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UNIT 3: WOOD, ALUMINIUM, GLASS AND PAINTS

Wood is a hard fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and branches of
a tree. Wood suitable for building and other engineering purposes, and obtained from trees
measured not less than 0.6m in girth, is called timber. When wood has been sawn in to various
market forms such as beams, battens and planks etc.., it is called converted timber. Wood
consists of all types of wood such as burning wood, furniture wood, structural wood etc.
However, Wood that is suitable for structural work is called Timber. Trees are classified as
endogenous and exogenous according to the mode of growth:

CLASSIFICATION OF TREES : Trees are classified as follows : Exogeneous & Endogeneous.


Exogenous Endogenous
Trees grow outwards, increasing in bulk and are used for making Trees grow end wards
structural / engineering purpose. These trees are characterized by the means the trees grow
distinct consecutive rings in the Horizontal section of such a tree. inwards, and fibrous
These rings are known as the annual rings (counting number of mass is seen in their
rings) because one such ring is added every year and these rings longitudinal section.
are useful in predicting the age of the tree. These trees are E.g.; Palm; Bamboo,
subdivided into : Cane
Deciduous(hardwood):
Coniferous(soft wood ): These are
These trees have flat broad
ever green trees having pointed
leaves. This tree fall in autumn
needle like leaves. These are ever
and new one appear in spring
green trees(the leaves which do not
season. Eg: Eucalyptus; Oak,
fall till new onesare grown) Eg;
Teak, (Ben teack); Polar,
Deodar, Chir, Fir, Kail, Pine, Babul,
Maple, Shishum. These trees
Sal; Jack tree... These trees show
show indistinct annual rings
distinct annual rings and are soft
and are hard and non-resinous,
(except pine), light in colour and
dark in colour and heavy
light weight.
weight.

Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred for building material. Teak is not
suitable for making construction of bridge works whereas Babool, Sal etc are suitable for
making construction of bridges. Babool tree is also used for making agricultural implements.

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Ben teak is used for making boats while Deodar trees are meant for making railway
sleepers. Jack trees is used for making musical instruments.
ADVANTAGES OF WOOD
Wood is easily available and easy to transport and handle. Wood is a good absorber of shocks
and so is suitable for construction works. Wood can be easily repaired and alterations to
wood work can also be done easily. Owing to the above mentioned advantages, wood is
very widely used in buildings as doors, windows, frames, temporary partition walls etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER / WOOD:
Wood as a building material falls in two major classesnatural and man-made. Natural
form of a wood is timber (wood prepared for use in building and carpentry is timber)
whereas man-made wood is plywood, fibre board, chipboards, compressed wood,
impregnated wood etc.
The terms timber and wood are often used as synonymous. Following is the classification of
timber as IS: 399:
(1) On the basis of its position:
Standing timber implies a living tree.
Rough timber forms a part of the felled tree o Converted timber are logs of timber
(2) On the basis of Grading (IS: 6534): All grading specifications are clearly distinguished
between structural grading and commercial grading based on Indian Standard
Classification:
Structural grading is also known as Stress grading. It refers that the material is graded
on the basis of visible defects.
Commercial grading is also known as Yard grading or Utility grading refers that the
material is graded by consideration of usefulness of the material and price factors.
Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:
Grade - A: This classification is based on dimensions and general appearance. The dimensions
of lengths, widths and thicknesses of converted materials are measured.
Grade - B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of the material.
Grade - C: This classification is based on qualitative (evaluation of defects ) and rough
estimate of out - turn of utilizable material.
Grade - D: This classification is based on fixing the permissible standard volume of area.
This method is increasingly adopted in Indian Standards and is recognized internationally.
(3) On the basis of Modulus Elasticity: The species of timber recommended for
constructional purpose are classified as:
Group - A: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 12.5 kN / mm2
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Group-B: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 9.8 and below 12.5 kN / mm2
Group-C: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 5.6 and below 9.8 kN / mm2
(4) On the basis of Availability: According to availability, timber can be of three grades,
namely x, y and z.
X-most common, 1415 m3 or more per year.
Y-common, 355 to 1415 m3 or more per year.
Z-less common, below 355m3 or more per year.

(5) On the basis of durability: Test specimens of size 600 x 50 x 50 mm are buried in
the ground to half their lengths. The conditions of the specimen at various intervals of
time are noted and from these observations, their average life is calculated as:
High-durability average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate durability average life of < 120 but of 60 months or more.
Low durability average life of less than 60 months.
(6) On the basis of treatability: This classification is based upon the resistance under a
working pressure of 1.05 N / mm2 as :
(i) Easily treatable and (ii) Only partially treatable.

STRUCTURE OF A TREE : A tree can be divided into three portions namely:


CROWN---composed of branches and leaves
TRUNKto support the crown and to supply water and nutrients
ROOTSare meant to implant the trees in the soil, to absorb moisture and to
supply to the trunk.
Macrostructure: The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small magnification
is called macrostructure.
Microstructure: The structure of timber apparent only at great magnifications is
called the micro-structure.
Macro structure of the timber can be studied by cutting the trunk in three directions (Fig. 4.1)

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Bark: protects the wood against mechanical damage. The outer skin of the tree is known as
the outer bark. It is a protective layer and it sometimes contain cracks.

Bast (medulla) : inner layer of bark, which conveys the nutrients from the crown
downwards and stores them.

Pith: the inner most central portion of the tree is called the pith. It consists entirely of
cellular tissues which are thin and connected loosely.

Heartwood: The inner rings surrounding the Pith is called as heartwood which is usually
in dark color. It gives a strong & firm support to the tree.

Sapwood: The outer rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known as the
sapwood. It is usually light in colour. The sapwood assists in the life process of tree by
storing up starch. It takes active part in the growth of tree.

Cambium layer: The thin layer between sapwood and inner bark ( bast ) as the
Cambium layer. The function of cambium is to grow wood cells.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER:
The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and finished
Appearance.

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1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
SEASONING OF TIMBER:
Seasoning is the process of removing moisture content from the timber. In order to
present the timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for use seasoning is to be
done.
The process of drying of timber (by removing moisture) is also known as the seasoning
of timber. The moisture in timber can be present either in the cell cavities or in the cell walls.
The former is known as the free moisture and major part of moisture in timber is present as free
water. The latter is known as the bound moisture and it is closely associated with the body of
timber.

The moisture content of timber is determined as follows:

P = (W1 - W2 / W2) x 100 where P= percentage of moisture

W1= original weight of timber.


W2= oven dry weight of timber.

Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as follows:


Reduce its tendency to split and decay
Reduce its weight.
Increases strength, durability and workability.
Make it suitable for painting
To burn readily, if used as fuel.
To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber articles.
To make timber safe from the attack of fungi and insects.
METHODS OF SEASONING: Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially

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Natural Seasoning (Air Seasoning): The timber in log form is not usually fit for the process of
seasoning. Hence, it is cut and sawn into suitable sections of planks. The timber pieces can
either be stacked horizontally or vertically so as to permit free circulation of air and the
minimum distance between adjacent stacks should be at least 600 mm.
The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of planks. Air
seasoning reduces the moisture content of the wood to 12-15%
Advantages of natural seasoning:
Depending upon the climatic conditions, the moisture content of wood can be brought down to
about 10%
It does not require skilled supervision.
The method of seasoning timber is cheap and simple.
Disadvantages of natural seasoning:
The drying of different surfaces may not be even and uniform.
If not properly attended, the fungi and insects may attack timber during the process of
seasoning and may damage it.
The moisture content of wood may not be brought down to the desired level.
Artificial Seasoning: The various methods of artificial seasoning are as follows:

1. Boiling: Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is a very quick but
expensive process of seasoning.
2. Water Seasoning: The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in stream of water, with
their larger ends pointing upstream. Consequently, the sap, sugar and gum are leached out and
are replaced by water. The logs are then kept out in air to dry. It is a quick process but the
elastic properties and strength of wood are removed.
3. Kiln seasoning: This method is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large scale to any
moisture content. The scantlings are arranged for free circulation of heated air or with steam.
Two types of kilns viz the progressive and the compartment are in use.
4. Electrical Seasoning: The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the
electrodes. Current is passed through the set up, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow
of current, generating heat in the process, which results in its drying. The drawback is that the
wood may split.
5. Chemical Seasoning: (Salt Seasoning) In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of
suitable salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way. Urea solution is preferred
rather than salt solution because the common salt acts as a corrosive.

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DEFECTS IN TIMBER / DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING:
Defects can occur in timber at various stages during the growing period or during the
seasoning process. Defects affect the quality, reduce the quantity of wood, reduce the
strength, spoil the appearance etc.. However, the defects occurring in the timber are
grouped into the following divisions:
1. Defects due to Conversion: During this process of converting the timber into
commercial form, the following defects may occur: A wane occurs in timber
which contains, on one or more faces or rounded periphery of the trunk. A Torn
grain occurs by falling of a tool which causes a small depression.
2. Defects due to Fungi: Fungi attack the timber when the moisture content of
timber is above 20% and the presence of air. If the wood is submerged in water,
the fungi will not be attacked due to the absence of air in water. Following
defects are caused in the timber by the fungi:
Blue Stain: The wood is stained to bluish color.
Dry rot: Fungi attack the wood and convert it into dry powder.
Sap Stain: when wood is exposed to moisture content goesbeyond 25%, it loses its color.
3. Defects due to Insects: Termites (white ants ), Beetles (small insects) cause
rapid decay of timber by converting them into fine powder.
On the other hand, Carpenter ants are usually black in color and vary in size.
Unlike termites, they do not eat wood but merely tunnel it out for habitation.
Using hydrocyanic acid gas or creosote destroy the insects but they are powerful
toxic elements and dangerous to human beings. The best alternative is turpentine
mixed with a small quantity of ortho-dichloro - benzene. This vapour is very
deadly to insects and is not poisonous to human beings and animals.
4. Defects due to natural forces/ abnormal growth: The main natural forces
responsible for causing defects in timber are two namely abnormal growth and
rupture of tissues. Following are some of the defects commonly found in wood due
to natural forces: Burls (excrescences) formed when a tree receive a shock or
injury in its young age. Due to such injury, the growth of tree is completely
absent and irregular projections appear on the body of timber.
Foxiness is a sign of decay appearing in the form of yellow or red tinge or
discolouration of over matured trees.
Knots are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off form the tree. The
portion from which the branch is removed receives nourishment from the stem for a

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long time results in the formation of hard rings which are known as the knots. Presence
of knots indicates the weakness.
Rindgalls indicates the abnormal growth when swellings are found on the body of a
tree. These develop at points from where branches are improperly cut off or removed.
Shakes: these are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood and
separate the annual rings. Following are the different varieties of shakes:
Cup shakes - curved crack
Heat shakes - due to shrinkage and heart wood
Ring shakes - if the curved crack cover entire ring, it is known as Ring shake
Star shakes - cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood.
Twisted fibres are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of young tree in one
direction.
End splits are caused by greater evaporation of sap at the end grains of log and can be
reduced by painting the exposed end grains with water proof paint or capping the
exposed end with hoop iron bandage.
Upsets are also known as the ruptures and they indicate the wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression.
Rupture is caused due to injury or impact.
5. Defects due to seasoning: Following defects occur in the seasoning process of wood:
o Bow: This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of length
of timber.
o Cup: This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse direction
of timber.
o Check: A check is a crack which separates fibres of wood.
o Honey-Combing: Due to stresses developed during drying, the various radial
and circular cracks develop in the interior portion of timber.
o Split: when a check extends from one end to the other.
o Wrap: When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have
wrapped.

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TESTING OF TIMBER/ PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

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(For some more properties of timber refer Building materials by S.K.Duggal)
SUITABILITY OF TIMBER FOR VARIOUS SPECICIFIC USES

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ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS FOR WOOD:
GALVONISED IRON:
IRON :
Iron is the most important of the metals used in engineering construction. It is available in
abundance, but does not occur freely in nature. The ores of iron are classed according to the
iron mineral which is predominant. The iron content of the main ores are as follows:

Bessemer pig derives its name because of its use in the manufacture of steel by Bessemer
process using haematite ore. Impurities such as sulphur, phosphorus and copper are not
desirable in the Bessemer pig. Foundry pig, also known as grey pig, contains sufficient quantity
of free carbon and is produced when the furnace is provided with sufficient fuel. When fuel
provided is insufficient and if sufficient sulphur is present in the ore forge pig is produced. This
is also known as white pig. Mottled pig is in between the grey and white varieties. They exhibit
mottled fracture
COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON: Pig iron contains 34% carbon, 0.53.5% silicon, 0.52%
manganese, 0.020.1% sulphur and 0.031% Phosphorus.
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PROPERTIES OF PIG IRON: Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200C and
melts easily. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered and magnetised. Its compressive
strength is high but is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot be riveted or
welded.
USES OF PIG IRON : Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc
GALVANIZED IRON
Iron is extracted from its ores magnetite & haematite.
Iron is suitable for columns, base plates etc. in construction.
But it is prone or vulnerable for rusting and corrosion.
To prevent rusting galvanization is resorted.
Galvanization is process of application of a protective coating of zinc by either hot-dip
process or electro plating in order to prevent rusting; This process of galavanization done to
iron is known as known Galvanized Iron.
GALVONISED PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTIONS.
G.I.Pipes (For Water Supply)
G.I.Sheets(For Roofing )
G.I.Wires(For Binding &Fencing)
Hard Ware (For Doors & Windows Hinges, Tower Bolt, Pad Locks , Latches Etc.

GLASS
As a building material, ceramics include clay, brick, stone, concrete, glass, abrasives; porcelain
etc. ceramics are usually hard and brittle and are in the form of amorphous or glassy solids. On
the basis of their internal structure, the ceramics are classified as Clay products, Refractors and
Glasses.

Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle and


transparent material. Ordinary colourless glasses have tensile strength, compressive strength
of about 30-60 N/mm2 and 700-1000 N/mm2 respectively and modulus of elasticity in the
range of 0.45 x 105 to 0.8 x 105 N/mm2.

The raw materials used in manufacturing of glass are sand (silica) lime (chalk) and soda or
potash which are fused over 1100C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify
hardness, colour etc.

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Silica is used in the form of pure quartz / flint ; lime is in the form of Limestone/chalk; marble
and PbO is in the form of galena.
Glass is manufactured in the following steps:

1) Melting: The raw materials--- lime, soda and sand separately cleaned, ground, sieved
(called Batch) in definite proportions and mixed with water are fused in a furnace.
When the temperature is raised to 1100C - 1200C, it turns to a more watery liquid
and the bubble rises to the surface.

The coloring oxides / salts are added at this stage. Heating is continued till the molten mass is
free from bubbles and glass balls. As the glass cools (800C), it is ready to be drawn to its
desired thickness and size at the other end of the furnace.
2) Forming & Shaping: The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by adopting
blowing or flat drawing methods or in the process of Compression Moulding, Moulds are
used to obtain the articles of desired shapes.
In case of spinning, the molten glass is spin at high speed by a machine to form very fine
glass fibers which is used for providing insulation against heat, electricity. The glass
articles, after being manufactured are to be cooled down slowly and gradually. This process
of cooling of glass articles is known as the Annealing of glass.
3) Finishing: After annealing the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished, cut to desired
ones.
4) Colouring substances for glass: To make coloured glass, the colouring pigment is added to
the raw materials while preparing the batch for its manufacture. The whole mass is heated
till it becomes homogenous. Table shows different substances which are used to produce
different shades of colour.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS AND USES:
Depending upon the constituents, glasses are classified as Soda-Lime glass, Lead glass
and Borosilicate glass.

Soda- lime glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lime and soda. The quality of glass
can be improved by adding alumina and Magnesium Oxide and the glass is then called
Crown Glass. This type of glass is used in doors, windows, bottles etc

Lead glass, also known as Flint glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead and
potash. Lead glass has high shining appearance and not usually affected by temperature.
Electric bulbs, optical glasses, ornamental glass and radio valves are some of the articles
made from it.

Borosilicate glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, Borax, lime and feldspar.
Borosilicate glass can withstand high temperatures and is most suitable for making
laboratory equipments .

Some of the important special varieties of glasses are:

Fibre glass: For making this type of glass, the molten glass is spin at a very high speed to
produce a continuous fine glass fibres. It is soft and flexible in nature. It doesnt absorb
water, acids and is used for motor vehicles as sheets, fibre glass etc.

Bullet Proof glass: This glass is made of several layers of plain glass and alternate layers
consist of vinyl-resin plastic. The outer layers of glass are made thinner than the inner
layers. The thickness of this type of glass vary from 15mm-75mm. It will not allow bullet to
pierce through it.

Ultra-Violet glass: It is made from the raw mixture with minimum quantities of iron,
titanium and chrome oxides. Such a glass transmits 75% of UV radiation which is far more
than a common glass. It is widely used in windows of schools, hospitals etc.

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Glass Blocks: These are completely sealed hollow units which are formed by fusing
together two-halves of pressed glass. The glass blocks are available in square sizes with
dimensions as 150 x 200 x 300 mm with a thickness of 100mm.
These blocks posses high insulating value and are excellent in high transmission and
protect against cold, heat and noise.

Other glass varieties include: Float glass; Foam glass; Obscured glass; Perforated
glass; Safety glass ; Wired glass etc

Glass used in roofs (for natural light) glazed into frames of doors and windows partitions.

GLASS FIBRE :

STEEL:
Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due to a
wide range and combination of physical and mechanical properties of steels. By suitably
controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment, a desired combination of
hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in steel. On the basis of carbon content steel
may be classified as under

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Properties and uses of steel :
Mild steel: Also known as low carbon or soft steel. It is ductile, malleable; tougher and more
elastic than wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to temper and harden.
It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetised. The properties are: Sp. gr. = 7.30, ultimate
Compressive and tensile strengths 8001200N/mm2 and 600800N/mm2.
Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet
piles and in railway tracks.
High carbon Steel : The carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55 to 1.50%. It is
also known as hard steel. It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel. It can be forged and
welded with difficulty. Its ultimate compressive and tensile strengths are 1350 N/mm2 and
14002000N/mm2, respectively. Its Sp. gr. is 7.90.

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High carbon steel is used for reinforcing cement concrete and prestressed concrete
members.
It can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts.
High tensile steel: The carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.60.8%, manganese 0.6%,
silicon 0.2%, sulphur 0.05% and phosphorus 0.05%. It is also known as high strength steel and
is essentially a medium carbon steel. The ultimate tensile strength is of the order of 2000
N/mm2 and a minimum elongation of 10 per cent.
High Tensile steel is used in prestressed concrete construction.
ALUMINUM :

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Brief Salient features of aluminium :
It is a silver white metal.
It is extracted from the ore called bauxite.
Pure aluminum is soft and unsuitable as a building material.
However its alloys are extensively used.
By adding 35% of copper&0.30.6 %of iron,0.5 1%ofmagnesium, 0.07% of
manganese
It is called duralumin then,
It facilitates rolling into sheets, drawing into wires.
By subjecting it to electrolysis with aluminum oxide it becomes high corrosion resistant.
It is called anodizing.
USES OF ALUMINUM BUILDING MATERIAL :
When anodized---given a coating of al.oxide by process of electrolysis it gains corrosion and
wear resistence.
When added with copper (3-5%),magnesium (0.5-1%), silica & iron each(0.3-0.6%). It attains
facility for fabrication and can be rolled into sheetsdrawn into wirescan be worked in to
different shapes, improves electrical conductivity. Hence used as
Roofing sheets
As structural sections
as electrical conductors

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PAINTS:
Introduction

Definition of paint:
Paints are liquid surface coating materials, it is a dispersion of pigments in a drying oil, with the
addition of driers and thinners, the former to accelerate film formation and hardening, the latter
to allow ease and uniformity in brushing and spraying.
The Paints are coatings of fluid materials and are applied over the surfaces of timber and
metals. On drying it forms a thin film (60-150 ) on the surfaces.
The functions of the paint are:
To protect the coated surface against weathering effects of atmospheric conditions, fumes,
gases.
Decorate the structure by giving smooth and colourful finish.
Attack the penetration of water through RCC
Controls the formation of bacteria and fungus
Arrests the corrosion of the metal structures
Stops the decay of wood work
Provides a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
An ideal paint should have uniform spread as a thin film, high coverage, good
workability and durability. The paints should also be cheap and economical
Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous paints, fire
proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints ( for protecting objects against acid
fumes.
COMPOSITION/CONSTITUENT OF OIL PAINT: An oil paint essentially consists of the
following ingredients:
Paint consists of (constituents),
A base
A vehcile or carrier
A drier
A colouring pigment
A solvent or thinner

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BASE: The base, is a metallic oxide which is a principal constituent of the paint. It makes the
paint film opaque and possesses binding properties which reduce the shrinkage cracks in
the film on drying.
Some of the examples of base are White lead ( PbCO3), Red lead (PbO), Zinc white (ZnO),
Aluminium powder, Iron oxide; Lithosphere ( zinc sulphide + barytes powder ), Titanium
White etc..

Lead based paints are in general affected by atmosphere and are not recommended for
final coats. Zinc white is a weather resistant. Aluminium powder is used as base for all
aluminium paints. It is generally used for a priming coat to new wood work. Lithosphere
is cheap and can easily applied on the surfaces. However, when exposed to day light, it
changes colour, hence used for interior works only. Titanium white is non-poisonous and
provides a thin transparent film. It is used for receiving the coat of an enamel.

VEHICLE / CARRIER is also known as binder. Vehicle is oil to which the base is mixed. Vehicles
are used to make it possible to spread the paint evenly on the surface in the form of a
thin layer and to provide a binder for the ingredients of a paint so that they may stick
to the surface.
The examples of vehicles are natural oils such as Linseed oil, Nut oil, Poppy oil, and Tung oil

Linseed oil is the most widely used vehicle and is extracted from flax seeds. It reacts
readily with oxygen and hardens by forming a thin film known as Linoxyn. Nut oil is
extracted from walnuts. Poppy oil is prepared from Poppy seeds. It dries slowly and its
colors are long lasting. It is used for making paints of delicate colors. Tung oil (or) china
wood oil is obtained from a tung tree is superior to linseed oil and is used for preparing
paints of superior quality .

DRIERS also known as plasticizers ( lethargy - lead oxide; Lead Acetate; Red LeadPb3O4;
MnO2; Co, Zn and lead chromate ) are chemicals added to paint. A drier absorbs oxygen
from the air and transfers it to the linseed oil, which in turn, gets hardened. The quantity
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of drier is limited to 8% , excess of it affects the elasticity of paint leading to flaking
failure. Red lead is the best for primary coat over steel and metal works . The cost of zinc
and lead chromates is high.

PIGMENTS are finely ground mineral, organic substances or; metal powders and their size
from 0.1 to 5.0 microns in diameter. When a desired colour is required than the base
of a paint, a colouring pigment is to be added. The common pigments are classified as
natural and artificial. The former used for preparing glue paints, putties whereas artificial
pigments obtained by chemical processing of raw materials include titanium dioxide, zinc
white, lead white, Lithosphere, Red lead, etc.

Some of the examples of pigments used to produce the desired colours are:

Tint of paint Pigment


Black Graphite
Blue Indigo, Prussian blue
Brown Burnt umber
Green Copper sulphate,
Red Red lead,
Yellow Zinc chrome; yellow ochre

SOLVENTS are also known as thinners used to thin the paints, increase the spread . The
common thinning agents used are petroleum, spirit, naptha and turpentine oil.
A Brief overview of composition/constituent

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PREPARATION/MANUFACTURING OF PAINT
Manufacturing of paints is done in four-storeyed building in order to have gravitational
flow of materials. Pigments, oil, thinner, plasticizer, drier, etc. are stored on the fourth floor and
are fed by means of chutes in proper proportions, to the grinding mill placed on the third floor
and are ground. The thoroughly ground materials are then sent to storage tanks on the second
floor. The charge in the tanks is kept in motion by agitation mechanism so that settling of
materials does not take place. An additional quantity of vehicle is added here to get the desired
composition. The batch is then tested for quality control. The paint material is then strained and
sent to first floor, where it is packed in containers. Finally the packed material in containers is
sent to the ground floor.

CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF PAINTS:


Paints are classified based on
a) binders & bases,
b) uses and

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c) mixed classification
(a) Classification of paints based on binders & bases.
Oil paints oils as vehcile
Water based paints water as vehicle
Paints with resins resins as vehicle
Cellulose paints cellulose ( nitrogen cotton, celluloid) as base.
Plastic paints plastic compounds as base
(b) Classification of paints based on use
General purpose paint for surface finining coat.
Acid & alkali resistent for resisting acid & alkali liquids, gases etc.,
Fire resists paints for resisting fire
Fungicidil paints for resisting fungus.
(c) Mixed classification : types of paints
TYPES OF PAINTS: The brief descriptions of various types of paints are:
Aluminium paints Emulsion paints
Anticorrosive paints Enamel paints
Asbestos paints Graphite paints
Bituminous paints Inodorous paints
Bronze paints Oil paints
Casein paints Plastic paints
Cellulose paints Silicate paints
Cement based paints Synthetic rubber paints
Colloidal paints

ALUMINIUM PAINTS consist of aluminum powder as base and are resistant to acid fumes.
Aluminum paints are used for painting metal roofs, silos, machinery, poles, towers and
storage tanks and the painted surface is visible even in darkness.

ANTICORROSIVE PAINTS: Linseed oil is used as vehicle A pigment of CrO2; Pb or red


lead or Zinc chrome is taken and after mixing it with some quantity of very fine sand, it
is added to the paint. These paint are cheap and lasts for a long duration.

ASBESTOS PAINT: The main constituent is fibrous asbestos. These paints are used for
stopping leakage in metal roofs , painting gutters. Asbestos paint is also called Fire proof
paint.

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BITUMINOUS PAINT: It is prepared by dissolving asphalt in any type of oil or petroleum
or naphtha. The paint presents a black appearance and it is used for painting iron work
under water.
BRONZE PAINTS: pigment such as aluminium bronze or copper bronze powder is used with a
vehicle like nitrocellulose lacquer. Used for painting interior and exterior metallic surfaces It is
highly reflective and are applied over radiators.
CASEIN PAINTS: Casein , a protein substance extracted from milk, curd and is mixed with
a base (Lithophane ) . They are available in powder or paste from. They are used over
new plaster surface, walls and ceilings.
CELLUSLOSE PAINTS is also known as lacquers. A cellulose paint hardens by evaporation
of thinning agent and thus hardness quickly. Being very costly their use is restricted to
painting cars, ships and airplanes.
CEMENT BASED PAINT: It is available in dry powder from It is waterproof and durable.
For external finish, on cement-plastered walls, it is mixed with water before its
application. Cement paints are durable, strong & are used on exterior surfaces of
buildings. Mixed with boiled linseed oil they are also used over corrugated iron sheets.
COLLOIDAL PAINTS: This paint does not contain any inert material. Due to its colloidal
properties it takes more time to settle. During settlement , it penetrates through the surface on
which it is applied.
EMULSION PAINTS: Contain binding materials such as polyvenyl acetate, styrene & synthetic
resin as vehicle. Paint dries quickly (1.5hr to 2 hr). The painted surface can be washed with
water. It has Alkali resistant, good workability & durability. Used on masonry surfaces like
brick.
GRAPHITE PAINTS: Paint has black colour. Used for painting iron surface which comes in
contact with ammonia chlorine, sulphur gases. It is also used in mines and underground
structures.
INODORUS PAINTS: Contains white lead/ zinc lead + methylated spirit. Shellac with some
quantity of linseed oil and caster oil is used. Paint dries very quickly, due to evaporation of
methylated spirit, leaving behind a thin film of shellac.
OIL PAINTS: It is ordinary Paint Consist main constituents as base and vehicle
vehicle- linseed oil, tug oil etc
Base- white lead, red lead, lithophone & titanium oxide
Drier- litharge, sulphates of zinc and manganese
Oil paints generally used in three coats namely: prime coat, under coat and finishing coat

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Cheap & easy to apply. Used for painting walls, ceilings, wood work & metal work etc.
PLASTIC EMULSION PAINTS: These are useful in porous and /or wet surface. The emulsion
coats are less odorous, non-inflammable, quick drying and easier to apply than other
paints. It is composed of plastic compounds such as vinyl acetate and acrylate which are
dissolved in water. When the paint dries, the water evaporates and a thin film is left out
on wall surface as a coat.
SILICATE PAINTS:
Silica + resinous substances
Good adhesion on paints
Hard and durable surface on drying
RUBBER BASED PAINTS: Rubber is treated with chlorine gas is dissolved in solvent and
desired pigment is added. These paints are resistant to acid, and alkalis. Rubber paints are
used over concrete and cement plastered surfaces.
PROCEDURE OF PAINTING NEW SURFACE OF WOOD:
PREPARATION OF SURFACE :
Dust, shavings, grasey spots etc., to be removed and surface cleaned. A glass paper ( sand
paper) or pumice stone is applied on the surface. All cracks nail holes, dents, joints are filled
with putty. Putty is made by mixing chalk powder in linseed oil to form a paste. After the paste.
Is dry glass paper is again applied to get a smooth surface.
PRIMER COAT :
In order to fill pores, uneven surface & provides adhesion for paint, primer coat is a
compound of white lead + linseed oil or red lead + linseed oil, with terpentine.
APPLICATION OF PAINT:
It is applied in 2 or 3 coats .sufficient time is to be allowed for one coat to dry before the
other coat is applied. Paint is applied with brush by skilled painter so as to see that finished
surface is smooth, uniform & free from patches or brush marks .
PROCEDURE OF PAINTING OLD SURFACE OF WOOD
PREPARATION OF SURFACE :
The old paint with cracks & blisters is removed by application of coustic soda solution or a
solution of washing soda & quick lime. After removing old paint the surface is rubbed with sand
paper and cleaned of dust & loose particles.
APPLICATION OF PAINT :
The paint is then applied in two or three coats as in the case of painting new surface .

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DEFECTS IN PAINTING :

VARNISHES
It is the solution of a resin (base) in alcohol or turpentine (solvent) & also a drier like
lead acetate, litharge etc
Amber, copal, shellac are examples of resins.
It is applied on wooden surfaces.
It brightens appearance and forms glossy surface.
It allows natural grains of wood to appear as it is a transparent coat.
It can also give to painted surface to enhance glossy appearance.
It is applied on wooden surface by preparing the surface, applying sand paper, cleaning
the surface and finally applying two or three coats of varnish.
This is generally used for furniture and front doors.
The objects of varnishing a surface are to:
1. Brighten the appearance of the grain in wood.
2. Render brilliancy to the painted surface.
3. Protect painted surface from atmospheric actions
Characteristics of an ideal varnish:
1. It should render the surface glossy.

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2. It should dry rapidly and present a finished surface which is uniform in nature and
pleasing in appearance.
3. The colour of varnish should not fade away when the surface is exposed to atmospheric
actions.
4. The protecting film developed by varnish should be tough, hard and durable.
5. It should not shrink or show cracks after drying.
INGRADIENTS/CONSTITUENTS OF VARNISH :
Varnish has following ingredients:
Resins or resinous substances
solvents and
driers

Fig. Resin with insect Fig. Resin of Pine tree

TYPES OF VARNISHES:
Varnishes are classified as oil, spar, flat, spirit and asphalt varnishes:

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Oil varnish: It uses linseed oil and takes about 24 hours to dry. Hard resins such as amber and
copal are dissolved in linseed oil. If the varnish is found unworkable, a small amount of
turpentine oil may be added. It is suitable both for interior and external works.
Spar varnish: derives its name from its use on spars and other parts of ships. It gives sticky
effect in warm weather and is not used indoors.
Flat varnish: materials such as wax, metallic soap or finally divided silica when added to
varnish produce a dull appearance on drying and are known as flat varnish
Spirit varnish: is resins of soft variety such as lac or shellac dissolved in spirit. The examples
are French polish, lacquer and shellac varnish. It dries very quickly. These are not durable and
are easily affected by weathering action.
Asphalt varnish: is made by dissolving melted hard asphalt in linseed oil with a thinner such as
turpentine or petroleum spirit. It is used over shop fabricated steel works.
Water varnish: is shellac dissolved in hot water to which enough quantity of either ammonia,
borax, soda or potash is added. These are used for varnishing maps and pictures

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