RESEARCH

In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Reading a factual book of any sort is a kind of research. Surfing the internet or watching the
news is also a type of research.
Science does not use this word in the same way, preferring to restrict it to certain narrowly
defined areas. The word review is more often used to describe the learning process which is
one of the underlying tenets of the rigid structures defining scientific research.

Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic
search for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific
investigation. Several social scientists have defined research in different ways. In the
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson(1930) defined research
as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in
the practice of an art.
According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a systematized effort to gain
new knowledge. It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a
technical sense. According to Clifford Woody (Kothari,1988), research comprises defining
and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally,
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypotheses".
Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its
further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the methods
of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for
knowledge, using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem.

The Scientific Definition

The strict definition of scientific research is performing a methodical study in order to prove
a hypothesis or answer a specific question. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal of
any experimental process.
Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These
rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.
Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature
reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.
Any type of real research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of
interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or
question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.
The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated,
although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.

Objectives of Research
The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific
procedures. In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden
and has not yet been discovered. Although every research study has its own specific
objectives, the research objectives may be broadly grouped as follows:

1. to gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research
studies);

2. to accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e.,

descriptive research studies);

3. to analyse the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies);

4. to examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e., hypothesis-
testing research studies).

Aims Of Research
The ultimate aims of research are to generate measurable and testable data, gradually adding
to the accumulation of human knowledge. Ancient philosophers believed that all answers
could be achieved through deduction and reasoning rather than measurement.

Science now uses established research methods and standard protocols to test theories
thoroughly.
It is important to remember that science and philosophy are intertwined and are essential
elements of human advancement, both contributing to the way we view the
world. Scientific research, however, allows us to test hypotheses and lay solid foundations for
future research and study.

No theory or hypothesis can ever be completely proved or disproved, but research enables us
to make valid assumptions about the universe.

This gradual accumulation of knowledge dictates the overall direction of science and
philosophy.

Observation and Description

The first stage of any research is to observe the world around us and to ask questions about
why things are happening.
Every phenomenon in the universe has a reason behind it, and the aims of research are to
understand and evaluate what is happening.

However simple the phenomenon or however easy it appears to be to generate logical and
intuitive answers, scientific research demands rigorous testing for a truth to be accepted.
Describing the overall behavior of the subject is the first stage of any research, whether it is
a case study or a full-blown 'true experimental design'.

Predict

This stage is where you must make a statement of intent and develop a strong hypothesis.
This must be testable, with aims of research being to prove or disprove this statement.

At this stage, you may express your personal opinion, favoring one side or the other. You
must make a statement predicting what you expect the final answer to be.
You must, however, keep an open mind and understand that there is a chance that you may be
wrong. Research is never about right or wrong but about arriving at an answer, which
improves our knowledge of natural processes.

Determination of the Causes

This is often the 'business end' for many areas of scientific research and is where one of
the predictionsis tested, usually by manipulating and controlling variables. The idea is to
generate numerical data that can determine the cause with one of the many statistical tests.
For example, a small-scale global warming study might study Antarctic ice cores to
determine the historical levels of carbon dioxide throughout history. In this experiment, time
would be the manipulated variable, showing how levels of the greenhouse gas have changed
over time.

Statistical procedures are then utilized to either prove or disprove the hypothesis and
prediction.
Of course, very little research gives such a black and white answer, but opens up new areas of
potential study and allows scientists to focus on a specific direction.

Explain

After determining the causes, the next layer of the research process is to try to find possible
explanations of 'Why?' and 'How?' things are happening.

For most areas, this stage involves sifting through and reviewing earlier studies about similar
phenomena. Most research is built upon the work of previous researchers, so there should be
a wealth of literature resources available.
If we look at a topical example, Global Warming is an area with which most of us are familiar
and has been the subject of thousands of studies. Intuitively, most of us would state that
humanity pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is responsible for a worldwide rise in
temperatures.

The aims of research may be to establish 'What are the underlying causes and relationships
between the different processes fueling this trend?' In most cases, it is necessary to review
earlier research and try to separate the better quality sources from the inaccurate or poorly
designed studies..

For example, in the case of global warming, there is an opposing view that temperature rises
are natural and that the effect of human society is making little difference..

New Directions

Whatever the final answer, it can be used to promote a healthy debate and discussion about
the validity of the results.

The aims of research can then be fine-tuned, or may serve to open up new areas of interest.
Either way, the store of human knowledge has been enriched and increased.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows:

Descriptive versus Analytical

Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The
main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the
time of study. The term ex post facto research is quite often used for descriptive research
studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report
what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research projects are
used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as
the consumers preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability
of the researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts
by them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in
conducting descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlation and
comparative methods. Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the
already available facts or information, and analyse them to make a critical evaluation of the
subject.

Applied versus Fundamental:

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an
immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organisation, or the society
is known as Applied Research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing
certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem. On the other hand,
Fundamental Research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a theory. In other
words, Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure or basic research
(Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning some
natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on
human behaviour also fall under the category of fundamental research. Thus, while the
principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some pressing practical
problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a broad base of
application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Quantitative versus Qualitative:

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. The various available statistical
and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Some such includes
correlation, regressions and time series analysis. On the other hand, Qualitative research is
concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related to or
involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research
is Motivation Research, which investigates into the reasons for human behaviour. The main
aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of human
beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed in such research are
story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association tests, and other
similar projective methods. Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of
behavioural sciences, which aim at discovering the underlying motives of
human behaviour. Such research helps to analyse the various factors that motivate human
beings to behave in a certain manner, besides contributing to an understanding of what makes
individuals like or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that conducting
qualitative research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while
undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is
important.

Conceptual versus Empirical:

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as
Conceptual Research. Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new
concepts or for reinterpreting the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand,
exclusively relies on the observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and
system. Such research is data based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be
verified through
experimentsor observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research
, in which it is important to first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps
to stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first
formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove
the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her
would manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research
is thus characterized by the researchers control over the variables under study. Empirical
research is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables influence
the other variables in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the experimental or
empirical studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.

Other Types of Research:

The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of theafore-mentioned
methods. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to complete it,
or may be based on some other similar factor.

CONDUCT RESEARCH
The importance of knowing how to conduct research is listed below:
(i) the knowledge of research methodology provides training to new
researchers and enables them to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined
thinking or a bent of mind to objectively observe the field;

(ii) the knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilise the research
findings with confidence;

(iii) the knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools that
help him/her to make the observations objectively; and

(iv) the knowledge of methodology helps the research consumer to evaluate research and
make rational decisions.

Qualities of a Researcher:
It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and
foremost, he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the articles of faith of
the scientific methods of research. This implies that are searcher should be a social science
person in the truest sense. Sir Michael Foster (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) identified a
few distinct qualities of a scientist. According to him, a true research scientist should possess
the following qualities:(1) First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament
that vibrates in unison with the theme which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge
must be truthful with truthfulness of nature, which is much more important, much more
exacting than what is sometimes known as truthfulness. The truthfulness relates to the desire
for accuracy of observation and precision of statement. Ensuring facts is the principle rule
of science, which is not an easy matter. The difficulty may arise due to untrained eye, which
fails to see anything beyond what it has the power of seeing and sometimes even less than
that. This may also be due to the lack of discipline in the method of science. An unscientific
individual often remains satisfied with the expressions like approximately, almost, or
nearly, which is never what nature is. It cannot see two things which differ, however
minutely, as the same

Purpose of Research
The purpose of research can be a complicated issue and varies across different scientific

fields and disciplines. At the most basic level, science can be split, loosely, into two types,

'pure research' and 'applied research'.

Both of these types follow the same structures and protocols for propagating and testing
hypotheses and predictions, but vary slightly in their ultimate purpose.
An excellent example for illustrating the difference is by using pure and applied mathematics.
Pure maths is concerned with understanding underlying abstract principles and describing
them with elegant theories. Applied maths, by contrast, uses these equations to explain real
life phenomena, such as mechanics, ecology and gravity.

Pure Scientific Research

Some science, often referred to as 'pure science', is about explaining the world around us and
trying to understand how the universe operates. It is about finding out what is already there
without any greater purpose of research than the explanation itself. It is a direct descendent of
philosophy, where philosophers and scientists try to understand the underlying principles of
existence.

Whilst offering no direct benefits, pure research often has indirect benefits, which can
contribute greatly to the advancement of humanity.

For example, pure research into the structure of the atom has led to x-rays, nuclear power and
silicon chips.

Applied Scientific Research

Applied scientists might look for answers to specific questions that help humanity, for
example medical research or environmental studies. Such research generally takes a specific
question and tries to find a definitive and comprehensive answer.

The purpose of research is about testing theories, often generated by pure science, and
applying them to real situations, addressing more than just abstract principles.
Applied scientific research can be about finding out the answer to a specific problem, such as
'Is global warming avoidable?' or 'Does a new type of medicine really help the patients?'

Generating Testable Data

However, they all involve generating a theory to explain why something is happening and
using the full battery of scientific tools and methods to test it rigorously.

This process opens up new areas for further study and a continued refinement of the
hypotheses.

Observation is not accurate enough, with statistically testable and analyzable data the only
results accepted across all scientific disciplines. The exact nature of the experimental process
may vary, but they all adhere to the same basic principles.
Scientists can be opinionated, like anybody else, and often will adhere to their own theories,
even if the evidence shows otherwise. Research is a tool by which they can test their own,
and each others' theories, by using this antagonism to find an answer and advance knowledge.
The purpose of research is really an ongoing process of correcting and refining hypotheses,
which should lead to the acceptance of certain scientific truths.
Whilst no scientific proof can be accepted as ultimate fact, rigorous testing ensures that
proofs can become presumptions. Certain basic presumptions are made before embarking on
any research project, and build upon this gradual accumulation of knowledge.

Empirical Research
Empirical Research can be defined as "research based on experimentation or observation

(evidence)". Such research is conducted to test a hypothesis.

The word empirical means information gained by experience, observation, or experiment.
The central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it
is based on evidence. In scientific method the word "empirical" refers to the use of
working hypothesis that can be tested using observation and experiment.
Empirical data is produced by experiment and observation.
 Objectives of the Scientific Research Process

Capture contextual data and complexity

Identify and learn from the collective experience of others from the field
Identification, exploration, confirmation and advancing the theoretical concepts.
Further improve educational design

Objectives of the Empirical Research

Go beyond simply reporting observations

Promote environment for improved understanding
Combine extensive research with detailed case study
Prove relevancy of theory by working in a real world environment (context)

Reasons for Using Empirical Research Methods

Traditional or superstitional knowledge has been trusted for too long

Empirical Research methods help integrating research and practice
Educational process or Instructional science needs to progress

Advantages of Empirical Methods

Understand and respond more appropriately to dynamics of situations

Provide respect to contextual differences
Help to build upon what is already known
Provide opportunity to meet standards of professional research

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as
far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables(factors), you set up your study
in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research
is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences(Hospitality and Tourism) it is
extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living
in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you
cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact

Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers
to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.

Systematic- this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable- this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical- this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations.

Critical- critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEYS

Among the different methods of data gathering for research purposes, the survey method is
preferred by many researchers due to its various advantages, strengths and benefits. However,
surveys also have their disadvantages and weak points that must be considered.
 Home >
Research >
Designs >
Survey Guide >
Surveys - Pros and Cons

Among the different methods of data gathering for research purposes, the survey

method is preferred by many researchers due to its various advantages, strengths and

benefits. However, surveys also have their disadvantages and weak points that must be

considered.

Advantages of Surveys

1. High Representativeness

Surveys provide a high level of general capability in representing a large population. Due to
the usual huge number of people who answers survey, the data being gathered possess a
better description of the relative characteristics of the general population involved in the
study. As compared to other methods of data gathering, surveys are able to extract data that
are near to the exact attributes of the larger population.

2. Low Costs

When conducting surveys, you only need to pay for the production of survey questionnaires.
If you need a larger sample of the general population, you can allot an incentive in cash or
kind, which can be as low as $2 per person. On the other hand, other data gathering methods
such as focus groups and personal interviews require researchers to pay more.

3. Convenient Data Gathering

Surveys can be administered to the participants through a variety of ways. The questionnaires
can simply be sent via e-mail or fax, or can be administered through the Internet. Nowadays,
the online survey method has been the most popular way of gathering data from target
participants. Aside from the convenience of data gathering, researchers are able to collect
data from people around the globe.

4. Good Statistical Significance

Because of the high representativeness brought about by the survey method, it is often easier
to find statistically significant results than other data gathering methods.
Multiple variables can also be effectively analyzed using surveys.

5. Little or No Observer Subjectivity

Surveys are ideal for scientific research studies because they provide all the participants with
a standardized stimulus. With such high reliability obtained, the researchers own biases are
eliminated.

6. Precise Results

As questions in the survey should undergo careful scrutiny and standardization, they provide
uniform definitions to all the subjects who are to answer the questionnaires. Thus, there is a
greater precision in terms of measuring the data gathered.

Disadvantages of Surveys

1. Inflexible Design

The survey that was used by the researcher from the very beginning, as well as the method of
administering it, cannot be changed all throughout the process of data gathering. Although
this inflexibility can be viewed as a weakness of the survey method, this can also be a
strength considering the fact that preciseness and fairness can both be exercised in the study.
2. Not Ideal for Controversial Issues

Questions that bear controversies may not be precisely answered by the participants because
of the probably difficulty of recalling the information related to them. The truth behind these
controversies may not be relieved as accurately as when using alternative data gathering
methods such as face-to-face interviews and focus groups.

3. Possible Inappropriateness of Questions

Questions in surveys are always standardized before administering them to the subjects. The
researcher is therefore forced to create questions that are general enough to accommodate the
general population. However, these general questions may not be as appropriate for all the
participants as they should be.

A good example of this situation is administering a survey which focuses on affective

variables, or variables that deal with emotions.
 REFERENCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research

Bauer, H.H. (1994). Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific
Method. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press

Kuhn, T. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd Ed.).

Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press

Popper, K. (2002). The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd Ed.). London,

UK: Routledge