Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus

else (studies with this object in view are known as

diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Characteristics of Research:
Research: Meaning, Characteristics and types
1. Empirical - based on observations and
Research is a derivative of the French word; experimentation on theories
Researche means quest, search, pursuit and search
for truth. Research in common man's language refers
2. Systematic - follows orderly and sequential
to "search for Knowledge". Research is an art of
procedure.
scientific investigation. It is also a systematic design,
collection,analysis and reporting the findings &
solutions for the marketing problem of a company. 3. Controlled - all variables except those that are
tested/experimented upon are kept constant
The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific 4. Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation
procedures process

Research is required because of the following 5. Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data
reasons: used so that there is no error in their interpretation

To identify and find solutions to the problemsEX: 6. Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are
Why is that demand for a product isFalling logically based on empirical
To help making decisions
EX: Should we maintain the advertising budget same 7. Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data
as last year are transformed into numerical measures and are
treated statistically
To develop new concepts
EX: MLM 8. Original work

To find alternate strategies 9. Done by an expert - the researcher uses valid and
EX: Should we follow pull strategy or push strategy carefully designed procedures, valid data gathering
to promote the product
10. Must be patient and unhurried activity - to ensure
The objectives of research are accuracy

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to

11. Require effort-making capacity
achieve new insights into it (studies with this object
in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies); 12. Requires courage
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group (studies THE TYPES OF RESEARCH
with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies); Exploratory Research

3. To determine the frequency with which something This type of research is carried out at the very
occurs or with which it is associated with something beginning when the problem is not clear or is vague.
In exploratory research, all possible reasons which
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 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
are very obvious are eliminated, thereby directing the
research to proceed further with limited options.
Sales decline in a company may be due to:
(1) Inefficient service
(2) Improper price
(3) Inefficient sales force
(4) Ineffective promotion
(5) Improper quality
The research executives must examine such questions
to identify the most useful avenuesfor further
research. Preliminary investigation of this type is
called exploratory research. Expert surveys, focus
groups, case studies and observation methods are
used to conduct the exploratory survey.
Descriptive Research- The main purpose of
descriptive research is to describe the state of view as
it exists at present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding
investigation. In descriptive research, definite
conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish
a cause and effect relationship.
Applied Research- aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem faced by any
businessorganization. This research deals with real
life situations. Example: Why have sales decreased
during the last quarter? Market research is an
example of applied research. Applied research has a
practical problem-solving emphasis. It brings out
many new facts.
Examples:
1. Use of fibre glass body for cars instead of metal.
2. To develop a new market for the product.
Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research-
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is known
as basic research. It is not directly involved with
practical problems. It does not have any commercial
potential. There is no intention to apply this research
in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
conducts such studies. Example: Theory of Relativity
(by Einstein).
Conceptual Research-This is generally used by
philosophers. It is related to some abstract idea or
theory. Inthis type of research, the researcher should
collect the data to prove or disapprove his hypothesis.
The various ideologies or isms are examples of
conceptual research.
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Causal Research- Causal research is conducted to
determine the cause and effect relationship between
the two variables.
Example: Effect of advertisement on sales.
Historical Research-The name itself indicates the
meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of
pastrecords and data in order to understand the future
trends and development of the organization or
market. There is no direct observation. The research
has to depend onthe conclusions or inferences drawn
in the past.
For example, investors in the share market study the
past records or prices of shares which he/she intends
to buy. Studying the share prices of a particular
company enables the investor to take decision
whether to invest in the shares of a company.
Ex-post Facto Research -In this type of research, an
examination of relationship that exists between
independentand dependent variable is studied. We
may call this empirical research. In this method, the
researcher has no control over an independent
variable. Ex-post facto literally means from what is
done afterwards. In this research, a variable A is
observed. Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a
causal variable B which caused A. It is quite
possible that B might not have been caused A. In
this type of analysis, there is no scope for the
researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher
can only report what has happened and what is
happening.
Action Research- This type of research is
undertaken by direct action. Action research is
conducted to solve a problem. Example: Test
marketing a product is an example of action research.
Initially, the geographical location is identified. A
target sample is selected from among the population.
Samples are distributed to selected samples and
feedback is obtained from the respondent. This
method is most common for industrial products,
where a trial is a must before regular usage of the
product.
Quantitative research aim to measure the quantity
or amount and compares it with past records and tries
to project for future period. In social sciences,
quantitative research refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships. The objective of
quantitative research is to develop and employ
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
mathematical models, theories or hypothesis
pertaining to phenomena. The process of
measurement is central to quantitative research
because it provides fundamental connection between
empirical observation and mathematical expression
of quantitative relationships. Statistics is the most
widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative
research. Statistical methods are used extensively
with in fields such as economics and commerce.
Qualitative research - Qualitative research presents
non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative
research is collecting, analyzing and interpreting data
by observing what people do and say. Qualitative
research refers to the meanings, definitions,
characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description
of things. Qualitative research is much more
subjective and uses very different methods of
collecting information,mainly individual, in-depth
interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type
of research is exploratory and open ended. Small
number of people are interviewed in depth and or a
relatively small number of focus groups are
conducted. Qualitative research can be further
classified in the following type. I. Phenomenology:-
a form of research in which the researcher attempts to
understand how one or more individuals experience a
phenomenon. Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of
bhopal tragedy. II. Ethnography:- this type of
research focuses on describing the culture of a group
of people. A culture is the shared attributes, values,
norms, practices, language, and material things of a
group of people. Eg:-the researcher might decide to
go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and
study the culture and the educational practices. III.
Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is
focused on providing a detailed account of one or
more cases.
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts
or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
1. Formulating the research problem
There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate
to relationships between variables. At the very outset
the researcher must single out the problem he wants
to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of
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Empirical researchis a way of gaining knowledge
by means of direct and indirect observation or
experience. Empirical evidence (the record of one's
direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed
quantitatively or qualitatively.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of
research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined
to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the
research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or
laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be
carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such research
follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches
to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies
usually go deep into the causes of things or events
that interest us, using very small samples and very
deep probing data gathering devices. The research
may be exploratory or it may be formalized.
RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Formation of objectives
4. Developing the hypothesis
5. Preparing the research design
6. Determining sample design
7. Collecting the data
8. Execution of the project
9. Analysis of data
10. Hypothesis testing
11. Generalisations and interpretation
12. Preparation of the report
interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would
like to inquire into.
2. Extensive literature survey
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of
it should be written down. It is compulsory for a
research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval. At this juncture the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and
indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic
journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem.
3. Formation of objectives
4. Developing the hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed
is particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research. They also affect the manner in
which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data
and indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis. In most types of research, the
development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific
and limited to the piece of research in hand because it
has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide
the researcher bydelimiting the area of research and
to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of
data required and the type of methods of data analysis
to be used.
5. Preparing the research design
The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would
be conducted. The preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all
these can be achieved depends mainly on the research
purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible
research design which provides opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is
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considered appropriate if the purpose of the research
study is that of exploration. But when the purpose
happens to be an accurate description of a situation or
of an association between variables, the suitable
design will be one that minimises bias and maximises
the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal
designs (such as before-and-after without control,
after-only with control, before-and-after with control)
or formal designs (such as completely randomized
design, randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of
which the researcher must select one for his own
project. The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and
his staff (if any);
(iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means
of obtaining information will be organised and the
reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) The time available for research; and
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.
6. Determining sample design
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g.,
people, organizations) from a population of interest
so that by studying the sample we may fairly
generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen.
Population is the set of individuals, items, or data
from which a statistical sample is taken it is also
called universe. Sample is representative part of the
population which contains each characterizes that
entire population possesses.
Probability samples are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-
probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling
techniques.
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling. This sampling method
involves purposive or deliberate selection of
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus

particular units of the universe for constituting a When population elements are selected for inclusion
sample which represents the universe. in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.

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 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
Judgement samplingthe researchersjudgement is
used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a
judgement sample of college students might be taken
to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in
qualitative research where the desire happens to be to
develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger
populations
Simple random sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance
sampling or probability sampling where each and
every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
Systematic sampling: In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to select every 15th
name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a
street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as
systematic sampling. An element of randomness is
usually introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which
to start. This procedure is useful when sampling
frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
design the selection process starts by picking some
random point in the list and then every nth element is
selected until the desired number is secured.
Stratified sampling: If the population from which a
sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling
technique is applied so as to obtain a representative
sample. In this technique, the population is stratified
into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or
strata and sample items are selected from each
stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is
based on simple random sampling the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random
sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of
taking random samples from individual strata is often
so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota
to be filled from different strata, the actual selection
of items for sample being left to the
interviewersjudgement. This is called quota
sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is
generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in
the population. Quota sampling is thus an important
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form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.
Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster
sampling involves grouping the population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample
its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say
450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected
for the sample randomly. The sample size must often
be larger than the simple random sample to ensure
the same level of accuracy because is cluster
sampling procedural potential for order bias and other
sources of error are usually accentuated. The
clustering approach can, however, make the sampling
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency
of field work, especially in the case of personal
interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and
is often talked about when the total geographical area
of interest happens to be big one. Under area
sampling we first divide the total area into a number
of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called
geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller
areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling
is especially helpful where we do not have the list of
the population concerned. It also makes the field
interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do
many interviews at each location.
Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development
of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is
meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country. Under
multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select
large primary sampling units such as states, then
districts, then towns and finally certain families
within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.
Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex
sample design where the ultimate size of the sample
is not fixed in advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the
context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling
described above may well be used in the same study
in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It
may be pointed out here that normally one should
resort to random sampling so that bias can be
eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But
purposive sampling is considered desirable when the
universe happens to be small and a known
characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also,
there are conditions under which sample designs
other than random sampling may be considered better
for reasons like convenience and low costs
7. Collecting the data
Types: Primary data & Secondary Data
Data can be collected through
Observation
Interview
Mailing of questionnaires
8. Execution of the project
Execution of the project is a very important step in
the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted
by means of structured questionnaires, data can be
readily machine-processed. In such a situation,
questions as well as the possible answers may be
coded. If the data are to be collected through
interviewers, arrangements should be made for
proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction
manuals which explain clearly the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks
should be made to ensure that the interviewers are
doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
9. Analysis of data
After the data have been collected, the researcher
turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of
data requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories, the application of
these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed
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into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw
data into some purposeful and usable categories.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of
the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for
tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical
procedure wherein the classified data are put in the
form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made
use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially
in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
Computers not only save time but also make it
possible to study large number of variables affecting
a problem simultaneously.
10. Hypothesis testing
After analysing the data as stated above, the
researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support
the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is
the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square
test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be
tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research
inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either
accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the
researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalisations established on the basis of data may
be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.
Null Hypothesis Ho- There is no relationship exists
between vaccination and prevention.
Alternate Hypothesis H1 - There is a relationship
exists between vaccination and prevention.
CV<TV accept null hypothesis.
TV<CV Reject null Hypothesis
11. Generalisations and interpretation
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had
no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain
his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus

quite often trigger off new questions which in turn

may lead to further researches Research Methods

12. Preparation of the report Experiments

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must
be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i)
the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the
end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title
and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following
parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement
of the objective of the research and an explanation of
the methodology adopted in accomplishing the
research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there
would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should
be presented in logical sequence and broken-down
into readily identifiable sections.
Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final
summing up.
(e) At the end of the report, appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted,
should also be given in the end.
1.Index should also be given specially in a published
research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective
style in simple language avoiding vague expressions
such as it seems, there may be, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should
be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned
and the various constraints experienced in conducting
research operations may as well be stated.
People who take part in research involving
experiments might be asked to complete various tests
to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall,
attention, concentration, reasoning ability etc.)
usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The
results of different groups are then compared.
Participants should not be anxious about performing
well but simply do their best. The aim of these tests is
not to judge people or measure so-called intelligence,
but to look for links between performance and other
factors. If computers are used, this has to be done in
such a way that no previous knowledge of computers
is necessary. So people should not be put off by this
either.
The study might include an intervention such as a
training programme, some kind of social activity, the
introduction of a change in the persons living
environment (e.g. different lighting, background
noise, different care routine) or different forms of
interaction (e.g. linked to physical contact,
conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.).
Often the interaction will be followed by some kind
of test (as mentioned above), sometimes before and
after the intervention. In other cases, the person may
be asked to complete a questionnaire (e.g. about
his/her feelings, level of satisfaction or general well-
being).
Some studies are just based on one group (within-
group design). The researchers might be interested in
observing peoples reactions or behaviour before and
after a certain intervention (e.g. a training
programme). However, in most cases, there are at
least two groups (a between-subjects design). One of
the groups serves as a control group and is not
exposed to the intervention. This is quite similar to
the procedure in clinical trials whereby one group
does not receive the experimental drug. This enables
researchers to compare the two groups and determine
the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two
groups might differ in some important way (e.g.
gender, severity of dementia, living at home or in
residential care, etc.) and it is that difference that is of
interest to the researchers.
Surveys

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 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
Surveys involve collecting information, usually from
fairly large groups of people, by means of
questionnaires but other techniques such as
interviews or telephoning may also be used. There
are different types of survey. The most
straightforward type (the one shot survey) is
administered to a sample of people at a set point in
time. Another type is the before and after survey
which people complete before a major event or
experience and then again afterwards.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information
from a large number of people and/or people who
may not have the time to attend an interview or take
part in experiments. They enable people to take their
time, think about it and come back to the
questionnaire later. Participants can state their views
or feelings privately without worrying about the
possible reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately,
some people may still be inclined to try to give
socially acceptable answers. People should be
encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as
possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false
conclusions from their study.
Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice
questions, attitude scales, closed questions and open-
ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that
they usually have a fairly low response rate and
people do not always answer all the questions and/or
do not answer them correctly. Questionnaires can be
administered in a number of different ways (e.g. sent
by post or as email attachments, posted on Internet
sites, handed out personally or administered to
captive audience (such as people attending
conferences). Researchers may even decide to
administer the questionnaire in person which has the
advantage of including people who have difficulties
reading and writing. In this case, the participant may
feel that s/he is taking part in an interview rather than
completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be
noting down the responses on his/her behalf.
Interviews
Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-
to-face but can also be administered by telephone or
using more advance computer technology such as
Skype. Sometimes they are held in the interviewees
home, sometimes at a more neutral place. It is
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important for interviewees to decide whether they are
comfortable about inviting the researcher into their
home and whether they have a room or area where
they can speak freely without disturbing other
members of the household.
When conducting the interview, the researcher might
have a check list or a form to record answers. This
might even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking
notes can interfere with the flow of the conversation,
particularly in less structured interviews. Also, it is
difficult to pay attention to the non-verbal aspects of
communication and to remember everything that was
said and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be
helpful for the researchers to have some kind of
additional record of the interview such as an audio or
video recording. They should of course obtain
permission before recording an interview.
Case studies
Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a
particular case (a person or small group). Various
methods of data collection and analysis are used but
this typically includes observation and interviews and
may involve consulting other people and personal or
public records. The researchers may be interested in a
particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis
or a move into residential care) and select one or
more individuals in the respective situation on whom
to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a
very narrow focus which results in detailed
descriptive data which is unique to the case(s)
studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical
settings and may even challenge existing theories and
practices in other domains.
Participant and non-participant observation
Studies which involve observing people can be
divided into two main categories, namely participant
observation and non-participant observation.
In participant observation studies, the researcher
becomes (or is already) part of the group to be
observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of
members of the group and at the same time remaining
sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the
observation. The observations made might be based
on what people do, the explanations they give for
what they do, the roles they have, relationships
amongst them and features of the situation in which
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
they find themselves. The researcher should be open
about what s/he is doing, give the participants in the
study the chance see the results and comment on
them, and take their comments seriously.
In non-participant observation studies, the researcher
is not part of the group being studied. The researcher
decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour
is relevant to the study and can be realistically and
ethically observed. The observation can be carried
out in a few different ways. For example, it could be
continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one hour)
or regularly for shorter periods of time (for 60
seconds every so often) or on a random basis.
Observation does not only include noting what
happened or was said but also the fact that a specific
behaviour did not occur at the time of observation.
Observational trials
Observational trials study health issues in large
groups of people but in natural settings.
Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a
group of people over a fairly lengthy period of time
e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life
paying specific attention to diet and lifestyle factors.
In some cases, the researchers might monitor people
when they are middle-aged and then again after 15
years and so on. The aim of such studies is usually to
determine whether there is a link between one factor
and another (e.g. whether high alcohol consumption
is correlated with dementia). The group of people
involved in this kind of study is known as a cohort
and they share a certain characteristic or experience
within a defined period. Within the cohort, there may
be subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately,
people who drink heavily, people who binge drink
etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be made.
In some cases, rather than following a group of
people from a specific point in time onwards, the
researchers take a retrospective approach, working
backwards as it were. They might ask participants to
tell them about their past behaviour, diet or lifestyle
(e.g. their alcohol consumption, how much exercise
they did, whether they smoked etc.) They might also
ask for permission to consult the participants
medical records (a chart review). This is not always a
reliable method and may be problematic as some
people may forget, exaggerate or idealise their
behaviour. For this reason, a prospective study is
generally preferred if feasible although a
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retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective
study may be helpful in focusing the study question
and clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the
latter (Hess, 2004).
Studies using the Delphi method
The Delphi method was developed in the United
States in the 1950s and 1960s in the military domain.
It has been considered particularly useful in helping
researchers determine the range of opinions which
exist on a particular subject, in investigating issues of
policy or clinical relevance and in trying to come to a
consensus on controversial issues. The objectives can
be roughly divided into those which aim to measure
diversity and those which aim to reach consensus.
Different ways to employ this method have been
devised but they tend to share common features,
namely a series of rounds in which the participants
(known as panelists) generate ideas or identify
salient issues, comment on a questionnaire
(constructed on the basis of the results from the first
round) and re-evaluate their original responses. After
each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous
summary of the forecasts/opinions made by the
experts and of their reasons.
There is no limit to the number of panelists involved
but between 10 and 50 might be considered
manageable. The panelists are chosen on the basis of
their expertise which could take many forms (e.g.
academic, professional or practical knowledge,
personal experience of having a condition, being a
service user etc.).
Research Ethics:
1. Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific
communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not
deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
2. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental
design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony,
and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
deception. Disclose personal or financial interests
that may affect research.
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
3. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements;
act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought
and action.
4.Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence;
carefully and critically examine your own work and
the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or
journals.
5.Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools,
resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
6. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents,
copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results
without permission. Give credit where credit is due.
Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all
contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
7.Confidentiality: Protect confidential
communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military
secrets, and patient records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish in order to
advance research and scholarship, not to advance just
your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative
publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor,
and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow
them to make their own decisions.
10. Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues
and treat them fairly.
11. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social
good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.
12. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination
against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,
race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to
their scientific competence and integrity.
13. Competence: Maintain and improve your own
professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
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14. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and
institutional and governmental policies.
15. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for
animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
16. Human Subjects Protection: When conducting
research on human subjects minimize harms and risks
and maximize benefits; respect human dignity,
privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.
17. There are many other activities that do not define
as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most
researchers as unethical. These are called "other
deviations" from acceptable research practices and
include:
Publishing the same paper in two different journals
without telling the editors
Submitting the same paper to different journals
without telling the editors
Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a
patent in order to make sure that you are the sole
inventor
Including a colleague as an author on a paper in
return for a favor even though the colleague did not
make a serious contribution to the paper
Discussing with your colleagues confidential data
from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal
Trimming outliers from a data set without
discussing your reasons in paper
Using an inappropriate statistical technique in
order to enhance the significance of your research
Bypassing the peer review process and announcing
your results through a press conference without
giving peers adequate information to review your
work
Conducting a review of the literature that fails to
acknowledge the contributions of other people in the
field or relevant prior work
Stretching the truth on a grant application in order
to convince reviewers that your project will make a
significant contribution to the field
Stretching the truth on a job application or
curriculum vita
Giving the same research project to two graduate
students in order to see who can do it the fastest
Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or
post-doctoral students
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus

Failing to keep good research records A Symposium is typically a more formal or

Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable academic gathering, featuring multiple experts
period of time delivering short presentations on a particular topic.
Making derogatory comments and personal attacks
in your review of author's submission A research article is a primary source...that is, it
Promising a student a better grade for sexual reports the methods and results of an original study
favors performed by the authors. The kind of study may
Using a racist epithet in the laboratory vary (it could have been an experiment, survey,
Making significant deviations from the research interview, etc.), but in all cases, raw data have been
protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care collected and analyzed by the authors, and
and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for conclusions drawn from the results of that analysis.
Human Subjects Research without telling the
committee or the board Two beliefs about the paper and article.
Not reporting an adverse event in a human
research experiment Both are same.
Wasting animals in research When it is published, it is called article. When it is
unpublished , it is called paper.
Exposing students and staff to biological risks in
violation of your institution's biosafety rules
A thesis isa formal and lengthy research paper,
Rejecting a manuscript for publication without
especiallya work of original research,written in
even reading it
partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate
Sabotaging someone's work degree
Stealing supplies, books, or data
Rigging an experiment so you know how it will University Graduate Council
turn out
Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or
computer programs Thesis and Project Report Format Guidelines
Deliberately overestimating the clinical
significance of a new drug in order to obtain UGC approved: April 28, 2006
economic benefits
This guide is designed to provide graduate students
These actions would be regarded as unethical by
most scientists and some might even be illegal. Most with the formatting requirements for all theses and
of these would also violate different professional project reports. It covers structure, layout, form, and
ethics codes or institutional policies.
style. Departments may use additional requirements
A seminar is a lecture or presentation delivered to an that do not conflict with the guidelines provided in
audience on a particular topic or set of topics that are
educational in nature. It is usually held for groups of this document.
10-50 individuals. A seminar is frequently held at a
hotel meeting space or within an office conference 1. Thesis and Project Report Arrangement
room.
Assemble the thesis/project report in this order:
A workshop is a series of educational and work
sessions. Small groups of people meet together over a
1. Cover page: includes the title, author, degree
short period of time to concentrate on a defined area
of concern. (Thesis/Project submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree
Conferences often features keynote presentations
delivered to all attendees, as well as multiple break- of Master of in ), and date.
out sessions. Attendees often expect to receive
2. Thesis/Project Approval Form.
information about industry trends and developments.
3. Plagiarism policy compliance statement.

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 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
4. Copyright page that grants LAU the right to
use and reproduce fully or partially the work
being presented.
5. Dedication page (optional).
6. Acknowledgments page (optional).
7. Abstract: a concise summary of the essential
information of the work being presented,
namely of the studys scope, purpose and
results. The reference-free single spaced
abstract should not exceed two pages.
8. Table of Contents: includes all the
subsections of each chapter and the list of
appendices (if applicable) and page numbers.
9. List of Figures: includes figure number,
caption, and the page number.
10. List of Tables: includes table number,
caption, and the page number.
11. Abbreviations page: lists all the abbreviations
used in the text alongside their fully written
unabbreviated form.
12. Thesis/Project text; the layout is described in
the next section.
2. Layout
The following presents a framework for a
thesis. The information is offered as a
general guideline. Students should always
consult their advisor for additional
guidelines. In particular, the layout of
project reports can be different depending on
the type and scope of the project. Note that
each chapter should start on a new page.
1- Introduction: background; statement
the problem; definition of terms; purpose
the study; theoretical basis; contributions
the study; organization of the remainder
the study.
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2- Literature Review: chronological,
categorical or related theoretical view points
related to topic.
3- Proposed Solution/Methodology: research
design or approach (quantitative, qualitative
or algorithmic); population and / or sample;
collection and tabulation of data; and data
analysis procedures.
4- Solution Validation, Analysis of the Data, Results,
and Discussion: presentation and discussion of the
findings, including limitations.
5- Conclusions, Recommendations: summarizes the
entire research effort; addresses the initial purpose of
the study (stated in the introduction); stresses the
importance of the work accomplished; leaves a final
impression on the reader. It can also include
suggestions for further work.
6- Bibliography/References: references should
acknowledge any work done by someone other than
the author. The reference should also include work
performed by the author if presented or published at
an earlier date. References should adopt one of the
standard international styles; the American
Psychological Association style for references and
citation is recommended. For more information,
contact the library.
7- Appendices: material too detailed or lengthy for
inclusion in the body of the study (e.g.
questionnaires, maps). Appendices may also contain
information that might clarify the thesis but is routine
in nature or indirectly related to the thesis. Raw data
and examples of calculation could be incorporated.
3. Style and Form
of
of 3.1 Paper: Use high-quality acid-free A4-size
paper, with only one side of the paper.
of
of 3.2 Printing: A high-quality laser printer should
be used for the final copy.
3.3 Headings:
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus
In disciplines where section numbering is
normally used, the following guidelines apply:
Chapter title: 18 24 pt size, bold.
Main Section Headings: can be numbered
as chapter-number.section-number (e.g.,
3.2 for chapter 3, section 2) in 14 pt size,
bold.
Second Headings: can be numbered as
x.y.z (e.g., 3.2.4 for chapter 3, section 2,
subsection 4) in 12 pt size, bold.
First Subheadings: can be numbered as
w.x.y.z (e.g., 3.2.4.1 for chapter 3, section
2, subsection 4, sub-subsection 1) in 12 pt
size, regular.
Second Subheadings: preferably
unnumbered, 12 pt, italics.
3.4 Text Font: Acceptable fonts generated by
word processing programs include, but are not
restricted to: Times Roman 12, Helvetica 12,
Letter Gothic 12. The font provided through
LaTeX is acceptable. Bold and italics should
not be used excessively in the text.
Furthermore, colored text should not be used.
3.5 Spacing: Double or one and a half spacing is
required for the text. Only footnotes, long
quotations, bibliography entries(double space
between entries), table captions, and similar
special material may be single spaced.
3.6 Margins: Left, 4 cm; top, bottom, and right,
2.5 cm. These are necessary to allow for
binding and trimming.
3.7 Page Numbering: Preliminary pages of the
thesis, that is, those preceding the text are to be
numbered in Roman numerals. The first page
must not show its page number. Pages of the
text itself and of all items following the text
should be numbered consecutively throughout
in Arabic numbers, beginning with number 1
on the first page of the first chapter. Page
numbers should be placed in the lower right
corner or center of the page. Only the number
should appear, not page 9.
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3.8 Tables and Figures: Figures and tables should
be inserted at the appropriate place in the text.
Figures must have numbers and captions under
the figures. Tables have their titles and
numbers above.
3.9 Drawings: Any material which cannot be
typed or computer generated should be drawn
with permanent black ink in neat and heavy
lines. Photographs of drawings are acceptable.
Xerox reproductions of drawings are
acceptable if they are of high contrast.
3.10 Photographs: Mount small photographs with
glue. Do not use rubber cement or tape. High-
clarity Xerox copies of photographs are also
acceptable. However, high-quality scanned e-
images can also be inserted into the thesis text.
3.11 Footnotes: In disciplines where footnotes are
normally used, they should appear at the
bottom of the same page as their reference.
Footnotes should be numbered in Arabic
numerals. The footnote reference is
superscripted and the explanation at the bottom
of the page begins with the footnote reference
number. Footnotes should have a smaller font
size than the text (e.g. 10 pt).
3.12 CDs and DVDs: identify with title, name of
student, and date.
3.13 Computer Software:Describe in separate
section in prefatory pages (e.g., list of figures
and tables). If applicable, state requirements
for the use of the software (e.g., hardware,
screen resolution type) and any other
information necessary for proper viewing of
the software.
3.14 Oversized Material: Oversize foldout pages
may be included, though ample margins for
binding must be included. Leave oversize page
unfolded. The bindery will fold and insert
them. All pages must appropriately numbered if
found in the text.
 Research Methodology An Overview in line with UGC NET Syllabus

3.15 Binding: Binding will be arranged by the
library, for a fee, in order to ensure
consistency. At least two copies of the thesis
should be submitted to the library of the
campus concerned.
Will your reader want to read the rest of your essay?
Do you make your argument sound important?
Further reading:

Characteristics: Research Methodology C.R.

1. SPECIFIC? Kothari
******* All the Best*******
Do not make your thesis statement so general that it
doesnt mean very much. Avoid ambiguous or vague
words (e.g. thing) and sweeping claims
(e.g. there are many similarities and
differences).

2. CLEAR?
You know what your thesis means, but will someone
else? Try reading it to a friend and see whether
he/she knows what you are getting at.

3. UNIFIED
Do you list several points without showing their
connection? A good thesis makes one strong point,
not many unrelated ones.

4. BRIEF
A thesis statement should be one or two sentences in
length. If it is longer than that, you are trying to say
too much. You do not have to list all your upcoming
arguments in your thesis statement.

5. VISIBLE
Is you r thesis hidden away where your reader may
not see it? Usuallybut not always, your thesis will be
at the beginning or end of your introductory
paragraph.

6. ARGUMENTATIVE
A thesis statement presents an argument; it does not
restate the topic. You should make an assertion which
you then attempt to prove in the body of your essay.
You can tell that your thesis is argumentative if it is
debatable- that is, if you can think of a counter
argument.

7. RELEVANT
Is your thesis on topic? Does it accurately capture
what you argue in your essay? If you revise the body
of your essay, be certain your thesis still fits.

8. INTERESTING

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