Types of emissions[edit]

Emissions of many air pollutants have been shown to have variety of negative
effects on public health and the natural environment. Emissions that are principal
pollutants of concern include:

Hydrocarbons (HC) - A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons

are toxins. Hydrocarbons are a major contributor to smog, which can be a major
problem in urban areas. Prolonged exposure to hydrocarbons contributes
to asthma, liver disease, lung disease, and cancer. Regulations governing
hydrocarbons vary according to type of engine and jurisdiction; in some cases,
"non-methane hydrocarbons" are regulated, while in other cases, "total
hydrocarbons" are regulated. Technology for one application (to meet a non-
methane hydrocarbon standard) may not be suitable for use in an application that
has to meet a total hydrocarbon standard. Methane is not directly toxic, but is
more difficult to break down in a catalytic converter, so in effect a "non-methane
hydrocarbon" regulation can be considered easier to meet. Since methane is
a greenhouse gas, interest is rising in how to eliminate emissions of it. HC
emissions can come not only from a vehicle's engine buts also directly from the
fuel tank and lines, 24 hours a day, even when the engine is off; the complex
system of fuel vent lines and a charcoal canister is meant to collect and contain
fuel vapors and route them either back to the fuel tank or, after the engine is
started and warmed up, into the air intake to be burned in the engine.

Carbon monoxide (CO) - A product of incomplete combustion, inhaled carbon

monoxide reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen; overexposure (carbon
monoxide poisoning) may be fatal. (Carbon monoxide persistently binds to
hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying chemical in red blood cells, where oxygen (O 2)
would temporarily bind; the bonding of CO excludes O 2 and also reduces the
ability of the hemoglobin to release already-bound oxygen, on both counts
rendering the red blood cells ineffective. Recovery is by the slow release of
bound CO and the body's production of new hemoglobina healing processso
full recovery from moderate to severe [but nonfatal] CO poisoning takes hours or
days. Removing a person from a CO-poisoned atmosphere to fresh air stops the
injury but does not yield prompt recovery, unlike the case where a person is
removing from an asphyxiating atmosphere [i.e. one deficient in oxygen]. Toxic
effects delayed by days are also common.)

NOx - Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high
temperature and pressure inside the engine. NO x is a precursor to smog and acid
rain. NOx is the sum of NO and NO2.[1] NO2 is extremely reactive. NOx production
is increased when an engine runs at its most efficient (i.e. hottest) operating
point, so there tends to be a natural tradeoff between efficiency and control of
NOx emissions.

Particulate matter Soot or smoke made up of particles in

the micrometre size range: Particulate matter causes negative health effects,
including but not limited to respiratory disease and cancer. Very fine particulate
matter has been linked to cardiovascular disease.
 Sulfur oxide (SOx) - A general term for oxides of sulfur, which are emitted from
motor vehicles burning fuel containing sulfur. Reducing the level of fuel sulfur
reduces the level of Sulfur oxide emitted from the tailpipe.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) - Organic compounds which typically

have a boiling point less than or equal to 250 C; for
example chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and formaldehyde. Volatile organic
compounds are a subsection of Hydrocarbons that are mentioned separately
because of their dangers to public health.

Pelepasan banyak pencemar udara telah terbukti mempunyai pelbagai kesan

negatif kepada kesihatan awam dan alam semula jadi. Pelepasan yang bahan
pencemar utama yang membimbangkan termasuk:

Hidrokarbon (HC) - Satu kelas bahan api dibakar atau sebahagiannya dibakar,
hidrokarbon toksin. Hidrokarbon adalah penyumbang utama kepada kabut, yang
boleh menjadi masalah utama di kawasan bandar. Pendedahan yang berpanjangan
kepada hidrokarbon menyumbang kepada asma, penyakit hati, penyakit paru-paru,
dan kanser. Peraturan-peraturan berkenaan hidrokarbon berbeza mengikut jenis
enjin dan bidang kuasa; dalam beberapa kes, "hidrokarbon bukan metana" dikawal
selia, manakala dalam kes lain, "jumlah hidrokarbon" dikawal selia. Teknologi untuk
satu permohonan (mencari hidrokarbon standard bukan metana) mungkin tidak
sesuai untuk digunakan dalam satu aplikasi yang perlu memenuhi jumlah standard
hidrokarbon. Metana tidak secara langsung toksik, tetapi adalah lebih sukar untuk
memecahkan dalam penukar bermangkin, jadi dalam kesan yang "bukan metana-
hidrokarbon" peraturan boleh dianggap lebih mudah untuk memenuhi. Sejak metana
adalah gas rumah hijau, faedah yang semakin meningkat dalam bagaimana untuk
menghapuskan pelepasan itu. pelepasan HC boleh datang bukan sahaja dari
mencari-cari alasan enjin kenderaan juga secara langsung dari tangki bahan api dan
garis-garis, 24 jam sehari, walaupun enjin dimatikan; sistem yang kompleks garis
bolong bahan api dan kanister arang bertujuan untuk mengumpul dan mengandungi
wap bahan api dan laluan mereka sama ada kembali ke tangki bahan api atau,
selepas enjin dimulakan dan panas, ke dalam pengambilan udara untuk dibakar
dalam enjin.

Karbon monoksida (CO) - Produk pembakaran tidak lengkap, dihidu karbon

monoksida mengurangkan keupayaan darah untuk membawa oksigen; pendedahan
yang terlalu lama (keracunan karbon monoksida) boleh membawa maut. (Karbon
monoksida berterusan mengikat kepada hemoglobin, bahan kimia yang membawa
oksigen dalam sel-sel darah merah, di mana oksigen (O2) akan mengikat
sementara; ikatan CO tidak termasuk O2 dan juga mengurangkan keupayaan
hemoglobin untuk melepaskan oksigen yang sudah terikat, di kedua-dua tuduhan
menyebabkan sel-sel darah merah tidak berkesan. Recovery adalah dengan
pelepasan perlahan terikat CO dan pengeluaran badan daripada proses-so
hemoglobin-a penyembuhan pemulihan penuh baru dari sederhana kepada jam
atau hari yang teruk [tetapi nonfatal] keracunan CO mengambil. keluar seseorang
dari suasana CO-beracun ke udara bersih berhenti kecederaan tetapi tidak
menghasilkan pemulihan segera, tidak seperti kes di mana seseorang itu
mengeluarkan dari suasana asphyxiating [iaitu satu kekurangan oksigen]. kesan
keracunan tertunda selama hari juga biasa.)
 NOx - Generated apabila nitrogen di udara bertindak balas dengan oksigen pada
suhu yang tinggi dan tekanan di dalam enjin. NOx adalah pelopor kepada kabut dan
hujan asid. NOx adalah jumlah NO dan NO2. [1] NO2 adalah sangat reaktif.
pengeluaran NOx meningkat apabila enjin berjalan pada titik operasi yang paling
berkesan (iaitu panas), jadi cenderung menjadi tradeoff semula jadi antara
kecekapan dan kawalan pelepasan NOx.

Bahan Zarah - Jelaga atau asap terdiri daripada zarah dalam pelbagai saiz
mikrometer: perkara Zarah menyebabkan kesan-kesan kesihatan yang negatif,
termasuk tetapi tidak terhad kepada penyakit pernafasan dan kanser. Sangat
perkara zarah halus telah dikaitkan dengan penyakit kardiovaskular.

Sulfur oksida (SOx) - Satu istilah umum untuk oksida sulfur, yang berpunca
daripada penggunaan kenderaan motor pembakaran bahan api yang mengandungi
sulfur. Mengurangkan tahap sulfur bahan api mengurangkan tahap oksida Sulfur
dipancarkan dari tailpipe itu.

sebatian organik meruap (VOC) - Sebatian organik yang biasanya mempunyai

takat didih kurang daripada atau sama dengan 250 C; sebagai contoh
klorofluorokarbon (CFC) dan formaldehid. sebatian organik meruap adalah
subseksyen Hidrokarbon yang dinyatakan secara berasingan kerana bahaya
kepada kesihatan awam.

History[edit]
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Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, various federal, state and local governments in
the United States conducted studies into the numerous sources of air pollution.
These studies ultimately attributed a significant portion of air pollution to the
automobile, and concluded air pollution is not bounded by local political boundaries.
At that time, such minimal emission control regulations as existed in the U.S. were
promulgated at the municipal or, occasionally, the state level. The ineffective local
regulations were gradually supplanted by more comprehensive state and federal
regulations. By 1967 the State of California created the California Air Resources
Board, and in 1970, the federal United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) was established. Both agencies, as well as other state agencies, now
create and enforce emission regulations for automobiles in the United States. Similar
agencies and regulations were contemporaneously developed and implemented
in Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and Japan.
The first effort at controlling pollution from automobiles was the PCV (positive
crankcase ventilation) system. This draws crankcase fumes heavy in unburned
hydrocarbons a precursor to photochemical smog into the engine's intake tract
so they are burned rather than released unburned from the crankcase into the
atmosphere. Positive crankcase ventilation was first installed on a widespread basis
by law on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California. The following year, New
York required it. By 1964, most new cars sold in the U.S. were so equipped, and
PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide. [2]
The first legislated exhaust (tailpipe) emission standards were promulgated by the
State of California for 1966 model year for cars sold in that state, followed by the
United States as a whole in model year 1968. Also in 1966, the first emission test
cycle was enacted in the State of California measuring tailpipe emissions in PPM
(parts per million). The standards were progressively tightened year by year, as
mandated by the EPA.
By the 1974 model year, the emission standards had tightened such that the de-
tuning techniques used to meet them were seriously reducing engine efficiency and
thus increasing fuel usage. The new emission standards for 1975 model year, as
well as the increase in fuel usage, forced the invention of the catalytic converter for
after-treatment of the exhaust gas. This was not possible with
existing leaded gasoline, because the lead residue contaminated the platinum
catalyst. In 1972, General Motors proposed to the American Petroleum Institute the
elimination of leaded fuels for 1975 and later model year cars. [citation needed] The
production and distribution of unleaded fuel was a major challenge, but it was
completed successfully in time for the 1975 model year cars. All modern cars are
now equipped with catalytic converters and leaded fuel is nearly impossible to buy in
most First World countries.

Regulatory agencies[edit]
The agencies charged with regulating exhaust emissions vary from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction, even in the same country. For example, in the United States, overall
responsibility belongs to the EPA, but due to special requirements of the State of
California, emissions in California are regulated by the Air Resources Board. In
Texas, the Texas Railroad Commission is responsible for regulating emissions
from LPG-fueled rich burn engines (but not gasoline-fueled rich burn engines).
North America[edit]

California Air Resources Board - California, United States (most sources)

Environment Canada - Canada (most sources)

Environmental Protection Agency - United States (most sources)

Texas Railroad Commission - Texas, United States (LPG-fueled engines only)

Transport Canada - Canada (trains and ships)

Europe[edit]
The European Union has control over regulation of emissions in EU member states;
however, many member states have their own government bodies to enforce and
implement these regulations in their respective countries. In short, the EU forms the
policy (by setting limits such as the European emission standard) and the member
states decide how to best implement it in their own country.
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, matters concerning environmental policy are what is known
as "devolved powers" which means, each of the constituent countries deals with it
separately through their own government bodies set up to deal with environmental
issues in their respective country:

Environment Agency - England and Wales

Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) - Scotland

Department of the Environment - Northern Ireland

However, many UK-wide policies are handled by the Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and they are still subject to EU regulations.

Emissions control[edit]
Engine efficiency has been steadily improved with improved engine design, more
precise ignition timing and electronic ignition, more precise fuel metering,
and computerized engine management.
Advances in engine and vehicle technology continually reduce the toxicity of exhaust
leaving the engine, but these alone have generally been proved insufficient to meet
emissions goals. Therefore, technologies to detoxify the exhaust are an essential
part of emissions control.
Air injection[edit]
Main article: Secondary air injection
One of the first-developed exhaust emission control systems is secondary air
injection. Originally, this system was used to inject air into the engine's exhaust ports
to provide oxygen so unburned and partially burned hydrocarbons in the exhaust
would finish burning. Air injection is now used to support the catalytic converter's
oxidation reaction, and to reduce emissions when an engine is started from cold.
After a cold start, an engine needs an air-fuel mixture richer than what it needs
at operating temperature, and the catalytic converter does not function efficiently
until it has reached its own operating temperature. The air injected upstream of the
converter supports combustion in the exhaust headpipe, which speeds catalyst
warmup and reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emitted from the tailpipe.
Exhaust gas recirculation[edit]
Main article: Exhaust gas recirculation
In the United States and Canada, many engines in 1973 and newer vehicles (1972
and newer in California) have a system that routes a metered amount of exhaust into
the intake tract under particular operating conditions. Exhaust neither burns nor
supports combustion, so it dilutes the air/fuel charge to reduce peak combustion
chamber temperatures. This, in turn, reduces the formation of NOx.
Catalytic converter[edit]
Main article: Catalytic converter
The catalytic converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, which converts
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and NOx into less harmful gases by using a
combination of platinum, palladium and rhodium as catalysts.
There are two types of catalytic converter, a two-way and a three-way converter.
Two-way converters were common until the 1980s, when three-way converters
replaced them on most automobile engines. See the catalytic converter article for
further details.
Kecekapan enjin telah semakin bertambah baik dengan reka bentuk yang lebih baik
enjin, pemasaan pencucuhan yang lebih tepat dan pencucuhan elektronik, bahan api
pemeteran lebih tepat, dan pengurusan enjin berkomputer.
Kemajuan dalam teknologi enjin dan kenderaan terus mengurangkan ketoksikan
ekzos meninggalkan enjin, tetapi ini sahaja secara amnya telah terbukti tidak
mencukupi untuk memenuhi matlamat pelepasan. Oleh itu, teknologi untuk
menyahtoksik ekzos adalah bahagian yang penting dalam kawalan pelepasan.
suntikan udara [sunting]
Rencana utama: suntikan udara Menengah
Salah satu sistem kawalan pelepasan ekzos pertama dibangunkan adalah suntikan
udara sekunder. Pada asalnya, sistem ini digunakan untuk menyuntik udara ke
dalam pelabuhan ekzos enjin untuk menyediakan oksigen supaya hidrokarbon yang
tidak terbakar dan sebahagiannya dibakar dalam ekzos akan menyelesaikan
terbakar. suntikan udara kini digunakan untuk menyokong tindak balas
pengoksidaan penukar bermangkin, dan untuk mengurangkan pelepasan apabila
enjin dimulakan dari sejuk. Selepas permulaan yang sejuk, enjin yang memerlukan
campuran udara-bahan api lebih kaya daripada apa yang diperlukan pada suhu
operasi, dan penukar bermangkin tidak berfungsi dengan cekap sehingga ia
mencapai suhu operasi sendiri. Udara yang disuntik hulu penukar menyokong
pembakaran dalam headpipe ekzos, yang mempercepatkan pemangkin warmup dan
mengurangkan jumlah hidrokarbon yang tidak terbakar dipancarkan dari tailpipe itu.
Exhaust gas edaran semula [sunting]
Rencana utama: Exhaust edaran semula gas
Di Amerika Syarikat dan Kanada, banyak enjin pada tahun 1973 dan baru kenderaan
(1972 dan baru di California) mempunyai satu sistem yang laluan sejumlah bermeter
ekzos ke dalam saluran pengambilan di bawah keadaan operasi tertentu. Exhaust
tidak terbakar dan tidak menyokong pembakaran, jadi ia mencairkan caj udara /
bahan api untuk mengurangkan puncak suhu kebuk pembakaran. Ini seterusnya,
mengurangkan pembentukan NOx.
Penukar bermangkin [sunting]
Rencana utama: Penukar bermangkin
Penukar bermangkin adalah alat yang diletakkan di dalam paip ekzos, yang
menukarkan hidrokarbon, karbon monoksida, dan NOx ke dalam gas kurang
berbahaya dengan menggunakan gabungan platinum, palladium dan rhodium
sebagai pemangkin.
Terdapat dua jenis penukar pemangkin, dua hala dan tiga hala penukar. penukar dua
hala adalah biasa sehingga tahun 1980-an, apabila penukar tiga hala menggantikan
mereka pada enjin kereta yang paling. Lihat artikel penukar pemangkin untuk
maklumat lanjut.
Evaporative emissions control[edit]
"EVAP" redirects here. EVAP may also refer to Evaporation.
Evaporative emissions are the result of gasoline vapors escaping from the vehicle's
fuel system. Since 1971, all U.S. vehicles have had fully sealed fuel systems that do
not vent directly to the atmosphere; mandates for systems of this type appeared
contemporaneously in other jurisdictions. In a typical system, vapors from the fuel
tank and carburetor bowl vent (on carbureted vehicles) are ducted to canisters
containing activated carbon. The vapors are adsorbed within the canister, and during
certain engine operational modes fresh air is drawn through the canister, pulling the
vapor into the engine, where it burns.

Remote Sensing Emission testing Field studies[edit]

Some US states are also using a technology developed by Dr. Donald H. Stedman of
the University of Denver, which uses infra-red and ultraviolet light to detect
emissions while vehicles pass by on public roads, thus eliminating the need for
owners to go to a test center. Stedman's invisible light flash detection of exhaust
gases is commonly used in metropolitan areas,[3] is offered by the US-Swedish
company OPUS Inspection[4] and becoming more broadly known in Europe.[5]
Use of emission test data[edit]
Emission test results from individual vehicles are in many cases compiled to
evaluate the emissions performance of various classes of vehicles, the efficacy of
the testing program and of various other emission-related regulations (such as
changes to fuel formulations) and to model the effects of auto emissions on public
health and the environment. For example, the Environmental Working Group used
California ASM emissions data to create an "Auto Asthma Index" that rates vehicle
models according to emissions of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, chemical
precursors to photochemical smog.

Penyejatan kawalan pelepasan [sunting]

"EVAP" pelencongan di sini. EVAP juga boleh merujuk kepada penyejatan.

emisi meruap adalah hasil daripada wap petrol melarikan diri dari sistem bahan
api kenderaan. Sejak tahun 1971, semua kenderaan AS mempunyai sistem
bahan api berturap yang tidak melepaskan terus ke atmosfera; mandat untuk
sistem jenis ini muncul contemporaneously dalam bidang kuasa lain. Dalam
sistem biasa, wap dari mangkuk tangki bahan api dan karburetor melepaskan
(atas kenderaan carbureted) sedang disalurkan ke kanister mengandungi karbon
diaktifkan. Wap terjerap dalam bejana, dan semasa mod operasi enjin tertentu
udara segar diambil melalui bejana, menarik wap ke dalam enjin, di mana ia
membakar.

Remote Sensing ujian pelepasan - Kajian Field [sunting]

Beberapa negeri Amerika Syarikat juga menggunakan teknologi yang
dibangunkan oleh Dr. Donald H. Stedman Universiti Denver, yang menggunakan
infra-merah dan ultraviolet cahaya untuk mengesan pelepasan manakala
kenderaan melewati di atas jalan awam, sekali gus menghapuskan keperluan
untuk pemilik untuk pergi ke pusat ujian. pengesanan flash cahaya tidak
kelihatan Stedman gas ekzos biasanya digunakan di kawasan metropolitan, [3]
ditawarkan oleh syarikat US-Sweden OPUS Inspection [4] dan menjadi lebih
meluas dikenali di Eropah. [5]

Penggunaan data ujian pelepasan [sunting]

keputusan ujian pelepasan dari kenderaan individu dalam banyak kes disusun
untuk menilai prestasi pelepasan dari pelbagai kelas kenderaan, keberkesanan
program ujian dan pelbagai peraturan yang berkaitan pelepasan-lain (seperti
perubahan untuk menjana rumusan) dan model kesan pelepasan auto ke atas
kesihatan awam dan alam sekitar. Sebagai contoh, Kumpulan Kerja Alam Sekitar
digunakan California ASM data pelepasan untuk mewujudkan "Index Asma Auto"
bahawa model kadar kenderaan mengikut pelepasan hidrokarbon dan nitrogen
oksida, peningkatan kimia untuk kabut fotokimia.

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