Definition of Transformer

Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit
to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between
two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but
may be in different voltage level. This is a very short and simple definition of transformer, as
we will go through this portion of tutorial related to electrical power transformer, we will
understand more clearly and deeply "what is transformer ?" and basic theory of transformer.

Working Principle of Transformer

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible
for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly
proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".

Basic Theory of Transformer

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The alternating
current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux that surrounds
the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of
this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction,
there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil. According to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the later
winding is closed, there must be an current flowing through it. This is the simplest form of
electrical power transformer and this is the most basic of working principle of transformer. For
better understanding, we are trying to repeat the above explanation in a more brief way here.
Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating flux
surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one, there will be an alternating
flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change
in flux linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be induced in it as per
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic concept of the theory of
transformer.

Transformer Testing | Type Test and Routine Test of Transformer

Next
For confirming the specifications and performances of an electrical power transformer it has to go
through numbers of testing procedures. Some tests are done at manufacturer premises before
delivering the transformer. Mainly two types of transformer testing are done at manufacturer
premises- type test of transformer and routine test of transformer. In addition to that some
transformer tests are also carried out at the consumer site before commissioning and also
periodically in regular & emergency basis through out its service life.

Type of Transformer Testing

Tests done at factory
1. Type tests
2. Routine tests
3. Special tests
Tests done at site
1. Pre-commissioning tests
2. Periodic/condition monitoring tests
3. Emergency tests

Type Test of Transformer

To prove that the transformer meets customers specifications and design expectations, the
transformer has to go through different testing procedures in manufacturer premises.
Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming the basic design expectation of that
transformer. These tests are done mainly in a prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot.
Type test of transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.

Routine Tests of Transformer

Routine tests of transformer is mainly for confirming operational performance of individual unit
in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit manufactured.

Special Tests of Transformer

Special tests of transformer is done as per customer requirement to obtain information useful
to the user during operation or maintenance of the transformer.

Pre Commissioning Test of Transformer

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests, performed on it, before
actual commissioning of the transformer at site. The transformer testing performed before
commissioning the transformer at site is called pre-commissioning test of transformer. These tests
are done to assess the condition of transformer after installation and compare the test results of all
the low voltage tests with the factory test reports. Type tests of transformer includes
1. Transformer winding resistance measurement
2. Transformer ratio test.
3. Transformer vector group test.
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap) and load loss
(Short circuit test).
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test).
6. Measurement of insulation resistance.
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Temperature rise test of transformer.
9. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
10. Vacuum tests on tank and radiators.
Routine tests of transformer include
1. Transformer winding resistance measurement.
2. Transformer ratio test.
3. Transformer vector group test.
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap) and load loss
(Short circuit test).
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance.
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and gaskets.
That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except temperature rise and
vacuum tests. The oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and
gaskets is included. Special Tests of transformer include
1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase transformers
3. Short-circuit test.
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level.
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchhloz relay, temperature
indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation system etc.

Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement

 Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate the I2R losses and to
calculate winding temperature at the end of a temperature rise test. It is carried out as a type test
as well as routine test. It is also done at site to ensure healthiness of a transformer that is to
check loose connections, broken strands of conductor, high contact resistance in tap changers,
high voltage leads and bushings etc.

There are different methods for measuring of transformer winding, likewise

Current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance. Bridge method of

measurement of winding resistance. Kelvin bridge method of Measuring Winding
Resistance. Measuring winding resistance by Automatic Winding Resistance Measurement
Kit.
NB:- Transformer winding resistance measurement shall be carried out at each tap.

Transformer Ratio Test

The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of specific turns or voltage ratio
of transformer. So transformer ratio test is an essential type test of transformer. This test also
performed as routine test of transformer. So for ensuring proper performance of electrical
power transformer, voltage and turn ratio test of transformer one of the vital tests.
The procedure of transformer ratio test is simple. We just apply three phase 415 V supply to HV
winding, with keeping LV winding open. The we measure the induced voltages at HV and LV
terminals of transformer to find out actual voltage ratio of transformer. We repeat the test for all
tap position separately.

Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer

Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three phase transformers to check the
imbalance in the magnetic circuit.

Procedure of Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer

1. First keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position.
2. Now disconnect the transformer neutral from ground.
3. Then apply single phase 230 V AC supply across one of the HV winding terminals
and neutral terminal.
4. Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral terminal.
5. Repeat the test for each of the three phases.
In case of auto transformer, magnetic balance test of transformer should be repeated for LV
winding also.

There are three limbs side by side in a core of transformer. One phase winding is wound in one
limb. The voltage induced in different phases depends upon the respective position of the limb in
the core. The voltage induced in different phases of transformer in respect to neutral terminals
given in the table below.

Left side phase Central phase

AN BN

Voltage applied at left side phase 230 V 180 V

Voltage applied at central phase 115 V 230 V

Voltage applied at right side phase 50 V 180 V

Magnetizing Current Test of Transformer

Magnetizing current test of transformer is performed to locate defects in the magnetic core
structure, shifting of windings, failure in turn to turn insulation or problem in tap changers. These
conditions change the effective reluctance of the magnetic circuit, thus affecting the current
required to establish flux in the core.
6. First of all keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all IV & LV
terminals.
7. Then apply three phase 415 V supply on the line terminals for three phase
transformers and single phase 230 V supply on single phase transformers.
8. Measure the supply voltage and current in each phase.
9. Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformertest with keeping tap
changer in normal position.
10. And repeat the test with keeping the tap at highest position.

Generally there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases on transformer core and
one lower reading on the centre limb phase, in case of three phase transformers. An agreement to
within 30% of the measured exciting current with the previous test is usually considered
satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50 times higher than the value measured
during factory test, there is likelihood of a fault in the winding which needs further analysis.

Caution: This magnetizing current test of transformer is to be carried out before DC

resistance measurement.

Vector Group Test of Transformer

In three phase transformer, it is essential to carry out a vector group test of transformer. Proper
vector grouping in a transformer is an essential criteria for parallel operation of transformers.
There are several internal connection of three phase transformer are available in market. These
several connections gives various magnitudes and phase of the secondary voltage; the magnitude
can be adjusted for parallel operation by suitable choice of turn ratio, but the phase divergence can
not be compensated. So we have to choose those transformer for parallel operation whose phase
sequence and phase divergence are same. All the transformers with same vector ground have
same phase sequence and phase divergence between primary and secondary. So before procuring
one electrical power transformer, one should ensure the vector group of the transformer, whether
it will be matched with his or her existing system or not. The vector group test of transformer
confirms his or her requirements.

Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of Transformer

Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This test is carried out to
ensure the healthiness of over all insulation system of an electrical power transformer.

Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

11. First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer.
12. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure insulation
resistance IR value in between the LV and HV windings.
13. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer tank earth
point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between the HV windings and earth.
14. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer tank earth
point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth.
NB : It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase
wise in three phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively
as because all the windings on HV side are internally connected together to form either
star or delta and also all the windings on LV side are internally connected together to
form either star or delta. Measurements are to be taken as follows: For auto transformer: HV-IV
to LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E. For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E, LV to E. Three winding
transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to E, IV to E, LV to E. Oil temperature should be
noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the IR value of
transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be recorded at intervals of 15
seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the duration of application of voltage, IR value increases.
The increase in IR is an indication of dryness of insulation. Absorption coefficient = 1 minute value/
15 secs. value. Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute value.

Dielectric Tests of Transformer

Dielectric tests of transformer is one kind of insulation test. This test is performed to ensure the
expected over all insulation strength of transformer. There are several test performed to ensure
the required quality of transformer insulation, dielectric test is one of them. Dielectric tests of
transformer is performed in two different steps, first one called Separate source voltage withstand
test of transformer, where a single phase power frequency voltage of prescribed level, is applied on
transformer winding under test for 60 seconds while the other windings and tank are connected to
the earth and it is observed that whether any failure of insulation occurs or not during the test.
Second one is induced voltage test of Transformer where, three phase voltage, twice of rated
 secondary voltage is applied to the secondary winding for 60 second by keeping the primary of the
transformer open circuited. The frequency of the applied voltage should be double of power
frequency too. Here also if no failure of insulation, the test is successful. In addition to dielectric
tests of transformer there are other type test for checking insulation of transformer, such as
lightning impulse test, switching impulse test and partial discharge test.

Induced Voltage Test of Transformer

The induced voltage test of transformer is intended to check the inter turn and line end insulation
as well as main insulation to earth and between windings-
15. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.
16. Apply three phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied voltage should be
twice of rated voltage of secondary winding in magnitude and frequency.
17. The duration of the test shall be 60 second.
18. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage, and it shall
be quickly increased up to desired value.
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during test.

Temperature Rise Test of Transformer

Temperature rise test of transformer is included in type test of transformer. In this test we
check whether the temperature rising limit of the transformer winding and oil as per specification
or not. In this type test of transformer, we have to check oil temperature rise as well as winding
temperature rise limits of an electrical transformer.

Why the Transformers are tested at double the rated frequency which never happens practically?

May 25, 2015Giri Kumar Engineering

DVDF (Double voltage and double frequency) test is popular test conducted on the
Transformer before it is commissioned. In this test double the rated voltage and double the rated
frequency is applied to the Transformer under test and observed for its withstand capability usually
for 1 min. Double voltage is applied to test the Transformer withstand capability for higher voltages
which are sometimes occur in the form of lightning surges and faults on the transformer. But,
practically, no transformer is subjected to double the rated frequency as the frequency variations
are not allowed beyond 0.5% by the power supply grid controlling authority. In such a case, is it
essential to test the transformer at 200% i.e. double the rated frequency conditions?

When alternating electrical source is applied to the primary winding of the transformer, it
draws magnetizing current which produces alternating flux in the core of the transformer. This flux
links both primary and secondary windings and due its alternating nature EMF is induced across
both windings and Erms can be deduced by the equation.

Erms= 4.44mfN volts

Where Erms is RMS voltage induced

m is maximum flux linked

f is the operating frequency

N is the number of turns in the winding.

 As per the above equation, when double the rated voltage is applied while testing the
transformer, without doubling the frequency, the maximum amount of flux linked will also be
doubled as the number of turns is always constant for a particular design. This causes the
abnormal heating of core of the Transformer under test and the magnetizing properties of the core
are disturbed permanently. Hence, to avoid this abnormal heating of the Transformer due to
increase in flux, applied frequency will also be doubled along with applied voltage to test the high
voltage with stand capability of the Transformer. Thus the test is named as Double Voltage Double
Frequency test.

what is vacuum drying process/method of industrial drying oven of transformer

by Nach | posted in: vacuum drying oven | 5

What is Vacuum Drying of Power Transformer? Why is it required and How it is done?

Here in this article we will address vacuum drying process/method , principle of vacuum dryer of
power transformers and how it is done.

Let us start with basic concepts of insulation and its importance.

Insulation materials are those materials that act as a barrier for electricity conduction. Insulation
materials or simply electrical insulation is of prime importance in area of utility of Electric
appliances, be it a home appliance operating on 110VAC/230VAC or an industrial equipment
operating on 380VAC/415VAC or electrical high voltage devices like the transformers, transmission
lines, circuit breakers and like.

As the power levels scale up, the internal insulation levels of devices, (say like insulation between
two phases, phase to ground insulation etc.) become more crucial and decisive factor for the life of
the device. Devices like transformers and motor-generators require a good insulation for robust
electrical performance.

Water is abundantly present in the atmosphere in form of water vapour. Insulation material like
paper, insulating oils, wood etc. have natural tendency to absorb water. Water is a good conductor
of electricity and if absorbed by the insulation of the device weakens the insulation.

When a device with a weak insulation is put in operation, the electric pressure (voltage) may break
the insulation barrier for the current resulting in heavy inrush of electric current which the device
may not be able to withstand and eventually break down. In case the device happens to be a part
of the system, this may result in failure of the system.

We thus need to ensure a proper insulation of the electrical devices to assure non-failure of the
devices.
How can we ascertain a good insulation? What are parameters that decide that the insulation is

really in good condition?

Insulating materials say like a plastic handle of electric iron, rubber shoes of wire-man, insulating
oils in a transformer or say chemicals used in motor windings, all of them require three properties
to be defined as good insulators.

First property of the insulator is its resistance offered to the electrical current. The higher the
resistance better is the insulation. Second property, the dielectric strength or breakdown strength
of insulation, defines strength of the insulation to withstand electric pressure the stress that is
developed in the insulation. The third property, the dielectric constant, or the dielectric power
factor or also called tan delta, states the amount of electrical energy consumed by the insulator
itself in order to act as a barrier to the electrical potential.

By judging these three properties, one can evaluate the quality of insulation.

How can we build good insulation properties?

The parameters defined above which give evidence of good insulation are sharply affected by the
water content in the insulation material. Thus if are able to develop insulation that has least water
content we are able to achieve better insulation properties. Removal of water from the insulating
material is called the process of drying. Drying of insulation to some extent can be done by heating
the insulating material and vapourizing the water from the insulation. However, heating of
insulation material is limited activity as it may damage the physical and chemical properties of the
insulation material. In case of transformers, one cannot simply elevate temperature in order to
evaporate more and more water from the insulation. This damages the physical properties of the
transformer and also may be hazardous.

We have seen a generalized scenario of insulation and drying. In the discussion to follow we shall
now concentrate on drying of transformers.

How can we achieve drying without elevated heating of the insulation material for transformers?

Drying of insulation materials can be achieved at low temperature and low pressure levels. The
pressure levels and temperature levels for drying vary for distinct material. At low pressure or
under vacuum the rate of water vapour evaporation is accelerated if sufficient heat is provided to
the insulation material. Thus we can achieve a good drying of insulating material if the material is
suitably heated and subjected to vacuum.

What are the components/equipments used in vacuum drying process of power transformers?
Vacuum drying process requires a closed vacuum tight chamber, a heating system that can heat
the insulation in stipulated time, a vacuum system and a controlling mechanism. We shall discuss
these one by one below

Vacuum Tight Chamber:

This is generally a rectangular chamber of size suitable to place a transformer or a multiple

set of transformers. The construction of the chamber is made rigid to withstand heat and
vacuum. The chamber is provided with trolley to maneuver the transformer in/out of the
chamber.

Heating system:

Inside the oven, on the walls, tubes are provided wherein a hot fluid flows to transfer heat
to the object placed in the oven. This fluid is externally heated by electrical heaters or by
a gas/fuel fired boiler. A fan is provided in the oven to uniformly distribute the temperature
and accelerate the heating of the transformer insulation.

Vacuum System:

The vacuum system consists of vacuum pumps, condensers and booster pumps. The
vacuum pump and booster pumps evacuate the chamber and extract the moisture/gas (air)
from the chamber. Water cooled Condensers placed in series of the vacuum pumps aid in
condensing the water vapour extracted from the transformers insulation.

Controlling Mechanism:

With the advent of PLC and SCADA the whole process of drying can be monitored and
controlled to desired levels. Vacuum levels can be monitored and controlled. The
temperature level in the vacuum drying oven can be controlled. The time taken for drying,
amount of drying done and end of power transformer drying process can be determined
and monitored.

What is vacuum drying of transformers and how vacuum drying of transformers is done?

In the process of vacuum drying the insulation material of transformer, the transformer is placed in
vacuum drying oven. A vacuum drying oven consists of heating facility and a vacuum system to
develop low pressure in the oven/chamber. The transformer is first heated to a desired level. The
insulation material should be uniformly heated and its temperature should be elevated to
acceptable levels. After heating the material, it is subjected to vacuum. Vacuum in the oven is
developed by a vacuum system consisting of vacuum pumps. Due to low gas pressure in the
vicinity of the material, i.e. in the oven, the moisture absorbed by the insulation is released and
extracted by the vacuum system. The vacuum system consists of the water condensation system
where this water vapour can be condensed and also measured.

What decides the efficiency of the drying process?

 The factors that result a good drying process are

(a) insulation material temperature and its uniform distribution,

(b) property of the material to release water also called the diffusion coefficient,

(c) difference of pressure exerted by the water vapour on the insulation and surrounding area (i.e.
inside of the oven) and

(d) the time required for drying out the insulation.

Instrument Transformers

Next

Introduction of Instrument Transformers

Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of electrical quantities i.e.
voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency. Instrument transformers are also
used with protective relays for protection of power system. Basic function of Instrument
transformers is to step down the AC System voltage and current. The voltage and current level of
power system is very high. It is very difficult and costly to design the measuring instruments for
measurement of such high level voltage and current. Generally measuring instruments are
designed for 5 A and 110 V.

The measurement of such very large electrical quantities, can be made possible by using the
Instrument transformers with these small rating measuring instruments. Therefore these
instrument transformers are very popular in modern power system.

Advantages of Instrument Transformers

1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be measured by using small rating
measuring instrument i.e. 5 A, 110 120 V.
2. By using the instrument transformers, measuring instruments can be standardized. Which
results in reduction of cost of measuring instruments. More ever the damaged measuring
instruments can be replaced easy with healthy standardized measuring instruments.
3. Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation between high voltage power circuit and
measuring instruments. Which reduces the electrical insulation requirement for measuring
instruments and protective circuits and also assures the safety of operators.
4. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a single transformer to power
system.
5. Due to low voltage and current level in measuring and protective circuit, there is low power
consumption in measuring and protective circuits.

Types of Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers are of two types

1. Current Transformer (C.T.)

2. Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Current Transformer (C.T.)

Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to a lower level to make it
feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter (i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection diagram
of a current transformer is shown in figure below.

Primary
of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also used. Primary is connected in
series with the power circuit. Therefore, sometimes it also called series transformer. The
secondary is having large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an ammeter. As the
ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current transformer operates
almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid the large voltage
on secondary with respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of insulation breakdown
and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever before disconnecting the ammeter,
secondary is short circuited through a switch S as shown in figure above to avoid the high voltage
build up across the secondary.

Potential Transformer (P.T.)

Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system to a lower level to make is
feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter i.e. 110 120 V voltmeter. A typical connection
diagram of a potential transformer is showing figure below.
 Primary
of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across the line (generally between on line
and earth). Hence, sometimes it is also called the parallel transformer. Secondary of P.T. is
having few turns and connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is having large resistance.
Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited condition. One terminal of
secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the secondary voltage with respect to earth. Which
assures the safety of operators.

Difference between C.T. and P.T.

Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below

Current Transformer
Sl. No. Potential Transformer (P.T.)
(C.T.)

Connected in series with

1 Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.
power circuit.

Secondary is connected to
2 Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.
Ammeter.

Secondary works almost in

3 Secondary works almost in open circuited condition.
short circuited condition.

Primary current depends on

4 Primary current depends on secondary burden.
power circuit current.

Primary current and

excitation vary over wide
5 Primary current and excitation variation are restricted to a small range.
range with change of power
circuit current

One terminal of secondary is

6 earthed to avoid the One terminal of secondary can be earthed for Safety.
insulation break down.
 Secondary is never be open
7 Secondary can be used in open circuit condition.
circuited.

How do lightning arrester works?

A lightning arrester protects telecommunication and electrical power systems from damage
during a lightning strike. It accomplishes this by redirecting the current in the lightning to the
ground.
Lightning is caused by the movement of a large current from a region of high voltage to a
region of low voltage. Lightning finds the path of least resistance to reach the ground.
Telecommunications towers and electrical grids provide a path for lightning to travel, but the
high voltage of the lightning can damage the components of the system. Adding a lightning
arrester to the system redirects the charges in the lightning to the ground. One terminal of
the arrester is connected to the device and the other terminal is connected to a rod or wire of
low resistance that is buried in the ground. Between the two terminals is a gap of either air or
a material of high resistance. This material prevents the normal signals from the
telecommunication device from being redirected to the ground. Since lightning strikes have a
high voltage, only the electrons from the lightning can cross the region of high resistance,
thus diverting the strike away from sensitive devices such as televisions, radios and other
telecommunications technology.

Transformer oil testing:-

BDV TESTING:- Transformer oil, a type of insulating and cooling oil used in transformers and
other electrical equipment, needs to be tested periodically to ensure that it is still fit for purpose.
This is because it tends to deteriorate over time. Testing sequences and procedures are defined
by various international standards, many of them set by ASTM. Testing consists of
measuring breakdown voltage and other physical and chemical properties of samples of the oil,
either in a laboratory or using portable test equipment on site.

The transformer oil (insulation oil) of voltage- and current-transformers fulfils the purpose of
insulating as well as cooling. Thus, the dielectric quality of transformer oil is essential to secure
operation of a transformer.

As transformer oil deteriorates through aging and moisture ingress, transformer oil should,
depending on economics, transformer duty and other factors, be tested periodically. Power utility
companies have a vested interest in periodic oil testing since transformers represent a large
proportion of their total assets. Through such testing, transformers' life can be substantially
increased, thus delaying new investment of replacement transformer assets.

Recently time-consuming testing procedures in test labs have been replaced by on-site oil
testing procedures. There are various manufacturers of portable oil testers. With low weight
devices in the range of 20 to 40 kg, tests up to 100 kV rms can be performed and reported on-
site automatically. Some of them are even battery-powered and come with accessories.

Breakdown voltage testing procedure[edit]

To assess the insulating property of dielectric transformer oil, a sample of the transformer oil is
taken and its breakdown voltage is measured. The lower the resulting breakdown voltage, the
poorer the quality of the transformer oil.

The transformer oil is filled in the vessel of the testing device. Two standard-compliant
test electrodes with a typical clearance of 2.5 mm are surrounded by the dielectric oil.

A test voltage is applied to the electrodes and is continuously increased up to the

breakdown voltage with a constant, standard-compliant slew rate of e.g. 2 kV/s.

At a certain voltage level breakdown occurs in an electric arc, leading to a collapse of the
test voltage.

An instant after ignition of the arc, the test voltage is switched off automatically by the
testing device. Ultra fast switch off is highly desirable, as the carbonisation due to the electric
arc must be limited to keep the additional pollution as low as possible.

The transformer oil testing device measures and reports the root mean square value of
the breakdown voltage.

After the transformer oil test is completed, the insulation oil is stirred automatically and
the test sequence is performed repeatedly: typically 5 repetitions, depending on the
standard.

As a result the breakdown voltage is calculated as mean value of the individual

measurements.

Measuring Moisture Content In Power Transformers

May 1, 2001Pierre Gravis, Hydro-Qubec | T&D World Magazine

A utility can determine moisture content for steady-state conditions using a family of
curves that show moisture content in the paper as a function of relative oil saturation,
with temperature as a parameter.

Along-standing principle for ensuring insulation reliability is to maintain a clean, non-

contaminated environment within the insulating system. For insulated cable,
manufacturers strive to produce insulations that are homogeneous and free of voids and
foreign materials. For the insulation system within a transformer, it is important to
provide oils that are free of moisture and gases. Traditionally, utilities have assessed the
dryness of in-service transformers by taking periodic measurements of water content in
the oil. By inference, the collected information can help estimate the moisture content in
the insulating paper of the windings. Excessive moisture significantly reduces not only
the dielectric strength, but also the partial discharge inception level. Moisture also effects
the generation of gas bubbles at high temperatures, which creates a significant threat to
the dielectric integrity of the insulation structure.
Moisture in Oil

The usual method for monitoring moisture has been to sample the oil at regular intervals
as part of a scheduled maintenance routine. However, this procedure is problematic;
since moisture content varies with the load, spot checks will rarely coincide with a worst-
case scenario in which maximum water content will be measured. For example, in tests
on a 10-MVA single-phase water-cooled transformer at a Hydro-Qubec generating
station, at full load, relative moisture saturation was measured with the Syprotec Aquaoil
33 monitoring device and found to be 83% at a temperature of 43C (109F). At no load,
the relative saturation was 30% at a temperature of 35C (95F). Although this
transformer can definitely be classified as wet, the measurements showing such large
variations make it difficult to establish a true value for the water content in the insulating
paper.

Several studies of the phenomenon carried out at GE Syprotec (Pointe-Claire, Qubec,

Canada) have shown the relationship between moisture in paper, moisture in oil and
temperature. The critical factor is the relative moisture saturation at the oil/paper
interface, which the utility can evaluate by simply calculating the winding temperature.
One measurement technique, which can establish the relationship between temperature
and the relative humidity of oil in contact with paper, uses GE Syprotec's Faraday
Transformer Monitoring and Control System (TMCS). A single measurement of the
relative saturation and temperature makes it possible to calculate the relative oil
saturation at any temperature.

Moisture in Paper

The moisture in the paper wrapping of the windings is of interest, relative to the
potential breakdown of the insulation medium. A utility can determine moisture content
for steady-state conditions by using a family of curves that show moisture content in the
paper as a function of relative oil saturation, with temperature as a parameter. Under
steady-state conditions, so-called moisture partition curves determine the moisture in
the paper based on the amount of moisture measured in the oil. Because these relations
can be applied only when the transformer has been at a steady state for some time, the
utility must use an approximation to estimate the amount of water in the main
insulation.

Most of the water in the transformer is stored in the bulk insulation material, which
constitutes the dielectric insulation between the windings. Equilibrium conditions
between this insulation and the surrounding oil are difficult to achieve because of the
long thermal time constant in these thick cellulose components. Fortunately, the
 insulation of greatest interest is the turn insulation within the windings, which is made
of thin materials and is well irrigated by the oil. This insulation is the component that
will be affected by thermal aging and is the site where gas may bubble under overload
conditions. Therefore, it is acceptable that calculations of moisture in the paper be
limited to the paper in the hottest part of the winding. Moreover, the utility should make
this calculation only when the transformer is hot, since errors in estimating the moisture
content at low temperatures are of little practical consequence.

Online Monitoring

The Faraday TMCS includes a moisture analysis model that continuously monitors the
water-condensation temperature, the moisture content of the insulation paper and the
bubbling inception temperatures. The model for the assessment of moisture content in
winding insulation paper is based on the analysis of historical data in connection with
the relative humidity in oil, the humidity sensor temperature, the top-oil temperature
and the load current. The model is executed in a predetermined sequence (Fig. 1), in
which the hot-spot temperature is computed from the oil temperature, load current and
transformer characteristics. If the hot-spot temperature lies below 80C (176F), no
further calculations are required, and the moisture content in the paper is assumed to be
unchanged from the last calculated value. If the hot spot is equal to or above 80C
(176F), the following parameters are averaged over the stability period:

Average hot-spot temperature

Average moisture content in oil

Average sensor temperature.

These values provide the data to compute the relative humidity of the oil in contact with
the winding insulation at the hot-spot temperature. Oil/paper partition curves are then
applied to convert the relative humidity in oil to moisture content in solid insulation. In
addition, the calculated value of the moisture content in the insulation is used to update
a register where a default value is stored. This default value is used if the hot-spot
temperature and thermal stability do not lend themselves to the application of
equilibrium curves.

Conclusions

Using the GE Syprotec Aquaoil 300 relative humidity sensor, a utility can monitor the
water content in transformer oil online. It then can use the collected data to determine
the water-condensation temperature and relative humidity of the oil in contact with the
winding insulation, which is inferred from the relative saturation characteristics.
To assess the moisture content of the solid insulation, the utility needs to make some
compromises to deal with the difficult, dynamic pattern of moisture migration between
the paper and oil. It is reasonable to focus on the thin winding insulation paper and
disregard the bulk insulation that contains most of the water. Since the main concerns
with moisture in paper are accelerated aging and the risk of bubbling, whose detrimental
effects are to be feared only in the winding insulation at high temperatures, it is
sufficient to limit the accurate assessment of moisture content to the condition of high
hot-spot temperatures. Taking advantage of this simplification, the utility can apply
online monitoring to identify quasi-steady hot-spot temperatures that allow for the
assessment of moisture content in insulation paper at even the most critical operating
conditions.

Principle of Tan Delta Test

A pure insulator when is connected across line and earth, it

behaves as a capacitor. In an ideal insulator, as the insulating
material which acts as dielectric too, is 100 % pure, the electric
current passing through the insulator, only have capacitive
component. There is no resistive component of the current,
flowing from line to earth through insulator as in ideal insulating
material, there is zero percent impurity. In pure capacitor, the
capacitive electric current leads the applied voltage by 90. In
practice, the insulator cannot be made 100% pure. Also due to
the ageing of insulator the impurities like dirt and moisture enter
into it. These impurities provide the conductive path to the
current. Consequently, leakage electric current flowing from line
earth through insulator has also resistive component.

Hence, it is needless to say that, for good insulator, this resistive

component of leakage electric current is quite low. In other way
the healthiness of an electrical insulator can be determined by
ratio of resistive component to capacitive component. For good
insulator this ratio would be quite low. This ratio is commonly
known as tan or tan delta. Sometimes it is also referred as
dissipation factor. In the
vector diagram above, the system voltage is drawn along x-axis.
Conductive electric current i.e. resistive component of leakage
current, IR will also be along x-axis. As the capacitive component
of leakage electric current IC leads system voltage by 90, it will
be drawn along y-axis. Now, total leakage electric current IL(Ic +
IR) makes an angle (say) with y-axis. Now, from the diagram
above, it is cleared, the ratio, IR to IC is nothing but tan or tan
delta.

NB: This angle is known as loss angle.

Method of Tan Delta Testing

The cable, winding, current transformer, potential transformer,

transformer bushing, on which tan delta test or dissipation
factor test to be conducted, is first isolated from the system. A
very low frequency test voltage is applied across the equipment
whose insulation to be tested. First the normal voltage is applied.
If the value of tan delta appears good enough, the applied
voltage is raised to 1.5 to 2 times of normal voltage, of the
equipment. The tan delta controller unit takes measurement of
tan delta values. A loss angle analyser is connected with tan delta
measuring unit to compare the tan delta values at normal voltage
and higher voltages, and analyse the results. During test it is
essential to apply test voltage at very low frequency.
Reason of applying Very Low Frequency

If frequency of applied voltage is high, then capacitive reactance

of the insulator becomes low, hence capacitive component of
electric current is high. The resistive component is nearly fixed, it
depends upon applied voltage and conductivity of the insulator. At
high frequency as capacitive current, is large, hence, the
amplitude of vector sum of capacitive and resistive components of
electric current becomes large too. Therefore, required apparent
power for tan delta test would become high enough which is not
practical. So to keep the power requirement for this dissipation
factor test, very low frequency test voltage is required. The
frequency range for tan delta test is generally from 0.1 to 0.01 Hz
depending upon size and nature of insulation. There is another
reason for which it is essential to keep the input frequency of the
test as low as possible. As we know,

That means, dissipation factor tan 1 / f. Hence, at low

frequency, the tan delta number is high, the measurement
becomes easier.

How to Predict the Result of Tan Delta Testing

There are two ways to predict the condition of an insulation

system during tan delta or dissipation factor test. First, one is,
comparing the results of previous tests to determine, the
deterioration of the condition of insulation due ageing effect. The
second one is, determining the condition of insulation from the
value of tan, directly. No requirement of comparing previous
results of tan delta test. If the insulation is perfect, the loss factor
will be approximately same for all range of test voltages. But if
the insulation is not sufficient, the value of tan delta increases in
the higher range of test voltage.
 From the
graph, it is clear that the tan & delta number nonlinearly
increases with increasing test very low-frequency voltage. The
increasing tan&delta, means, high resistive electric current
component, in the insulation. These results can be compared with
the results of previously tested insulators, to take the proper
decision whether the equipment would be replaced or not.