INTRODUCCION
ciertas simetrías con las cuales podemos sacar conclusiones que nos
operaciones.
OBJETIVOS
binarias.
estructuras algebraicas.
algebraicas.
Hay algunos espacios vacío porque el resultado es un elemento que no pertenece al conjunto dado, por lo
que se concluye que * no es una operación binaria en S.
En base al concepto:
Dado un conjunto no vacío S y el producto cartesiano de S x S, * es una función de modo que a
cada par ordenado (a,b) le hace corresponder un único elemento de S simbolizado por a*b.
* A B C
A A B C
B B C A
C C A B
(A * B) * C = A * (B * C)
B*C=A*A
A=A
(C * A) * B = C * (A * B)
C*B=C*B
A=A
Cerrada.
Si * es una operación binaria sobre S y A es subconjunto de S.
Entonces el subconjunto A es cerrado con respecto a la operación binaria *,
si y sólo si, para todo x, y que pertenece a A, x * y pertenece a A.
*: S x S S
Si
* es una operación binaria sobre S y A ⊆ S
Entonces
A es cerrado con respecto a * ⇔ ∀ x, y ∈ A, x * y ∈ A
Conmutativa.
*: S x S S
Si
* es una operación binaria sobre S
Entonces
* es conmutativa ⇔ ∀ x, y ∈ S, x * y = y * x
* A B C
A A B C
B B A B
C C B A
A*B=B*A
B=B
C*A=A*C
C=C
Por ejemplo si x * y = x² + y² ∀ x, y ∈ R, x * y = y * x
x*y=y*x
x² + y² = y² + x²
-3² + 2² = 2² + -3²
9+4=4+9
13 = 13
Asociativa.
*: S x S S
Si
* es una operación binaria sobre S
Entonces
* es asociativa ⇔ ∀ x, y, z ∈ S, x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z
* A B C
A A B C
B B C A
C C A B
(A * B) * C = A * (B * C)
B*C=A*A
A=A
(C * A) * B = C * (A * B)
C*B=C*B
A=A
Elemento Identidad.
*: S x S S
Si
* es una operación binaria sobre S
Entonces
e es el elemento identidad con respecto a * ⇔ ∀ x ∈ S, x *e=e*x=x
x+0=0+x=x
ax0=0xa=a
* -1 0 1
-1 1 0 -1
0 0 0 0
1 -1 0 1
Siempre que se realice la operación a*b resultará un elemento del mismo
conjunto por lo cual (A, *) forman una estructura algebraica.
* A B C
A A B C
B B C A
C C A B
(A * B) * C = A * (B * C)
B*C=A*A
A=A
(C * A) * B = C * (A * B)
C*B=C*B
A=A
∀ a, b, c ∈ R, a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
Caso 1: a ≥ b ≥ c
Caso 2: a ≥ c ≥ b
Caso 3: b ≥ a ≥ c
Caso 4: b ≥ c ≥ a
Caso 5: c ≥ a ≥ b
Caso 6: c ≥ b ≥ a
(R, *) es semigrupo
Ejemplos de semigrupos
Teorema 2:
Si (S, *) es un semigrupo conmutativo, entonces (x*y)n = xn * yn
∀ x ∈ S y ∀ n ∈ N.
Semigrupo.
* A B C
A A B C
B B C A
C C A B
(C * A) * B = C * (A * B)
C*B=C*B
A=A
* es Asociativa.
A*A=A
B *A=A*B=B
C*A= A*C=C
A es el elemento identidad.
Teorema 3:
Si (S, *) es una estructura algebraica con un elemento identidad, entonces la
identidad es única.
Ejemplos de Monoide
Si (S,
*) es una estructura algebraica con un elemento identidad e y
x ∈ S, entonces x es invertible, si y sólo si, existe y ∈ S tal que:
x*y=y*x=e
es decir:
(S, *) es una estructura algebraica
e es el elemento identidad con respecto a * ⇔ ∀ x ∈ S, x * e = e * x = x
∀ x ∈ S es invertible ⇔ ∃ y ∈ S: x *y=y*x=e
Teorema 4:
Si (S, *) es un Monoide con un elemento identidad e, entonces e es
invertible, es decir, e * x = x * e = e.
Teorema 5:
Si (S, *) es un Monoide con un elemento identidad e y x ∈ S,
if x * y = y * x = e, ∃! y ∈ S, entonces y es único.
Inversa.
Teorema 7:
Si (S, *) es un Monoide con un elemento identidad e y x ∈ S, if x es
-1 -1 –1
invertible in (S, *), entonces y = x es invertible (x ) = x.
Teorema 8:
Si (S,*) es un Monoide con un elemento identidad e y x, y ∈ S,
if x y y son invertibles in (S, *), entonces x * y es invertible y
–1 -1 -1
(x* y) = y * x .
1. * es Asociativa
* es asociativa ⇔ ∀ x, y, z ∈ S, x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z
* 1 a b
1 1 a b
a A b 1
b B 1 a
Entonces (G,*) es un grupo de orden 3. Usando la notación convencional
para grupo, nosotros podemos decir a2 = b y ba = 1, es decir, a*a = a2 = b y
b*a = 1 = a*a*a.
Todo los Grupos son Monoides, pero no todos los Monoides son Grupos.
Si la operación binaria * además es conmutativa el Grupo (G, *) es
llamado Grupo Abeliano.
Grupo Abeliano.
1. * es Asociativa
* es asociativa ⇔ ∀ x, y, z ∈ G, x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z
4. * es Conmutativa
* es conmutativa ⇔ ∀ x, y ∈ G, x * y = y * x
Teorema 10:
(G, *) es un Grupo y a, b, c ∈ G, si ab = ac o ba = ca,
entonces b = c. Llamada Ley de Cancelación.
Teorema 11:
(G, *) es un Grupo finito y a ∈ G, entonces an = 1 para algún
n ∈ G.
Ejemplos de Grupos:
6 ) ( Q – { 0 } , •) y ( R – { 0 } , •) Son grupos.
1. * es Asociativa
* es asociativa ⇔ ∀ x, y, z ∈ S, x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z
* 1 a a2 a3
1 1 a a2 a3
a a a2 a3 1
a2 a2 a3 1 a
a3 a3 1 a a2
+ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1
• 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2
2 0 2 1
a) ∗ es asociativa. Es decir ∀a , ∀b , ∀c : a, b, c ∈ A ⇒
( a ∗ b ) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c )
d) ∗ es conmutativa. Es decir ∀a , ∀b : a, b ∈ A ⇒ a ∗ b = b ∗ a
e) • es asociativa. Es decir ∀a , ∀b , ∀c : a, b, c ∈ A ⇒ (a • b) • c = a
• ( b • c)
Si además
g) • conmutativa. Es decir ∀a , ∀b : a, b ∈ A ⇒ a • b = b • a
Ejemplos
En símbolos:
Anillo de integridad
Dominio de integridad
Ejemplos
French mathematician famous for his contributions to the part of higher algebra known as
group theory. His theory solved many long-standing unanswered questions, including the
impossibility of trisecting the angle and squaring the circle.
Galois was the son of Nicolas-Gabriel Galois, an important citizen in the Paris suburb of
Bourg-la-Reine. In 1815, during the Hundred Days regime that followed Napoleon's
escapefrom Elba, his father was elected mayor. Galois's mother, Adelaïde-Marie
Demante, was of a distinguished family of jurists. She educated Galois at home until
1823, when he entered the Collège Royal de Louis-le-Grand. There his education
languished at the hands of mediocre and uninspiring teachers. But his mathematical
ability suddenly appeared when he was able to master quickly the works of Adrien-Marie
Legendre on geometry and Joseph-Louis Lagrange on algebra.
Under the guidance of Louis Richard, one of his teachers at Louis-le-Grand, Galois's
further study of algebra soon led him to take up a major challenge. Mathematicians for a
long time had used explicit formulas, involving only rational operations and extractions
of roots, for the solution of equations up to degree four. (For example, 3x2 + 5 = 17 is an
equation of the second degree, since it contains the exponent 2; solving an equation of
this type is called a solution by radicals, because it involves extracting the square root of
an expression composed of one or more terms whose coefficients appear in the equation.)
The solution of quadratic, or second degree, equations goes back to ancient times.
Formulas for the cubic and quartic were published in 1545 by Gerolamo Cardano, Italian
mathematician and physician, after their discovery a few years earlier by the
mathematicians Niccolo Tartaglia and Ludovico Ferrari. The equation of the fifth degree
then defeated mathematicians until Paolo Ruffini in 1796 attempted to prove the
impossibility of solving the general quintic equation by radicals. Ruffini's effort was not
wholly successful,but the Norwegian mathematician Niels Abel in 1824 gave an
essentially correct proof.
Galois was unaware of Abel's work in the first stages of his investigation, although he did
learn of it later. This was perhaps fortunate because Galois actually had launched himself
on a much more ambitious study; while yet a student, at about age 16, he sought, by what
is now called the “Galois theory,” a deeper understanding of the essential conditions that
an equation must satisfy in order for it to be solvable by radicals. His method was to
analyze the “admissible” permutations (a change in an ordered arrangement) of the roots
of the equation. That is, in today's terminology, he formed the “group” of automorphisms
(a particular kind of transformation) of the “field,” obtained by adjoining the roots of the
equation. His key discovery, brilliant and highly imaginative, was that solvability by
radicals ispossible if and only if the group of automorphisms is solvable, which means
The circumstances that led to Galois's death in a duel in Paris have never been fully
explained. It has been variously suggested that it resulted from a quarrel over a woman,
that he was challenged by royalists who detested his republican views, or that an agent
provocateur of the police was involved. Alexandre Dumas, in his autobiography
MesMémoirs (1863–65), implicated Pécheux d'Herbinville as the man who shot Galois.
In any case, anticipating his deathin the coming duel, Galois in feverish haste wrote a
scientific last testament addressed to his friend and former schoolmate Auguste
Chevalier. In his distracted notes, there are hints that Galois had begun to develop the
theory of algebraic functions, the full development of which was achieved 40 years later
by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann.
Galois's manuscripts, with annotations by Joseph Liouville, were published in 1846 in the
Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées. In 1870 the French mathematician
Camille Jordan published the full-length treatment of Galois's theory, Traité des
Substitutions. These works rendered his discoveries fully accessible and his place secure
in the history of mathematics. On June 13, 1909, a plaque was placed on Galois's modest