Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572

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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecss

Articial mouth opening fosters anoxic conditions that kill small estuarine sh
Alistair Becker a, *, Laurie J.B. Laurenson a, Kylie Bishop a, b
a
School of Life and Environmental Science, Deakin University, P.O. Box 423, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia
b
South Coast Natural Resource Management, P.O. Box 1801, Esperance, Western Australia 6450, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fish kills are not uncommon within estuaries in many regions of the world. In seasonally open systems,
Received 4 March 2008 which are common in temperate areas, they are often associated with mouth openings. Such a kill
Accepted 17 February 2009 occurred in July 2005 in the Surrey Estuary following a closed mouth period of seven months resulting in
Available online 26 February 2009
the loss of many thousands of sh. At the time the sh community within the estuary was under
investigation which provided comprehensive data of this population prior to the kill. Monthly water
Keywords:
quality monitoring was also being conducted prior to the kill and also carried out on a daily basis
dissolved oxygen
following the mouth opening. The Surrey was stratied during the closed mouth phase, isolated waters
stratication
Australia below the halocline had stagnated and become anoxic. As a result only waters above the halocline
seasonally open estuary contained oxygen concentrations capable of sustaining most sh. It appears that if a mouth opening
happens under low ow conditions, a shearing effect occurs within the water column where surface
waters ow out to sea leaving deeper waters behind. This resulted in only anoxic waters being present
for in excess of six days and was responsible for the sh kill. Fish sampling of the Surrey Estuary was
conducted three and six months following the kill and those data were compared to that collected in the
12 months prior to the event. Three months after the kill few sh were collected within the estuary and
included marine opportunists near the mouth and estuarine resident species in the far upper reaches of
the system. However six months following the kill large numbers of estuarine resident species were
collected throughout the Surrey Estuary. As many species were euryhaline, it is believed that some
individuals migrated into freshwater reaches of the Surrey to escape the anoxic conditions within the
estuary. As conditions improved they recolonised the Surrey Estuary. The high fecundity and rapid
growth of these small, short lived species probably aided in their re-establishing populations within the
estuary. It is clear from this research that articial openings of estuaries should be avoided during low
ow periods when oxygen concentrations are low. It also appears that many of the small estuarine
resident species common in seasonally open estuaries are capable of recolonising estuaries following sh
kills. The effects on larger, longer lived resident species are not known but likely to be more detrimental
due to longer time required for them to reach sexual maturity.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fish kills are common in estuaries and have been linked to
changes in salinity, temperature and oxygen (Bennett, 1985; Rus-
sell, 1994; Whiteld, 1995; Dawson, 2002; Sloan and Kamer, 2005;
Hoeksema et al., 2006) as well as toxic dinoagellates (Burkholder
et al., 1992; Burkholder et al., 1995). Estimates on the number of sh
killed in specic instances range from a few thousand (Russell,
1994) to more than one million (Hoeksema et al., 2006), however
* Corresponding author. Present address: South African Institute for Aquatic
Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa.
E-mail address: a.becker@saiab.ac.za (A. Becker).
may be inaccurate because they generally rely upon visual surveys
(Steffe et al., 2007).
Although estuarine sh kills occur regularly worldwide, their
impact on sh populations is rarely investigated and reported
within the peer reviewed literature. This may be due to difculties
in accurately determining the scope and extent of the kill due to
a lack of suitable temporal data prior to the event. Collection of such
data is seldom the case as it is generally not known a kill is going to
occur until after the fact (Steffe et al., 2007). As such, a paucity of
information exists on the true extent of estuarine sh kills and how
quickly populations are able to recover or recolonise estuaries.
Many sh kills occur in seasonally or intermittently open estu-
aries where connectivity between marine and estuarine environ-
ments is blocked for a period of time by a sandbar at the mouth
(Roy et al., 2001; Harrison and Whiteld, 2006). These sandbars

0272-7714/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2009.02.016
 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572 567

Fig. 1. Map of the Surrey Estuary showing the six water quality sampling stations (S1S7), the location of the D.O. logger, the main channel (dark grey) and oodzones (light grey)

may block and close the mouth for protracted periods of time, often
resulting in a deterioration of estuarine water quality. Current
projections of climate change forecast a probable reduction in
rainfall across temperate regions such as southern Australia and
Africa (Schulze et al., 2001; Hughes, 2003). These forecasts would
lead to reduced ows into estuaries resulting in seasonally and
seasonally closed systems becoming isolated from the marine
environment more regularly and potentially increasing water
quality problems. If these projections are accurate, without careful
management, sh kills may occur on a more regular basis.
The Surrey Estuary is a small, seasonally open, micro-tidal
estuary on the south facing coast of Western Victoria (141
4201000 E, 38 150 3500 S). It has a history of sh kills that appear to
be associated with the articial opening of its mouth (Barton and
Sherwood, 2004). Articial opening of the mouth generally
involves the use of a backhoe to dig a trench through the sandbar
at the mouth of the closed estuary linking it to the ocean. These
openings are generally conducted to relieve ooding which
occurs due to the damming effect created by the closed mouth
which can result in water levels within the estuary being more
than 1.7 m above mean sea level (or 1.7 AHD). In July 2005,
following an extended period of closure (seven months), the
estuary was articially opened, subsequently resulting in a sh
kill. At the time, the small sized sh community within the
Surrey Estuary was under investigation as part of an ongoing
research project (Becker and Laurenson, 2007, 2008). As such,
monthly surveys of sh were taken between July 2004 and June
2005. These studies provide a comprehensive picture of the
composition and relative abundance of the sh community prior
to the sh kill event of July 2005.
This study aims to investigate and identify the cause of the July
2005 sh kill within the Surrey Estuary from water quality data

Table 1
Fish species recorded within the Surrey Estuary and the numbers collected prior to and following the July 2005 sh kill. * Samples collected during independent surveys. U
Indicates dead specimens of these species were collected during the sh kill.

Jul- Aug- Sep- Oct- Nov- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- Fish kill Sep- Mar- Aug-06 Sep-07
04 04 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 05 mortalities 05 06 * *
Acanthopagrus butcheri (black bream) 35 0 2 1 2 1 77 22 8 17 5 15 U 0 29 7 8
Afurcagobius tamarensis (Tamar River goby) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 4 0 0 1 0 0
Aldrichetta forsteri (yellow eye mullet) 18 2 9 0 4 0 0 28 1 1 0 2 U 17 4 6 0
Amoya bifrenatus (bridled goby) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anguilla australis (short nned eel) 0 16 27 25 31 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 U 6 0 1 2
Arripis trutta (Australian salmon) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 U 0 1 0 2
Atherinosoma microstoma (small mouth 177 36 274 11 72 19 88 699 306 119 333 13 U 0 399 11 76
hardyhead)
Galaxias maculatus (common galaxias) 121 31 61 6 258 348 38 37 23 11 28 1 U 0 8 20 0
Nannoperca australis (southern pigmy 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
perch)
Philypnodon grandiceps (at-head gudgeon) 39 36 60 295 145 197 574 390 391 501 479 114 U 10 379 146 386
Pseudaphritis urvillii (tupong) 0 1 1 1 0 1 27 3 4 3 0 4 U 0 0 0 0
Pseudogobius olorum (blue spot goby) 47 94 327 112 62 73 185 28 46 26 12 29 U 24 162 95 13
Retropinna semoni (southern smelt) 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 438 216 762 454 574 641 990 1209 784 680 861 178 57 983 286 487

Prior to Fish Kill After Fish Kill

568 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572

D.O. (mg/l)
5 July 2005 11 July 2005
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0

-1 -1

Site1
-2 Site2 -2
Site3 Mouth Opened
-3 Site4 -3
Site5
-4 Site6 -4
Site7
-5 -5

12 July 2005 13 July 2005

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0

-1 -1
Depth (m)

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

-5 -5

15 July 2005 29 September 2005

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20
0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

-5 -5

Fig. 2. Dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/L) throughout the water column along the length of the estuary between 5th July and 29th September 2005 within the Surrey estuary.

collected before and after the kill. Additionally, comparisons will be
made between the relative size of the sh population in the 12
months prior to the kill with sampling trips conducted following the
event to gauge how the community responded to such a large
disturbance.
2. Methods
2.1. Water quality data collection
Water quality proles were collected by Deakin University
Water Quality Laboratory. Dissolved oxygen (mg/L and % satura-
tion), temperature ( C) and salinity were recorded at half metre
intervals at seven sites along the estuary prior to and following the
sh kill as well as during September 2005 (Fig. 1). Before the arti-
cial opening a dissolved oxygen logger was installed halfway
along the estuary. The logger was suspended half a metre below
a oat and recorded mean hourly oxygen concentrations (mg/L).
2.2. Post sh kill sampling
Fish sampling after the kill followed identical methods to those
prior to the kill during 20042005 (Becker and Laurenson, 2008).
Fish were collected from six sites along the length of the estuary
using a single wing mini fyke net. Sampling was conducted during
September 2005 and March 2006. At sites 26 a net was set in the
main channel and, if ooded, a second net was set in the adjacent
oodzone. Site 1 consisted of only a main channel as little ooding
occurred near the mouth. All nets were set at sunrise, retrieved
within an hour of sunset and then reset overnight and hauled the
following sunrise. Fyke nets were constructed from 3 mm honey-
comb mesh with a single wing measuring 3.5 m in length and 70 cm
in height. Additional independent sh data was sourced from the
Glenelg-Hopkins Catchment Management Authority from surveys
undertaking during August 2006 and May 2007. Methods for these
surveys were similar to those employed by Becker and Laurenson
(2007), however some site locations differed and additional gear
(a number of box sh traps) were also utilised. As such, the data
from these surveys was not included within any statistical analysis
 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572 569

5
D.O. (mg/L)
4

0
00:00 July 7

12:00 July 8

00:00 July 10

12:00 July 11

00:00 July 13

12:00 July 14

00:00 July 16

12:00 July 17

00:00 July 19

12:00 July 20
Fig. 3. Mean hourly dissolved oxygen concentrations recorded by the installed logger within the Surrey Estuary between 7/7/2005 and 20/7/2005. Arrow indicates time at which
the estuary is believed to have been articially opened.

but the results are presented in Table 1 to provide comparable they began to rise again. By 29 September 2005, a sharp halocline
descriptive information on the sh population during these times. had re-established although salinities near the mouth were
generally higher than in upstream sections of the estuary.
2.3. Statistical analysis A drop exceeding 1.2 m in water level was observed following
the articial mouth opening (Table 2). As the water level dropped it
Differences in total catch (CPUE dened as number sh/ drained the ooded margins and exposed normally submerged
net h1) between September 2006 and March 2007 (post sh kill) mud banks in the lower estuary.
to the data collected in the 12 months prior to the sh kill were
tested using a one way ANOVA. Only data collected from the main
channel sites was included in the analysis due to some oodzone 3.2. Effect of the mouth opening on the small sized sh community
sites only being sampled sporadically prior to the kill and never within the Surrey Estuary
following the sh kill (due to the decrease in water level following
the opening). As a preliminary ANOVA did not reveal any differ- The articial mouth opening led to signicant losses of sh.
ences between diel periods (day/night samples) this data was Many sh were caught up in vegetation surrounding the estuary or
subsequently pooled. Data was fourth root transformed to meet the covered in mud, making accurate counts impossible, although it
assumptions of ANOVA. Homogeneity of variance was checked by was apparent many thousands of sh died.
observing plots of residuals and normality assessed with p-plots Nine species were identied as suffering mortalities during the
(Quinn and Keough, 2002). Unplanned pairwise comparisons of the sh kill (Table 1). Monthly mean total catches for the 12 months
monthly CPUE were performed with Tukeys post hoc test. prior to the sh kill were consistent, the exception being June 2005
(three weeks prior to the sh kill) when a lower catch was observed
3. Results (Fig. 5). The September 2005 survey (three months following the
kill) had a low total catch of 57 individuals. Most of these sh were
3.1. Hydrodynamic changes within the Surrey Estuary following the either marineestuarine opportunists (Aldrichetta forsteri) caught
July 2005 mouth opening near the mouth, or estuarine residents (Pseudogobius olorum)
collected in the far upper reaches of the estuary (Table 1). The
Prior to the articial mouth opening, oxygenated water occurred March 2006 survey (six months following the kill) saw the total
only in the upper layers of the water column in the lower half of the catch rise signicantly to levels equal to or higher than those
estuary (Fig. 2). Within upper sections of the estuary (sites 57) recorded prior to the sh kill. The catch was relatively diverse with
anoxic conditions existed from the bottom to the surface. By 12 July, eight species identied, including a number of estuarine resident
one day following the articial opening, virtually all water within species. When the total catch from all months was compared
the estuary was anoxic. These conditions persisted until 15 July a signicant difference was found (F 2.946; d.f. 13; p < 0.01).
when oxygen levels in the deeper layers near the mouth began to Pairwise comparisons identied signicant differences between
rise (Fig. 2). The dissolved oxygen logger recorded a large drop in the total catch in September 2005 (three months following the kill)
oxygen levels within the mid-reaches of the estuary following the with six of the months prior to the kill (including September 2004)
articial opening of the mouth (Fig. 3). It was not until 18 July that and the collection taken in March 2006.
dissolved oxygen levels began to rise in this section of the estuary. The independent surveys carried out in August 2006 and May
Immediately following the breaching, the halocline broke down, 2007 similarly contained mostly estuarine resident species.
particularly near the mouth, but also, to a lesser extent, in the Although numbers cannot be directly compared they were still
upstream sections of the estuary (Fig. 4). Salinity concentrations considerably higher and more diverse than those recorded in the
remained relatively low at the downstream sites until 15 July when months immediately following the kill.
570 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572

Salinity (PSU)
5 July 2005 11 July 2005
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
0 0

-1 -1

Site 1
-2 -2
Site 2
Site 3
-3 -3
Site 4
Site 5 Mouth Opened
-4 -4
Site 6
Site 7
-5 -5

12 July 2005 13 July 2005

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
0 0

-1 -1
Depth (m)

-2 -2

-3
-3

-4
-4
-5
-5

15 July 2005 29 September 2005

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 -4

-5 -5

Fig. 4. Salinity throughout the water column along the length of the estuary between 5th July and 29th September 2005 within the Surrey Estuary.

4. Discussion Estuary, indeed monitoring conducted between 2003 and 2005

4.1. Physical processes leading to the sh kill
It appears that fatally low levels of dissolved oxygen, associated
with the articial mouth opening were responsible for the sh kill
within the Surrey Estuary. Before the mouth opening, oxygen levels
were at critically low levels throughout most of the estuary, partic-
ularly in the upper reaches where anoxic water extended from the
bottom of the water column, through the halocline to the surface.
Though deeper waters in the downstream half of the estuary were
also anoxic, waters above the halocline were well oxygenated. Deep
water anoxia is not an uncommon phenomenon within the Surrey
Table 2
Water level of the Surrey Estuary AHD (above mean sea level) prior to and following
the articial opening of the mouth on the 11th July 2005.
10 Jul 2005 11 Jul 2005 12 Jul 2005
1.64 1.35 0.5
regularly recorded low dissolved oxygen in deeper waters, particu-
larly during periods of mouth closure (Becker, 2007). This pattern of
deep water anoxia is also common in other seasonally closed
systems along the western coast of Victoria and is generally associ-
ated with extend periods of mouth closure (Sherwood, 1985).
The water quality data collected prior to and following the
mouth opening indicates the water column undergoes a shearing
effect if the opening occurs during periods of low ow, where
surface water ows out to sea leaving only deeper waters behind.
Dissolved oxygen concentration recorded on the day of the kill
supports this theory. This data was collected approximately 4 h
following the opening and show sites which previously contained
well oxygenated surface water (sites 13) already had seriously
depleted oxygen concentrations throughout the water column.
Surface waters had at this time owed out of the estuary leaving
only deeper anoxic water behind. The drop in water height further
conrms this, as it shows in the hours following the mouth
13 Jul 2005
opening, there was a net loss of water within the estuary rather
0.4
than a displacement from waters further upstream. In the hours
 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572 571

1.6

1.4

1.2

Mean Total CPUE Fish Kill

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
23-25 Jul 04

19-12 Aug 04

14-16 Sep 04

12-14 Oct 04

16-18 Nov 04

13-15 Dec 04

11-13 Jan 05

17-19 Feb 05
20-22 Mar 05

12-14 Apr 05

10-12 May 05

14-16 Jun 05
Jul 05

Aug 05

15-17 Sep 05

Oct 05
Nov 05

Dec 05

Jan 06
Feb 06
12-14 Mar 06
Fig. 5. Mean monthly total CPUE in the Surrey Estuary between July 2004 and June 2005 with the two additional post kill surveys conducted in September 2005 and March 2006
(s.e.).

following the mouth opening, dissolved oxygen concentrations at consistent with a survey carried by the Department of Primary
sites 6 and 7 rose at the surface and were probably caused by well Industries in August 2005 (Grixti et al., 2006).
oxygenated water within the inundated adjacent wetlands (Becker, Mean total catch during 20042005 was relatively consistent
2007) owing into the main channel as the surface water sheared with the exception of June 2005 when catch rates dropped, coin-
off. By 12 July the wetlands were completely drained and surface ciding with changes in water quality, notably a marked reduction in
waters at sites 6 and 7 were again anoxic. dissolved oxygen concentrations (Becker, 2007). There was no
Dissolved oxygen levels remained low throughout the water evidence of sh mortalities at this time. Active avoidance of hypoxic
column along the estuary in the days following the mouth opening. conditions within estuaries by nekton has previously been reported
Following the initial shearing process which initiated the kill, the (Pihl et al., 1991). With many of the species being euryhaline
region of anoxic water that was present in upper reaches of the (McDowall, 1996), it is possible that some migrated into the
estuary owed downstream and occupied the entire estuary, exac- freshwater reaches of the Surrey to escape the hypoxic conditions
erbating the sh kill. The low 4 ML/day ow (mean July ow between present in much of the estuary, resulting in the low catch. It is also
1975 and 2004 is 169 ML/day  8 ML/day) into the estuary explains possible that large numbers of sh were congregating in small
why well oxygenated freshwater did not ow into the estuary and pockets of higher oxygen concentration within the estuary or
ush out the anoxic water. Indeed it was not until 15 July when dis- physically stressed and moving little. The passive nature of the gear
solved oxygen concentrations began to rise caused by what appears used requires sh to be mobile and will not collect stationary
to be marine water owing into the lower sections of the Surrey. individuals (Smith and Hindell, 2005).
The last sh kill within the Surrey occurred during winter of The catch three months following the kill (September 2005) saw
1999 which was also the last time annual high winter freshwater a further drop in total catch and was signicantly lower than the
ows failed (mean July 1999 ow was 6 ML/day  0.5 ML/day). catch recorded during six of the months prior to the sh kill and
Over the past ten years there has been no evidence of a sh kill March 2006. At this time water quality had improved and there
occurring from a natural (unassisted) mouth opening which appeared no physiological reason for sh that may have migrated
generally occurs during periods of annual high rainfall and high upstream prior to the sh kill to escape hypoxic conditions, not to
ow into the estuary. The 1999 kill was again the result of an return to the estuary.
articial mouth opening and clearly highlights the requirement of By the end of March 2006 there was evidence of recovery in the
high freshwater inows to minimise the risk of sh kills associated sh population. Species present were mostly juvenile Atherinosoma
with such mouth openings. microstoma and Philypnodon grandiceps with catch rates equal to or
higher than those observed during the consecutive 12 month
4.2. Impact and recovery of the sh population sampling period (Becker and Laurenson, 2008). Surveys during
August 2007 and May 2007 similarly found a number of species in
Articial opening of the mouth resulted in high mortalities of numbers comparable to those recorded by Becker and Laurenson
sh within the estuary. The proportion of individuals affected (2008). This implies that enough individuals survived the sh kill to
varied between species, though the large numbers of dead sh successfully introduce new recruits into the estuary. Given the
observed both within the water and along the banks, suggests opportunistic reproductive strategy of these species (Winemiller,
a signicant percentage of the population died. Low catches during 2005), it is not unexpected that such species were most abundant.
September 2005 appeared to support high mortality levels and is Such reproductive strategies manage best following signicant
572 A. Becker et al. / Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 82 (2009) 566572
disturbances and point to a resilient ecological community (Hol-
ling, 1973). It is unlikely the high catch during March 2006 was due
to migration of sh from a neighbouring estuary. With the excep-
tion of Aldrichetta forsteri, most species are estuarine residents and
are rarely found in large numbers within the marine environment
(Lenanton and Potter, 1987). With fewer large predators within the
system (as a result of the sh kill) the current year class of small
species could be particularly successful.
The long term effect on larger longer lived species was not
investigated. Of particular interest would be the effect on Acan-
thopagrus butcheri as this species does not reach sexual maturity
until 34 years of age. This species also displays episodic recruit-
ment within estuaries where recruitment may be low for periods
extending for at least three years (Morison et al., 1998). These traits
make species such as this particularly vulnerable to sh kills and
the longer term effects more detrimental than experienced by the
smaller rapid growing sh species.
This research has demonstrated the need for careful consider-
ation prior to the articial opening of closed estuaries, particularly
under low ow conditions. If the water column is stratied and
anoxia is detected below the halocline there is a high likelihood sh
mortalities will occur. The re-establishment of small sized estuarine
resident sh within the Surrey following the July 2005 kill points to
these species being resilient to severe disturbances, however the
effect of larger longer lived species is unknown.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Holsworth Wildlife
Research Fund, Western Coastal Board and the Glenelg-Hopkins
Catchment Management Authority for funding this research. We
would also like to thank the Deakin University Water Quality
Laboratory for collecting the water quality data. The Glenelg-
Hopkins Management Authority also allowed access to their water
quality data as well as the additional post kill sh data. Maryanne
Bartlett and Travis Howson assisted in the eld. Fish were
collected under Department of Primary Industries collection
permit RP735. A DUPA (Deakin University Postgraduate Award)
scholarship was provided to A.B.
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