting papers presented to the conference I could not resist the temptation of
saying a few words on what has been done in India in the field of Bediment engineering, es-
pecially for reducing the maiI&Jn.SZEe and Operation COBt Of Canal8 and for increasing ir@a-
tion.
Canal irrigation seems to have been used in tiaia in some form or another in very early
times, although the OlaeBt large-eize CtKd recorded in the history of India ia a Canal con-
structea early in the fourteenth sury. Engineering work for irrigation canals, however,
seems to have been started on a scientific basis in 1810, From that date on, a vast and con-
tinued development of the science of canal engineering has been made in India, with the result
that now the Punjab Province in India can, with considerable justification, claim to have the
most extensive ana successful irrigation system in the world.
Most of the main canals in India are quite large and a diacherge of 10,000 c.f.s. to
20,000 c.f.s. is a commonaffair for such canale. These canals, along with their branches,
distributaries, minors and sub-minors, have been a headache with the irrigation engineers due
to their silting or scouring tendencies. Apart from the economic aspects of maintenance, silt-
ing or scouring of channele results in 10~s of irrigation. A scoured channel results in poorer
commandto the lands to be irrigated in the head reaches of the channel, whereas a silted channel
gives more water to i&IIaB in the head reaches of the channel due to resulting greater head. The
conditions ace vice versa for the tail reaches. Moreover, the channel0 in India generally silt
up in summer months aue to the greater silt burden of water at that time. The channels cannot
then be closed for silt clearances due to peak demand for irrigation, without appreciable loss
to irrigation.
In view of the difficulties enunmrated above, a good deal of pioneering work in this field
has been done with great success by engineers in India. I now propose to indicate briefly the
aSmope of the science of silttransport.
In 18% Mc. Kennedy, a Punjab irrigation engineer, published his theory of siit txanaprt.
This theory was based on observations extending over a number of years on channels of the @per
Bari Doab Canal in India which he considered to be in regime, i.e., to be neither silting nor
flCOlXtTing. Kennedy'e formula V6, z 0.84 ~0.64
(where V, is a mean velocity such that the
channel neither silts nor scours and D is the
depth of flow)
is based on a simple but incomplete conception of the mechanism which sustains particles of 'silt
in a stream of flowing water. Re C3BSLUIE3a that the silt-transporting power of a stream depended
entirely upon the vertical components of eddies which are controlled by the mean velocity, and
the depth which lidtea their effect. From the data then available, Kennedy concluded that the
silt-transporting power of a stream was not affectea by the width of the channel. Kennedy do-
fined the grade of silt and silt charge carried in the channel whose regime velocity differed
from that given by Kennedy formula by the ratio now termed "Kennedy velocity ratio."
The fact that the silt-carrying capacity of a stream IS not independent of its bed width
was early recognized. From Wood's data and empiric rules limiting end defining the bed widths
of channels of varying discharges, Mr. Lindleg produced the formula B :: 3.8n ~1.61.
liext comes Lacey's theory, developed about 17 yeare ago. HiE3 &OX-Y doe6 Mt append UpOEL
any observations or experimentation carried out by himself or under his control but is based on
all authentic and accepted data recorded by.obaervers the .;rorla over. Xn brief, his theory is
based on the philoeophic acceptance of the conclusions to which the above data pointed. The
whole of Lacey's contribution to silt transport problems is rendered poesible by his apprecia-
tion of a fundamental conception in hydraulics. He found that a geometric conception of depth
was out of place when dealing with forces generating a channel cross-section and m0iaing the
boundaryofachannel. As a result he replaced "D" appearing in all the then-existing Pcrrapllse
byhydraulicmeandepthR. I consider that the effects of this flash of inspiration were ineaense
and account for the success of his theory.
*'Punjab Irrigation District, India.
206
 Lecey recalculatea all available data on the basis of V ana R an& plotted it on a logarith-
mic scale, obtaidng a series of straight lines equivalent to the formula:
v, = KR4
= 1.15476 --------(a)
the constant f representing different silt grades or silt charges in the channel under exedna-
tion. Lacey consider&i it preferable to denote silt grade by a linear ratio rather than by a
velocity ratio like Kennedy.
Next, from available data, Lacey plotted To against Af2 from which he secured the formula:
A@ I 4.O$J -_-__--_ ---w(b)
Eliminating f from (a) and (b) he obtained the formula:
pw = 2J6* Q& - - - ; - - - - - - - qc)

The above are the three standard Lacey formulae upon which is erected the whole superstruc-
ture of Ikey theories.
Lacey's formulae can be written down in the following useful forms:

TO = 1.1547 ,fr'Ii, or R = 0..75 ,vo2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1)

f
Af2 z 4.0 VQ5 ,or ~2 = 4.0'Vo6 - - - - - - - (2)
pw =2.668Q h -------_-___-___ (3)

R = 0 . 4725 f$j u3 -----------em (4)

It will thus be quite apparent that for a given value of the discharge Q and a given value
of the silt factor "f" the ati~i0nf3 of a regime channel are uniquely determined, that is,
there is only one value of the wetted perimeter, the velocity an&R which will satisfy these
equations. It follows, therefore, that there is only one value of elope which will satisfy the
above formulae.
Dealing with the flow formula, by a set of mathematical manipulations he found that C in the
Chezy formula when applied to regime channels varies asR l/4. Tn this manner he obtained the
equation:
V= 1.3458 R3/4 @ - - - - - . - - - -
Na
Lacey considered that the coefficient of rugositysa was a function of the silt envelope and
was independent of all other factors. So from reliable data on channels in or near regime he
calculated S, from equation (6) an& f from equation (1) and obtained the empirical relation
Na = 0.0225 flf4
The ideal silt-transporting stream is one in which the alacharge is fixed and constant:
the silt charge is also constant an& the envelope regular and uniform consisting of incoherent
self-borne alluvium. Xo such channel exists in practice. The silt charge varies with season,
the diechasge varies within wide limits, when clay ie present grass trill grow on be=, an& so
On. In practice, therefore, one may find nearly stable channels with dimensions differing from
those derived from the Lacey's equations. For initial construction and for a c-01 section to
which maintenance should be directed, the dimensions indicated by the Lacey equations are, I
believe, the safest guide today.
Value of f in the Lacey formula is an omnibus factor embracing all considerations of
quantity, shape, material and size.
In order to save the time and labor involvea In solving Lacey equations and to prevent
chances of arithmetical error, Lacey has provided two diagrams, the first being the Regime
Dimensions Diagram an& the second Regime Slope Diagram. showing Q and f the rest of the channel
dimensions en& slope can be obtained from the above diagrams.
 So much for the design and maintenance of regime chsnnels. Next comes the problem of let-
ting in the stream.only that much silt which it can safely carry without silting.or scouring.
To this end in view a great deal of work has been done in Punjab, India, with the result that
they have evolved several designs for silt selective head regulators which take in only the
proportional amount of silt which the channel can safely transport. Those who are interested in
this type of work may, I suggest, get hold of the Proceedings of the Punjab Engineering Congress
for the respective years. I am sure they will find a lot of useful itiormation in many papers
scattered over a number of years in the above proceedings.

208