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Chapter12

ComponentPartsofaBuilding
Thebasicrequirementsabuildingshouldsatisfyindesignandperformanceare:
1. Itmustbestrongenoughtowithstandtheloadscomingonitincludingtheself
weight,liveload,windloadandearthquakeload.
2. Itmustnotdeflectundertheloads.
3. Itmustgivecomfortandconveniencetotheinhabitants.

Frontelevationdrawingofabuilding

12.1BUILDINGCOMPONENTSANDTHEIRBASICREQUIREMENTS

Abuildingbroadlyconsistsofthreeparts:
1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Superstructure
12.1.1Foundation

Thefoundationisthemostcriticalpartofanystructureandmostofthefailuresareprobably
duetofaultyfoundations.Hence,itishighlyessentialtosecuregoodfoundationtomaintain
thestabilityofthestructure.Agoodfoundationmustremaininpositionwithoutsliding,
bending,overturningorfailinginanyothermanner.
Thefoundationofanystructureshouldbelaidmuchbelowthesurfaceofthegroundinorder
toattainthefollowing:
1. Tosecureagoodnaturalbed.
2. Toprotectthefoundationcoursesfromatmosphericinfluences.
3. Toincreasethestabilityofthestructureagainstoverturningduetowinduplift.


Figure12.1Sectionofabuildingshowingvariouscomponents

Theprimaryfunctionofthefoundationistotransmittheanticipatedloadssafelytothesoil
below.Thefoundationinabuildingstructureissupposedtosatisfythefollowingbasic
requirementsintheirdesignandconstruction:
1. Todistributethetotalloadcomingonthestructureoveralargebearingareasoas
topreventitfromanymovement.
2. Toloadthebearingsurfaceorareaatauniformratesoastopreventitfromany
movement.
3. Topreventthelateralescapeormovementofthesupportingmaterialor
alternativelytoensurethestabilityofthestructureagainstsliding.
4. Tosecurealevelorfirmnaturalbeduponwhichtolaythecourseofmasonryand
alsosupportthestructure.
5. Toincreasethestabilityofthestructureasawholetopreventitfromoverturning
orslidingagainstthedisturbingforcessuchaswind,rainandfrost.

12.1.2Plinth
Thisistheportionofthestructurebetweenthesurfaceofthesurroundinggroundandthe
surfaceofthefloorimmediatelyabovetheground.Thethicknessoftheplinthwalldepends
upontheweightofthesuperstructureandthewidthofthefoundationconcrete.Theminimum
heightoftheplinthisusuallykeptasnotlessthan4.5cm.
Theplinthwallshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirementsinabuildingstructureinitsdesign
andconstruction:
1. Totransmittheloadofthesuperstructuretothefoundation.
2. Toactasaretainingwallsoastokeepthefillinginpositionbelowtheraisedfloor
orthebuilding.
3. Toprotectthebuildingfromdampnessormoisture.
4. Toenhancethearchitecturalappearanceofthebuilding.
12.1.3Wallsandpiersinsuperstructure

Theprimaryfunctionofthewallistoencloseordividespace.Piersareusuallyintheformof
athickenedsectionofawall,placedatintervalsalongthewalltotakeconcentratedvertical
loadsortoprovidelateralsupporttothewall.Thesewallsmaybebuiltofdifferentmaterials
suchasbrickorstonemasonry,plainconcreteandreinforcedmasonry.
Aloadbearingwallshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirements:
1. Strength:Awallshouldbestrongenoughtotakeuptheloadssafely.Theloads
cominginthewallincludeitsownweight,weightbysuperimposedloadsand
bilateralpressureslikewind.
2. Stability:Itshouldbestableagainstoverturningbylateralforcesandbuckling
causedbyexcessiveslenderness.
3. WeatherResistance:Alltheexternalwallswhetherloadbearingorpanel
constructionsshouldprovideadequateresistancetorain,sunandwind.
4. FireResistance:Thewallsshouldoffersufficientresistancetofireastheybehave
asverticalbarriersforspreadoffireinthehorizontaldirection.
5. HeatInsulation:Itshouldbepossibleforwallstoattaininsulationagainstheat.
6. SoundInsulation:Thewallsshouldbemadeofsuchmaterialsandbysuch
techniquesoastoinsulatethebuildingagainstsound.
7. PrivacyandSecurity:Thewallsshouldprovidesufficientprivacyandafford
securityagainsttheft.

12.1.4Floors

Themainfunctionofaflooristoprovidesupportforoccupants,furnitureandequipmentofa
building,andthefunctionofprovidingdifferentfloorsistodividethebuildingintodifferent
levelsforcreatingmoreaccommodationwithinthelimitedspace(Table12.1).
Afloorshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirements:
1. StrengthandStability:Allthefloors,whetherbasement,groundoruppershouldbe
strongenoughtosupportthefloorcoveringandothersuperimposedloads.
2. DurabilityandDampPrevention:Thefloorsprovideaclean,smooth,impervious,
durableandwearresistingsurface.
3. HeatInsulation:Insulationagainstheatshouldbeprovidedincaseofgroundand
basementfloors,especiallywhensuspendedandventilatedtimberfloorsareused.
4. SoundInsulationandFireResistance:Theinsulationagainstsoundandfireshould
beprovidedinthecaseofupperfloorsastheyactashorizontalbarriersforthe
passageofsoundandfireinaverticaldirection.
Table12.1CriteriaforCalculatingFloorAreasandHeightofStructures
Typeofbuilding Cubiccontentspercapita(m3) Floorareapercapita(m3)

Residentialbuildings 9 2.59

Dormitories 1215 34

Educationalbuildings 4.57.5 12

Institutionalbuildings 30 810

Industrialbuildings 7.5 22.5

12.1.5Doorsandwindows
Themainfunctionofdoorsinabuildingistoserveasaconnectinglinkbetweeninternal
partsandtoallowfreemovementtotheoutsideofthebuilding.Windowsaregenerally
providedforproperventilationandlightingandtheirnumbershouldbedeterminedaccording
totherequirements.
Doorsandwindowsshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirements:
1. WeatherResistance:Theyshouldbestrongenoughtoresisttheadverseeffectsof
weather.
2. SoundandThermalInsulation:Theyshouldbecapableofbeingmadeairtightto
achieveinsulationagainstsoundandheat.
3. DampPreventionandTermitePrevention:Theyshouldnotbeaffectedbywhite
antsandthemoisturepenetrationasthiswillreducethestrengthanddurability.
4. FireResistanceandDurability:Theyshouldofferfireresistanceandshouldbe
durable.
5. PrivacyandSecurity:Theyshouldoffersufficientprivacywithoutinconvenience
ortroubleandsecurityagainsttheft.

12.1.6Sills,lintelsandweathershades
Windowsillsareprovidedbetweenthebottomofthewindowframeandthewallbelowto
protectthetopofthewallfromwearandtear.Theopeningsareprovidedinthewallofa
buildingtoaccommodatethedoorsandwindows.Theactualframeofadoororwindowis
notstrongenoughtosupporttheweightofthewallabovetheopeningandaseparate
structuralelementis,therefore,introducedbetweenthetopofthewindowframeandthewall
comingoverit.Thisisknownasthelintel.Weathershadesaregenerallycombinedwith
lintelsofwindowstoprotectthemfromtheweatheringagencies.

12.1.7Roofs
Aroofistheuppermostpartofabuildingwhosemainfunctionistoenclosethespaceandto
protectthesamefromtheeffectsofweatherelements.Agoodroofisjustasessentialasa
safefoundation.Asawelldesignedfoundationsecuresthebuildingagainstdestruction
startingatthebottom,similarlyagoodroofaffordsprotectionforthebuildingitselfandwhat
thebuildingcontainsandpreventsdestructionfromthetop.
Aroofshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirements:
1. StrengthandStability:Theroofstructureshouldbestrongandstableenoughto
takeuptheanticipatedloadssafely.
2. WeatherResistance:Theroofcoveringshouldhaveadequateresistancetoresist
theeffectsofweatherelements.
3. HeatInsulation:Theroofshouldprovideadequateinsulationagainstheat.
4. SoundInsulation:Theroofshouldhaveadequateinsulationagainstsoundfrom
externalsources.
5. FireResistance:Theroofshouldofferanadequatedegreeoffireresistancein
ordertogiveprotectionagainstthespreadoffirefromanyadjacentbuildingsand
topreventearlycollapseoftheroof.Theformofconstructionshouldalsobesuch
thatthespreadoffirefromitssourcetootherpartsofthebuildingbywayofroof
cannotoccur.
6. DayLighting:Theroofprovidesdaylightinbuildingswithlargefloorarea.

12.1.8Stepsandstairs
Astepusuallyconsistsofatreadandrisersupportedbystrings.Astairisastructure
consistingofanumberofstepsleadingfromonefloortoanother.Locationofstairsinall
typesofresidentialandpublicbuildingsshouldbesuchastoaffordtheeasiestandquickest
servicepossibletothebuilding.Themainfunctionofthestairsisfirstlytoprovideameans
ofcommunicationbetweenthevariousfloors.Secondly,italsoactsasanescapefromthe
upperfloorsintheeventoffire.
Stepsandstairsshouldsatisfythefollowingrequirements:
1. StrengthandStability:Thestairsshouldbedesignedlikefloorssuchthattheyare
strongandstableenoughtocarrytheanticipatedloadssafelyduetotheweightof
thepeopleusingthemandalsotheweightofthefurnitureorequipmentbeing
carriedupordownthroughthem.
2. FireResistance:Thestairsshouldbemadeoffireresistingmaterialandshouldbe
connectedtodifferentfloors,suchthattheyprovidesafemeansofescapeinthe
eventoffire.
3. SoundInsulation:Thestairsshouldhaveadequateinsulationagainstsoundfrom
externalsources.
4. WeatherResistance:Thestairsifexposedtoopenairshouldoffersufficient
resistancetoweatherelementssuchasrainandheat.
5. Comfort:Theproperdesignofstepsandproperlocationofstairsinabuildingoffer
severaladvantagessuchascomfortandefficiencyinverticalmovement,natural
lightandventilationandsafetyinemergency.

12.1.9Finishesforwalls
Finishesofseveraltypessuchaspointing,plastering,paintinganddistemperingand
decorativecolourwashingareappliedonthewalls.Themainfunctionsofthesefinishesare
asfollows:
1. Theyprotectthestructure,particularlytheexposedsurfaces,fromtheeffectsof
weather.
2. Theyprovideatrue,evenandsmoothfinishedsurfaceandalsoimprovethe
aestheticappearanceofthestructureasawhole.
3. Theycoveruptheunsoundandporousmaterialsusedintheconstruction.

12.2PLANNINGREGULATIONS
12.2.1Buildinglineandcontrolline
Thebuildinglinereferstothelineofbuildingfrontage,i.e.,thelineuptowhichtheplinth
ofthebuildingadjoiningthestreetoranextensionofstreetoronafuturestreetmaylawfully
extend.Thislineisoftenknownassetbackorfrontbuildinglineandislaiddownineach
case,paralleltotheplotboundaries,bytheauthority,beyondwhichnothingcanbe
constructedtowardstheplotboundaries.Certainbuildings,suchasfactoriesandbusiness
centresthatattractlargenumberofvehicles,shouldfurthersetbackadistanceapartfromthe
buildingline.Thelinethataccountsforthisextramarginisknownascontrolline(Table
12.2).

Table12.2DistancesofBuildingLinesandControlLines

12.2.2Builtuparea
Thebuiltupareaofaplotmeanstheplotareaminustheareaofopenspacesinit(Table
12.3).
12.2.3Openspacerequirements
Forattainingnaturalventilation,openspacesarenecessaryaroundthebuilding.Asperthe
KeralaBuildingRules1984,theminimumopenspacerequirementsaregivenasbelow.
1. Forbuildingsupto10mheight.
1. Everybuildingshallhaveatleastfrontandbackyardsofaminimumof3
m.
2. Aclearopenspaceofnotlessthan1.5mshallbethereonthesidesother
thanfrontandrear.
2. Forbuildingsabove10mandupto25mheight,thereshallbeanincreasein
theminimumopenspacesattherateof0.5mperevery3mexceeding10m
orfractionofit.
12.2.4Sizeoftherooms
Theminimumarearequiredfortheindividualroomsisalsospecified.Forexample,the
minimumarearequiredforakitchenisspecifiedas4.5m2.Thebathroomistohavea
minimumsizeof1.5m1.2moranareaof1.8m2,whileacombinedbathroomandwater
closetistohaveaminimumfloorareaof2.8m2,withaminimumwidthof1.2m.
Theminimumheightofanindividualroomisspecifiedas(i)2.75mforhabitablerooms,(ii)
2.2mforbathroomsandWCand(iii)2.55mforkitchens.Thespecificationsformaximum
heightofbuildingsaregiveninTable12.4.

Table12.3LimitationofBuiltupAreaforResidentialBuildings
Areaofplot(m2) Maximumpermissiblebuiltuparea

Lessthan200 60%withtwostoreyedstructure

200500 50%ofthesite

5001,000 40%ofthesite

Morethan1,000 33.33%or1/3rdofthesite

Table12.4MaximumHeightofBuildings
Widthofstreet(m) Heightofthebuilding

SayW Height=1.5W+frontopenspace

Upto8 1.5timesthewidthofstreet

812 Notmorethan12m

Above12 Notmorethanthewidthofstreetandinnocasemorethan24m

12.2.5Lightingandventilationofrooms
Theaggregateareaofdoorsandwindowsistobenotlessthanonefourthoftheroomarea.
Thetotalareaofwindowsistobeonetenthofthefloorareafordryhotclimateandone
sixthoftheareaforwetclimate.
Inadditiontotheabove,ventilatorsaretobeprovidedforatleast0.3m2areaorattherateof
0.1m2forevery10m3ofspace.
Thedepthofthefoundationistobe0.71mbelowthefinishedgroundforsinglestoreyed
buildingsandfordoublestoreyedbuildingsitistobe11.3m.Theplinthofthebuildingis
tobekepthigherthanthesurroundinggroundlevelby30cmorgreater.

REVIEWQUESTIONS
1. Whatarethevariousbasicrequirementsabuildingshouldsatisfyindesignand
performance?
2. Whatarethemaincomponentsofabuilding?
3. Whataretheobjectivesofhavingagoodfoundationforabuilding?
4. Whatarethebasicrequirementsofafoundation?
5. Whatdoyoumeanbyplinthwallofabuildingandwhatareitsrequirements?
6. Whataretherequirementsofaloadbearingwall?
7. Whataretherequirementsofdoorsandwindowsofabuilding?
8. Whatdoyoumeanbyroofofabuildingandwhatareitsrequirements?
9. Writeshortnotesonplanningregulationofabuildingexplainingbuiltuparea,
roomsizeandopenspacerequirements.

Chapter13
Foundation

13.1PURPOSEOFPROVIDINGAFOUNDATION
Afoundationisthatpartofthestructurethatisindirectcontactwiththeground.Itisthatpart
ofthestructurethattransmitstheweightofthestructuretotheground.Thefoundationis,
therefore,aconnectinglinkbetweenthestructureproperandthegroundthatsupportsit.
Foundationtransferstheloadofthestructuretothesoilbelowonalargearea.Itpreventsthe
differentialsettlementbyevenlyloadingthesubstrata.Foundationsaregenerallybuiltof
bricks,stones,concrete,steel,etc.Theselectionofthematerialandtypeoffoundation
dependsuponthetypeofthestructureaboveandtheunderlyingsoil.
Foundationdesignmusttakeintoaccounttheeffectsofconstructionontheenvironment,
suchaspiledrivingvibration,pumpinganddischargeofgroundwater,thedisposalofwaste
materialsandoperationofheavymechanicalplants.Foundationsmustbedurabletoresistthe
attackofharmfulsubstances.
Afoundationisdesignedsuchthat:
1. Thesoilbelowdoesnotfailinshear.
2. Thesettlementiswithinasafelimit.
Thepressurethatthesoilcansafelywithstandisknownastheallowablebearingpressure.
Foundationsmaybebroadlyclassifiedintotwocategories.
1. Shallowfoundation:Ashallowfoundationtransmitstheloadtothestrataata
shallowdepth.
2. Deepfoundation:Adeepfoundationtransmitstheloadataconsiderabledepth
belowthegroundsurface.

13.2BEARINGCAPACITYOFSOIL
Thebearingcapacityofsoilisthemaximumloadperunitareawhichthesoilormaterialin
foundation,mayberockorsoil,willsupportwithoutdisplacement.Veryoften,astructure
failsbyunequalsettlementordifferentialsettlement.
Theallowablebearingcapacityorthesafebearingcapacityofasoilisobtainedbydividing
theultimatebearingcapacitybyacertainfactorofsafetyandisusedinthedesignof
foundation.Itissuggestedthatafactorofsafetyof2forbuildingsinordinaryconstruction
andafactorofsafetyof2.5or3forheavyconstructionsbeadopted.
13.2.1Bearingcapacityofvarioustypesofsoil
Typesofrocksandsoils Presumptive Remarks
safebearing
capacity

1)Rocks Kg/cm2

a)Rocks(hard)without 33
laminationanddefects,e.g.,
granite,trapanddiorite

b)Laminatedrocks,e.g., 16.5
sandstoneandlimestonein
soundcondition

c)Residualdepositsof 9.0
shatteredandbrokenbedrock
andhardshale,cemented
material

d)Softrock 4.5

2)Noncohesivesoils

a)Gravellysandandgravel, 4.5 Drymeansthatthegroundwater


compactandofferinghigh levelisatadepthnotlessthana
resistancetopenetrationwhen widthoffoundationbelowthe
excavatedbytools baseofthefoundation

b)Coarsesand,compactand 4.5
dry

c)Mediumsand,compactand 2.5
dry

d)Finesand,silt(drylumps 1.5
easilypulverizedbythe
fingers)

e)Loosegravelorsandgravel 2.5
mixture,loosecoarseto
mediumsand,dry

f)Finesand,looseanddry 1.0

3)Cohesivesoils

a)Softshale,hardorstiffclay 4.5 Thisgroupissusceptibletolong


indeepbed,dry termconsolidationsettlement

b)Mediumclay,readily 2.5
indentedwiththumbnail

c)Moistclayandsandclay 1.5
mixturewhichcanbeintended
withstrongthumbpressure

d)Softclayindentedwith 1.0
moderatethumbpressure

e)Verysoftclaywhichcanbe 0.5
penetratedseveralcentimetres
withthethumb

13.2.2Methodsforimprovingthebearingcapacityofsoil
Ithappenssometimesthattherequiredsafebearingcapacityofthesoilisnotavailableat
shallowdepthoritissolowthatthedimensionsofthefootingsworkouttobeverylargeand
uneconomical.Therefore,onsuchcircumstances,dependingonthesiteconditionsitbecomes
necessarytoimprovethesafebearingcapacity.
1. Byincreasingthedepthoffoundation:Inmostofthecases,thebearingcapacity
increaseswiththedepthduetotheconfiningweightoftheoverlyingmaterial.This
methodisnoteconomicalbecausethecostofconstructionincreaseswiththedepth
andtheloadonthefoundationincreaseswithincreaseindepth.Thismethodshould
notbeusedonsiltswherethesubsoilmaterialgrowswetterasthedepthincreases.
2. Bydrainingthesoils:Thepresenceofwaterdecreasesthebearingcapacityofthe
soil.Thestudiesshowthataround50percentofbearingcapacityislostinsandy
soilsduetothepresenceofexcesswater.Suitabledrainsshould,therefore,be
providedinthefoundationchanneltodrainofftheexcesswater.
3. Bycompactingthesoil:Thecompactionofsoilsresultsinincreaseindensityand
strengthand,hence,thebearingcapacity.Bettercompactionisachievedintwo
ways.(1)Byhandpackingtherubblebouldersorspreadingbrokenstonegravelor
sandandthereafterrammingwellinthebedoftrenches.(2)Bydrivingpileseither
ofwoodorconcreteordrivingandwithdrawingthepilesandfillingtheholeswith
sandandconcrete.
4. Byconfiningthesoil:Themovementofsoilundertheactionofloadcanbe
preventedbyconfiningthegroundbytheuseofsheetpiles.Theseconfinedsoils
canbefurthercompactedforbetterstrength.Thismethodisespeciallyusefulfor
sandsoilsunderlyingshallowfoundations.
5. Byincreasingthewidthofthefoundation:Byincreasingthewidthofthe
foundationthebearingareaincreasesand,hence,theintensityofpressure
decreases.Thismethodhaslimiteduse,sincethewidthofthefoundationcannotbe
increasedindefinitely.
6. Byreplacingthepoorsoils:Thepoorsoilisfirstremovedandthenthegapisfilled
bysuperiormaterialssuchassand,rubblestone,gravelorotherhardmaterials.
Firstthefoundationtrenchesareexcavatedtoadepthof1.5m,thenfilledinstages
of30cmbyhardmaterialandfinallyrammed.
7. Bygrouting:Inpoorsoilbearingstrata,sufficientnumberofboreholesaredriven.
Thenthecementgroutisinjectedunderpressure,becauseitscalesoffanycracksor
poresorfissureswhichotherwisereducethebearingcapacityofthesoil.This
methodisemployedformaterialshavingpores,fissuresorcracksunderneaththe
foundation.
8. Bychemicaltreatment:Thechemicalslikesilicatesofsodaandcalciumchloride
withsoilparticlesformagellikestructureanddevelopintoacompactmass.This
iscalledchemicalstabilizationandisusedtoimpartadditionalstrengthtosoftsoils
atdeeperdepth.However,thechemicalsareaddedintracesonly,buteventhenit
hasprovedtobecostlyand,hence,isadoptedinexceptionalcases.
9. Byusinggeotextiles:Thisisamethodofreinforcingweaksoilstoimprovetheir
bearingcapacity.Coirgeotextilesarefoundtobeveryusefulinthiscontext.
13.3PLATELOADTEST
Thisisoneofthemostcommonlyusedmethodsfordeterminingtheallowablebearing
capacityofsoils.
13.3.1Workingprinciple

Inthistesttheloadingplatform,consistingofabearingplateofsteelorcastironor
compositematerialmadeofwoodensleepersandsteeljoist,issubjectedtoagradual
incrementofloadandthecorrespondingsettlementvaluesarenoted.Theloadsettlement
curveisthenplottedfromwhichtheultimatebearingcapacityisfoundasbasedonsettlement
considerationsforcohesiveandnoncohesivesoils.Finally,bydividingthisultimatebearing
capacitybythesuitablefactorofsafety,theallowablebearingcapacityofsoilisfoundout.
13.3.2Testsetup
Thetestpitshouldbeatleastfivetimesaswideasthetestplate.Thetestplateismadetorest
inthecentreofthepitinadepressionwhichisofthesamesizeasthatofthetestplateand
thebottomlevelofwhichshallcorrespondtotheleveloftheactualfoundation.Thedepthof
theholeshallbesuchthattheratioofdepthtothewidthofloadedareaisthesameasforthe
actualfoundation.Thetestplateis2.5cminthicknessandthefollowingaretheirsizesfor
differentsoils.
1. Clayeysoils,sandyandsiltysoilssize,60cmsquare
2. Gravellyanddensesandysoilssize,30cmsquare
Largersizesupto75cmsquarecanbeuseddependinguponpracticalconsiderations.
Thetestplateshouldbemachinedonthesidesandedges.Thesidesofthepitarelinedwith
woodensheetingifthesoilissoft.Thetestplateshallbebeddedtothesoilbyplasterof
paris,aluminouscementslurryorfinesand.Atthestartofthetest,theplatformwillbe
preloadedwithaloadof0.7kg/cm2andreleased.

13.3.3Testingprocedureandobservations
Theloadisappliedthroughacolumnbymeansofdeadweightssuchassandbagsorpigiron
onleadbarsorbyareactionframewhichmaybeatrussframeanchoredtothesoilby
anchorsorjackingagainstaloadedplatformwithasteeljoistplacedcentrallyunderneath.
Thehydraulicjackshouldbuttagainstthejoistwithaballbearingplacedinbetween.The
loadisincreasedinregularincrementsof200kgoronefifthoftheapproximateultimate
bearingcapacityoruntiltheultimateloadisreached.
Thesettlementsshouldberecordedatleasttoanaccuracyof0.02mmwiththehelpofat
leasttwodialgaugestotakecareofanydifferentialsettlementthatmayoccur.Settlements
shouldbeobservedforeachincrementofloadafteranintervalof1,4,10,20,40,60minutes
andthereafterathourlyintervals.Inthecaseofclayeysoils,thetimesettlementcurveshould
beplottedateachloadstageandtheloadshouldbeincreasedtothenextstageeitherwhen
thecurveindicatesthatthesettlementhasexceeded7080percentoftheexpectedultimate
settlementatthatstageorattheendofa24hourperiod.Forsoilsotherthanclayeysoils,
eachloadincrementshallbekeptfornotlessthan1houranduptothetimewhennofurther
measurablesettlementoccurs.Thenextincrementofloadshallthenbeappliedandthe
observationisrepeated(Figure13.1).

13.3.4Limitationsofplateloadtest
1. Sizeeffect:Theresultsoftheplateloadtestreflectthestrengthandthesettlement
characteristicsofthesoilwithinthepressurebulbs.Asthepressurebulbdepends
onthesizeoftheloadedarea,itismuchdeeperfortheactualfoundationas
comparedtothatoftheplate.Theplateloadtestdoesnottrulyrepresenttheactual
conditionsifthesoilisnothomogenousandisotropictoalargedepth.
2. Scaleeffect:Theultimatebearingcapacityofsaturatedclaysisindependentofthesize
oftheplate,butforcohesionlesssoilsitincreaseswiththesizeoftheplate.Toreduce
thescaleeffectitisdesirabletorepeattheplateloadtestwithplatesoftwoorthree
differentsizes,extrapolatethebearingcapacityfortheactualfoundationandtakethe
averageofthevaluesobtained.
3. Timeeffect:Aplateloadtestisessentiallyatestofshortduration.Forclayeysoils,it
doesnotgivetheultimatesettlement.Theloadsettlementcurveisnottruly
representative.
4. Interpretationoffailureload:Afailureloadiswelldefined,exceptinthecaseofa
generalshearfailure.Anerrorofpersonalinterpretationmaybeinvolvedinothertypes
offailure.
5. Reactionload:Itisnotpracticaltoprovideareactionofmorethan250KNand,hence,
thetestonaplateofsizelargerthan0.6mwidthisdifficult.
6. Watertable:Thelevelofwatertableaffectsthebearingcapacityofthesandysoils.If
thewatertableisabovethelevelofthefooting,ithastobeloweredbypumpingbefore
placingtheplate.Thetestshouldbeperformedatthewatertablelevelifitiswithin1
mbelowthefooting.


Figure13.1Plateloadtest

13.4VARIOUSTYPESOFFOUNDATIONSWITHSKETCHES
13.4.1Spreadfooting
Thisisthemostcommontypeoffoundationandcanbelaidusingopenexcavationby
allowingnaturalslopesonallsides.Thistypeoffoundationispracticableforadepthof
about5mandisnormallyconvenientabovethewatertable.Thebaseofthestructureis
enlargedorspreadtoprovideindividualsupport.Thistypeoffootingisgivenforstructures
ofmoderateheightbuiltonsufficientlyfirmgroundandforlightstructures.Theyhaveonly
oneprojectionbeyondthewidthofthewalloneitherside(Figure13.2).

13.4.2Steppedfooting
Here,wehavemorethanoneprojectiononeithersideofthewidthofthewallasshown
inFigure13.3.
Thedepthofeachlayerisatleasttwicetheprojectionsanditsbasewidthshouldbetwicethe
widthofthelayerabovethat.Generally,theprojectionsprovidedarekeptas15cmoneither
side.Thedepthisgenerallylimitedto0.9mingeneralcases.

13.4.3Isolatedandcombinedfooting
Theyareusedtosupportindividualcolumns.Theycanbeeitherofsteppedtypeorhave
projectionsintheconcretebase.Inthecaseofheavyloadedcolumns,steelreinforcementis
providedinboththedirectionsintheconcretebed.Generally,15cmoffsetisprovidedonall
sidesoftheconcretebed.Inthecaseofbrickmasonrycolumns,anoffsetof5cmisprovided
onallthefoursidesinregularlayers.Thefootingofconcretecolumnsmaybeslab,stepped
orslopedones.

Figure13.2Spreadfooting

Figure13.3Steppedfooting

Acombinedfootingsupportstwoormorecolumnsinarow.Thecombinedfootingcanbe
rectangularifboththecolumnscarryequalloadsorcanbetrapezoidaliftherearespace
limitationsandcarryunequalloads.Generally,theyareconstructedofreinforcedconcrete
(Figure13.4).

13.4.4Matorraftfoundation
Theraftormatfoundationisacombinedfootingthatcoverstheentireareabeneaththe
structureandsupportsthecolumns.Ifrequiredthebeamandslabconstructioninreinforced
cementconcrete(RCC)canalsobecarriedout.Whentheallowablesoilpressureislowor
thestructuralloadsareheavy,theuseofspreadfootingswouldcovermorethanonehalfof
theareaanditmayprovemoreeconomicaltouseraftfoundation.Araftmayundergolarge
settlementswithoutcausingharmfuldifferentialsettlement.Forthisreasonalmostdoublethe
settlementofthatpermittedforfootingsisacceptableforrafts.Usually,whenhardsoilisnot
availablewithin1.52.5m,araftfoundationisadopted.Theraftfoundationsareusefulfor
publicbuildings,officebuildings,schoolbuildings,residentialbuildings,etc.(Figure13.5).

13.4.5Pilefoundation
Thepilefoundationisaconstructionforthefoundationsupportedonpiles.Apileisan
elementofconstructioncomposedoftimber,concreteorsteeloracombinationofthem.Pile
foundationmaybedefinedasacolumnsupporttypeoffoundation,whichmaybecastinsitu
orprecast.Thepilesmaybeplacedseparatelyortheymaybeplacedintheformofacluster
throughoutthelengthofthestructure.Thistypeofconstructionisadoptedwhentheloose
soilextendstoagreatdepth.Theloadofthestructureistransmittedbythepilestothehard
stratumbeloworitisresistedbythefrictiondevelopedonthesidesofpiles.


Figure13.4Isolatedandcombinedfooting


Figure13.5Raftfoundation

13.4.5.1Classificationofpiles
Pilescanbebroadlyclassifiedintotwocategories.
Classificationbasedonthefunction
1. Bearingpiles:Thesepilespenetratethroughsoftsoilsandtheirbottomrestsona
hardstratum.Thesoftgroundthroughwhichthepilespassalsogiveslateral
supportandincreasestheloadcarryingcapacityofthebearingpiles.
2. Frictionpiles:Whenloosesoilsextendtoagreatdepth,pilesaredrivenuptosuch
adepththatfrictionalresistancedevelopedatthesidesofthepilesequalstheload
comingonthepiles.
3. Screwpiles:Screwpilesconsistofahollowcastironorsteelcylinderwithoneor
morebladesatthebottom.Thebladesaregenerallymadeofcastiron.Thebottom
endofthescrewpilewithabluntpointisusefulwhenthegroundtobepenetrated
consistsofclayorsand.
4. Compactionpiles:Theyareusedtocompactloosegranularsoilsinorderto
increasetheirbearingcapacity.Thesepilesdonotcarryanyload.
5. Upliftpiles:Thesepilesanchordownthestructuresubjectedtoupliftdueto
overturningmovement.
6. Batterpiles:Theseareusedtoresistlargehorizontalorinclinedforces.
7. Sheetpiles:Theseareusedasbulkheadsorasanimperviouscutofftoreduce
seepageanduplift.

Classificationbasedonmaterialsandcomposition
1. Cementconcretepiles:Cementconcretepilespossessexcellentcompressive
strength.Thesepilescanbereinforcedorprestressed.
2. Timberpiles:Timberpilesarepreparedfromtrunksoftrees.Theymaybecircular
orsquare.Theyare3050cmindiameterwithalengthnotexceeding20timesits
topwidth.Atthebottom,acastironshoeisprovidedandatthetopasteelplateis
fixed.Ifagroupoftimberpilesisdriven,thetopofeachmemberofthegroupis
broughtatthesamelevelandthenaconcretecapisprovidedtohaveacommon
platform.Itisdifficultorevenimpossibletodrivethesepilesintothehardstratum
orboulders.
3. Steelpiles:ThedifferentformsofsteelpilesareHpiles,boxpilesandtubepiles.
Thesepilescaneasilywithstandthestressesduetodriving.
1. Thesepilescanbeeasilylengthenedbyweldingandalsocanbecutoff
easily.
2. Thesepilescanresistlateralforcesinabetterway.
3. Thebearingcapacityofthesepilesiscomparativelyhigh.
4. Thesepilescantakeuptheimpactofstressesandcanresistlateralforces.
Thedisadvantageinsteelpilesiscorrosion.Topreventcorrosiontheyshouldbecoated
withpaintsormaybeencasedwithcementconcrete.
2. Sandpile:Thesepilesaremadebyboringholesonthegroundandfillingthem
withsand.Thetopofthesandpilesisfilledwithconcretetopreventthesandfrom
comingupwardsduetolateralforce.Sandpilesarespaced23mandthelengthis
about12timesthediameter.Eventhoughtheyareeasytoconstructandcanbe
usedirrespectiveofanypositionofwatertable,theyarenotsuitableforearthquake
regions.
3. Compositepiles:Acompositepileisformedwhenitisacombinationofpilesoftwo
differentmaterials.Theyaresuitablewheretheupperpartofapileistoprojectabove
thewatertable.Theyareeconomicalandeasytoconstruct.

13.4.6Wellfoundations
Thesefoundationsareusedinunderwaterconstructions.Theyarefoundationswithahollow
portion.Thesearethemostcommonlyuseddeepfoundations,especiallyforstructureslike
bridges.Theyaregenerallybuiltoftimber,metal,reinforcedconcrete,masonry,etc.

REVIEWQUESTIONS
1. Whatdoyoumeanbyfoundationandwhatareitsmainobjectives?
2. Howarefoundationsclassifiedaccordingtotheirdepth?
3. Whatisthebearingcapacityofsoil?
4. Explainthedifferentmethodsforimprovingthebearingcapacityofsoil.
5. ExplainPlateLoadTestwiththehelpofaneatdiagram.
6. WhatarethelimitationsofPlateLoadTest?
7. Explainthevarioustypesoffoundationwithneatsketches.
8. Howarepilesclassifiedbasedontheirfunction?
9. Howarepilesclassifiedbasedonthematerialused?
10. Whatiswellfoundation?
Chapter14
Mortar

Thetermmortarisusedtoindicateapastepreparedbyaddingarequiredquantityofwaterto
amixtureofbindingmateriallikecementorlimeandfineaggregatelikesand.Thisisusedto
bondmasonryorotherstructuralunits.

14.1FUNCTIONSOFMORTARINBUILDINGWORKS

Thefollowingarethemajorfunctionsofmortar:
1. Tobindbuildingmaterialssuchasbricksandstonesintoasolidmass.
2. Tocarryoutpointingandplasterworkonexposedsurfacesofmasonry.
3. Toformanevenandsoftbeddinglayerforbuildingunits.
4. Toformjointsofpipes.
5. Toimprovethegeneralappearanceofastructure.
6. Topreparemouldsforcoping,corbels,cornice,etc.
7. Toserveasamatrixorcavitytoholdthecoarseaggregates,etc.
8. Todistributeuniformlythesuperincumbentweightfromtheupperlayertothe
lowerlayerofbricksorstones.
9. Tohidetheopenjointsofbrickworkandstonework.
10. Tofillupthecracksdetectedinthestructureduringmaintenanceprocess,etc.

14.2TYPESOFMORTARSANDTHEIRPREPARATION
Thefollowingmajortypesofmortarsarerecognizedbasedonthetypeofthecementing
materialusedinitspreparation:limemortars,cementmortarsandgaugedmortarsarethe
mostcommontypes.
14.2.1Limemortars
Limemortarsaredefinedasmixesoflimewithfinesandand/orpozzolanicmaterialslike
surkhi,pumice,ashandcinderinwater.

14.2.1.1Preparation
Thefollowingarethemainstagesinthepreparationoflimemortars:selectionoftheraw
materials,proportioningoftherawmaterialsandmixingoftherawmaterials.
Selectionoftherawmaterials
Lime,sand,surkhi,pumice,ashandcinderformthemajorrawmaterialscommonlyusedin
thepreparationoflimemortars.
Lime:Alltypesoflimecanbeusedformakingmortars,althoughalllimemortars
cannotbeusedfordifferentsituations.Themaintypesoflime,namelythefatlimeand
hydrauliclime,yieldmortarsofdifferentqualities,theformerbeingsuitableonlyfor
limitedpurposeslikejointingandlightloadedmasonryworkwhereasthelatterbeing
moreusefulinothersituationsaswell.Itisessentialthatthelimetobeusedbefree
fromimpuritieslikesilica,ironoxideand,especially,gypsum.
Sand:Thesandformakingastronganddurablemortarmustbeofgoodquality,i.e.,it
mustbecleanandsharpgrained.Therecommendedfinenessmodulusofsandformortar
is2.003.00.

Sandisaddedtothelimeforatleasttwopurposes:
1. Toavoidshrinkageandcrackingofmortaronhardening,becauselimeusedalone
shrinksandcracksonhardening.
2. Toincreasethebulkofthemortar;thisisessentialtomakeitmoreeconomical.
Whenusedinappropriateproportions,sandfacilitatesthehardeningofthelimepasteby
yieldingaporousstructureandallowingtheatmosphericcarbondioxideaccesstotheinner
lime.

Pozzolanicmaterials:Theseincludeavarietyoflightweightmaterialslikesurkhi,
cinder,pumiceandash,whichhavebeenfoundtoincreasethestrengthofmortarswhen
usedinplaceofsandorevenalongwithsand.

Water:Ingeneral,watersuitablefordrinkingpurposescanbeusedinthepreparationof
mortar.Thewatermustbeessentiallyfreefromalkalies,acidsandorganicresidues.

Sometimes,cementisalsoaddedinsmallquantitiestolimemortarstoenhancethestrength
andsettingpropertiesofmortar.Dependingonthetypeoftheaggregateused,limemortars
arefurtherdistinguishedintolimesandmortars,limesurkhimortars,limesandsurkhi
mortarsandsoon.
Proportioningoftherawmaterials
Themainaimofproportioningistofixsuchratiosoftherawmaterialsthatwillresultina
mortarofdesiredquality,i.e.,requiredstrength,durabilityandfinish.Sincethemortarsused
indifferentsituationsinconstructionarenotsubjectedtothesameforcesandconditions,no
singleruleforproportioningamortarcanbeframed.Thewidelyrecommendedand
commonlyadoptedproportionsfordifferentconditionsaresummarizedinTable14.1.

Mixingoftherawmaterials
Itisofparamountimportancethattheingredientsofmortarbemixedasthoroughlyas
possible.Twocommonmethodsadoptedaremanualmixingandmortarmillmixing.
Manualmixing:Thisisdoneonawatertightplatformmadeofmasonryorinatankof
suitabledimensions.Aspadeisthemaintoolrequired.Measuredvolumesofslaked
limeandtheaggregateareplacedontheplatformoronthetank.Thesearefirstmixedin
drystatebygivingturnswiththehelpofthespade.Waterisaddedgraduallyandmixing
continuedsimultaneouslyuntilamortarofuniformconsistencyisobtained.
Mortarmillmixing:Amortarmillisamechanicaldeviceforgrindingthemortar
ingredientsinthepresenceofwaterandisruneitherbyanimalsorbypower.Inthe
traditionalmethod,animaldrivenmortarmillsareused.

Table14.1VariousLimeMortarCompositionsforDifferentConstructionWorks
Situation Mortarcomposition Remarks
recommended
(A)Foundations

1.Foundationconcretein Anyoneofthe Formoistsubgradewhere


drysubgradewithwater followingmixes: watertableiswithin2.4mof
levelbelow2.4mofthe thefoundationlevel,only
foundationlevel cementsandmortarof1:3mix
shouldbeusedforall
foundationwork

1lime,2sand1lime,1
sand,1surkhi1lime,2
surkhi1cement,3lime,
12sand

2.Foundationmasonry 1lime,2sand1lime,1
withloadinglessthan4 sand,1surkhi1lime,2
tons/ft2 surkhi1cement,3lime,
12sand

3.Foundationmasonryin 1cement,1lime,6sand
heavyandmediumloading
indrysubgrade

(B)Superstructures

4.Loadbearingwallswith 1cement,1lime
brickmasonry.

i)Lightloading 1lime,1sand,1surkhi Loadinglessthan4tons/ft2


1lime,1sand,1cinder

ii)Mediumloading 1cement,3lime,12 Loadingbetween4and6


sand tons/ft2

iii)Heavyloading 1cement,2lime,9sand Loadingmorethan8tons/ft2


to1cement,1lime,6
sand

5.Nonloadbearing 1lime,3sand
partitionwallwithconcrete
slabsorhollowblocks

(C)Plasters

6.i)Externalplasters 1cement,1lime,6sand
belowdampproofcourse

ii)Externalplastersonall 1cement,2lime,9sand
walls

iii)Internalplastersonall Allmixesaresuitable
walls

Generalpurposemortar 1cement,1lime,6sand Suitableformostofmasonry


workandplasterwork

Hardeningoflimemortars
Mortarsmadeoffatlimeorhydratedlimehardensbyasimpleprocessofcrystallization
precededbyalossofwaterduetoevaporation.Thelimetakesupthecarbondioxidefromthe
atmosphereandformsacrystalmassofcalciumcarbonatethatisquitehardandresponsible
forthestrengthofthemortar.

14.2.2Cementmortar
Themostcommontypeofmortarsofthepresentdaygenerallyconsistsofmixturesof
cementwithsandinthepresenceofsuitablequantityofwater.Inallsituationswherea
strong,durableandresistantmortarisdesired,thecementmortarbecomesindispensable.

Table14.2ProportionsRecommendedforCementSandMortar
Typeandsituationofthework Recommendedproportions

1.Forordinarymasonryworkwithbricksorstonesas 1cement,3sandto1cement,6
structuralunits. sand

2.Forreinforcedbrickworkandforallworkinmoist 1cement,2sandto1cement,3
situations. sand

14.2.2.1Preparation
Thepreparationofcementmortarinvolvesthesamestagesasoflimemortar,namely
selectionofrawmaterials,theirproportioningandthoroughmixing.Amongthematerials,
cement,sandandwateraretheessentialingredients.Cementusedforpreparingmortarmust
beinperfectlyundamagedandundeterioratedcondition.Sandinadditiontopossessingits
usualpropertiesmustbefreefromimpuritieslikeoxidesofiron,clayandmicaandmustbe
thoroughlycleanedbeforebeingusedforgoodqualitymortar.Generally,nootheraggregate
canreplacesandcompletelyinacementmortar,althoughnowadaysseveralotheralternatives
arebeingused.Thefunctionsofsandinthemortarincludeincreasingthebulkofthemortar,
providingresistanceagainstshrinkageandcrackingonthesettingofcementandalsomaking
themortarmorestrong.
14.2.2.2Proportioning
Onlyverycarefullyproportionedvolumesoftheingredientsaretobeusedinthepreparation
ofcementmortars.Theproportioningisusuallybyvolume.Differentmixratiosarespecified
fordifferentworks,themostcommonlyusedareshowninTable14.2.
14.2.2.3Mixingoftheingredients
Forsmalljobs,themanualmixingofmortariscommonlypractisedandforlargescale
constructionwherelargerbatchesofthemortararerequiredthemortarmillmixingis
indispensable.
14.2.3Gaugedmortars
Thesemortarscontainbothcementandlimeastheessentialingredientsbesidesthefine
aggregate,whichisgenerallysand.Theadditionofcementtolimemortarimproves
considerablythequalityofmortar,especiallyinrespectofitsworkability,timeofsetting,
hardeningandultimatestrength.
Sincethegaugedmortarsconsistofcementasoneoftheessentialingredients,itisimportant
thatsuchmortarsbeconsumedwithin2hoursoftheirpreparationtoavoidanydeterioration
inquality.
REVIEWQUESTIONS
1. Whatdoyoumeanbymortarsandexplainitsmainfunctionsinbuildingworks?
2. Explainbrieflythedifferenttypesofmortarsandtheirpreparation.
3. Whataretherawmaterialsusedinthepreparationofdifferenttypesofmortars?
4. Whatarethegeneralproportionsofrawmaterialsinthepreparationofmortarused
forbrickandstonemasonry?
5. Whatisgaugedmortar?
Chapter15
MasonryWorks

Masonryisusedtoindicatetheartofbuildingastructureineitherstonesorbricks.The
masonrywallisbuiltofindividualblocksofmaterialssuchasstones,bricks,concrete,
hollowblocks,cellularconcreteandlaterite,usuallyinhorizontalcoursescementedtogether
withsomeformofmortar.Thebindingstrengthofmortarisusuallydisregardedasfarasthe
strengthofthewallisconcerned.
Masonrycanbeclassifiedintothefollowingcategories:
1. Stonemasonry
2. Brickmasonry
3. Hollowblockconcretemasonry
4. Reinforcedmasonry
5. Compositemasonry

ComparisonBetweenBrickandStoneMasonry
Description Stonemasonry Brickmasonry

1.Uses Constructionofpiers,dams,docks, Residentialbuildings


marinestructures,residentialand
monumentalbuildings

2.Strength Highcrushingstrength Muchless

3.Durability Excellent Excellent

4.Source Natural Artificial

5.Dangerfrom Nosuchdanger Causesdisintegration


dampness

6.Cost Highcost.Itisrestrictedtoareas Muchlesscost,easily


wherestoneisplenty available
7.Bond Itrequiresagreatdealoftimeand Regularshapeandsize
extralabourinmaintainingproper resultinquickconstruction
bond bond

8.Construction Requireshighskill Ordinaryskillrequired

9.Mouldinginto Notconvenient Convenient


desiredshape

10.Handling Requiresliftingdevice Easytohandle


15.1DEFINITIONOFTERMS

Thedefinitionsofsomeimportanttermsusedinmasonryaregivenbelow.
1. Course:Acourseisahorizontallayerofbricksorstones.
2. Bed:Thisisthesurfaceofastoneperpendiculartothelineofpressure.Itindicates
thelowersurfaceofbricksorstonesineachcourse.
3. Back:Theinnersurfaceofawallthatisnotexposediscalledaback.Thematerial
formingthebackisknownasbacking.
4. Face:Theexteriorofawallexposedtoweatherisknownasface.Thematerial
usedinthefaceofawallisknownasfacing.
5. Hearting:Itistheinteriorportionofawallbetweenthefacingandbacking.
6. Stretcher:Thisisabricklaidwithitslengthparalleltothefaceorfrontordirection
ofawall.Thecoursecontainingstretchersisknownasstretchercourse.
7. Header:Thisisabricklaidwithitsbreadthorwidthparalleltothefaceorfrontor
directionofawall.
8. Arrises:Theedgesformedbytheintersectionofplanesurfacesofabrickarecalled
thearrisesandtheyshouldbesharp,squareandfreefromdamage.
9. Perpends:Theverticaljointsseparatingthebricksineitherlengthorcross
directionareknownastheperpends;foragoodbondtheperpendsinalternate
coursesshouldbeverticallyoneabovetheother.
10. Lap:Thehorizontaldistancebetweentheverticaljointsinsuccessivecoursesis
termedasalap;foragoodbonditshouldbeonefourthofthelengthofabrick.
11. Closer:Apieceofbrickwhichisusedtocloseupthebondattheendofbrick
coursesisknownasthecloser.Ithelpsinpreventingthejointofsuccessivecourses
tocomeinaverticalline.Generally,thecloserisnotspeciallymoulded.
12. Queencloser:Thisisobtainedbycuttingthebricklongitudinallyintwoequal
parts.Itcanalsobemadefromtwoquarterbricks,knownasthequarterclosers,to
minimizethewastageofbricks.
13. Kingcloser:Thisisobtainedbycuttingatriangularportionofthebricksuchthat
halfaheaderandhalfastretcherareobtainedontheadjoiningcutfaces.Aking
closerisusedneardoorandwindowopeningstogetsatisfactoryarrangementsof
themortarjoint.
14. Frog:Afrogisamarkofdepthabout1020mm,whichisplacedonthefaceofa
bricktoformakeyforholdingthemortar.
15. Bat:Thisisapieceofbrick,usuallyconsideredinrelationtothelengthofabrick
andaccordinglyknownashalfbatorthreequarterbat.

15.2STONEMASONRY
Itistheartofbuildingastructurewithstones.Theselectionofmaterialdependsonthe
following:
1. Theavailability
2. Easeofworking
3. Appearance
4. Strengthandstability
5. Polishingcharacteristics
6. Economy
7. Durability

TableShowingDifferentStonesUsedforDifferentPurposes
Purpose Stoneused

Heavyengineeringworkslikedock,breakwater, Graniteandgneiss
lighthouse,bridges,etc.

Buildingssituatedinindustrialtowns Graniteandcompactsandstone

Pavementsandrailway Graniteandbasalt

Electricalswitchboards Marbleslabandslate

Fireresistanceworks Sandstone

Carvingandornamentalworks Graniteandmarble

Thegeneralprinciplesinstonemasonryconstructionareasfollows:
1. Thestonestobeusedforstonemasonryshouldbehard,toughanddurable.
2. Thepressureactingonstonesshouldbevertical.Thepressureactingalongthe
directionofbeddingplanescausessplittingofstones.
3. Thestonesshouldbeproperlydressedaspertherequirement.
4. Theheadersandbondstonesshouldnotbeofadumbbellshape.
5. Inordertoobtainuniformdistributionofload,undertheendsofgirders,roof
trusses,etc.largestonesshouldbeused.
6. Thebedsofthestonesandtheplanofthecoursesshouldbeatrightanglestothe
slopeinthecaseofslopingretainingwalls.
7. Woodboxingshouldbefittedintowallshavingfinedressedstoneworktoprotectit
duringfurtherconstruction.
8. Themortartobeusedshouldbeofgoodqualityandinthespecifiedproportion.
9. Theconstructionworkofstonemasonryshouldberaiseduniformly.
10. Plumbbobshouldbeusedtochecktheverticalityoferectedwalls.Inaddition,
woodentemplatesshouldbeusedtocheckthebatteredfaces.
11. Thestonemasonrysectionshouldalwaysbedesignedtotakecompressionandnot
thetensilestresses.
12. Themasonryworkshouldbeproperlycuredafterthecompletionofworkfora
periodof23weeks.
13. Asfaraspossible,brokenstonesorsmallchipsshouldnotbeused.
14. Doublescaffoldingshouldbeusedforworkingathigherlevels.
15. Properlywettedstonesshouldbeusedalongwithmortarforconstructionwork.

15.3CLASSIFICATIONOFSTONEMASONRY

Basedonthearrangementofstonesintheconstructionandthedegreeofrefinementinthe
surfacefinish,thestonemasonrycanbeclassifiedbroadlyintothefollowingtwocategories:
1. Rubblemasonry
a. Coursedrubble
b. Uncoursedrubble
c. Randomrubble
d. Dryrubble
e. Polygonalrubble
f. Flintrubble
2. Ashlarmasonry
a. Ashlarfine
b. Ashlarroughtooled
c. Ashlarrockorquarryfaced
d. Ashlarchamfered
e. Ashlarblockincourse
f.
15.3.1Rubblemasonry
Inthistypeofconstruction,stonesofirregularsizesareused.Thestonesasobtainedfromthe
quarryaretakentobeusedinthesameformorarebrokenandshapedintosuitablesizesby
meansofahammerastheworkproceeds.Thestrengthoftherubblemasonrymainly
dependson:
1. Thequalityofmortar.
2. Theuseofthelongstonesatfrequentintervalforproperbonding.
3. Theproperfillingofthemortarbetweenthespacesofstones.

15.3.1.1Coursedrubblemasonry
Inthistypeofrubblemasonry,theheightsofstonesvaryfrom50mmto20cm.Thestones
arestoredbeforetheworkcommences.Themasonryworkisthencarriedoutincoursessuch
thatthestonesinaparticularcourseareofequalheights.Thistypeofmasonryisusedforthe
constructionofpublicbuildingsandresidentialbuildings.Thecoursedrubblemasonryis
furtherdividedintothreecategories.

1. CoursedrubblemasonryIsort:Inthistype,stonesofthesameheightareusedand
thecoursesareofthesameheights.Thefacestonesaredressedbymeansofa
hammerandthebrushingsdonotprojectbymorethan40mm.Thethicknessofthe
mortarjointdoesnotexceed10mm(Figure15.1).

2. CoursedrubblemasonryIIsort:Thestonestobeusedareofdifferentheights.The
coursesneednotbeofequalheights.Onlytwostonesaretobeusedtomakeupthe
heightofonecourse.Thethicknessofthemortarjointis12mm(Figure15.2).


Figure15.1CoursedrubblemasonryIsort


Figure15.2CoursedrubblemasonryIIsort

3. CoursedrandomrubbleIIIsort:Thestonestobeusedareofdifferentheights,the
minimumbeing50mm.Thecoursesneednotbeofequalheights.Onlythree
stonesaretobeusedtomakeuptheheightofonecourse.Thethicknessofthe
mortarjointis16mm(Figure15.3).

15.3.1.2Uncoursedrubblemasonry
Inthistypeofrubblemasonry,thestonesarenotdressed.However,theyareusedastheyare
availablefromthequarry,exceptbyknockingoutsomecorners.Thecoursesarenot
maintainedregularly.Thelargerstonesarelaidfirstandthespacesbetweenthemarethen
filledbymeansofspalls.Thewallisbroughttoalevelevery3050cm.Thistypeofrubble
masonrybeingcheaperisusedfortheconstructionofcompoundwalls,garages,labour
quarters,etc.(Figure15.4).

15.3.1.3Randomrubblemasonry
Inthistypeofrubblemasonry,stonesofirregularsizesandshapesareused.Thestonesare
arrangedtohaveagoodappearance.Itistobenotedthatmoreskillisrequiredtomakethe
masonrystructurallystable.Ifthefacestonesarechiseldressedandthethicknessofmortar
jointsdoesnotexceed6mm,itisknownasrandomrubblemasonryIsort.Ifthefacestones
arehammerdressedandthethicknessofmortarjointsdoesnotexceed12mm,itisknownas
randomrubblemasonryIIsort.Thistypeofmasonryisusedforconstructionofresidential
buildings(Figure15.5).

Figure15.3CoursedrubblemasonryIIIsort

Figure15.4Uncoursedrubblemasonry

Figure15.5Randomrubblemasonry

15.3.1.4Dryrubblemasonry
ThisisjustsimilarinconstructiontothecoursedrubblemasonryIIIsortexceptthatno
mortarisusedinthejoints.Thistypeofconstructionisthecheapest,butitrequiresmoreskill
inconstruction.Itisextensivelyusedforcompoundwallspitchingonbridgeapproaches,
retainingwalls,etc.Inordertopreventthedisplacementofstonesandtomaketheworkmore
stable,thetwocoursesatthetopandabout50cmlengthattheendsaresometimesbuiltin
mortar.
15.3.1.5Polygonalrubblemasonry
Inthistypeofmasonry,thestonesarehammerdressedandthestonesselectedforfacework
aredressedinanirregularpolygonalshape.Thus,thefacejointsareseenrunninginan
irregularshapeinalldirections.Itistobenotedthatmoreskillisrequiredinthistypeof
construction.

15.3.1.6Flintrubblemasonry
Inthistypeofmasonry,thestonesareusedasflintsthatareirregularlyshapednodulesof
silica.Thewidthandthicknessvaryfrom80mmto15cmandthelengthvariesfrom15to
30cm(Figure15.6).
15.3.2Ashlarmasonry
Thisiscostlier,highgradeandsuperiorqualitymasonry.Thisisbuiltfromaccurately
dressedstoneswithuniformandveryfinejointsofabout3mmthickness.Byarrangingthe
stoneblocksinvariouspatterns,differenttypesofappearancescanbeobtained.Thebacking
ofashlarmasonrywallsmaybebuiltofashlarorrubblemasonry.

15.3.2.1Ashlarfinemasonry
Atallbeds,jointsandfacesstonesshouldbedressedperfectlysothattheyconformtothe
desiredpattern.Thesizeofthestonestobelaidinregularcoursesshouldnotbelessthan300
mminheight.Thewidthofthestonesshouldnotbelessthantheheightofthecourse.In
addition,thelengthofthestonesshouldbemorethantwotimestheheightofthecourse.
Generally,facestonesarelaidasheadersandstretchersalternatively.Theheadercomes
underthemiddleportionofthestretchers.Inordertobreakthecontinuousverticaljoints,the
stonesintheadjacentlayersshouldhavealapofmorethanhalfoftheheightofthecourse.
Allthejoints,eitherhorizontalorvertical,shouldbemadeoffinemortarwithamaximum
thicknessof3mm.Thebrokenedgesofthestonesshouldnotbevisibleatthejoints(Figure
15.7).


Figure15.6Flintrubblemasonry

Figure15.7Ashlarfinemasonry
15.3.2.2Ashlarroughtooled
Theexposedfacesofthistypeofmasonryshouldbegivenafinedressedchiseldraftingof
about25mmwidth.Inbetweenthedrafts,portionsshouldberoughlytooled.Thejoint
thicknessshouldbe6mm.
15.3.2.3Ashlarrockorquarryfaced
Inthiscase,theexposedfacesofthefacingstonesbetweenthechiseldraftingsallaroundare
leftundressed.However,theprojectionsofsizesmorethan8cmarebroken.Allother
specificationsregardingthesizesofthestonesandthebondarekeptsimilartothatofashlar
roughtooledmasonry.
15.3.2.4Ashlarchamfered
Inthistypeofashlarmasonry,thestripisprovidedasabove.However,itischamferedor
bevelledatanangleof45degreesbymeansofachiselforadepthofabout25mm.Another
strip12mmwideisthenprovidedontheremainingexposedfaceofthestoneandthesurface
insidethisstripisleftinthesameformasreceivedfromthequarry.Thelargebushings
projectingouttomorethan80mmareremovedbyahammer.Aneatappearanceofthe
groovedjointsisobtainedwiththehelpofthistypeofconstruction.
15.3.2.5Ashlarblockincoursemasonry
Thistypeofmasonryoccupiesanintermediatepositionbetweentherubblemasonryand
ashlarmasonry.Thefacesofthestonesaregenerallyhammerdressedandthethicknessof
mortarjointsdoesnotexceed6mm.Thedepthofcoursesvariesfrom20to30cm.Thistype
ofconstructionisusedforheavyengineeringworks.
15.3.3Mortarsusedforstonemasonry
Generally,1:3cementsandmortarisusedforstonemasonrywork.Ifimprovedworkability
isrequired,15percentofthecementisreplacedbylime.Richmortarisusedforthepointing
works.
15.3.4Jointsinstonemasonry
Thejointsinmasonryworkareasfollows(Figure15.8):
1. Buttjoint:Thesquaredfacesoftheadjacentstonesabuteachother.
2. Lappedorrebatedjoint:Thisisusedforarches,stoneslaidonslopes,etc.
3. Tablejoint:Here,lateralmovementispreventedandthisismoresuitablewhere
lateralpressureishigh.
4. Tonguedandgroovedjoint:Thisjointpreventsslidingofstones.Here,aprojection
ofonestonefitsintothedepressionorgrooveontheotherstone.
5. Doweljoint:HerealsolateralmovementispreventedwithasmallkeyasinFigure
15.8.

Figure15.8Jointsinstonemasonry

15.4BRICKMASONRY
Thebricksareobtainedbymouldingclayinrectangularblocksofuniformsizeandthenby
dryingtheseblocks.Theyareofuniformsize,lightinweightandrequirenolifting
appliances.Thebricksareofvarioussizes.Theactualsizeofamodularbrickis19cm9
cm9cm.Withmortarthicknesssizeofsuchabrickbecomes20cm10cm10cmand
itisknownasthenominalsizeofthemodularbricks.Commonbricksmusthaveaminimum
compressivestrengthof50kg/m2andtheaveragewaterabsorptionshouldnotbemorethan
20percentbyweight.
15.5TYPESOFBRICKMASONRY
Thetypesofbrickmasonryareasfollows:
1. Brickworkinmud:Inthistypeofbrickwork,mudisusedtofillupthejoints.The
mudispreparedbyintimatelymixingsandandclay.Thethicknessofthemortar
jointsis12mm.Thistypeofbrickworkisadoptedincasesoflowcostconstruction
andthemaximumheightuptowhichawallcanbeconstructedinthistypeof
brickworkis4m.
2. BrickworkincementmortarorlimemortarIclass:Inthistypeofbrickwork,
cementorlimemortarisused.Thebricksaretablemoulded,areofstandardshape
andareburntinkilns.Thesurfacesandedgesofthebricksaresharp,squareand
straight.Theycomplywithalltherequirementsofagoodstandardbrick.The
thicknessofmortarjointsdoesnotexceed10mm.
3. BrickworkincementmortarorlimemortarIIclass:Thebrickstobeusedin
thistypeofbrickworkaremouldedongroundandareburntinkilns.Thesurfaceof
thesebricksissomewhatroughandtheirshapeisslightlyirregular.Thebricksmay
havehaircracksandtheiredgesmaynotbesharpanduniform.Thesebricksare
commonlyusedatplaceswherethebrickworkistobeprovidedwithacoatof
plaster.Thethicknessofmortarjointsis12mm.
4. BrickworkincementmortarorlimemortarIIIclass:Thistypeofbrickwork
isthesameasIIclassexceptthatthebrickstobeusedareburntinclamps.These
bricksarenothardandtheyhaveroughsurfaceswithirregularanddistortededges.
Thesebricksgiveadullsoundwhenstrucktogether.Theyareusedforunimportant
andtemporarystructuresandatplaceswhererainfallisnotheavy.
5.
15.6BONDSINBRICKMASONRY

15.6.1Stretcherbond
Inthistypeofbond,allthebricksarelaidwiththeirlengthinthedirectionofthewall.The
stretcherbondisusefulforonebrickpartitionwallsastherearenoheaders.Thisbonddoes
notdevelopproperinternalbondanditshouldnotbeusedforwallshavingthicknessgreater
thanthatofonebrickwall(Figure15.9).

Figure15.9Stretcherbond

Figure15.10Headerbond

15.6.2Headerbond
Inthistypeofbond,allthebricksarelaidwiththeirendstowardsthefaceofthewall.Thus,
thebonddoesnothavethestrengthtotransmitpressureinthedirectionofthelengthofthe
wall.Thisbondisusedforcurvedsurfaces(Figure15.10).

15.6.3Englishbond
Inthistypeofbond,alternatecoursesofheadersandstretchersarelaid.Itisnecessaryto
placequeenclosersafterthefirstheaderintheheadingcourseforbreakingthejoints
vertically(Figures15.11,15.12and15.13).
1. Aqueenclosermustbeprovidedafteraquoinheaderorfirstheader.Aheader
courseshouldneverstartwithaqueencloser.
2. Eachalternateheadershouldbecentrallyplacedoverastretcher.
3. Continuousverticaljointsshouldnotbeallowedexceptatthestoppedend.
4. Incasethewallthicknessisequivalenttoanevennumberofhalfbricks,thewall
shallpresentsimilarappearanceinbothfaces.
5. Incasethewallthicknessisequivalenttoanoddnumberofhalfbricks,thesame
courseshallhavestretcherononefaceandheaderontheotherface.
6. Onlyheadersshouldbeusedfortheheartingofthethickerwalls.
7. Thejointsontheheadercourseshouldbemadethinnerthanthoseinthestretcher
course.Thisisbecauseofthefactthatthenumberofverticaljointsinthestretcher
courseishalfthenumberofjointsintheheadercourse.

15.6.4Flemishbond
Inthistypeofbond,theheadersaredistributedevenlyand,hence,itcreatesabetter
appearancethantheEnglishbond.


Figure15.11Englishbond1brickthick

Intheflemishbond,foreverycoursetheheadersandstretchersareplacedalternatively.The
queencloserisputnexttothequoinheaderinalternatecoursestodevelopthefacelap.Every
headeriscentrallysupportedoverastretcherbelowit.
Theflemishbondisdividedintotwogroups.

15.6.4.1DoubleFlemishbond
Inthisbond,alternateheadersandstretchersarelaidtoeachcourse.Thistypeofbondis
betterinappearancethantheEnglishbond.Thefacingsandthebracingsareofthesame
appearance.Brickbatsareusedinthecaseofwallshavingthicknessequivalenttoanodd
numberofhalfbricks.Thequeencloserisplacednexttothequoinheaderinalternate
coursesinordertobreakthecontinuityoftheverticaljoints(Figure15.14).

15.6.4.2SingleFlemishbond
ThefaceelevationisofflemishbondandthefillingaswellasbackingareoftheEnglish
bond.ThistypeofbondisanattempttocombinethestrengthoftheEnglishbondwiththe
appearanceoftheflemishbond.Inordertoconstructthisbond,awallofminimumthickness
of1bricksisrequired.Thebricksinthesamecoursedonotbreakjointswitheachother.
Thejointisstraight.Inthisbond,shortcontinuousverticaljointsareformed.Thefollowing
tablegivesthecomparisonbetweenEnglishandFlemishbonds.


Figure15.12Englishbond1brickthick

AComparisonBetweenEnglishandFlemishBonds
Englishbond Flemishbond

Morecompactandstrongforwallshaving Lesscompactandlessstrength
thicknessmorethan1bricks

Lesspleasinginappearancefromfacing Betterappearanceinthefacing

Strictsupervisionandskillarenotrequired Goodworkmanshipandcareful
supervisionrequired

Moreincost Cheaperincost

Figure15.13Englishbond2bricksthick

15.6.5Gardenwallbond
Thistypeofbondisemployedfortheconstructionofgardenwalls,compoundwalls,
boundarywalls,etc.
15.6.5.1Englishgardenwallbond
Thistypeofbondcomprisesofonecourseofheadertothreeorfivecoursesofstretchers.In
ordertobreakthecontinuityofverticaljoints,aqueencloserislaidnexttotheheaderofthe
headingcourseandthemiddlecourseofstretchersisstartedwithaheader(Figure15.15).


Figure15.14Courses2,4,6,etc.ofdoubleFlemishbond

Figure15.15GardenwallEnglishbond

15.6.5.2Flemishgardenwallbond
Inthistype,eachcoursecontainsoneheadertothreeorfivestretchers.Athreefourth
brickbatisplacednexttothequoinheaderineveryalternatecoursetodevelopthenecessary
lap.Aheaderisplacedcentrallyovereachmiddlestretcher(Figure15.16).


Figure15.16GardenwallFlemishbond

15.6.6Dutchbond
ThistypeofbondisamodifiedformofEnglishbond.Thecornersofthewallprovidedwith
theDutchbondarequitestrong.Thealternatecoursesinthistypeofbondareheadersand
stretchers.Inthestretcherscourse,athreefourthbatisusedasquoin.Aheaderisplacednext
tothethreefourthbatineveryalternatestretcher(Figure15.17).

Figure15.17Dutchbond

15.6.7Herringbonebond
Inthisbond,thebricksareplacedatanangleof45degreesfromthecentrallineinboththe
directions.Thistypeofbondisusedinthecaseofwallshavingthicknessofmorethanfour
bricksorforpaving(Figure15.18).

Figure15.18Herringbonebond
15.6.8Zigzagbond
Thistypeofbondisverymuchsimilartotheherringbonebond.Theonlydifferenceinthis
typeofbondisthatthebricksarelaidinazigzagway.Itisadoptedmainlyinpavingbrick
floors(Figure15.19).

Figure15.19Zigzagbond

15.6.9Brickonedgebond
Inthistypeofbond,thebricksarelaidonedgeinsteadofbed.Thisbondiseconomicalasit
consumeslessnumberofbricksandlessquantityofmortar.However,itisnotstrongand,
hence,isusedfortheconstructionofgardenwalls,compoundwalls,partitionwalls,etc.In
thisbond,thebricksarelaidasheadersandstretchersinalternatecoursesinsuchawaythat
thestretchersarelaidattheedge.

15.6.10Facingbond
Inthistypeofbond,bricksofdifferentthicknessareusedinthefacingandbackingofthe
walls.Inthiscase,aheadercourseisplacedafterseveralstretchercourses.Thedistance
betweenthesuccessiveheadingcoursesisequaltotheleastcommonmultipleofthe
thicknessofbackingandfacingbricks.

15.7GENERALPRINCIPLESINBRICKMASONRY
1. Thebricksusedshouldbehard,wellburntandtoughwithuniformcolour,shape
andsize.
2. Thebricksshouldbelaidontheirbedswiththefrogspointingupwards.
3. Thecoursesshouldbetrulyhorizontalandshouldhavetrulyverticaljoints.
4. Useofbrickbatsshouldbeavoidedtothemaximumpossibleextent.
5. Generally,theheightofthebrickmasonryconstructioninadayislimitedto1.5m.
6. Inordertoensurecontinuousbond,thewallsshouldbestoppedwithatoothedend
attheendofeachstageofconstruction.
7. Finishedbrickworkshouldbecuredforatleast23weekswherelimemortaris
usedandfor12weekswherecementmortarisused.

EstimatedQuantitiesofMaterialsRequiredPerCubicMetreofBrickwork

Assumptionisthatonecubicmetreofbrickmasonryismadeof70percentbricksand30per
centmortar
REVIEWQUESTIONS
1. Howaremasonryworksclassified?
2. Definecourse,phase,stretcher,headerandlapofmasonryworks.
3. Whatisthedifferencebetweenkingcloserandqueencloserinamasonrywork?
4. Whatisthedifferencebetweenfrogandbatinmasonrywork?
5. Whatarethecriteriafortheselectionofmaterialforstonemasonry?
6. Whatarethegeneralprinciplesofstonemasonry?
7. Howisstonemasonryclassified?
8. Onwhatfactorsdoesthestrengthofrubblemasonrydepend?
9. Withaneatsketchexplainuncoursedrubblemasonryandrandomrubblemasonry.
10. Writeshortnoteson
a. Flintrubblemasonry
b. Ashlarmasonry
c. Flemishbond
d. Zigzagbond
2. Whatarethedifferenttypesofjointsusedinstonemasonry?
3. Whatarethedifferenttypesofbrickmasonry?
4. Whatarethedifferentbondsusedinbrickmasonry?ExplainaboutEnglishbond1
brickthickand2brickthickwallmasonryusinganeatsketch.
5. Whatarethegeneralprinciplesinbrickmasonry?
Chapter16
Concrete
Cementconcreteisanartificialbuildingmaterialthatisobtainedbymixingtogethercement,
waterandsomeotherinertmaterials.Themixtureinaplasticconditionwhenallowedtoset
becomesashardasstone.Bysuitablyadjustingtheproportionsofvariousingredients,
concretewithsufficientcompressivestrengthforvarioususescanbedeveloped.Thestrength
ofconcretedependsmainlyonitsingredients,theirrelativequantitiesandthemannerin
whichtheyaremixedandplaced.
Becauseofitshighstrength,itisusedextensivelyforconstructionofroads,heavystructural
memberlikecolumns,gravitydams,etc.,andalsoforfoundations.
Inadditiontoitsstrength,concretealsopossessesotherqualitiessuchashighdurability,
betterappearance,easeofconstruction,greaterfireresistanceandeconomy.
Asplainconcreteisweakintensilestrength,reinforcingwithsteelisdonetoincreasethe
tensioncarryingcapacity.

16.1INGREDIENTSOFCONCRETEANDTHEIRFUNCTIONS
Cementconcreteisacompositemixturethatconsistsmainlyofrelativelyinertmineralmatter
intheformofparticlesorfragmentsheldtogetherbyabindingmedium,whichgives
concreteitssolidityandstrength.Sandandstonechipsorbouldersareinertmaterialsanda
combinationofPortlandcementandwateristhebinder.Theinertmaterial,called
aggregate,isnormallygradedinsizefromfinesandtobouldersorfragmentsofstone.

Therearefouringredients,whichmakeupthecompositematerialofcementconcrete:
1. Cement
2. Sand(fineaggregate)
3. Stonechipsorboulders(coarseaggregate)
4. Water

1. Cement:Thefunctionofcementintheconcreteistobindthecoarseandfine
aggregateparticlestogetherbysettingandhardeningaroundsuchparticles.Thereare
differenttypesofcementandeachtypeisusedundercertainconditionsduetoits
specialproperties.However,forordinaryconstruction,generallyOrdinaryPortland
Cementisused.Whenwaterismixedwithcement,achemicalreactiontakesplace
becauseofwhichthecementpastefirstlosesitsplasticityandbecomesstiff,atthe
sametimeitacquireshardnessandstrength.
2. Fineaggregate:Thisistheinertorchemicallyinactivematerial,mostofwhich
passesthrougha4.75mmISsieveandcontainsnotmorethan5percentcoarser
material.Thefineaggregatesservethepurposeoffillingalltheopenspacesin
betweenthecoarseparticles,andthusbydecreasingtheporosityofthefinalmass,its
strengthisconsiderablyincreased.Sandisuniversallyusedasafineaggregate
althoughmanyothermaterialshavebeendevelopedforspecialpurposeconcretes.
3. Coarseaggregate:Theinertmaterial,mostofwhichisretainedona4.75mmsieve
andcontainsnotmorethan010percentoffinermaterials,isknownascoarse
aggregate.Thefunctionofthecoarseaggregateistoactasthemainloadbearing
componentoftheconcrete.Whenagoodnumberofcoarseaggregatefragmentsare
heldtogetherbyabindingmaterial,theirbehaviourtowardstheimposedloadsisjust
likearockmass.Gravelsandcrushedstonesarecommonlyusedforthispurpose.
4. Water:Thisistheleastexpensivebutmostimportantingredientofconcrete.It
governstheimportantpropertiesrelatedtocementconcretesuchasdurability,
strengthandwatertightness.Thepurposesofmixingwaterare(a)todampthe
aggregatesandpreventthemfromabsorbingthewatervitallynecessaryforthe
chemicalcombinationbetweencementandwaterwhichiscalledhydration(b)to
fluxthecementingmaterialoverthesurfaceoftheparticlesofaggregatesand(c)to
maketheconcreteworkablesothatitcanbeplacedeasilyanduniformlybetweenthe
reinforcingbarsandinthecorners.

16.2PROPORTIONOFMIXUSEDFORDIFFERENTWORKS
Theprocessofselectionofrelativeproportionsofcement,sand,coarseaggregateandwater
toobtainaconcreteofdesiredqualityisknownasproportioningtheconcrete.Thereare
variousmethodsfordeterminingthevolumetricproportionsofvariouscomponents,likethe
arbitrarymethod,finenessmodulusmethod,minimumvoidsmethodandmaximumdensity
method.
Therecommendedmixesofconcreteforvarioustypesofconstructionaregiveninthe
followingtable.Themaximumsizesofaggregatesarealsomentionedinthetable.The
proportionsarebyvolume.

Proportionof Maximumsize Natureofwork


concretemix ofaggregate
1:1:2 1220mm HeavilyloadedRCCcolumnsandRCCarchesoflong
span
1:2:2 1220mm Smallprecastmembersofconcrete,suchaspolesfor
fencingtelegraphs,longpiles,watertightconstructions
andheavilystressedmembersofthestructures.
1:1:3 20mm Waterretainingstructures,piles,precastproducts,etc.
1:2:3 20mm Watertanks,concretedepositedunderwater,bridge
constructionandsewers
1:2:3 25mm Footpathsandroadworks
1:2:4 40mm ForallgeneralRCCworksinbuilding,suchasstair,
beam,column,weathershed,slabandlintel,machine
foundationsubjectedtovibrationandRCCpiles.
1:3:6 50mm Massconcreteworksinculverts,retainingwalls,etc.
1:4:8or1:5:10or 60mm Massconcreteworkforheavywalls,foundation,footings,
1:6:12 etc.

16.3FINEAGGREGATEANDCOARSEAGGREGATE
16.3.1Fineaggregate
Fineaggregateistheinertorchemicallyinactivematerial,mostofwhichpassesthrougha
4.75mmISsieveandcontainsnotmorethan5percentcoarsermaterial.Theymaybe
classifiedasfollows:
1. Naturalsand:Fineaggregateresultingfromthenaturaldisintegrationofrocksand
whichhasbeendepositedbystreamsorglacialagencies.
2. Crushedstonesand:Fineaggregateproducedbycrushingofhardstone.
3. Crushedgravelsand:Fineaggregateproducedbycrushingofnaturalgravel.
Thefineaggregatesservethepurposeoffillingalltheopenspacesinbetweenthecoarse
particles.Thus,itreducestheporosityofthefinalmassandconsiderablyincreasesits
strength.Usually,naturalriversandisusedasafineaggregate.However,atplaces,where
naturalsandisnotavailableeconomically,finelycrushedstonemaybeusedasafine
aggregate.
16.3.2Coarseaggregate
Theinertmaterial,mostofwhichisretainedona4.75mmsieveandcontainsnotmorethan
010percentoffinermaterials,isknownascoarseaggregate.Theymaybeputunderthe
followingcategories:
1. Uncrushedgravelorstonewhichresultsfromthenaturaldisintegrationofrocks.
2. Crushedgravelorstonewhichresultsfromcrushingofgravelorhardstone.
3. Partiallycrushedgravelorstonewhichisaproductofthemixtureoftheabovetwo
types.
Thefunctionofthecoarseaggregateistoactasthemainloadbearingcomponentofthe
concrete.Thenatureofworkdecidesthemaximumsizeofthecoarseaggregate.Forthin
slabsandwalls,themaximumsizeofthecoarseaggregateshouldbelimitedtoonethirdthe
thicknessoftheconcretesection.Theaggregatestobeusedforcementconcreteworkshould
behard,durableandclean.Theaggregatesshouldbecompletelyfreefromlumpsofclay,
organicandvegetablematter,finedust,etc.Thepresenceofallsuchdebrispreventsadhesion
ofaggregatesand,hence,reducesthestrengthofconcrete.

16.4SIGNIFICANCEOFSANDINCONCRETE
Sandorthefineaggregatesformanimportantconstituentofconcrete.Ithelpstoincreasethe
bulkorvolumeofconcrete,whichresultsinthereductionofcost.Ithelpsintheadjustment
ofthestrengthofconcretebyvariationofitsproportionwithcement.Italsoincreasesthe
resistancetocrushing.Theaggregatesreduceshrinkageandaffecteconomy.Earlier,
aggregateswereconsideredasinertmaterialsbutnowithasbeenrecognizedthatsomeofthe
aggregatesarechemicallyactiveandalsothatcertainaggregatesexhibitchemicalbondatthe
interfaceoftheaggregateandpaste.Thesandtogetherwiththecoarseaggregateforms70
80percentofthevolumeofconcrete.Thefineaggregatealsohelpsinfillingthevoids
formedbythecoarseaggregates.

16.5WATERCEMENTRATIO
Cementandwateraretheonlytwochemicallyactiveelementsinconcrete.Bytheir
combinationtheyformagluelikebinderpaste,whichsurroundsandcoatstheparticlesofthe
inertmineralaggregates,setsanduponhardeningbindstheentireproductintoacomposite
mass.Nextonlytocement,wateristhemostimportantelementinconcretegoverningallthe
propertiesofcementconcretelikedurability,strengthandwatertightness.
Thefunctionsofmixingwaterare
(a)todamptheaggregatesandpreventthemfromabsorbingthewatervitallynecessaryfor
thechemicalcombinationbetweencementandwaterwhichiscalledhydration
(b)tofluxthecementingmaterialoverthesurfaceofparticlesofaggregatesand
(c)tomaketheconcreteworkablesothatitcanbeplacedeasilyanduniformlybetweenthe
reinforcingbarsandinthecorners.

Oneofthemostrecentimprovementsinconcretemanufactureisthecontrolofwaterinthe
mixture.Theratiooftheamountofwatertotheamountofcementbyweightisknownas
watercementratio,andthestrengthofconcretedependsonthisratio.

Figure16.1Relationbetweenstrengthandwatercementratioofconcrete

Abram'swater/cementratiolawstatesthatthestrengthofconcreteisdependentuponwater
cementratio,providedthemixisworkable.Therelationbetweenwatercementratioandthe
strengthofconcreteisshowninFigure16.1.
Itcanbeseenthatlowerwatercementratiocouldbeusedwhentheconcreteisvibratedto
achievehigherstrength,whereascomparativelyhigherwatercementratioisrequiredwhen
concreteishandcompacted.Inbothcases,whenthewatercementratioisbelowthe
practicallimit,thestrengthofconcretefallsrapidlyduetointroductionofairvoids.The
graphshowingtherelationshipbetweenthestrengthandwatercementratioisapproximately
hyperbolicinshape.

16.6PROPERTIESOFCONCRETE
Cementconcretepossessesthefollowingimportantproperties:
1. Itpossessesahighcompressivestrength.
2. Itisfreefromcorrosionandthereisnoappreciableeffectofatmosphericagentsonit.
3. Itgivesahardsurfacecapableofresistingabrasion.
4. Itismoreeconomicalthansteel,assandandcoarseaggregate,whichconstitutesthe
bulkofconcrete,aregenerallyavailableatacheaperrate.Formworkcanbereused
forotherconstructionworks.
5. Improvedappearanceandvarioustypesoffinishescanbegiventotheconcrete
surface.
6. Itcontinuestohardenandattainsmorestrengthastimepasses.Itisthispropertyof
cementconcretethatgivesitadistinctplaceamongthebuildingmaterials.
7. Itcandevelopgoodbondagewithsteel.Steelreinforcementisusuallyplacedin
cementconcreteatsuitableintervalstotakeupthetensilestresses,asplainconcreteis
weakintension.ThisistermedasReinforcedCementConcreteorRCC.
8. Duetothepresenceofvoidsintheconcrete,whichareformedduringitsplacing,it
hasatendencytobeporous.Thiscanbecheckedby
1. Theuseofminimumwatercementratio
2. Thepropergradingofaggregatesand
3. Bettercompactionafterplacingtheconcrete.
9. Duetolossofmoisturewithtime,thecementconcretehasatendencytoshrink.The
shrinkagecanbereducedbypropercuringoftheconcrete.
10. TheconcretemixesaredesignatedasM10,M15,M20,M25,M30,M35andM40.Mrefers
tothemixandthenumberdenotestheultimatestrengthofconcretemixinN/mm2at
theendof28days.

16.6.1Strength
Concreteistobestrongenoughtowithstandthestressescausedonitwitharequiredfactor
ofsafety.ThestrengthoftheconcreteismeasuredinN/mm2assaidearlieranditisthe
ultimatecompressivestrengthof15cmcubesafter28daysofcuring(sometimes7day
curingstrengthisalsofoundout).
Thetensilestrengthofconcreteisabout812percentandshearstrengthis810percentof
itscompressivestrength.

16.6.2Durability
Concreteshouldbeabletoresisttheforcesofdisintegrationowingtonaturalandchemical
causes.Thedurabilityofconcretecanbeincreasedbyusinggoodqualitymaterials,adopting
optimumwatercementratio,usingdensegradedaggregates,carefulmixingandplacing
throughcompactionandadequatecuring.

16.6.3Workability
Workabilityistheeasinesswithwhichtheconcretemixcanbemixed,handled,transported,
placed,mouldedandcompacted.Aworkableconcreteshouldnotshowanysegregationor
bleeding,i.e.,thematerialsshouldnotseparateoutortheexcesswatershouldnotcomeupto
thesurface.
Theworkabilityofconcretecanbemeasuredbytwotests,namelytheslumptestandthe
compactingfactortest.

16.6.3.1Slumptest
Theslumptestiscarriedouttohavearoughestimateoftheworkabilityofconcrete.Itdoes
notmeasureallfactorscontributingtoworkability,norisitalwaysrepresentativeofthe
placeabilityoftheconcrete.However,itisconvenientlyusedasacontroltestandgivesan
indicationoftheuniformityoftheconcretefrombatchtobatch.
Theapparatusforconductingtheslumptestessentiallyconsistsofametallicmouldinthe
formofafrustumofaconehavinginternaldimensionsasfollows:

Bottomdiameter 20cm
Topdiameter 10cm
Height 30cm

Figure16.2Typicalmouldforslumptest

Figure16.2showsthedetailsoftheslumpapparatus.
Theinternalsurfaceofthemouldisthoroughlycleanedandfreedfromanysuperfluous
moisture.Themouldisplacedonasmooth,horizontal,rigidandnonabsorbentsurface.The
mouldisthenfilledinfourlayers,eachapproximatelyonefourthoftheheightofthemould.
Fortampingtheconcrete,asteeltampingrodof16mmdiameterand0.6mlengthwitha
bulletendisused.Eachlayeristamped25timesbythetampingrod.Afterthetoplayerhas
beenrodded,theconcreteisstruckofflevelwithatrowelandtampingrod.Themouldis
removedfromtheconcreteimmediatelybyraisingitslowlyandcarefullyinavertical
direction.Thisallowstheconcretetosubside.Thedifferencebetweentheheightofthemould
andthatofthesubsidedconcreteismeasuredinmmandthisisreferredtoastheslumpof
concrete.
Itisseenthattheslumptestgivesgoodconsistentresultsforaplasticmix.Thistestisnot
sensitiveforastiffmix.Despitemanylimitations,theslumptestisveryusefulonsiteto
checkthedaytodayorhourtohourvariationinthequalityofthemix.
16.6.3.2Slumpsfordifferentworks
Therecommendedslumpforconcretefordifferenttypesofworksisshowninthetable.

Number Typeofconcrete Slump


1 Concreteforroadconstruction 2040mm
2 Concretefortopofcurbs,parapets,piers,slabsandwallsthatare 4050mm
horizontal
3 Concreteforcanallinings 7080mm
4 Concreteforarchandsidewallsoftunnels 90100mm
5 NormalRCCwork 80150mm
6 Massconcrete 2550mm
7 Concretetobevibrated 1025mm
16.6.3.3Factorsaffectingworkabilityofconcrete
Themajorfactorsaffectingtheworkabilityofconcretearegivenbelow:
1. Watercontent
2. Mixproportions
3. Sizeofaggregates
4. Shapeofaggregates
5. Gradingofaggregates
6. Useofadmixtures

1. Watercontent:Watercontentinagivenvolumeofconcretewillhaveasignificant
influenceontheworkability.Thehigherthewatercontentpercubicmetreof
concrete,thehigherwillbethefluidityofconcrete,whichisoneoftheimportant
factorsaffectingworkability.However,increasingthewatercontentmustbethelast
optiontobetakenforimprovingtheworkability.Morewatercanbeadded,provided
acorrespondinglyhigherquantityofcementisalsoaddedtokeepthewatercement
ratioconstant,sothatthestrengthremainsthesame.
2. Mixproportions:Aggregatecementratioisanimportantfactoraffecting
workability.Thehighertheaggregatecementratio,theleaneristheconcrete.Inthe
caseofleanmix,lessquantityofpasteisavailableforprovidinglubricationand,
hence,themobilityofaggregateisrestrained.Ontheotherhand,inthecaseofrich
concretewithloweraggregatecementratio,morepasteisavailabletomakethemix
cohesiveandfattytogivebetterworkability.
3. Sizeofaggregates:Thebiggerthesizeofaggregates,lessquantityofwaterandpaste
willberequired.Hence,foragivenquantityofwaterandpaste,biggersizeof
aggregateswillgivegreaterworkability.Theabovewillbetruewithincertainlimits.
4. Shapeofaggregates:Theshapeofaggregatesgreatlyinfluencestheworkability.
Angular,elongatedorflakyaggregatesmaketheaggregateveryharshwhen
comparedtoroundorcubicalshapedaggregates.Contributiontogreaterworkability
ofroundedaggregatesisduetothefactthatforagivenvolumeorweightitwillhave
lesssurfaceareaandlessvoidsthanangularorflakyaggregates.
5. Gradingofaggregates:Thisisoneofthefactorswhichwillhavemaximum
influenceonworkability.Awellgradedaggregateistheonewhichhasleastamount
ofvoidsinagivenvolume.Otherfactorsbeingconstant,whenthetotalvoidsareless,
excesspasteshouldbeavailabletogivebetterlubricatingeffect.
6. Useofadmixtures:Ofallthefactors,whichaffectworkability,themostimportant
factoristheuseofadmixtures.Admixtureisdefinedasamaterial,otherthancement,
waterandaggregates,thatisusedasaningredientofconcreteandisaddedtothe
batchimmediatelybeforeorduringmixing.Plasticizersandsuperplasticizersare
admixturesthatgreatlyimprovetheworkabilitymanyfolds.Theuseofairentraining
agentsreducestheinternalfrictionbetweentheparticlesandgiveseasymobilityto
theparticles.Similarly,thefineglassypozzolanamaterials,inspiteofincreasingthe
surfacearea,offerbetterlubricatingeffectsforincreasingtheworkability.
16.7MIXINGOFCONCRETE
Thoroughmixingofthematerialsisnecessaryfortheproductionofuniformconcrete.The
mixingshouldensurethatthemassbecomeshomogeneous,uniformincolourand
consistency.Therearetwomethodsadoptedformixingofconcrete.
1. Handmixing
2. Machinemixing

16.7.1Handmixing
Handmixingispractisedforsmallscaleunimportantconcreteworks.Asthemixingcannot
bethoroughandefficient,itisdesirabletoadd10percentmorecementtocaterforthe
inferiorconcreteproducedbythismethod.
Handmixingshouldbedoneonanimperviousconcreteorbrickfloorofsufficientlylarge
sizetotakeonebagofcement.Spreadoutthemeasuredquantityofcoarseandfineaggregate
inalternatelayers.Pourthecementontopofitandmixthemdrybyshovel,turningthe
mixturerepeatedlyuntiluniformityofcolourisachieved.Wateristhensprinkledoverthe
mixtureandsimultaneouslyturnedover.Thisoperationiscontinueduntilagood,uniform
andhomogeneousconcreteisobtained.Itisofparticularimportancetoseethatthewateris
notpouredbutonlysprinkled.Waterinsmallquantityshouldbeaddedtowardstheendof
themixingtogetjusttherequiredconsistency.Atthisstage,evenasmallquantityofwater
makesadifference.
16.7.2Machinemixing
Mixingofconcreteisinvariablycarriedoutbymachineforreinforcedconcreteworkandfor
mediumorlargescaleconcretework.Machinemixingisnotonlyefficientandfastbutalso
economicalwhenthequantityofconcretetobeproducedislarge.
Themixersformixingconcretecanbeclassifiedasbatchmixersandcontinuousmixers.
Batchmixersproduceconcretebatchbybatchwithintervalswhereascontinuousmixers
produceconcretewithoutstoppage.Continuousmixersareusedinlargeworkssuchasdams.
Innormalconcretework,thebatchmixersareused.Batchmixersmaybeofpantypeor
drumtype.Thedrumtypemaybefurtherclassifiedastilting,nontiltingandreversingor
forcedactiontype.
Togetbetterefficiency,thesequenceofchargingtheloadingskipisasdescribedbelow.
Firstly,abouthalfthequantityofcoarseaggregateisplacedontheskipoverwhichabouthalf
thequantityoffineaggregateispoured.Onthatthefullquantityofcementispoured,over
whichtheremainingportionofcoarseandfineaggregateisdepositedinsequence.This
preventsspillingofaggregatewhiledischargingintothedrumandalsotheblowingawayof
cementinwindyweather.
Beforetheloadingskipisdischargedintothedrum,about25percentofthetotalwater
requiredformixingisintroducedintothemixerdrumtowetthedrumandtopreventany
cementfromstickingtothebladesorthebottomofthedrum.Immediatelyondischargingthe
drymaterials,theremaining75percentofwaterisaddedtothedrum.
Concretemixersaregenerallydesignedtorunataspeedof1520revolutionsperminute.On
thesite,thenormaltendencyistoreducethemixingtimetoincreasetheoutturn.Thisresults
inpoorqualityofconcrete.Ontheotherhand,iftheconcreteismixedforacomparatively
longertime,itisuneconomicalfromthepointofviewofrateofproductionofconcreteand
fuelconsumption.Therefore,itisofimportancetomixtheconcreteforsuchadurationthat
willgiveoptimumbenefit.Itisseenthatthequalityofconcreteintermsofcompressive
strengthswillincreasewithincreaseinthetimeofmixing,butformixingtimebeyond2
minutestheincreaseincompressivestrengthisnotverysignificant.
Concretemixersareoftenusedcontinuouslywithoutstoppingforseveralhoursformixing
andplacing.Itisofutmostimportancethatamixershouldnotstopinbetweentheconcreting
operation.Forthis,themixermustbewellmaintained.Themixerisplacedonthesiteata
firmandlevelledplatform.Thedrumandbladesmustbekeptcleanattheendofthe
concretingoperation.Thedrummustbekeptintiltingpositionorkeptcoveredwhennotin
usetopreventthecollectionofrainwater.Theskipisoperatedcarefullyanditmustbe
providedwithpropercushionsuchassandbags.

16.8TRANSPORTINGANDPLACINGOFCONCRETE
Soonaftermixing,theconcretehastobetransportedandplacedinthemoulds.Amaximum
timelimitof1hoursisallowedbetweenthemomentofactualmixingandplacingof
concrete.Itshouldneverbedisturbedoncethesettinghascommenced.
Whiletransportingandplacingofconcrete,careshouldbetakentoavoidsegregationand
lossofwateradded.
Thesurfaceonwhichtheconcreteistobeplacedshouldbecleaned,preparedandwell
watered.Theformworkormouldsshouldbegivenacoatingofgreaseorsomeothermaterial
topreventadhesionofconcrete.Concreteshouldalwaysbelaidinevenandthinlayersand
eachlayershouldbewellcompactedbeforethenextisplaced,usuallylayersof1545cm
thicknessisadopted.Concreteshouldneverbethrownfromaheight.Concretepumpsare
alsonowavailabletoplacetheconcrete.Thereinforcementshouldbekeptinafixedposition
andshouldneverbedisturbed.

16.9COMPACTIONOFCONCRETE
Compactionofconcreteisthemethodadoptedforexpellingtheentrappedairfromthe
concrete.Iftheairisnotremovedfully,theconcretelosesstrengthconsiderably.Figure16.3
showstherelationbetweenlossofstrengthandairvoidsleftduetolackofcompaction.
ItcanbeseenfromFigure16.3that5percentvoidsreducethestrengthofconcretebyabout
30percentand10percentvoidsreducethestrengthbyover50percent.Therefore,itis
imperativethat100percentcompactionisoneofthemostimportantpointstobekeptin
mindingoodconcretemakingpractices.

16.9.1Methodsofcompaction
Thefollowingmethodsaregenerallyadoptedforthecompactionofconcrete:
1. Handcompaction
1. Rodding
2. Ramming
3. Tamping


Figure16.3Relationbetweenpercentagelossinstrengthandpercentageair
voids

2. Compactionbyvibration
1. InternalVibrator(Needlevibrator)
2. ExternalVibrator(Formworkvibrator)
3. Tablevibrator
4. Platformvibrator
5. Surfacevibrator(Screedvibrator)
6. Vibratoryroller
3. Compactionbypressureandjolting
4. Compactionbyspinning

16.9.1.1Handcompaction
Handcompactionisadoptedinthecaseofsmallunimportantworks.Thismethodisalsoused
insituationswherealargequantityofreinforcementisused,whichcannotbenormally
compactedbymechanicalmeans.Whenhandcompactionisadopted,theconsistencyof
concreteismaintainedatahigherlevel.Handcompactionconsistsofrodding,rammingor
tamping.
Roddingisnothingbutpokingtheconcretewitharodabout2mlongand16mmdiameterto
packtheconcretebetweenthereinforcementandsharpcornersandedges.Roddingisdone
continuouslyoverthecompleteareatoeffectivelypacktheconcreteanddriveaway
entrappedair.
Rammingshouldbedonewithcare.Lightrammingcanbepermittedinunreinforced
foundationconcreteoringroundfloorconstructions.Rammingshouldnotbepermittedinthe
caseofreinforcedconcreteorinupperfloorconstructions,wheretheconcreteisplacedon
formworkplacedonstruts.
Tampingisoneoftheusualmethodsadoptedincompactingrooforfloorslabsorroad
pavementwherethethicknessofconcreteiscomparativelyless.Tampingconsistsofbeating
thetopsurfacebyawoodencrossbeam.Sincethetampingbarissufficientlylong,itnotonly
compactsbutalsolevelsthetopsurfaceacrosstheentirewidth.
16.9.1.2Compactionbyvibration
Tocompactconcretewithlowwatercementratio,mechanicallyoperatedvibratory
equipmentsmustbeused.Compactionofconcretebyvibrationhasalmostcompletely
revolutionizedtheconceptofconcretetechnology,makingpossibletheuseoflowslumpstiff
mixes.Differentmethodsforvibratingtheconcretecanbeadopted.
Internalvibrator
Ofallthevibrators,theinternalvibratoristhemostcommonlyused.Itisalsocalledneedle
vibrator,immersionvibratororpokervibrator.Thisessentiallyconsistsofapowerunit,a
flexibleshaftandaneedle.Theneedle'sdiametervariesfrom20to75mmanditslength
variesfrom25to90cm.Abiggerneedleisusedintheconstructionofmassconcretedam.
Externalvibrator(Formworkvibrator)
Formworkvibratorsareusedforconcretingcolumns,thinwallsorinthecastingofprecast
units.Themachineisclampedtotheexternalwallsurfaceoftheformwork.Thevibrationis
giventotheformworksothattheconcreteinthevicinityoftheshuttergetsvibrated.Since
thevibrationisgiventotheconcreteindirectlythroughtheformwork,itconsumesmore
poweranditsefficiencyislessthantheinternalvibrator.
Tablevibrator
Thisisaspecialtypeofformworkvibrator,wherethevibratorisclampedtothetableorthe
tableismountedonsprings,whicharevibratedtransferringthevibrationstothetable.Itis
commonlyusedforvibratingconcretecubes.Itisadoptedmostlyinlaboratoriesandin
makingsmall,preciseprecastRCCmembers.
Platformvibrator
Platformvibratorisnothingbutatablevibrator,butitislarger.Itisusedinthemanufacture
oflargeprefabricatedconcreteelementssuchaselectricpoles,railwaysleepersand
prefabricatedroofingelements.
Surfacevibrator
Surfacevibratorsarealsoknownasscreedboardvibrators.Asmallvibratorplacedonthe
screedboardgivesaneffectivemethodofcompactingandlevellingthinconcretemembers.
Mostly,floorslabsandroofslabsaresothinthataninternalvibratororanyothertypeof
vibratorcannotbeused.Insuchcases,thesurfacevibratorcanbeeffectivelyused.
Vibratoryroller
Oneoftherecentdevelopmentsofcompactingverydryandleanconcreteistheuseof
vibratoryroller.Suchconcreteisknownasrollercompactedconcrete.Thismethodismainly
usedfortheconstructionofdamsandpavements.Heavyroller,whichvibrateswhilerolling,
isusedforthecompactionofdryleanconcrete.

16.9.1.3Compactionbypressureandjolting
Thisisoneoftheeffectivemethodsofcompactingverydryconcrete.Thismethodisoften
usedforcompactinghollowblocks,cavityblocksandsolidconcreteblocks.Thestiff
concreteisvibrated,pressedandgivenjolts.Byemployinggreatpressure,aconcreteofvery
lowwatercementratiocanbecompactedtoyieldveryhighstrength.

16.9.1.4Compactionbyspinning
Spinningisoneoftherecentmethodsofcompactionofconcrete.Thismethodofcompaction
isadoptedforthefabricationofconcretepipes.Theplasticconcretewhenspunataveryhigh
speedgetswellcompactedbycentrifugalforce.

16.10CURINGOFCONCRETE
Concretederivesitsstrengthbythehydrationofcementparticles.Thequalityoftheproduct
ofhydrationandconsequentlytheamountofgelformeddependontheextentofhydration.
Theoretically,watercementratioof0.38isrequiredtohydratealltheparticlesofthecement
andtooccupythespaceinthegelpores.Inthefield,eventhoughhigherwatercementratio
isused,sincetheconcreteisopentoatmosphere,thewaterusedintheconcreteevaporates
andthewateravailableintheconcretewillnotbesufficientforeffectivehydrationtotake
place,particularlyinthetoplayer.
Curingcanbeconsideredascreationofafavourableenvironmentduringtheearlyperiodfor
anuninterruptedhydration.Thedesirableconditionsareasuitabletemperatureandample
moisturecontent.Concretewhilehydratingreleasesheatofhydration.Thisheatisharmful
fromthepointofviewofvolumestability.Theheatgeneratedcanalsobereducedbymeans
ofwatercuring.
Thecuringmethodsmaybebroadlydividedintothefollowingcategories:
1. Watercuring
2. Membranecuring
3. Applicationofheat

16.10.1Watercuring
Thisisconsideredasthebestmethodofcuringasitsatisfiesalltherequirementsofcuring,
namelypromotionofhydration,eliminationofshrinkageandabsorptionoftheheatof
hydration.Watercuringcanbedoneinthefollowingways:
1. Immersion
2. Ponding
3. SprayingorFogging
4. Wetcovering
Theprecastconcreteitemsarenormallyimmersedincuringtanksforacertainduration.
Pavementslabs,roofslabs,etc.arecoveredunderwaterbymakingsmallponds.Vertical
retainingwallsorplasteredsurfacesorconcretecolumns,etc.arecuredbysprayingwater.In
somecases,wetcoveringssuchaswetgunnybags,jutemattingandstrawarewrappedtothe
verticalsurfaceforkeepingtheconcretewet.Forhorizontalsurfaces,sawdust,earthorsand
areusedaswetcoveringstokeeptheconcreteinwetconditionforalongertime.

16.10.2Membranecuring
Thequantityofwaternormallymixedformakingconcreteismorethansufficienttohydrate
thecement,providedthiswaterisnotallowedtogooutfromthebodyofconcrete.Forthis
reason,concretecouldbecoveredwithamembranethatwilleffectivelysealoffthe
evaporationofwaterfromconcrete.Inaddition,ifconcreteworksarecarriedoutinplaces
wherethereisacuteshortageofwater,thelavishapplicationofwaterforwatercuringisnot
possibleduetoreasonsofeconomy.
Sometimes,theconcreteisplacedinsomeinaccessible,difficultorfaroffplaces.Thecuring
ofsuchconcretecannotbeproperlysupervised.Insuchcases,itismuchsafertoadopt
membranecuringthantoleavetheresponsibilityofcuringtoworkers.
Largenumberofsealingcompoundshavebeendevelopedinrecentyears.Theideaisto
obtainacontinuoussealovertheconcretesurfacebymeansofafirmimperviousfilmto
preventmoistureintheconcretefromescapingbyevaporation.Someofthematerialsthat
havebeenusedforthispurposearebituminouscompounds,polyethyleneorpolyesterfilm,
waterproofpaper,rubbercompounds,etc.

16.10.3Applicationofheat
Thedevelopmentofthestrengthofconcreteisafunctionofnotonlytime,butalsoof
temperature.Whenconcreteissubjectedtohighertemperature,itacceleratesthehydration
processresultinginfasterdevelopmentofstrength.Theexposureofconcretetohigher
temperatureisdoneinthefollowingmanners:
1. Steamcuringatordinarytemperature
2. Steamcuringathightemperature
3. Curingbyinfraredradiation
4. Electricalcuring

16.10.3.1Steamcuringatordinarytemperature
Thismethodisoftenadoptedforprefabricatedconcreteelements.Applicationofsteamtoin
situconstructionwillbeadifficulttask.Forsteamcuring,theconcreteelementsarestoredin
achamber.Thechambershouldbelargeenoughtoholdaday'sproduction.Thedooris
closedandsteamisapplied.Thesteammaybeappliedeithercontinuouslyorintermittently.
Anacceleratedhydrationtakesplaceatthishighertemperatureandconcreteattainsthe28
daystrengthofnormalconcreteinabout3days.Inlargeprefabricatedfactories,theyhave
tunnelcuringarrangements.However,concretesubjectedtohighertemperatureattheearly
periodofhydrationisfoundtolosesomeofthestrengthgainedatalaterstage.
Ithasbeenemphasizedthataveryyoungconcreteshouldnotbesubjectedsuddenlytohigh
temperature.Acertaindelayperiodaftercastingtheconcreteisdesirable.InIndia,steam
curingisoftenadoptedforprecastelements,especiallyprecastconcretesleepers.

16.10.3.2Steamcuringathightemperature
Thehighpressuresteamcuringissomethingdifferentfromordinarysteamcuring,inthatthe
curingiscarriedoutinaclosedchamber.Thesuperheatedsteamathightemperatureand
highpressureisappliedontheconcrete.Thisprocessisalsocalledautoclaving.The
followingadvantagesarederivedfromthehighpressuresteamcuringprocess:
1. Highpressuresteamcuredconcretedevelopsin1dayorless,thestrengthsdeveloped
at28daysofnormallycuredconcrete.Inaddition,itdoesnotlosethestrengthata
laterstage.
2. Highpressuresteamcuredconcreteexhibitshigherresistancetosulphateattack,
freezingandthawingactionandchemicalaction.Italsoshowslessefflorescence.
3. Highpressuresteamcuredconcreteexhibitslowerdryingshrinkageandmoisture
movement.

16.10.3.3Curingbyinfraredradiation
Curingofconcretebyinfraredradiationshasbeenpractisedinverycoldclimaticregionsof
Russia.Itisclaimedthatmuchmorerapidgainofstrengthcanbeobtainedthanwithsteam
curinganddoesnotcauseadecreaseintheultimatestrengthasinthecaseofsteamcuringat
ordinarypressure.

16.10.3.4Electricalcuring
Anothermethodofcuringconcrete,whichisapplicablemostlytoverycoldclimaticregions,
isbytheuseofelectricity.Thismethodisnotlikelytofindmuchapplicationinordinary
temperaturesduetoeconomicreasons.

16.11FORMWORK
Whenconcreteisplaced,itisinplasticstate.Itrequirestobesupportedbytemporary
supportsandcasingsofthedesiredshapetillitbecomessufficientlystrongtosupportitsown
weight.Thistemporarycasingisknownastheformwork.
16.11.1Requirementsofagoodformwork
1. Easyremoval:Thedesignofformworkshouldbesuchthatitcanberemovedeasily
withleastamountofhammering.Thiswillalsopreventthepossibleinjurytothe
concrete,whichhasnotbecomesufficientlyhard.Further,iftheremovalofformwork
iseasyitcanbemadefitforreusewithlittleexpenditure.Theoperationofremoving
theformworkiscommonlyknownasstripping,andwhenstrippingtakesplace,the
componentsoftheformworkareremovedandthenreusedforanotherpartofthe
structure.Suchformswhosecomponentscanbereusedseveraltimesareknownas
panelforms.
2. Economy:Itisnotedthattheformworkdoesnotcontributeanythingtothestability
ofthefinishedstructure,andhenceitwillbedesirabletobringdownitscosttoa
minimum,consistentwithsafety.Thevariousstepssuchasreductioninthenumber
ofirregularshapesofforms,standardizingtheroomdimensions,useofcomponent
partsofcommercialsizeandputtingtheformworkinuseagainasearlyaspossible
maybetakentoaffecttheeconomyintheformwork.Theformworkshouldbe
constructedofthatmaterialwhichiseasilyavailableatlowcostandwhichcansafely
bereusedseveraltimes.
3. LessLeakage:Theformworkshouldbesoarrangedthatthereisminimumleakage
throughthejoints.Thisisachievedbyprovidingtightjointsbetweensectionsofthe
formwork.
4. Quality:Theseformsshouldbedesignedandbuiltaccuratelysothatthedesiredsize,
shapeandfinishoftheconcreteareattained.
5. Rigidity:Theformworkshouldberigidenoughtoretaintheshapewithoutany
appreciabledeformation.Forvisiblesurfacesinthecompletedwork,thedeflectionis
limitedto1/300ofspanandthatforhiddensurfaceislimitedto1/150ofspan.It
shouldbenotedthatarigidformworkwouldberobustandstiffenoughtoallow
repeateduse.
6. SmoothSurface:Theinsidesurfaceofformworkshouldbesmoothtoturnoutagood
concretesurface.Thisisachievedbyapplyingcrudeoilorsoftsoapsolutiontothe
insidesurfaceofformwork.Thisalsomakestheremovalofformworkeasy.
7. Strength:Theformworkshouldbesufficientlystrongenoughtobearthedeadloadof
wetconcreteaswellastheweightsofequipments,labour,etc.requiredforplacing
andcompactingtheconcrete.Thisrequirescarefuldesignoftheformwork.The
overestimationofloadsresultsinexpensiveformworkandtheunderestimationof
loadsresultsinthefailureofformwork.Theloadsonverticalformsaretobeassessed
fromvariousconsiderationssuchasdensityofconcrete,dimensionofsection,
concretetemperature,slumpofconcrete,reinforcementdetails,stiffnessofformsand
rateofpouringofconcrete.

16.11.2Steelformwork
Steelisusedforformworkwhenitisdesiredtoreusetheformworkseveraltimes.Theinitial
costofsteelformworkisveryhigh.However,itprovestobeeconomicalforlargework
requiringmanyrepetitionsoftheformwork.Theerectionandremovalofsteelformworkare
simpleanditpresentsasmoothsurfaceonremoval.
16.11.2.1Advantages
1. Itcanbereusedseveraltimes,nearlytentimesmorethantimberformwork.
2. Itdoesnotabsorbwaterfromconcreteand,hence,thechancesofformationofhoney
combedsurfacearebroughtdowntotheminimumlevel.
3. Itdoesnotshrinkordistortand,hence,itispossibletoachievehigherdegreeof
accuracyandworkmanshipbyitsuseascomparedtotimberformwork.
4. Itiseasytoinstallanddismantleand,hence,thereissavinginthelabourcost.
5. Itgivesexcellentconcretesurfacesrequiringnofurtherfinishingtreatment.The
surfaceobtainedbytheuseoftimberformworkinvariablyrequiresplasteringfor
gettingthedesiredfinishoftheconcretesurface.
6. Itpossessesmorestrengthandismoredurablethantimberformwork.
7. Thedesigncalculationsforthesteelformworksystemcanbemadepreciselybecause
oftheknowncharacteristicsofsteel.

16.11.3Timberformwork
Whenformworkisrequiredforsmallworksrequiringlessrepetition,timberispreferredto
steel.Timberformworkischeapininitialcostanditcanbeeasilyadoptedoralteredfornew
use.Thetimbertobeusedasformworkshouldbewellseasoned,freefromlooseknots,light
inweightandeasilyworkablewithnailswithoutsplitting.
1. Thetimberformworkshouldbeneithertoodrynortoowet.Ifitistoodry,thetimber
willswellandgetdistortedwhenwetconcreteislaidonitandhoneycombedsurface
willappearonremovaloftheformwork.Ontheotherhand,ifitistoowet,thetimber
willshrinkonhotweatherresultingingapsintheformworkthroughwhichconcrete
willflowout.Hence,ridgeswillbeformedontheconcretesurface.Itisfoundthata
moisturecontentofabout20percentisappropriateforthetimberformwork.
2. Thedimensionsofcomponentsofthetimberformworkwilldependupontheloadsto
becarriedandtheavailabilityoftimbersections.However,generallythelatteristhe
governingfactorastheformercanbeadjustedbysuitablespacingofthesupports.
3. Minimumnumberofnailsshouldbeusedintimberformworkandthenailheads
shouldbekeptprojectingsoastofacilitateeasyremoval.
4. Thetimberformworkprovestobeeconomicalforbuildingswithminimumnumberof
variationsinthedimensionsoftherooms.Thus,thecuttingoftimberpiecesis
broughtdowntotheminimum.
5. Itiscommonpractisetosupportformworkforslabinbuildingswiththetimber
ballies,whicharecuttoapproximatesizeswithwedgesbelowthemforfinal
adjustments.Itleadstotheformationofweakpoints,whichareseldomprevented
fromdisplacement.Thetimberballiesaregenerallynotstraightandtheydonot
transmittheloadaxially.
Plywoodasformworkisbecomingpopularatpresentoverthetimberformworkbecause:
1. Itcanbereusedseveraltimesascomparedtoordinarytimberformwork.Under
normalconditionstheplywoodformworkcanbeused2025timesandthetimber
formworkcanbeused1012times.
2. Itgivessurfaceswhichareplainandsmoothand,hence,itmaynotrequireany
furtherfinishingtreatment.
3. Itispossibletocoverupmoreareabyusinglargesizepaneland,hence,thereis
considerablereductioninthelabourcostoffixinganddismantlingformwork.

16.11.4Failuresofformwork
Safetymustbegivenimportanceinthedesign,construction,erectionandstrippingof
formworksystems.Thegeneralrulestobeobservedtoavoidthefailureofformworkfor
concretestructuresareasfollows:
1. Ifhighshoringisnotsuitablystrengthenedbydiagonalbraces,therearechancesfor
formworkfailuretooccur.
2. Itshouldberememberedthattheformsarecontinuouslysupportedstructuresandas
suchtheymustbeprovidedwithuniformbearingateachsupport.
3. Theentireworkshouldbecarriedoutunderthestrictanddirectsupervisionofskilled
personsorengineersonly.
4. Thedesignofformworkshouldprovideforpossibleshocksandvibrations.
5. Thedetailsthataredifficulttoperformshouldbeavoidedasinmanycasessuch
detailswillnotbesatisfactorilyperformedandmaybecomethestartingpointfor
causingaformworkfailure.
6. Thestrippingofformandreshoringshouldnotbecarriedoutinanunbalancedway.It
willotherwiseleadtounnecessarystressesinfreshlylaidconcrete.
7. Thewedgingofpoststocounterbalanceloadcompressionmustbecarriedoutwith
extremecaresothattheassembledformsupportremainsundisturbed.

16.11.5Formworkforcolumns
Thecolumnformworkconsistsofaboxpreparedforfourseparatesides(Figure16.4).The
foursidesoftheboxareheldinpositionbywoodenblocks,boltsandyokes.Theimportant
featuresintheRCCcolumnare:
1. Theformworkshouldbedesignedtoresistthehighpressureresultingfromthequick
fillingoftheconcrete.
2. Thespacingofyokesisabout1m.However,itshouldbecarefullydeterminedby
workingoutthegreatestlengthoftheformwork,whichcansafelyresisttheload
comingontheformwork.

Figure16.4Woodenformworkforrectangularorsquarecolumn

3. Dependingupontheshapeofthecolumn,theboxcanbesuitablyprepared.
4. Aholeisgenerallyprovidedatthebottomoftheformworkofcolumntoremovethe
debris,whichmighthavefallenbeforetheconcreteisplaced.Thisholeistermedas
thecleanoutholeorwashoutholeanditisfilledupbeforetheplacingoftheconcrete
starts.
5. Awashwithwaterisgiventotheinsideoftheformworkjustbeforestartingthe
layingofconcrete.
6. Theboxesshouldbedesignedinsuchawaythatwithlittlealterationstheycanbe
reusedforcolumnswithsmallercrosssectionsonupperfloors.
7. Inordertomakethedislocationofboxeseasy,thenailsarekeptprojectinginsteadof
beingfirmlydriven.Thus,theycanberemovedeasilybytheclawhammer.
8. Thewoodenyokesbeingefficientandcheaparewiselyused,buttheycanbereplaced
bymetalclampsofsuitabledesign.
9. Theformworkforcircularcolumnsismadeofnarrowverticalboards.Theseare
knownasthestavesandtheyarecorrectlyshapedtotherequiredcurvature.The
stavesinturnarefixedtotheyokes,whicharealsosuitablycurved.

16.11.6Formworkforwalls
Theformworkforwallsconsistsofsheets,studs,tiesandbraces.Thesheetsaresupportedby
verticalstudsandhorizontalwales.Thetiesareprovidedtomaintainthedistancebetween
thesheetsandtoresisttheburstingactionofconcrete.Smallpiecesoftimberknownas
spacersmaybeusedandtheyaretoberemovedastheconcretereachesthatlevel.In
addition,wiretiesandboltsmaybeprovided.Thewiresareplacedatahorizontaldistanceof
about600mmandtheyaretakenroundthewales.Whenformworkisstruckoff,theendsof
wiretiesarecutoffandprovidedwithrichqualityofcementmortartoavoidrusting.Ifbolts
areused,theyaretobeprovidedwithgreaseorembodiedincardboardtubestomaketheir
removaleasyafter2or3daysofpouringconcrete(Figure16.5).Thepointstobe
rememberedinthecaseofformworkforwallsareasfollows:
1. Thebracesmaybeprovidedatahorizontaldistanceofabout2mandtheyare
supportedatgroundlevelbystakesfirmlydrivenintotheground.
2. Ifthewallishigh,theformworkistobesupportedoneithersidebyguywiresinstead
ofbraces.
3. Severalpatentdeviceshavebeenfoundouttokeepthesheetsinthecorrectposition.
Theycanbeusedinplaceofwiretiesandbolts.
4. Thereinforcement,ifany,istobeproperlyplacedinpositionbeforethelayingof
concretestarts.
5. Thevariouscomponentsoftheformworkshouldbeproperlydesigned.
6. Theformworkshouldbecleanedandwashedwithwaterbeforelayingconcreteinit.
7. Iftheverticalheightofthewallis3mormore,thewallispreparedinverticalliftsof
about1mheight.Thebracesareavoidedandthelowercompletedconcretewall
worksasaplatformfortheupperportion.Thistypeofformworkissometimes
referredtoastheclimbingformwork(Figure16.5).


Figure16.5Formworkforwall
16.11.7Strippingtimeofformwork
InnormalcircumstancesandwhereOrdinaryPortlandCementisused,formsmaygenerally
beremovedaftertheexpiryofthefollowingperiods.

a.Walls,columnandverticalfacesonall 2448hoursasmaybedecidedbythe
structuralmembers engineerincharge
b.Slabs(propsleftunder) 3days
c.Beamsoffits(propsleftunder) 7days
d.Removalofpropsunderslabs:
1.Spanningupto4.5m 7days
2.Spanningover4.5m 14days
e.Removalofpropsunderbeamsandarches:
1.Spanningupto6m 14days
2.Spanningover6m 21days

Forothercements,thestrippingtimerecommendedforOrdinaryPortlandCementmaybe
suitablymodified.

REVIEWQUESTIONS
1. Whataretheingredientsofconcreteandtheirfunctions?
2. Whatarethegeneralproportionsofconcretemixusedfordifferentworks?
3. Whataretherolesoffineaggregateandcoarseaggregateinconcrete?
4. Whatisthesignificanceofsandinconcrete?
5. Whatiswatercementratioandwhatisitsimportanceinconcrete?
6. Whatarethepropertiesofconcrete?
7. Whatisworkabilityofconcreteandhowisitfoundout?
8. Whatdoyoumeanbystrengthofconcrete?
9. Whatisslumptestandexplainthefactorsaffectingworkabilityofconcrete?
10. Howisconcretemixed?
11. Whatarethecriteriafortransportingandplacingofconcrete?
12. Whatdoyoumeanbycompactionofconcreteandexplainthevariousmethodsof
compaction?
13. Howisconcretecuredandwhyiscuringrequiredforconcrete?
14. Whatistheapplicationofformworkandexplaintherequirementsofagood
formwork?
15. Explaintheimportantfeatureintheformworkforcolumns.
16. Whatarethegeneralrulestobeobservedtoavoidthefailureofformworkofconcrete
structures?
17. Writeshortnoteson
1. Formworkforwalls
2. Strippingtimeforformwork
3. Timberformwork
4. Steelformwork
5. Curingofconcretebyinfraredradiation.
6. Watercuringofconcrete
7. Handcompactionofconcrete
8. Compactionofconcretebyvibration.

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