The most popular theory of our universe's origin centers on a cosmic cataclysm unmatched in all of history

the big bang. This theory was born of the observation that other galaxies are moving away from our own at great
speed, in all directions, as if they had all been propelled by an ancient explosive force.

Before the big bang, scientists believe, the entire vastness of the observable universe, including all of its matter
and radiation, was compressed into a hot, dense mass just a few millimeters across. This nearly
incomprehensible state is theorized to have existed for just a fraction of the first second of time.

Big bang proponents suggest that some 10 billion to 20 billion years ago, a massive blast allowed all the
universe's known matter and energyeven space and time themselvesto spring from some ancient and
unknown type of energy.

The theory maintains that, in the instanta trillion-trillionth of a secondafter the big bang, the universe
expanded with incomprehensible speed from its pebble-size origin to astronomical scope. Expansion has
apparently continued, but much more slowly, over the ensuing billions of years.

Scientists can't be sure exactly how the universe evolved after the big bang. Many believe that as time passed
and matter cooled, more diverse kinds of atoms began to form, and they eventually condensed into the stars and
galaxies of our present universe.

Origins of the Theory

A Belgian priest named Georges Lematre first suggested the big bang theory in the 1920s when he theorized
that the universe began from a single primordial atom. The idea subsequently received major boosts by Edwin
Hubble's observations that galaxies are speeding away from us in all directions, and from the discovery
of cosmic microwave radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.

The glow of cosmic microwave background radiation, which is found throughout the universe, is thought to be a
tangible remnant of leftover light from the big bang. The radiation is akin to that used to transmit TV signals via
antennas. But it is the oldest radiation known and may hold many secrets about the universe's earliest moments.

The big bang theory leaves several major questions unanswered. One is the original cause of the big bang itself.
Several answers have been proposed to address this fundamental question, but none has been provenand
even adequately testing them has proven to be a formidable challenge.

Big Bang Theory - The Premise

The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning
of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a
reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that
moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something:
our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during
and after that moment.

According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as

"singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. What is a "singularity" and where
does it come from? Well, to be honest, we don't know for sure. Singularities are
zones which defy our current understanding of physics. They are thought to exist
at the core of "black holes." Black holes are areas of intense gravitational
pressure. The pressure is thought to be so intense that finite matter is actually
squished into infinite density (a mathematical concept which truly boggles the
mind). These zones of infinite density are called "singularities." Our universe is
thought to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense,
something - a singularity. Where did it come from? We don't know. Why did it
appear? We don't know.

After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded and
cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and
temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this day
and we are inside of it: incredible creatures living on a unique planet, circling a
beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other stars in a
galaxy soaring through the cosmos, all of which is inside of an expanding
universe that began as an infinitesimal singularity which appeared out of
nowhere for reasons unknown. This is the Big Bang theory.

Big Bang Theory - Common Misconceptions

There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example,
we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say that there was no
explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. Rather than imagining
a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an
infinitesimally small balloon expanding to the size of our current universe.

Another misconception is that we tend to image the singularity as a little fireball

appearing somewhere in space. According to the many experts however, space
didn't exist prior to the Big Bang. Back in the late '60s and early '70s, when men
first walked upon the moon, "three British astrophysicists, Steven Hawking,
George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention to the Theory of Relativity
and its implications regarding our notions of time. In 1968 and 1970, they
published papers in which they extended Einstein's Theory of General Relativity
to include measurements of time and space.1, 2 According to their calculations,
time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter
and energy."3 The singularity didn't appear in space; rather, space began inside
of the singularity. Prior to the singularity, nothing existed, not space, time,
matter, or energy - nothing. So where and in what did the singularity appear if
not in space? We don't know. We don't know where it came from, why it's here,
or even where it is. All we really know is that we are inside of it and at one time it
didn't exist and neither did we.

Big Bang Theory - Evidence for the Theory

What are the major evidences which support the Big Bang theory?

First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning.
Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to
their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (1889-
1953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the
expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted.
Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we
should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radioastronomers
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin (-454.765
degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background
radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be
the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson shared in the
1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery.
Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the
observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins.
Big Bang Theory - The Only Plausible Theory?
Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences?
No, it's just the most popular one. Internationally renown Astrophysicist George F.
R. Ellis explains: "People need to be aware that there is a range of models that
could explain the observations.For instance, I can construct you a spherically
symmetrical universe with Earth at its center, and you cannot disprove it based
on observations.You can only exclude it on philosophical grounds. In my view
there is absolutely nothing wrong in that. What I want to bring into the open is
the fact that we are using philosophical criteria in choosing our models. A lot of
cosmology tries to hide that."4

In 2003, Physicist Robert Gentry proposed an attractive alternative to the

standard theory, an alternative which also accounts for the evidences listed
above.5 Dr. Gentry claims that the standard Big Bang model is founded upon a
faulty paradigm (the Friedmann-lemaitre expanding-spacetime paradigm) which
he claims is inconsistent with the empirical data. He chooses instead to base his
model on Einstein's static-spacetime paradigm which he claims is the "genuine
cosmic Rosetta." Gentry has published several papers outlining what he
considers to be serious flaws in the standard Big Bang model.6 Other high-profile
dissenters include Nobel laureate Dr. Hannes Alfvn, Professor Geoffrey
Burbidge, Dr. Halton Arp, and the renowned British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle,
who is accredited with first coining the term "the Big Bang" during a BBC radio
broadcast in 1950.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Gamow, Alpher and Herman proposed the hot Big Bang as a means to produce
all of the elements. However, the lack of stable nuclei with atomic weights of 5 or
8 limited the Big Bang to producing hydrogen and helium. Burbidge, Burbidge,
Fowler and Hoyle worked out the nucleosynthesis processes that go on in stars,
where the much greater density and longer time scales allow the triple-alpha
process (He+He+He -> C) to proceed and make the elements heavier than
helium. But BBFH could not produce enough helium. Now we know that both
processes occur: most helium is produced in the Big Bang but carbon and
everything heavier is produced in stars. Most lithium and beryllium is produced
by cosmic ray collisions breaking up some of the carbon produced in stars.

The following stages occur during the first few minutes of the Universe:

Less than 1 second after the Big Bang, the reactions shown at right maintain the
neutron:proton ratio in thermal equilibrium. About 1 second after the Big Bang,
the temperature is slightly less than the neutron-proton mass difference, these
weak reactions become slower than the expansion rate of the Universe, and the
neutron:proton ratio freezes out at about 1:6.
After 1 second, the only reaction that appreciably changes the number of
neutrons is neutron decay, shown at right. The half-life of the neutron is 615
seconds. Without further reactions to preserve neutrons within stable nuclei, the
Universe would be pure hydrogen.
The reaction that preserves the neutrons is deuteron formation. The deuteron is
the nucleus of deuterium, which is the heavy form of hydrogen (H2). This
reaction is exothermic with an energy difference of 2.2 MeV, but since photons
are a billion times more numerous than protons, the reaction does not proceed
until the temperature of the Universe falls to 1 billion K or kT = 0.1 MeV, about
100 seconds after the Big Bang. At this time, the neutron:proton ratio is about
1:7.
Once deuteron formation has occurred, further reactions proceed to make helium
nuclei. Both light helium (He3) and normal helium (He4) are made, along with
the radioactive form of hydrogen (H3). These reactions can be photoreactions as
shown here. Because the helium nucleus is 28 MeV more bound than the
deuterons, and the temperature has already fallen so far that kT = 0.1 MeV,
these reactions only go one way.
The reactions at right also produce helium and usually go faster since they do
not involve the relatively slow process of photon emission.
The net effect is shown at right. Eventually the temperature gets so low that the
electrostatic repulsion of the deuterons causes the reaction to stop. The
deuteron:proton ratio when the reactions stop is quite small, and essentially
inversely proportional to the total density in protons and neutrons. Almost all the
neutrons in the Universe end up in normal helium nuclei. For a neutron:proton
ratio of 1:7 at the time of deuteron formation, 25% of the mass ends up in
helium.
The mass fraction in various isotopes vs time is shown at right. Deuterium peaks
around 100 seconds after the Big Bang, and is then rapidly swept up into helium
nuclei. A very few helium nuclei combine into heavier nuclei giving a small
abundance of Li7 coming from the Big Bang. This graph is a corrected version of
one from this LBL page. Note that H3 decays into He3 with a 12 year half-life so
no H3 survives to the present, and Be7 decays into Li7 with a 53 day half-life and
also does not survive.

The graph above shows the time evolution of the abundances of the light
elements for a slightly higher baryon density. This figure is based on data from
Burles, Nollett & Turner (1999). The asymptotic D/H ratio [by number] for this
calculation is 1.78*10-5 which corresponds to OmegaBh2 = 0.029. The best
current estimate is OmegaBh2 = 0.0214 +/- 0.002 from the D/H ratio measured
in quasar absorption line systems, and OmegaBh2 = 0.0224 +/- 0.001 from the
amplitudes of the acoustic peaks in the angular power spectrum of the CMB
anisotropy.

The deuterium, He3, He4 and Li7 abundances depend on the single parameter of
the current density of ordinary matter made out of protons and neutrons:
baryonic matter. The graph above shows the predicted abundance vs. baryon
density for these light isotopes as curves, the observed abundances as horizontal
stripes, and the derived baryon density as the vertical
stripe. A single value of the baryon density fits 4 Topic Index:
abundances simultaneously. The fit is good but not
- Introduction
perfect. There has been a dispute about the actual
primordial helium abundance in the Universe: either
- The Expanding
23.4 or 24.4 percent by mass, with both broups
Universe and Hubbles
claiming 0.2 percent accuracy so this is 5 sigma Law
discrepancy between the different observational camps.
And a new measurement of the free neutron lifetime is - Cosmic
6 sigma smaller that the previous world average, giving Background Radiation
a new prediction of the helium abundance of 24.6
percent. The observed lithium abundance in stars is less - Dark Matter
than the predicted lithium abundance, by a factor of
about 2. But stars destroy lithium so it is hard to assess - Cosmic Inflation
the significance of this difference.
- Timeline of the
Big Bang

TIMELINE OF THE BIG BANG - Accelerating

Universe and Dark Energy
Since the Big Bang, 13.7 billion years ago,
the universe has passed through many different phases or - Antimatter
epochs. Due to the extreme conditions and the violence of
its very early stages, it arguably saw more activity and - The Big Crunch,
change during the first second than in all the billions of the Big Freeze and the Big
years since. Rip

- Superstrings
From our current understanding of how the Big
and Quantum Gravity
Bang might have progressed, taking into account theories
about inflation, Grand Unification, etc, we can put together - Conclusion
an approximate timeline as follows:
 Planck Epoch (or Planck Era), from zero to approximately 10 -43seconds
(1 Planck Time):
This is the closest that current physics can get to the absolute beginning of
time, and very little can be known about this period. General
relativity proposes a gravitational singularitybefore this time (although even
that may break down due toquantum effects), and it is hypothesized that the
fourfundamental forces (electromagnetism, weak nuclear force,strong nuclear
force and gravity) all have the same strength, and are possibly
even unified into one fundamental force, held together by a perfect symmetry
which some have likened to a sharpened pencil standing on its point (i.e. too
symmetrical to last). At this point, the universespans a region of only 10-
35
metres (1 Planck Length), and has a temperature of over 1032C (the Planck
Temperature).

Grand Unification Epoch, from 1043 seconds to 1036 seconds:

The force of gravity separates from the other fundamental forces (which
remain unified), and the earliest elementary particles (and antiparticles) begin
to be created.

Inflationary Epoch, from 1036 seconds to 1032 seconds:

Triggered by the separation of the strong nuclear force,
the universe undergoes an extremely rapid exponential expansion, known
as cosmic inflation. The linear dimensions of the earlyuniverse increases
during this period of a tiny fraction of a second by a factor of at least 10 26to
around 10 centimetres (about the size of a
grapefruit). The elementary
particles remaining from the Grand
Unification Epoch (a hot, dense quark-
gluon plasma, sometimes known as
quark soup) become distributed very thinly
across the universe.

Electroweak Epoch, from 1036 seconds to 10

12
seconds: (Click for a larger version)

As the strong nuclear force separates from Timeline and major events since
the Big Bang
the other two, particle interactions create (Source: U. of Arizona
large numbers of exotic particles, including W Lectures:http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatS
ci102/
and Z bosons and Higgs bosons (the Higgs lectures/eraplanck.htm - originally from "The
Essential Cosmic Perspective", by Bennett et
field slows particles down and al.)
confers masson them, allowing
a universe made entirely out of radiation to support things that have mass).

Quark Epoch, from 1012 seconds to 106 seconds:

Quarks, electrons and neutrinos form in large numbers as the universe cools
off to below 10 quadrillion degrees, and the four fundamental forces assume
their present forms. Quarks and antiquarks annihilate each other upon
contact, but, in a process known as baryogenesis, a surplus of quarks (about
one for every billion pairs) survives, which will ultimately combine to
form matter.
 Hadron Epoch, from 106 seconds to 1 second:
The temperature of the universe cools to about a trillion degrees, cool enough
to allow quarksto combine to form hadrons
(like protons and neutrons). Electrons colliding with protons in the extreme
conditions of the Hadron Epoch fuse to form neutrons and give off
masslessneutrinos, which continue to travel freely through space today, at or
near to the speed of light. Some neutrons and neutrinos re-combine into
new proton-electron pairs. The only rules governing all this apparently random
combining and re-combining are that the
overall chargeand energy (including mass-energy) be conserved.

Lepton Epoch, from 1 second to 3 minutes:

After the majority (but not all) of hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each
other at the end of the Hadron Epoch, leptons (such as electrons) and
antileptons (such as positrons) dominate the mass of the universe.
As electrons and positrons collide and annihilate each other, energyin the
form of photons is freed up, and colliding photons in turn create
more electron-positronpairs.

Nucleosynthesis, from 3 minutes to 20 minutes:

The temperature of the universe falls to the point (about a billion degrees)
where atomic nucleican begin to form as protons and neutrons combine
through nuclear fusion to form the nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen,
helium and lithium. After about 20 minutes, the temperature and density of
the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue.

Photon Epoch (or Radiation Domination), from 3 minutes to 240,000 years:

During this long period of gradual cooling, the universe is filled with plasma, a
hot, opaque soup of atomic nuclei and electrons. After most of the leptons and
antileptons had annihilated each other at the end of the Lepton Epoch,
the energy of the universe is dominated byphotons, which continue to interact
frequently with the charged protons, electrons and nuclei.

Recombination/Decoupling, from 240,000 to 300,000 years:

As the temperature of the universe falls to around 3,000 degrees (about the
same heat as the surface of the Sun) and its density also continues to
fall, ionized hydrogen and helium atomscapture electrons (known as
recombination), thus neutralizing their electric charge. With theelectrons now
bound to atoms, the universe finally becomes transparent to light, making this
the earliest epoch observable today. It also releases the photons in
the universe which have up till this time been interacting
with electrons and protons in an opaque photon-baryon fluid (known as
decoupling), and these photons (the same ones we see in todays cosmic
background radiation) can now travel freely. By the end of this period,
the universe consists of a fog of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, with
just traces of lithium.

Dark Age (or Dark Era), from 300,000 to 150 million years:
The period after the formation of ther first atoms and before the first stars is
 sometimes referred to as the Dark Age. Although photons exist,
the universe at this time is literally dark, with no stars having formed to give
off light. With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe has
tailed off dramatically, with very low energy levels and very large time scales.
Little of note happens during this period, and the universe is dominated by
mysterious dark matter.

Reionization, 150 million to 1 billion years:

The first quasars form from gravitational collapse, and the intense radiation
they emit reionizes the surrounding universe, the second of two major phase
changes of hydrogen gas in theuniverse (the first being the Recombination
period). From this point on, most of the universegoes from being neutral back
to being composed of ionized plasma.

Star and Galaxy Formation, 300 - 500 million years onwards:

Gravity amplifies slight irregularities in
the density of the primordial gas and pockets
of gas become more and more dense, even
as the universe continues to expand rapidly.
These small, dense clouds of
cosmic gas start to collapse under their
own gravity, becoming hot enough to
trigger nuclear fusion reactions between
hydrogen atoms, creating the very first stars. (Click for a larger version)
The first stars are short-lived The process of star formation
(Source: Spitzer Science
supermassive stars, a hundred or so times Center:http://ssc.spitzer.caltech.edu/
the mass of our Sun, known as Population III documents/compendium/galsci/)

(or metal-free) stars. Eventually Population

II and then Population I stars also begin to form from the material from
previous rounds of star-making. Larger stars burn out quickly and explode in
massive supernova events, their ashes going to form subsequent generations
of stars. Large volumes of matter collapse to form galaxies and gravitational
attraction pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and
superclusters.

Solar System Formation, 8.5 - 9 billion years:

Our Sun is a late-generation star, incorporating the debris from many
generations of earlierstars, and it and the Solar System around it form roughly
4.5 to 5 billion years ago (8.5 to 9 billion years after the Big Bang).

Today, 13.7 billion years:

The expansion of the universe and recycling of star materials into
new stars continues.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

The Universe's light-element abundance is another important criterion by which

the Big Bang hypothesis is verified. It is now known that the elements observed
in the Universe were created in either of two ways. Light elements (namely
deuterium, helium, and lithium) were produced in the first few minutes of the Big
Bang, while elements heavier than helium are thought to have their origins in the
interiors of stars which formed much later in the history of the Universe. Both
theory and observation lead astronomers to believe this to be the case.

The predicted abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen, as a function of

the density of baryons in the universe (expressed in terms of the fraction of
critical density in baryons, Omega_B and the Hubble constant, h).

In the 1950's and 60's the predominant theory regarding the formation of the
chemical elements in the Universe was due to the work of G.Burbidge,
M.Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle. The BBFH theory, as it came to be known,
postulated that all the elements were produced either in stellar interiors or
during supernova explosions. While this theory achieved relative success, it was
discovered to be lacking in some important respects. To begin with, it was
estimated that only a small amount of matter found in the Universe should
consist of helium if stellar nuclear reactions were its only source of production. In
fact, it is observed that upwards of 25% the Universe's total matter consists of
helium---much greater than predicted by theory! A similar enigma exists for the
deuterium. According to stellar theory, deuterium cannot be produced in stellar
interiors; actually, deuterium is destroyed inside of stars. Hence, the BBFH
hypothesis could not by itself adequately explain the observed abundances of
helium and deuterium in the Universe.

Thanks to the pioneering efforts of George Gamow and his collaborators, there
now exists a satisfactory theory as to the production of light elements in the
early Universe. In the very early Universe the temperature was so great that all
matter was fully ionized and dissociated. Roughly three minutes after the Big
Bang itself, the temperature of the Universe rapidly cooled from its phenomenal
10^32 Kelvin to approximately 10^9 Kelvin. At this temperature,
nucleosynthesis, or the production of light elements, could take place. In a short
time interval, protons and neutrons collided to produce deuterium (one proton
bound to one neutron). Most of the deuterium then collided with other protons
and neutrons to produce helium and a small amount of tritium (one proton and
two neutrons). Lithium 7 could also arise form the coalescence of one tritium and
two deuterium nuclei.

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory predicts that roughly 25% the mass of the
Universe consists of Helium. It also predicts about 0.01% deuterium, and even
smaller quantities of lithium. The important point is that the prediction depends
critically on the density of baryons (ie neutrons and protons) at the time of
nucleosynthesis. Furthermore, one value of this baryon density can explain all
the abundances at once. In terms of the present day critical density of matter,
the required density of baryons is a few percent (the exact value depends on the
assumed value of the Hubble constant). This relatively low value means that not
all of the dark matter can be baryonic, ie we are forced to consider more exotic
particle candidates.

The fact that helium is nowhere seen to have an abundance below 23% mass is
very strong evidence that the Universe went through an early hot phase. This is
one of the corner-stones of the Hot Big Bang model. Further support comes from
the consistency of the other light element abundances for one particular baryon
density and an independent measurement of the baryon density from the
anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background radiation. It seems like we
really understand the physical processes which went on in the first few minutes
of the evolution of the Universe!

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

The Universe's light-element abundance is another important

criterion by which the Big Bang hypothesis is verified. It is now
known that the elements observed in the Universe were created
in either of two ways. Light elements (namely deuterium, helium,
and lithium) were produced in the first few minutes of the Big
Bang, while elements heavier than helium are thought to have
their origins in the interiors of stars which formed much later in
the history of the Universe. Both theory and observation lead
astronomers to believe this to be the case.

The predicted abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen, as a function of the

density of baryons in the universe (expressed in terms of the fraction of critical
density in baryons, Omega_B and
the Hubble constant, h).

In the 1950's and 60's the predominant

theory regarding the formation of the
chemical elements in the Universe was
due to the work of G.Burbidge,
M.Burbidge, Fowler, and Hoyle. The
BBFH theory, as it came to be known,
postulated that all the elements were
produced either in stellar interiors or
during supernova explosions. While this
theory achieved relative success, it was
discovered to be lacking in some important respects. To begin with, it was
estimated that only a small amount of matter found in the Universe should consist
of helium if stellar nuclear reactions were its only source of production. In fact, it
is observed that upwards of 25% the Universe's total matter consists of helium---
much greater than predicted by theory! A similar enigma exists for the deuterium.
According to stellar theory, deuterium cannot be produced in stellar interiors;
actually, deuterium is destroyed inside of stars. Hence, the BBFH hypothesis could
not by itself adequately explain the observed abundances of helium and deuterium
in the Universe.

Thanks to the pioneering efforts of George Gamow and his collaborators, there
now exists a satisfactory theory as to the production of light elements in the early
Universe. In the very early Universe the temperature was so great that all matter
was fully ionized and dissociated. Roughly three minutes after the Big Bang itself,
the temperature of the Universe rapidly cooled from its phenomenal 10^32 Kelvin
to approximately 10^9 Kelvin. At this temperature, nucleosynthesis, or the
production of light elements, could take place. In a short time interval, protons and
neutrons collided to produce deuterium (one proton bound to one neutron). Most of
the deuterium then collided with other protons and neutrons to produce helium and
a small amount of tritium (one proton and two neutrons). Lithium 7 could also
arise form the coalescence of one tritium and two deuterium nuclei.

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory predicts that roughly 25% the mass of the
Universe consists of Helium. It also predicts about 0.01% deuterium, and even
smaller quantities of lithium. The important point is that the prediction depends
critically on the density of baryons (ie neutrons and protons) at the time of
nucleosynthesis. Furthermore, one value of this baryon density can explain all the
abundances at once. In terms of the present day critical density of matter, the
required density of baryons is a few percent (the exact value depends on the
assumed value of the Hubble constant). This relatively low value means that not all
of the dark matter can be baryonic, ie we are forced to consider more exotic
particle candidates.

The fact that helium is nowhere seen to have an abundance below 23% mass is
very strong evidence that the Universe went through an early hot phase. This is one
of the corner-stones of the Hot Big Bang model. Further support comes from the
consistency of the other light element abundances for one particular baryon density
and an independent measurement of the baryon density from the anisotropies in
thecosmic microwave background radiation. It seems like we really understand the
physical processes which went on in the first few minutes of the evolution of the
Universe!

Further details can be found here.

Bibliography.
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The Timeline of the Big Bang and Everything We Know

Click to see a larger image (NASA/JPL)
Modern scientific thought owes itself to the contributions of many great men and women.

Without these individuals, our universe would (literally) look quite different. However, there are

two scientists in the field of cosmology who stand out among all the rest: Edwin Hubble and

Georges Lematre. By 1930, other cosmologists had concluded that the static (non-

evolving)model of the universe was unsatisfactory.

This discovery is largely due to the efforts of Edwin Hubble. Using the worlds largest telescope,

which is located at Mt. Wilson in California, he showed that the distant galaxies all appeared to

be receding from us. Whats more, these far flung galaxies were traveling away from us at speeds

proportional to their distances Enter Lematre Lematre used these findings to draw

attention to his earlier paper, in which he explained the relationship between the distance of a

galaxy and the recession velocity of that same galaxy. By putting together Hubbles
observations with Lematres paper, a majority of astronomers became convinced that the

universe was indeed expanding. This revolutionized the study of cosmology.

Why was this find so notable? Shortly after this discovery, Lematre reasoned that traveling back

in time should lead to an epoch in which all the matter in the universe was packed together in an

extremely dense state a primeval atom. And this was the birth of Big Bang cosmology.

So, let us take a moment to delve into the Big Banginto the timeline of everything that has ever

existed

Before the Big Bang:

Cosmologists have come up with several possible speculations as to what existed before the big

bang (if anything). If these seem rather presumptuous, its because they are.

Image: Gary S Chapman/Photographer (Source)

Of course, it is entirely possible that thew was no previous era. Assuming that this is true, it

means that matter, energy, space, and time began abruptly. Another theory is that of Quantum

emergence. According to this view, space and time developed out of a primeval state describe by a

quantum theory of gravity. Next we have the landscape multiverse of string theory, which deals

with differences of quantum tunneling and quantum fluctuations between different energy states.

And finally we have the cyclic universe. In this theory, the big bang is just the latest big bang in

an endless stream of big bandsin the continual expansion, collapse and renewed expansion of

space and time.

But as I said, there is no ultimate contender, so lets leave that for a moment and take a look at

what we *do* know.

Timeline of the Universe:

10^ -43 seconds into the inception of the universe: this is the Planck era, the earliest known

meaningful time.

Image: Brookhaven National Laboratory (Source)

10 ^-35 seconds into the birth of our universe cosmic inflation creates what is known

as quarkgluon plasma. Protons and neutrons cannot exist yet, only leptons and quarks (with

their force carriers, gluons, W and Z bosons and photons). We know the quark soup exists

because we have created similar conditionsinside particle accelerators. It appears that it is this

early quark soup that gave rise to dark matter. Additionally, The quark soup is likely the phase in

which matter gained superiority over antimatter (lucky us). Ultimately, cosmologists speculate

that the universe had equal amounts of each, but at some point it developed one extra quark for

every billion antiquarks. This imbalance ensured that enough matter survived annihilation as the
universe expanded and cooled. (at 10 ^ -11 seconds this battle is starting to give favor to the rise

of matter over antimatter).

At 10 ^-5 seconds protons and neutrons are formed from quarks. Within the first 300 seconds

of the existence of the universe, the elements helium, lithium, and heavy hydrogen (deuterium

and Helium 3) form from the protons and neutrons by a process called nucleosynthesis.

Nucleosynthesis is the theory that accurately predicts the abundances of elements and isotopes

measured in the primeval samples of the universe (i.e., in the oldest stars and high-red shifted

gas clouds). The abundance of deuterium plays a special role in this process: Its measured value

implies that ordinary matter amounts to 4.9% of the total energy density in the universe (the

remainder is dark energy and matter). This agrees with the data collected by Planck from the

CMBR. This is an amazing triumph as two completely different measurements, one built on
nuclear physics when the universe was a second old and the other based on atomic physics when

the universe was 380 000 years old) agree with one another. This verification is a strong

indication that our model of the universe is accurate.

So lets take a look at our universe from this era. Youve probably heard the old adage, a picture

is worth a thousand words. Well, in this case, the pictures is worth roughly 900 million dollars.

I am talking about ESOs Planck Satellite and its baby snapshot of the universe i.e., the cosmic

microwave background radiation (CMB). This image reveals the age, density, geometry, and

overall composition of the entire early universe. On top of this, the image provides evidence

supporting inflationary cosmology via the information that we can extract from it. In essence,

quantum fluctuations causing temperature differences in this inflation field (on the subatomic

scale) get exponentially blown up to astrophysical sizes. The most remarkable thing about this is

that observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation (from WMAP and ESOs Planck

observatory) agree with the prediction of inflation, providing the strongest evidence for this

theory yet.

380, 000 years when the nearly uniform soup cooled to about 3000 Kelvin, atoms formed

nuclei and electrons. Photons ceased to scatter and streamed through space unhindered, turning

the prior opaque universe into one with visible light.

 Click to see a larger image (Source)

380,000 years to about 1 million years we enter a period called the Dark ages; existing

between it is known as the final frontier of cosmology. We know little about this period except

that the first stars and galaxies should have formed at about 100 million years. The limit of

current observations, that is, the highest red-shifted objects detectable (the oldest objects that we

can see) are at a time of when the universe was 600 million years old. Two future projects that

have already begun construction, theJames Webb Space Telescope and the Square Kilometer

Array, are specifically designed to shed some light on this era and (hopefully) bring the dark ages

to an end.

9 billion years, our solar system forms (yay us!).

10 billion years is when dark energy, a mysterious force that cosmologists have yet to wholly

pin down, starts to accelerate. At 20 billion years the Milky Way will collide with the Andromeda

galaxy (our solar system, or at least the inner planets, will be gone by that time, due to the suns
rapid expansion that will come once it exhausts its supply of fuel for nuclear fusion.)

Looking to the Future:

The End? (Click to see a larger image Source)

The ultimate fate of our universe hinges on dark energy. If the universe continues to grow at

about the same pace, this will result in all the last stars burning out in about 100 trillion

years (so weve got some time left, anyways). If this is true, at 30 billion yearsall other galaxies

are pulled from our view and all evidence of the big bang is lost forever (it may be possible that

future astronomers could deduce its existence using a few methodsbut hopefully we keep good

records).

Dark energy could also intensify, resulting in a Big Rip scenario. From superclusters to atoms,

dark energy effectively tears everything apart. This would happen at approximately 50 billion

years.

Alternatively dark energy could slow down. This deceleration would give gravity the upper hand

and lead to a collapse. And at 30 billion years, we could have what is known as a Big crunch.
This could result in a new big bang from the cyclic universe scenario.

The nature of universe is anything but simple, but cosmology has made leaps and bounds in such

a short period of time because of technology and the rigors of the scientific method. If we can

take anything from this invaluable knowledge, is that the march of scientific must continue

because the universe sure isnt going to slow down and wait for us to catch up.

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A New Type of Atomic Bond Has Been Discovered

Bionic Eyes Are Coming, and Theyll Make Us Superhuman

Why Space Elevators Could Be the Future of Space Travel

Ghost Galaxies: A Cosmic Riddle

Written By
Joshua FilmerJanuary 7, 2014
 Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown (STScI)

See this lovely image to the right? Any guesses as to what you are looking at? (Hint: Its not the

Hubble Ultra Deep Field or any similar image) What may look like nothing, for all intents and

purposes, is actually a full blown galaxy with a twist. This galaxy is almost lacking in stars

entirely.

You see.. There are ghosts all around us, that is, assuming your definition of a ghost extends to

extremely faint galaxies with very few stars; and by very few, I do mean very few. You could

probably count the number of stars in these galaxies within minutes, as these galaxies contain

hundreds, or maybe a couple thousands, of stars. Thats right, we are talking about numbers 3 or

4 digits long numbers that probably resemble your bank account. (In contrast, our galaxy the

Milky Way contains an estimated 400 billion stars) These so-called ghost galaxies have

intrigued astronomers for several years now.

LEO IV:
 Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown (STScI)

The galaxy pictured here is one of the most famous examples a ghost galaxy called Leo IV.

(Another well known one is NGC 2915)The galaxy itself can actually be classified as our celestial

neighbor, being that it can be found approximately 500,000 light-years from Earth.

Astronomers estimate that Leo Iv contains merely 1,000 stars all in various stages of stellar

evolution. Most are very dim and vague, which make it all the more difficult for astronomers to

discern where the boundaries of the galaxy lie. It also poses a problem when trying to determine

the galaxys size. As far as astronomers can tell, the galaxy measures in at 1100 light-years wide.

The small white box provides a basic outline of the galaxys shape and size.

THE GHOSTLY COSMIC QUANDARY:

One of the reasons the galaxies are so interesting is because they are nearly perfectly preserved

fossils of the early universe having formed an estimated one-billion years after the big bang.

Then, suddenly, the ghost galaxies stopped producing new stars. Because of this, they are tiny,

faint, and have changed very little in several billion years.

However, that isnt the weirdest thing about them, these galaxies have extremely high

concentrations of dark matter the elusive type of matter that makes up a substantial portion of

the overall mass of the universe. How much dark matter, you may ask? Well, by some
estimates, they contain about 100 times more dark matter than ordinary matter. In contrast, the

normal galaxies contain about 10 times more dark matter than ordinary matter.

A simulation showing the concentration of dark matter in typical galaxies compared to ghost

galaxies (Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown and J. Tumlinson [STSc])

Just like the hydra from the Herculean legend, it seems when scientists answer one question

about these strange galaxies, two more questions spring up in its place. Either way, unwrapping

the enigma of ghost galaxies will give us valuable insight into the transitional period between

ghost galaxies and galaxies teeming with the light of billions of baby stars. Furthermore, they may

help clue us in on the origin of the dark matter that pervades spacetime.

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ESO Captures First-Ever Clear Image of An Exoplanet Candidate, And Its 11
Quadrillion km Away

How do We Know that the Earth is Round?

Interview: Michel Bauwens on Peer-To-Peer Economics and Its Role in Reshaping

Our World

The Day With No Tomorrow: What Happens When The Sun Becomes A Red Giant?
Written By
fqtqJanuary 7, 2014
Author unknown

We all love a good doomsday theory, but never has one been so conceivably real. Based on

current variables and conditions, scientists have produced some profound calculations which

assert that our planet is in jeopardy.

Fortunately, the apocalypse wont come for a few billion years.

The metamorphosis of our Sun from a main sequence star to a red giant is a process that all low-

mass stars endure at some point in their lives.

It has long been a supported theory that our Sun loses mass due to cool non-dusty solar winds

stripping off matter. Indeed, scientists believe that our sun will lose so much mass over the

next 5.42 billion years (which is the time needed for the depletion of core hydrogen to occur, at

which point the and the red giant stage will begin) that the suns gravitational effect on the Earth

will have diminished to the point where Earths orbit becomes far larger than it is currently. So

large that scientists assert it will be approximately 1.2-3.0 astronomical units farther out than

where it is now.

Such a change would allow Earth to drift harmlessly out into the solar system and avoid being

consumed by our huge red giant sun. But it seems that theory may be incorrect.

A pair of astrophysicists detailed how the previous theories have neglected to consider the

Habitable Zone and the effects of the suns tidal forces.

Firstly, a brief reminder about the habitable zone: Having water in a liquid form is thought to be

essential for life as we know it, and also a key element for the formation of stable atmospheres.

Based on our knowledge of water, we have found that (depending on the specific variables) it can

exist in liquid form between 273K 373K ( -0.15C to 99.85C). The region of space that supports

this temperature range around a star is known as a Habitable Zone.

Image Credit: Wikimedia

Of course, there will be slight variations in the range of a stars habitable zone, based upon a

planets ability to reflect and absorb solar radiation which must be taken into account on a

planet-by-planet basis. The academic paper puts forward some alarming figures on the theorized

relocation of the habitable at the various stages of the suns period of change. These are :

The current HZ of our solar system is 0.95AU 1.37AU.

Once the Sun begins the Red Giant phase, the HZ will be 1.29AU 1.86AU

At peak Red Giant size, the habitable zone will be a staggering 49.4AU 71.4AU

As you can see, if the Earth remained at 1AU from the Red Giant phase commencing, it would fall

on the horribly incinerated side of the habitable zone.

 Image Credit: NASA/JPL

And the scientists assert that the effects of the cool non-dusty solar winds on the solar mass have

been greatly overestimated. They argue that the mass of the sun, and therefore its gravity, will
only suffer a tiny variation. This is believed to be somewhere in the region of 0.5%-1% of 1AU.

Virtually negligible for this event. This calculation shows that, while the habitable zone will move

farther out into our Solar System during the suns transition into a red giant, our planet will

remain basically where it is today.

The effects of this are pretty straight-forward: Devistation. Earth will be bombarded by solar

radiation of such great intensity that the liquid water of the oceans and seas will be boiled away.

Not only this, the atmosphere of the entire planet will be burnt from the planet, leaving the

planet exposed to deep space.

During even the earliest stages of the red giant phase, the scientists assert that life would be

impossible at this point on Earth, and it would get far worse.

As the Red Giant continues its expansion, it will devour Mercury and Venus they cannot move

away from the encroaching Red Giant and are trapped by the Suns tidal forces, sapping the

planets of their angular momentum.

 A rendering of how that might
look. (Credit: American Museum of Natural History)

It is theorized that, not long after this (several million years), the tidal force of the suns

Chromosphere will conflict with the Earths gravitational and tidal hold on the moon, to the point

where the moon will be torn apart. It is believed that these fragments of Moon will mostly stay in

orbit as an accretion disk; however, some of the larger pieces will fall into a re-entry with Earth

causing untold devastation to the already-scorched planet.

In the final stage of the Red Giant expansion, the Earth will be pulled into a 200-year decreasing

spiral orbit, which will destroy the planet as it descended through the layers of the red giant sun.

On a slightly more cheery note, it was calculated that an 8% increase in angular momentum upon

Earths orbit would allow it to survive all the cataclysmic occurrence. We just need to plan how to

deliver that incredible amount of energy to the planet, if we are still here then

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ESO Captures First-Ever Clear Image of An Exoplanet Candidate, And Its 11

Quadrillion km Away

How do We Know that the Earth is Round?

Interview: Michel Bauwens on Peer-To-Peer Economics and Its Role in Reshaping

Our World

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