Alexa Aurellano

HUMSS A-40

Assignment:

1. What are the three types of terrestrial motion that the Greeks
considered?
A. Motion with respect to quality- general designation that is used to include both
contraries: and by quality (in a sense which constitutes a specific distinction) is a
passive quality in virtue of which a thing is said to be acted on or to be incapable
of being acted on.

B. Motion with respect to quantity - it has no name that includes both contraries,
but it is called increase or decrease according as one or the other is designated:
motion in the direction of complete magnitude is increase, motion in the
contrary direction is decrease.

C. Motion with respect to place it has no name either general or particular: but
some designate it by the general name of locomotion, though strictly the term
'locomotion' is applicable to things that change their place only when they have
not the power to come to a stand and to things that dont move themselves
locally

2. What is meant by diurnal motion, annual motion, and precession of the

equinoxes?
A. Diurnal Motion - is the daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the
sky. This motion is due to the Earth's rotation from west to east, which causes
celestial bodies to have an apparent motion from east to west.

B. Annual Motion - over the course of a year, the Sun appears to move a little
towards the East each day as seen with respect to the background stars. This
daily eastward drift is <1per day (there are 365 days in a year, but only 360 in
a circle). This apparent motion reflects the Earth's annual orbit around the Sun.

C. Precession of the equinoxes - earth's precession was historically called the

precession of the equinoxes, because the equinoxes moved westward along the
ecliptic relative to the fixed stars, opposite to the yearly motion of the Sun along
the ecliptic.

3. Explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical.

The Greeks knew why Earth is a sphere because the shape of the Earth shadow
during lunar
eclipses is round. Thus, the shape of the Earth is round too. Aside from that, travel
in latitude changes the positions of the stars and only spherical shape would allow
motion to the center to be straight down.
4. Explain how Platos problem of Saving the Appearances constrained
Greek models of the Universe
The guiding themata or paradigm of Greek planetary astronomy is attributed to
Plato by the philosopher Simplicius of Athens in his commentary on Aristotle's book
On the Heavens. Around a.d. 500 Simplicius wrote that Plato had set as a task for
astronomers to explain the apparently irregular motions of the planets, the Sun, and
the Moon as a combination of circular motions with constant speeds of rotation.

To "save the appearances" with a system of uniform circular motions is, in the
context of modern science, an arbitrary and absurd task. Granted, the motions of
the planets and the Sun and the Moon could be reproduced using, in clever
combination, circles of various sizes with unchanging rotational speeds. But it would
be a cumbersome contraption. Modern science has achieved a more elegant and
informative solution to a more productively formulated problem, at least in the
opinion of modern scientists.

The fact remains, however, that a task was set for astronomers the task was
generally accepted and the task was pursued for nearly two thousand years, from
the Greeks in the fourth century b.c. to Copernicus and the European Renaissance in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries a.d. Historical importance is not
necessarily negated by lack of plausibility, especially when plausibility is judged in
hindsight by different people in a different age with different standards.

Simplicius lived nearly a thousand years after Plato and Aristotle and the beginning
of Greek astronomy, and he lacked direct access to Plato's original writings. Nor is
any explicit statement about saving the appearances with a system of uniform
circular motions now found in Plato's surviving writings. Hence
some historians of science question the central role in the development of planetary
theory often assigned to Plato. But whether it began with Plato or slightly afterward,
the task for Greek astronomers working in what came to be regarded, rightly or
wrongly, as the Platonic tradition, was to save the
appearances: to explain apparently irregular motions detected by the senses as a
combination of uniform circular motions.

Plato lays down the principle that the heavenly bodies' motion is circular, uniform,
and constantly regular. Thereupon he sets the mathematicians the following
problem: what circular motions, uniform and perfectly regular, are to be admitted as
hypotheses so that it might be possible to save the appearances presented by the
planets.
A combination of uniform circular motions now seems absurd. Within Plato's
philosophy, however, the concept is plausible. And his philosophy is plausible when
viewed within the context of his life. Plato's philosophy can be understood as a
reaction to the temporary moral values of his age, which left him highly dissatisfied
and sent him searching for a new philosophy.

5. Compare and contrast the models/descriptions of the universe by

Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus

Euxodus - imagines Universe as concentric spheres (Eudoxus spheres)

- earth at worlds center
- each sphere rotates with its own speed
- only approximately explains the planetary motions
Aristotle - earth is spherical
- earth circled around the sun, then the relative positions of the
stars would change as Earth moves (parallax)
- geocentric
moon, sun, planets, and stars on a series of circles that moved
around Earth
Aristarchus - first to proposed a sun-centered model of the solar system
(heliocentricity)
- stars were distant suns that remained unmoved and that the size
of the universe was much larger than his contemporaries believed
- sun must be much larger than the Earth
Ptolemy - modifies the Eudoxus system to explain the retrograde motion
- each planet moves on a circle called epicycle
The centre of the epicycle moves on another circle called deferent
Earth is the center of deferent
reproduces the retrograde motion, with one epicycle and one
deferent for each planet
- the circular motion is uniform with respect to a point named
equant, symmetrical to Earth with respect to the deferent center
- the centers of the Mercury and Venus epicycles are on the Earth-
Sun line
- for Mars, Jupiter and Saturn: `radius of epicycle parallel to the
Earth-Sun line
Copernicus - uses the same measurements of planet positions as Ptolemy
- heliocentric
- earth and other celestial bodies (except moon) revolve around the
Sun
- circular orbits
 - simply explains the retrograde motion

6. Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers

before the advent of telescopes
A. Halleys Comet - is perhaps one of the best examples of objects being observed
throughout the length and breadth of history; it was first seen by various ancient
kingdoms such as the Chinese around 240 BCE and the Greeks between 467-466
BCE.

B. 500 B.C. A late Babylonian tablet - containing an important astronomical

compendium. This tablet is only 8.4cm high, and is a miniature masterpiece of
Babylonian cuneiform writing. The Babylonians developed precise mathematical
formulas for predicting astronomical events. Their mathematical theory is
elegant, concise, and capable of predicting lunar and planetary phases and
positions with astounding accuracy. Many researchers feel the Babylonian
techniques represent the first true scientific revolution.

C. Stone structure of Stonehenge - essentially a giant machine which calculated

the position of the Sun and planets in the Solar System in relation to each other,
as well as predicting the times of eclipses.

D. Astrolabe - was originally invented by the Greeks, but made far more precise by
Arab astronomers. The viewer looked through a pair of sighting holes on each
end of the long arm. The face of the astrolabe held a disc that could be removed
and replaced by other discs, much like a computer. Each disc was used in
traveling for a different latitude. By sighting on certain stars and aligning the
astrolabe with the north star, the user could determine a precise time for his
location.

E. Modern-day Gregorian calendar - was based upon the solar calendar which
measured the duration of one complete orbit of planet Earth around the Sun.
Previous calendars, such as the Chinese calendar, relied on the complete orbit of
the Moon around Earth, which was approximately 30 days. When ancient
kingdoms and empires rose, they worshipped deities who represented the sky,
the universe or the cosmos.

7. Compare and contrast explanations and models of astronomical

phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic, and Tychonic)

Copernican - in 1543, Copernicus published On the Revolutions of Heavenly

Bodies, a proposal that the Sun is at the center of the solar system,
rather than the Earth (heliocentric)
- his objection to the Ptolemaic system was that it had got away
 from the fundamental principles of Aristotles dynamics, and not
that it was inaccurate in its
predictions of celestial events
- however, it turned out that Copernicus still required epicycles and
eccentric motion to account for things like the retrograde motion of
the planets, and he needed 46 circular motions for his model so, it
was still quite complicated to do astronomical calculations with
Copernicus model, but much more simple to calculate with than the
Ptolemaic model that required 70 circular motions
- it was used for calculating the astronomical tables that
were the basis of the Gregorian calendar
Ptolemaic - assumed that the Earth was the center of not only the solar
system, but the entire universe.
- the Ptolemaic model accounted for the apparent motions of the
planets in a very direct way, by assuming that each planet moved
on a small sphere or circle, called an epicycle, that moved on a
larger sphere or circle, called a deferent. The stars, it was assumed,
moved on a celestial sphere around the outside of the planetary
spheres
- the natural expectation for ancient societies was that the
heavenly bodies (Sun, Moon, planets, and stars) must travel in
uniform motion along the most perfect path possible, a circle.
However, the paths of the Sun, Moon, and planets as observed from
the Earth are not circular
- he explained this imperfection by postulating that the apparently
irregular movements were a combination of several regular circular
motions seen in perspective from a stationary Earth.
Tychonic - objects on blue orbits (the moon and the sun) rotate around the
earth/geocentric
- can be shown through a geometric argument that the motions of
the planets and the Sun relative to the Earth in the Tychonic system
are equivalent to the motions in the Copernican system
- notions of how the Sun and the planets are mobile while the Earth
is not
- on the other hand, because of the intersecting deferents of Mars
and the Sun (see diagram), it went against the Ptolemaic and
Aristotelian notion that the planets were placed within nested
spheres. Tycho and his followers revived the ancient Stoic
philosophy instead, since it used fluid heavens which could
accommodate intersecting circles
- explained the observed variations of phase of Venus, for which the
Ptolemaic system had no explanation
8. Explain how Galileos astronomical discoveries and observations (lunar
craters, phases of Venus, moons of Jupiter, sun spots, supernovas, the
apparently identical size of stars as seen through the naked eye, and
telescope observations) helped weaken the support for the Ptolemaic
model.
A. One of the experiments Galileo is famous for is dropping rocks from the leaning
tower of Pisa. He did this to test Aristotle's view that the heavier an object, the
faster it will fall.

B. We have already noted the two discoveries by Tycho (the supernova and comet)
that showed the "superlunary" world was not immutable, contrary to the view of
Aristotle. But again, this did not violate the geocentric model for the motions of
the planets. Other evidence was needed. This evidence required a new
instrument, the telescope.

C. The invention of the telescope has been credited to Hans Lippershey, a Dutch
spectacle maker. But this may or may not be correct. The story goes that in July
of 1609 Galileo had heard that a Dutchman had devised an instrument
composed of two lenses that made objects appear closer. Not wanting to be
scooped, Galileo quickly came up with his own version.

D. Galileo was assembling the ammunition to mount the final assault on the
geocentric model. That objects could orbit Jupiter instead of the Earth, showed
that the Earth could in no way be considered the sole center of the universe.

E. But this, by itself, was not quite sufficient to de-throne the geocentric model,
since Tycho had already proposed a hybrid model where Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn orbited the Sun, while the Moon and Sun orbited the Earth.
Galileo's observations continued to mount, and one of the most important came
in late 1610 when he found that the planet Venus showed phases just like those
of the Moon. This observation finally ruled out the Ptolemaic system.

F. He also showed that neither the Sun nor the Moon were perfect.

9. Explain how Brahes innovations and extensive collection of data in

observational astronomy paved the way for Keplers discovery of his
laws of planetary motion.
While Copernicus rightly observed that the planets revolve around the Sun, it was
Kepler who correctly defined their orbits. At the age of 27, Kepler became the
assistant of a wealthy astronomer, Tycho Brahe, who asked him to define the orbit
of Mars. Brahe had collected a lifetime of astronomical observations, which, on his
death, passed into Keplers hands. (Brahe, who had his own Earth-centered model of
the Universe, withheld the bulk of his observations from Kepler at least in part
because he did not want Kepler to use them to prove Copernican theory correct.)
Using these observations, Kepler found that the orbits of the planets followed three
laws.
Brahe believed in a model of the Universe with the Sun (rayed disk) orbiting the
Earth (black dot), but the other planets (symbols) orbiting the Sun. To prove his
theory, Brahe compiled extensive astronomical records, which Kepler eventually
used to prove heliocentrism and to calculate the orbital laws.

Through Brahes astronomical measurements and Keplers own drawings of the

geometrical relationship between the Sun and Mars in various parts of the planets
orbit, Kepler discovered that planets moved faster when they were closer to the
Sun. From this realization, he concluded that the orbit of Mars was elliptical, not
circular.

10. Apply Keplers 3rd law of planetary motion to objects in the solar
system.
3rd law: The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the
ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)

Law of harmonies - compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to
those of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the
motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a comparison between
the motion characteristics of different planets. The comparison being made is that
the ratio of the squares of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from
the sun is the same for every one of the planets. As an illustration, consider the
orbital period and average distance from sun (orbital radius) for Earth and mars as
given in the table below.

Period Average T2/R3

Planet
(s) Distance (m) (s2/m3)
Earth 3.156 x 107 s 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10-19
Mars 5.93 x 107 s 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10-19

Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the
same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is
nearly the same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet
has the same T2/R3 ratio.

Period Average T2/R3

Planet
(yr) Distance (au) (yr2/au3)
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
 Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00

(NOTE: The average distance value is given in astronomical units where 1 a.u. is
equal to the distance from the earth to the sun - 1.4957 x 10 11 m. The orbital
period is given in units of earth-years where 1 earth year is the time required
for the earth to orbit the sun - 3.156 x 107 seconds).

Kepler's third law provides an accurate description of the period and distance
for a planet's orbits about the sun. Additionally, the same law that describes
the T2/R3 ratio for the planets' orbits about the sun also accurately describes
the T2/R3 ratio for any satellite (whether a moon or a man-made satellite) about
any planet. There is something much deeper to be found in this T2/R3 ratio -
something that must relate to basic principles of motion.