Wood is a hard fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and branches of
a tree. Wood suitable for building and other engineering purposes, and obtained from trees
measured not less than 0.6m in girth, is called timber. When wood has been sawn in to various
market forms such as beams, battens and planks etc.., it is called converted timber. Wood
consists of all types of wood such as burning wood, furniture wood, structural wood etc.
However, Wood that is suitable for structural work is called Timber. Trees are classified as
endogenous and exogenous according to the mode of growth:
Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred for building material. Teak is not
suitable for making construction of bridge works whereas Babool, Sal etc are suitable for
making construction of bridges. Babool tree is also used for making agricultural implements.
(5) On the basis of durability: Test specimens of size 600 x 50 x 50 mm are buried in
the ground to half their lengths. The conditions of the specimen at various intervals of
time are noted and from these observations, their average life is calculated as:
High-durability average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate durability average life of < 120 but of 60 months or more.
Low durability average life of less than 60 months.
(6) On the basis of treatability: This classification is based upon the resistance under a
working pressure of 1.05 N / mm2 as :
(i) Easily treatable and (ii) Only partially treatable.
Bast (medulla) : inner layer of bark, which conveys the nutrients from the crown
downwards and stores them.
Pith: the inner most central portion of the tree is called the pith. It consists entirely of
cellular tissues which are thin and connected loosely.
Heartwood: The inner rings surrounding the Pith is called as heartwood which is usually
in dark color. It gives a strong & firm support to the tree.
Sapwood: The outer rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known as the
sapwood. It is usually light in colour. The sapwood assists in the life process of tree by
storing up starch. It takes active part in the growth of tree.
Cambium layer: The thin layer between sapwood and inner bark ( bast ) as the
Cambium layer. The function of cambium is to grow wood cells.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER:
The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
Appearance.
1. Boiling: Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is a very quick but
expensive process of seasoning.
2. Water Seasoning: The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in stream of water, with
their larger ends pointing upstream. Consequently, the sap, sugar and gum are leached out and
are replaced by water. The logs are then kept out in air to dry. It is a quick process but the
elastic properties and strength of wood are removed.
3. Kiln seasoning: This method is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large scale to any
moisture content. The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of heated air or with steam.
Two types of kilns viz the progressive and the compartment are in use.
4. Electrical Seasoning: The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the
electrodes. Current is passed through the set up, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow
of current, generating heat in the process, which results in its drying. The drawback is that the
wood may split.
5. Chemical Seasoning: (Salt Seasoning) In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of
suitable salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way. Urea solution is preferred
rather than salt solution because the common salt acts as a corrosive.
Bessemer pig derives its name because of its use in the manufacture of steel by Bessemer
process using haematite ore. Impurities such as sulphur, phosphorus and copper are not
desirable in the Bessemer pig. Foundry pig, also known as grey pig, contains sufficient quantity
of free carbon and is produced when the furnace is provided with sufficient fuel. When fuel
provided is insufficient and if sufficient sulphur is present in the ore forge pig is produced. This
is also known as white pig. Mottled pig is in between the grey and white varieties. They exhibit
mottled fracture
COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON: Pig iron contains 34% carbon, 0.53.5% silicon, 0.52%
manganese, 0.020.1% sulphur and 0.031% Phosphorus.
Faculty: Mr S. Praveen Page 13
PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON: Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200C and
melts easily. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered and magnetised. Its compressive
strength is high but is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be riveted or
welded.
USES OF PIG IRON : Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc
GALVANIZED IRON
Iron is extracted from its ores magnetite & haematite.
Iron is suitable for columns, base plates etc. in construction.
But it is prone or vulnerable for rusting and corrosion.
To prevent rusting galvanization is resorted.
Galvanization is process of application of a protective coating of zinc by either hot-dip
process or electro plating in order to prevent rusting; This process of galavanization done to
iron is known as known Galvanized Iron.
GALVONISED PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTIONS.
G.I.Pipes (For Water Supply)
G.I.Sheets(For Roofing )
G.I.Wires(For Binding &Fencing)
Hard Ware (For Doors & Windows Hinges, Tower Bolt, Pad Locks , Latches Etc.
GLASS
As a building material, ceramics include clay, brick, stone, concrete, glass, abrasives; porcelain
etc. ceramics are usually hard and brittle and are in the form of amorphous or glassy solids. On
the basis of their internal structure, the ceramics are classified as Clay products, Refractors and
Glasses.
The raw materials used in manufacturing of glass are sand (silica) lime (chalk) and soda or
potash which are fused over 1100C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify
hardness, colour etc.
1) Melting: The raw materials--- lime, soda and sand separately cleaned, ground, sieved
(called Batch) in definite proportions and mixed with water are fused in a furnace.
When the temperature is raised to 1100C - 1200C, it turns to a more watery liquid
and the bubble rises to the surface.
The coloring oxides / salts are added at this stage. Heating is continued till the molten mass is
free from bubbles and glass balls. As the glass cools (800C), it is ready to be drawn to its
desired thickness and size at the other end of the furnace.
2) Forming & Shaping: The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by adopting
blowing or flat drawing methods or in the process of Compression Moulding, Moulds are
used to obtain the articles of desired shapes.
In case of spinning, the molten glass is spin at high speed by a machine to form very fine
glass fibers which is used for providing insulation against heat, electricity. The glass
articles, after being manufactured are to be cooled down slowly and gradually. This process
of cooling of glass articles is known as the Annealing of glass.
3) Finishing: After annealing the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished, cut to desired
ones.
4) Colouring substances for glass: To make coloured glass, the colouring pigment is added to
the raw materials while preparing the batch for its manufacture. The whole mass is heated
till it becomes homogenous. Table shows different substances which are used to produce
different shades of colour.
Soda- lime glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lime and soda. The quality of glass
can be improved by adding alumina and Magnesium Oxide and the glass is then called
Crown Glass. This type of glass is used in doors, windows, bottles etc
Lead glass, also known as Flint glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead and
potash. Lead glass has high shining appearance and not usually affected by temperature.
Electric bulbs, optical glasses, ornamental glass and radio valves are some of the articles
made from it.
Borosilicate glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, Borax, lime and feldspar.
Borosilicate glass can withstand high temperatures and is most suitable for making
laboratory equipments .
Fibre glass: For making this type of glass, the molten glass is spin at a very high speed to
produce a continuous fine glass fibres. It is soft and flexible in nature. It doesnt absorb
water, acids and is used for motor vehicles as sheets, fibre glass etc.
Bullet Proof glass: This glass is made of several layers of plain glass and alternate layers
consist of vinyl-resin plastic. The outer layers of glass are made thinner than the inner
layers. The thickness of this type of glass vary from 15mm-75mm. It will not allow bullet to
pierce through it.
Ultra-Violet glass: It is made from the raw mixture with minimum quantities of iron,
titanium and chrome oxides. Such a glass transmits 75% of UV radiation which is far more
than a common glass. It is widely used in windows of schools, hospitals etc.
Other glass varieties include: Float glass; Foam glass; Obscured glass; Perforated
glass; Safety glass ; Wired glass etc
Glass used in roofs (for natural light) glazed into frames of doors and windows partitions.
GLASS FIBRE :
STEEL:
Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due to a
wide range and combination of physical and mechanical properties of steels. By suitably
controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of
hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in steel. On the basis of carbon content steel
may be classified as under
Definition of paint:
Paints are liquid surface coating materials, it is a dispersion of pigments in a drying oil, with the
addition of driers and thinners, the former to accelerate film formation and hardening, the latter
to allow ease and uniformity in brushing and spraying.
The Paints are coatings of fluid materials and are applied over the surfaces of timber and
metals. On drying it forms a thin film (60-150 ) on the surfaces.
The functions of the paint are:
To protect the coated surface against weathering effects of atmospheric conditions, fumes,
gases.
Decorate the structure by giving smooth and colourful finish.
Attack the penetration of water through RCC
Controls the formation of bacteria and fungus
Arrests the corrosion of the metal structures
Stops the decay of wood work
Provides a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
An ideal paint should have uniform spread as a thin film, high coverage, good
workability and durability. The paints should also be cheap and economical
Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous paints, fire
proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints ( for protecting objects against acid
fumes.
COMPOSITION/CONSTITUENT OF OIL PAINT: An oil paint essentially consists of the
following ingredients:
Paint consists of (constituents),
A base
A vehcile or carrier
A drier
A colouring pigment
A solvent or thinner
Lead based paints are in general affected by atmosphere and are not recommended for
final coats. Zinc white is a weather resistant. Aluminium powder is used as base for all
aluminium paints. It is generally used for a priming coat to new wood work. Lithosphere
is cheap and can easily applied on the surfaces. However, when exposed to day light, it
changes colour, hence used for interior works only. Titanium white is non-poisonous and
provides a thin transparent film. It is used for receiving the coat of an enamel.
VEHICLE / CARRIER is also known as binder. Vehicle is oil to which the base is mixed. Vehicles
are used to make it possible to spread the paint evenly on the surface in the form of a
thin layer and to provide a binder for the ingredients of a paint so that they may stick
to the surface.
The examples of vehicles are natural oils such as Linseed oil, Nut oil, Poppy oil, and Tung oil
Linseed oil is the most widely used vehicle and is extracted from flax seeds. It reacts
readily with oxygen and hardens by forming a thin film known as Linoxyn. Nut oil is
extracted from walnuts. Poppy oil is prepared from Poppy seeds. It dries slowly and its
colors are long lasting. It is used for making paints of delicate colors. Tung oil (or) china
wood oil is obtained from a tung tree is superior to linseed oil and is used for preparing
paints of superior quality .
DRIERS also known as plasticizers ( lethargy - lead oxide; Lead Acetate; Red LeadPb3O4;
MnO2; Co, Zn and lead chromate ) are chemicals added to paint. A drier absorbs oxygen
from the air and transfers it to the linseed oil, which in turn, gets hardened. The quantity
Faculty: Mr S. Praveen Page 22
of drier is limited to 8% , excess of it affects the elasticity of paint leading to flaking
failure. Red lead is the best for primary coat over steel and metal works . The cost of zinc
and lead chromates is high.
PIGMENTS are finely ground mineral, organic substances or; metal powders and their size
from 0.1 to 5.0 microns in diameter. When a desired colour is required than the base
of a paint, a colouring pigment is to be added. The common pigments are classified as
natural and artificial. The former used for preparing glue paints, putties whereas artificial
pigments obtained by chemical processing of raw materials include titanium dioxide, zinc
white, lead white, Lithosphere, Red lead, etc.
Some of the examples of pigments used to produce the desired colours are:
SOLVENTS are also known as thinners used to thin the paints, increase the spread . The
common thinning agents used are petroleum, spirit, naptha and turpentine oil.
A Brief overview of composition/constituent
ALUMINIUM PAINTS consist of aluminum powder as base and are resistant to acid fumes.
Aluminum paints are used for painting metal roofs, silos, machinery, poles, towers and
storage tanks and the painted surface is visible even in darkness.
ASBESTOS PAINT: The main constituent is fibrous asbestos. These paints are used for
stopping leakage in metal roofs , painting gutters. Asbestos paint is also called Fire proof
paint.
VARNISHES
It is the solution of a resin (base) in alcohol or turpentine (solvent) & also a drier like
lead acetate, litharge etc
Amber, copal, shellac are examples of resins.
It is applied on wooden surfaces.
It brightens appearance and forms glossy surface.
It allows natural grains of wood to appear as it is a transparent coat.
It can also give to painted surface to enhance glossy appearance.
It is applied on wooden surface by preparing the surface, applying sand paper, cleaning
the surface and finally applying two or three coats of varnish.
This is generally used for furniture and front doors.
The objects of varnishing a surface are to:
1. Brighten the appearance of the grain in wood.
2. Render brilliancy to the painted surface.
3. Protect painted surface from atmospheric actions
Characteristics of an ideal varnish:
1. It should render the surface glossy.
TYPES OF VARNISHES:
Varnishes are classified as oil, spar, flat, spirit and asphalt varnishes: