Flvia Kaczelnik Altit, Mark Osa Igiehon

liquids and gases for thousands of years. The geology of such depleted reservoirs has
become well known over the course of exploration and production lifecycles, as has
the extent of the considerable storage capacity available. Some depleted reservoirs
might therefore be modified for CO2 storage.49
Even though there are already cases of carbon underground storage, there are still
many technical, economical and legal challenges to be resolved. These challenges
include finding adequate storage and transportation, developing an understanding
of reservoir behaviour after injection, and issues as to economic viability, rights to
proceed with the storage and clear definition of liabilities.
It is also worth noting that apart from underground storage of CO2, captured CO2
can also be utilised to enhance recovery of oil and gas from mature oil and gas reservoirs
using an established CO2-EOR (enhanced oil recovery) technique. The income from
such CO2-EOR schemes can prolong the life of a depleted oil and gas field.
Whilst offshore storage is the subject of international law, the storage of CO2 in
reservoirs under land is generally subject to national law and is beyond the scope of
this chapter. Until recently, the offshore storage of CO2 under the seabed was not
permitted by international law, as CO2 was not listed among the items that could be
dumped under international conventions. By amendments adopted by the
contracting parties on November 2 2006 to the 1996 Protocol to the Convention on
the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972
(the London Dumping Convention), which took effect from February 10 2007,
storage of CO2 under the deep seabed is now permitted by international law. The
amendments (and further guidance) will regulate CO2 storage in the seabed. The
amendments prescribe that disposal of CO2 can only be into sub-seabed geological
formations; such CO2 must consist overwhelmingly of carbon dioxide; and no waste
or other matter may be added for the purpose of disposal. Disposal of CO2 directly
into the deep oceans is not permitted.
The combined effect of the amendments to the London Dumping Convention
(and the detailed guidance adopted in November 2007 under the title Risk Assessment
Framework for CO2 Sequestration in Sub-Sealed Geological Structures) means that CO2
storage or sequestration under the seabed will be subject to licences to be issued by
governments under licensing regimes developed pursuant to the London Dumping
Convention. Applicants for CO2 storage licences will have to demonstrate that the
CO2 will remain permanently in place when placed or stored. Applicants will,
therefore, have to prove the integrity of the proposed storage site and mitigation
safeguards to be put in place.
The OSPAR Commission has recently adopted annexes to the OSPAR
Convention.50 By the amendments, storage of CO2 in geological formations under
the seabed in the OSPAR area is now permitted. However, the placement of CO2 into
the water-column of the sea and on the seabed remains prohibited.

49 See IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Putting Carbon Back into the Ground, February 2001.
50 OSPAR Decision 2007/1 and OSPAR Decision 2007/2.

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