A M A N UA L F O R

W R IT ER S
C O V ERI N G T HE N EEDS OF
AU T H O R S FOR

I N F O R M A T IO N ON R ULES OF W R ITI N G
A N D PR A C TI C ES I N PRI N T I N G

BY

JO H N M A T T HEW S MAN L Y
Head 9f the Department of English
The Univ ersity f
I Chicag o

AN D

JO H N AR T H UR BO W ELL
f the
I Univ er sity f Chizago
o Pr ess

T H E UNI V E RSI T Y O F C H I CA G O PR E SS
C HICAG O . I LLIN O IS
 PREFACE

The M anual of S tyle o f the Uni versi ty o f Chicag o

Press origi n a lly p ub li she d a s a guid e fo r p rin ters p roo f
, ,

read ers a n d c opy edi tors w as soon foun d to be s o use

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ful to wri ters fo r the press s ec retari es sten o grap hers

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typi sts an d all other c lasses o fp ers ons in terested in wri t

,

i ng tha t the d em an d fo r i t be came very gre a t a n d the

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volum e h a s pa ssed thr ou gh three e di ti ons e ach m ore ,

volumi nou s than the p rec edi ng Several o f i ts c h ap .

ters however thou gh o f p rim e i nterest to p ri nters a re

, , ,

o f c ompa r a ti vely sli ght v alue to wri ters The p resent .

volum e has therefore been p re pa re d w i th the i ntenti on

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o f su pp ly i ng the i r s p ecia l nee d s .

I t i s b a se d u p on st a nda r d a uthori ti es su pp lem en te d

,

by observati on o f re c ent p r ac ti c es a nd ten denci es am on g

s chol a rs a n d ca reful wri ters Up on many p oin ts re pu
.

t able usage i s o i c ours e divide d ; but fo r p r ac tical p ur

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p oses every news pap er o fce every p rin tin g house has
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to make a choic e an d establi sh a unif orm rule in its prac

tic e Fo r the sam e rea sons the s am e p olicy i s ad o p te d
.

here T he p resent volum e i t i s beli eve d woul d lose

.
, ,

mu ch o f i ts v alue if i t gave all allow able forms an d prac

tic es instead o f givin g in eac h ca se a sin gle standard for m
or p r ac tic e .

A sin gle small volum e cannot c ontain solu ti ons o f all

the p roblem s which may c onfront a wri ter ; but the
V
Vi PR E FACE

authors venture to hOpe th a t f ew ma tters o f imp o rtan c e

h ave been negle c te d a nd th a t this volu m e wi ll b e o f
s erv ic e to wri ter s o f a ll c l a sse s .

A cknowle dgm ent is made o f the assis t an ce re cei ve d

f rom M r A C M cF arlan d gener al su perin ten dent o f
. . .
,

the Univers i ty of Chicago Pres s who contr ibu te d the ,

ma terial fo r ch ap ix The au thor s are also in de bte d to

. .

M rs C N Shup fo r hel pful su ggestions an d very care

. . .

f ul re adin g of the proo fs .

T he s t andar d tex tbooks and author i ti es on the sub

j ects co veie d by thi s wo r k are too num erous to m entio n

'

i n d et ail T he authors can express the i r o bliga tion to

.

these only i n a gener al manner .

J M M . . .

J A P . . .

Septemb er I , 19 13
 TABLE OF CON TEN T S
CHAPTE R PAG E

E N GLISH C OMP OSITION 1

II . GRA MM A I ICAL

N OTE S 25

(With a Lis t o f Pitfalls in Dictio n )

III . SPELLIN G ; WITH R ULE S F OR ABB REVIATIN G AN D

C OMP OUNDIN G WORDS 66

IV . CAPITALIZAI ION
86

V . P UNCTUATI ON 1 01

VI . THE USE OF I TALIC 1 23

LETTE R WRITIN G
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1 29

(With Fo rms)
VIII . HINTS ON THE P REPAR ATION or MANU SCRIPT
THE P RI NTE R 151

I LLUSTRATIONS 1 68

STA GE S THROU GH WHICH A B OOK PASSE S

M AKING 1 76

XI . TYP O G RAP HI CAL P RACTICE S AND TE RM S

MISCELLANE OUS I NF ORMA TION 2 00

211

vii
 C HAPTER I

E NGL ISH CO MP O SIT IO N

I WRITING A C RAF T AND AN AR T
.

The a b ili ty to wri te well ca nnot be i mp rovi se d nor ,

can a ny tre a ti se or te acher p rovid e an em er gen c y re cip e

.

which wi ll en a ble its p o s ses s or to di sp ense wi th lon g an d

m ore or less l a bori ous p repa r a ti on Li ke woo d carving
"
.
-
,

p ottery a r chi tec ture a n d a d oz en other f o r m s o f work

, , ,

wri ti ng i s p rima ri ly a c r af t wi th the capaci ty o f b e in g

,

tr ansf orm e d into an a rt I t i s a c r af t when pr ac tice d

.

f or the uses o f dai ly lif e by p ersons o f or di n a ry endow

m ents ; i t i s tr ansf orm e d into an a rt when to e xcellen ce
of c r af tsmanship i s add e d the f or ma t ive prin ciple th at
differentia tes an a rt f ro m a cr af t .

The a rt of wri ting like the other a rts cannot be

, ,

t aught A rt i s in c ommunicable T he c r af t o f wri tin g

. .
,

li ke the other c r af ts can be le a rne d an d Si n c e the p ro ce s s

, ,

o f le a rni ng can be h a stened an d made e a si er by s ugges

tion c ri tici sm an d di re c ti on we may fai rly s ay a s we
, , , ,

s ay i n a ll simil ar ca ses th a t i t can be t au ght We Sh a ll

,
.
,

there fore i n wh a t f ollows de al wi th wri ti ng solely a s a

, ,

c r af t Wherever there i s a n ade qu a te b a si s o f cr af ts

.

ma nship a rt ca n n d or cre a te i ts own i nstru ments a n d

,

m etho d s
The cr aft can b e le ar n e d b y an y on e T he nu m
.

I . . .

ber o f p ersons who ca nnot und er favor able c ondi ti ons

2 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

le arn a ny c r af t is s o s mall a s to be ne gligi ble I n de e d .

the s uc c ess o f William M orri s a n d other s i n d evelo pi n g

a ny and every chance comer i nto a s ki l ful arti s a n i n
c r a f ts so d epen d ent up on te c hn ical e xc ellen c e a s to r a nk

am on g the in d us trial arts a n d the gener a l e xp eri en ce o f

,

mankin d in the tr ansmi ssi on o f a c r af t o r i n du s tria l a rt

thro ugh ma ny gener a ti ons of a sin gle fami ly p rove th a t , ,

a lthough capaci ti es diff er wid ely s o m e capaci ty f or

,

any and every c raf t may b e a ssu m e d f or every norma l

hu man b eing T he c r af t of wri tin g is no e xc epti on to
.

thi s gener al rul e An yone who is wi lli ng to t ake the

.

tr o uble to do so can ac qui re i t .

The fun dam ent a l requi rem ent f or the r apid a n d

e ective l e a rni n g o f every c r af t i s ac t i ve ef f ort on the
pa rt o f the le a rner I n a c e rt ai n sense nothi n g ca n be
t aughtno p ro c ess no c r af t no s ci enc ea ll must be
.

, ,

l ea rne d T he s imp les t p hysica l p ro cesses su c h a s w a lk

.
,

i ng canno t be t aught ; a s lon g as the p upi l ref uses to

,

participa te in the p ro c e s s ref uses to ma ke the effort to

,

w alk i nstru c ti on is f uti le T he c r afts a n d the s ci en c e s

,
.

are even m ore d e pend ent u pon the participat ion o f the
le arner be cause in them the e le m ents o f phys ica l an d
,

m ent al action are more co mpl ica te d an d more h ighly

o r gan iz e d

Uncon s ciou s tr aini ng T here a re to b e s ure

.

some c r af tsan d wri ting is o n e of themwhi c h see m

.
, ,

to b e ac qui re d by c ert ain p ersons wi thout e ffort a n d

wi thout any app rentic eship But i n every s u c h ca s e i t
.
,

w i ll be foun d up on i nvestiga ti o n th a t the c r a f t i nvolves

 ENGL IS H CO MP O SI T I ON 3

only sp e cial applica ti ons o f p hysica l c ontr o l or m ent a l

pro ces s es which h ave been ac qui red by ad equ a te p r ac tic e
i n other for m s o f ac tivi ty N o man ever wrote w ell
.

unless he ei th er h ad ac tively tri e d to le a rn to wri te or

h ad a lre ady p r ac tice d i n som e oth er f or m the m ent a l
op er a tions essentia l to goo d wri ti ng .

The whole world i s in a sense a s chool for wri ters ,

a nd lif e gi ve s dai ly i nstru c ti on i n the c r af t to all who

wi ll li sten a nd p r ac tic e T he u s e o f l angu age an d the
.

organiz a tion o f thou ghtthe only fundam ent als of the

c r af ta re ta ught daily E very n ew obje c t or id e a
.

n am e d i n o ur he ar ing o ers an in cre a se in vo ca bul a ry

'

every well p hr a se d s enten c e i s a lesson i n synonym s i n

-

gr amma r a n d i n style ; f ro m i nfa nc y onwa rd we re c e i ve

,

lessons i n c le arne ss i n c oheren c e i n uni ty i n e mp h a si s ;

, , ,

an d alm ost every c onvers a tio n cont ai ns s o m e rhetorica l

d evice o r gure Si n c e wri ting is o nly t alk s et d own
.

on pap er an d even the best and m ost arti stic wri ti ng

,

m erely a sub lima te of the best t alk i t is al most i nevi

,

t a ble th a t anyone who li a s a ssocia te d f ro m i nfan cy w i th

cultiva te d an d i ntelligent p eop le will h ave had su ch a
train ing in l angu ag e a nd i n cl ea r a nd ord erly thi nkin g
as wi ll en able hi m to wr i te d e c ently wi thout s p e cic

trainin g in wri tin g T he word c o mp osi ti on i n c lu d es
.

the or ganiz a ti on a n d exp ression o f thought both or a lly

a n d i n wri ting a n d emp h a siz e s the imp ort a nt f ac t th a t
,

the two a re one

.

3
. S pe cial tr ai n in g u s u ally n e c es s.ar y Why then
are there s o many p ersons who t alk i n c ompa r a bly better
4 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

th an they wri te an d so m e who tho u gh they t a lk e a s ily

, , ,

are helpless an d agh a st when they a re c o mp elle d to

wri te Ther e are doubtless many causes whi c h si n gly
or i n c ombi na tion acc ount f or these fac ts O nly a f ew .

of th em can be di s cusse d here i n d et ai l .

In s o m e ca ses p erh ap s the fan ci e d sup erio r i ty o f a

, ,

brilliant t alker s c onvers a ti on to his wri tin g i s m er ely

i llu s ory Hi s t alk if c ri tically c onsid ere d would be

.
, ,

fo und to h ave the s am e d e fe c ts a s his wri ti ng His .

s u cc ess wo ul d be f o un d to d ep en d u p on the low st a n da r d s

o f cri tici s m appli ed to co nvers a tio n up on th a t rel ax e d

,

m ood o f s o cie ty whi c h acc ep t s mere r eadine ss i n retort ,

qui ckn es s wi th a p etried c omm onp l ac e a s the equi valent ,

of wit an d which so metim es c onfus e s the bright swif tne ss

,

o fh i gh p hysical vi t ali ty wi th i ntell ec tu a l bri llian c e .

But we all kno w i ns t an c e s i n whi c h the s up eri ori ty

of the c onver s a ti on to the wri ting is not i llusory T here .

a re men and wom en whose c onvers a ti on i s i nterestin g ,

bri lli ant f a s ci n a ting wi th as hes of wi s d om or p ro

, ,

fo un d sugg estiveness an d whose wri tin g i s a web o f the

,

c omm onp l ac e shot thro ugh wi th str an d s o f d ulnes s

, .

The diff erential caus e in su ch ca ses lies usu a lly i n the

temp er am ent T h ese p ersons e i ther h ave wh a t ps y
.

c ho lo gis ts ca ll s ho rt re ac ti on times or they p osses s
,

torpid min d s whi ch d evelop thei r full Sp ee d an d p ower

o nly un d er s tron
g Stimul ant s Su ch a s the e xci te m ent o f
,

ba t tling wits o r the vi sible p resen c e o f a gallery Of pos

si ble a dmi rers Hab i t too may c l aim i ts pa rt i n the
.
, ,

cause j ust as many wri ters can thi nk only wi th a p en

.
 E NGL ISH CO MP O SI T ION 5

in h an d a n d many or a tors can c omp ose thei r eloquent

,

p eri o d s only when they st and an d see or fa n cy they see . ,

an a udien c e bef ore the m so also many bri lliant c onver

,

s atio n ali s ts nee d the fami lia r c on di ti ons o f c onvers a t i on

to set thei r i ntelle c tu a l machi nery in op er a ti on Self .

c ons ci ousness a lso i s a fac tor o f no m e a n imp ort an c e in

, ,

som e ca ses an d o f ten co o p er a tes wi th h a bi t or the l ac k

-

of i t Self c ons ciousness li ke any other di str ac t i on o f

.
-

a ttenti on f rom the mai n ac tivi ty may w i th d r a w fro m

,

th a t ac ti vi ty m uch or ne a rly a ll o f one s m ent al p ower .

An entirely different c la ss o f p ersons who sp e ak well

but w ri te b ad ly i n c lu d es those who h ave not p r ac tic e d
wri ting of ten enou gh to be c om e accustom e d to the
m e c h ani cal ac t o f wri t ing I n the i r di stress there a re
.

two main fac tors I n the rst pl ac e the m ent a l p ower

.
,

a vai l a ble f or thi nki ng is dimini she d by the am ount

d r awn o ff to the i nstru m ent an d the ac t o f wri ting an d
to sel f c ons ci ou s observ a ti on o fthei r uns a ti sfac tory men
~

t a l p ro c esses I n the se c ond p l ac e wri tin g i s ne c ess ar ily

.
,

a slower mo de of exp ressi on th a n s p ee ch an d su ch perso ns ,

h a ve not yet le a rne d to think i n the temp o o f wri tin g to ,

d well on a thou ght lon g enough to set i t down a n d then

p ro ceed to the ne x t w i thout losi ng the imp etus o f co n
tin uo us thi nki n g Thi s c l a ss i s ve ry num erous T he
. .

re m e dy fo r the c ondi ti on obvi ously is p ers i stent p r ac tic e

i n wri ti ng .

M a ny i n dividu als in both these c l a sses a re seri ously

h amp ere d i n thei r eff orts to wri te by the f eeli ng th a t wri t
i n g esp e cially wri ti ng f or the p ubli c shoul d be som e
, ,
6 A M ANUAL FO R WRITE RS

thi ng sup ern e sho ul d be a rticially or a t le a st a rtfully

, , ,

de cor a ted th a t o ver the o rigi n a l f orm o f thei r thou ght

,

should b e d r ape d a be autiful ga rm ent calle d style .

Thi s is of c ours e a thorou ghly p ernici ous ide a ; i t h a s

, ,

not only p revente d many f ro m wri ting who mi ght h a ve

wri tten s imp ly a nd agree ably but worse th an th a t h a s
, , ,

bur dened the worl d wi th thous an d s o f pages o f th a t

useless an d b ad p ro duc t known a s n e wri tin g .

F ortun a t ely n e wri tin g is now c on d e mn e d by a ll

who know an d teac hers an d wri ters uni te i n reco gn iz

,

in g th a t style is not a ma tter o f sup ercia l de c or a ti on

but re s id es i n the very f orm i n which the thought i s
c on ceive d Phr a ses th a t d o not t the thou ght are
.

s een to dis gure not to orn am ent i t a n d the re m e d y f or

, ,

a p oo r s tyle is not n e wor d s but a better m o d e o f ,

thinki ng ju s t as the re me dy f or a f eeble shrunken

, ,

bo dy is not c lothe s but physica l d evelopm ent

.

4. W ri ti n g an d thi n ki n g T o wri te w ell is i n fac t

.
, ,

to thi n k or f eel s o methi ng worth s ayin g to gi ve the ,

thought or f e eli ng clea r an d d e ni te f orm a n d then to ,

s ay i t in p re ci sely thi s fo r m E very tre a ti se on wri ti n g

.
,

theref ore m us t b e not a c olle c ti on o f tric ks but fun

, , ,

d amen tally a tre a ti se on thi nki n g A nyone who h a s .

ac quire d the h a bi t of thinki ng c onst antly o f mixin g ,

thou ght wi th hi s obs erv ations an d e motions o f re e c tin g ,

up on the li kenesses a nd differen c es a n d causes o f thi ng s ,

wi ll h ave ide a s i n a bun dan c e w i ll b e a ble to gi ve the m

,

cl ea r a n d d eni te f orm a n d w ill nee d only p r ac tic e a n d

,

a f ew simp le i nstru c ti ons to be c o m e a g oo d wri ter .

 ENGL IS H CO MP O SIT I ON 7

III N TE LLE C TUA L E QUIPllEN T

.

The i ntelle c tu al equipm ent n ec e s s a ry f or c o mp osi

ti on or al or wri tten i nvolve s two fac tors a store o f
, , ,

i nteresting ma terial a n d the p ower o f thi nki ng c le a rly

an d i nteresti ngly .

I t i s not ne c ess a ry th a t the ma terial Shoul d be very

gre a t i n am ount So me c h armi ng an d even gre a t
.

wri ters h ave h ad li ttle knowledge an d co mpa r a ti vely

few imp ort ant id e a s I t is o f c ourse d esi r a ble th a t
.

there Should be enough knowle dge o f som e o n e subj e c t

to make i t worth whi le f or your au di en c e to a tten d to
wh a t you h a ve to s ay The part icula r n a ture o f the
.

ma teria l is o f even less imp ort an c e th an the am ount .

There i s p erh ap s no p ossi ble subje c t of thought or f eelin g

, ,

whi ch has a rouse d the i nterest of one hu man being th a t

i s not capa ble of i nteresting many The fun dam ent al re.

quiremen t o fa well store d mi n d i s th a t i ts ma terial should

-

c onsi st not o f c olorless re c ord s o f thi ngs re ad and he a r d

,

an d f elt an d seen nor of rem em bere d p hr a se s in whic h

,

others h ave e m bo die d the i r re ac ti ons to the manif old ele

m ents o f lif e but of s in c ere p ers on al re co rd s c olore d by
, ,

p erson al thought an d f eelin g e ac h c onn ec te d wi th multi

,

tu d es of other re c or d s wi th whi c h i t has so m e afn i ty .

The m o d e o f thi nkin g i s obvi ously of mu ch m ore

imp ort anc e than the am ount or the n a ture of the
ma terial I t not only p rovides the ma teria l but a s
. .

, ,

we h ave just seen d etermin es to a l a rge e x tent the

,

n a ture o f i t The enrichm ent of the min d then i s

.
, ,

fundam ent ally d ep end ent up on thi nking succ essfully .

8 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

1 . The p rim e c on di t ion o f s uc

Active r eceptivity .

ces sf ul thi nkin g i s p erh ap s a n a tt i tu d e o f wh a t may be

, ,

calle d ac ti ve re c e p tivi ty Thi s i nvolves not only
.

alertnes s of mi nd to o bserve an d to seek a n d re adi ness ,

to re c ord o b s erva ti ons e mo ti ons b i ts of knowledge f ro m

, ,

books a nd fro m men but su ch an a tti tud e a s cau s es

,

a ll the ide as whi c h alre ady inh a bi t the mi n d to be a le rt

to f orm s om e as so cia ti on wi th the ne wc om er I n to o .

ma ny mind s a n ew ide a i s re c eive d a s a str anger is in a n

E ngli sh hotel not a s a newc om er is i n a boo m to wn in
,
-

the West .

Geni us is the capaci ty fo r maki n g n ew an d v a lu a ble

c om bin a ti ons E dga r All a n Poe cert ai nly one o f the
.
,

most origi na l o f m en held th a t origi n ali ty i s capa ble o f

,

cultiva tio n by p ro c esses which i nvolve ac tive re ce p ti vi ty

a s thei r p rin cipal ele m ent Wi lli am Ki ngd on C liff or d
.

i n hi s es s ay o n The C ondi tions of Intelle c tu a l Develo p

ment as serts th a t the p ri ncipa l c on di tions are two one ,

p osi ti ve an d o n e ne ga ti ve T he p osi tive c on di tion
.
,

he s ays is th a t the mi n d shoul d ac t r a ther th a n a ss imi
,

l a te th a t its a tti tu de shoul d be o n e o f c re a ti on r a ther

,

th a n o f ac qui si ti on T he nega tive c on di tio n is

.

p l a stici ty : the avoidanc e o f all su c h c ryst alliz a t i on a s

i s imme dia tely suggested by the envi ron m ent A mi n d .

th a t would grow must let no ide a s be c o m e p er ma nent

e xc ep t su ch as lead to ac tion To w a r d a ll others i t m ust .

mai nt ai n a n a tti tu d e of absolute re c ep tivi ty ; admi tti n g

a ll bei ng m odi ed by all but p erma nently b ia sed by
, ,

none T o be c om e c ryst alli z e d xe d i n opin i on a n d

.
,
 E NGL ISH CO MP O SI T I ON 9

m o d e o f thought is to lose the g re a t ch ar ac te ri stic o f

,

li f e by whic h i t i s di stin gui she d f rom i n anima te n a ture
,
.

Si nc e stu dy an d e xp eri en c e a re the two sourc e s o f

ma teria l an d of style the a tti tud e o fwhi ch we h a ve been
,

Sp ea ki ng is ne c ess a ry fo r e ach Som e p ersons f e a r to

.

Sp oi l thei r origi n ali ty by re ading They wi sh to thi nk .

an d s ay wh a t h a s never been thou ght or s aid bef ore ,

an d they fe a r th a t re adi ng wi ll make the m s ee wi th the

eyes thi nk wi th the mi n d s an d sp e ak w i th the voic es o f
, ,

others T he e ffort to avoid c omm on ide a s o f ten re s ul ts

.

i n mi ssin g c omm on s ense But in d ep en d ently o f th a t

-
.
,

da nger i t shoul d be re mem bere d tha t if we live in huma n

, ,

so ci ety o ur ide a s a re stimul a te d an d organi z e d by the

,

id e a s of others whether we will or not an d i t i s better

, ,

to be i nuen c e d by a n able thi nker th an by a mul ti tu d e

o f loose t a lkers Wh a t counts i n re ading is the w ay in
.

which o n e re ad s .

2 . R eading R e adi ng Shoul d furni sh not only ma

.

terials f or thoug ht but c entr al id e a s f or the orga ni z a

,

ti on o f our id e a s an d the grouping of those f ugi ti ve

,

imp ressi ons those pa ssing e m otions whi c h a re not the

, ,

le a st imp ort ant pa rt o f a wri ter s equipm ent T o be .

n a tur a l does not m e an to susp en d thi nki ng to for get a ll

.
,

th a t re adi ng a n d e xp eri en c e an d re e c tion h a ve wri tten

i n he a rt an d mi n d N othin g i s m or e b a rren f or the
.

p urp oses of e xp ressi on th an the he art th a t has not

Sh are d i n the enrichm ent o f the whole n a ture T he .

n a tur a l l angu age o f pa ssi on is the c ry E m oti on m ust .

be enriche d by a sso cia ti on wi th id e a s be fore i t can yi el d

10 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

b eauty o r p o wer i n li ter a ture But pa s sive re adi n g fur

.

ni she s n o thi ng but ma terials whether thes e be m ere ,

fac ts or id ea s f or mula te d by other s Persons who r ead

,
.

pas s i vely h a ve the h abi t o f s eei ng thi ngs i n f orm s

c rea ted by the mi nds o f o ther s a n d of sp e aki n g i n
p hr a se s th a t a re not thei r o wn When they loo k a t a .

pic ture o r a l an d scap e o r he a r a p oe m o r s ee a p l ay

, , ,

they summ o n to thei r aid not thei r i ntellig en c e but thei r

m em ory ; a n d n o t o nly the phr a ses they u s e to express

th ei r em oti ons an d ju dgm ents but the very ju dgm ents

,

and e motions the m selve s are the work o f others T he .

long di sus e d machi nery of tho ught an d fe eli ng r efu s e s

-

to turn o f i t s elf an d m ust be p ush ed r o un d by the h a n d s

o f a noth er .

R e adi ng must be al ert s ympa thetic curi ous T he

, ,
.

m ost prot able book s are tho s e th a t i rri t a te tho s e wi th ,

which we di s agre e But they mu s t be re ad not wi th

.
,

s c orn an d aloofnes s but sympa the tica lly th a t is wi th

, , ,

a n i ntense d e s i re to as cert ai n e xac tly wh a t the wri ter

thi nks an d why M oreover re re adin g i s o f ten n eces
.
,
-

s a ry T he re ad er who n ever re r ead s a book be fore

.
-

he h a s h ad tim e to f orget i t ha s n o t yet ac qui re d the

h a bi t o f r eading .

3. L i
f e The a tti tud e tow a r d lif e a n d its exp eri en c e s
.

should not differ essentia lly f ro m th a t towa r d the wo rl d

o f books A c tive re c ep ti vi ty i s d eman d e d everywhere
.
.

M ost of u s live i n a leth argy h a lf the tim e a n d i n m or e

th a n h alf o f o ur faculti e s The pa rt s o f our b ein g t ake
.

turns i n somnolen c e When the i ntelle c t works the

.
,
12 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

suc h a s a b a by makes of the manifol d imp r essions th a t

throng up on him At rst these a re to the b aby not
.

even p erc ep ti ons but m ere s en s e imp ressi on s o f color

,
-

, ,

of soun d of he a t o f p ress ure o f t a ste o f o do r o f p le a s

, , , , ,

ure of pai n E ach imp re s sion i s sepa r a te i n i tself an d

,
.
,

t aken alone be a rs no i ntelligi ble m ess age f rom the outer

,

world Th a t there a re obje c ts the i nfa nt knows not ;

.
,

he kn ows o nly imp ressi ons an d sen s a tio ns But a s i n .

,

hi s li ttle br ai n imp re s s i ons th a t belong toge ther n d

,

o n e a nother qu ickly a n d uni t e to f or m a p er c e p t o f a n

obje c t the work of i nterp ret a tion goe s on H ow fa r i t

, .

g oes de termi ne s the i ntelle c tu al life o f the i nf ant a n d the

adult i nto w ho m he develop s In som e mi n d s the worl d .

r emains a hu ddle o f unrel a te d obje c ts an d events ; in

others i t is a rich f abric wo ven c lo s e of dark an d light ,

of p leas ur e an d pai n o f goo d an d evi l , .

III . WHA T TO W RITE AB OU T

I . The s ub j e ct It might be s upp ose d th a t a nyone
who w i she d to wri te would know wh a t he wi she d to
-

wri te about But many m erely w i s h to Wri te T o

. .

r ecomm end th a t su ch a p erson c hoose a subje c t which he

knows well i s not so sup eruous a s i t see m s Wh a t i s .

well known seem s co mmo np l ac e an d only the un fami lia r ,

a llure s But obvi ously the unfami lia r must be le f t to

.

som eone to whom i t is familia r .

Havi ng chosen hi s subje c t the wri ter will usu a lly ,

n d th a t as a t rst c on c e ived i t is too l a rg e o r too

, ,

g ener al Limi t a ti on o f the them e is then the wi se

.
 E NGL IS H CO MPO SI T ION 13

c ourse M a ny a man who can only b a bble vai nly

.

a bout govern m ent ca n wri te a va lu a ble a n d interestin g

acc ount o f the man age ment o f the county hospi t al o r ,

the ci ty c ontroller s of c e or the p oli ce c ourt in hi s

,

p re ci n c t T he h a bi ts an d intelligen c e o f in s e c ts are
.

h ar dly capable o f anythi n g but loose ane cdotic tre a t

m ent a t secon d han d ; o n e o f the most origi nal an d
interestin g books o f re c ent ye a rs i s d evote d to the
hi story o f a sin gle family o f w a sp s F ew m en a re .

exp eri en c e d an d wi se enough to f orm l ar ge g ener aliz a

ti ons an d f ew l a rg e g ener aliz a ti ons a re true enou gh o r
,

d eni te enou gh to be v a lu able .

.2 What to s ay ab o ut it T he very p ro c ess o f li mi t

.

i ng the subje c t to man ag e able siz e w ill i nevi t ably result

i n su ggesti ng s o m ethi ng to s ay a bout i t T he ide a s .

suggeste d may a ri se very di s c onne c te dly a n d i n ve ry

c ru d e f orm T he rst thi n g to make sure o f i s tha t y o u
.

ca t c h an d x the m all N o better w ay h a s yet been

.

di s c overe d to d o thi s th a n to jot the m d own as they

o ccur o n small ca r d s or sli p s o f pap er M anil a ca r d s
,
.

a re better th an pap er unl ess i t i s thi ck an d s ti be cause

, ,

they a re m ore e a si ly han dled T hree by ve in ches is

.

a goo d s iz e thou gh so m e wri ters p refer the m larger an d

, ,

som e smaller I t i s not ne cess a ry to wri te o ut your

.

id e a s i n f ull a t thi s tim e The main thing is to get a s

.

many o f the m a s p ossi ble re c or d e d As these id e a s a re

.

wri tten d own others wi ll suggest thems elves Experi

,
.

enc e w ill soon Show tha t i t is p oor p oli cy to p ut two

id e a s however c losely rela te d on the s am e car d f or
, , ,
14 A M ANUAL FOR WRI TE RS

you d o not yet kno w ho w or wh er e the id e a s are to

be used .

I f a rou gh plan o f o rgani z a ti on has not yet di s c lose d

i tself t ake the car d s an d try to a rr an ge them acc ord
,

i ng to thei r rel a ti ons an d afn i ti es T he re adi ng whi ch .

you mus t give the m f or thi s p urp os e will d oubtless s ug

ges t n ew id eas o r d et ai ls o f tre a tm ent N ote all o f the s e . .

E ven i f you h ave a ro ugh p l an try to see if you ca nnot

,

mak e o thers th a t are b ett er One o f the c hi e f advan

.

t ages o f the car d s is th a t the makin g o f a new p l a n

d oe s not i nvo lve rewri tin g ; but d o not he s i t a t e a t any ,

tim e i n the c ourse o f your wo rk to rewri t e anythi n g ,

th a t nee ds rewri ti ng N0 o n e ever s ave d tim e by such

.

a ref u s a l .

T he rst rough pla n an d p erh ap s sever a l l a ter ones

, ,

shoul d be regar de d not as n al but a s us eful only to

, ,

evoke ideas an d give e xi bili ty to yo ur c on cep ti on o f

the subj ec t T he n al pla n s houl d not be un dert ake n
.

unti l all the ide a s you can evo ke h ave been c olle c te d ,

c l a sh ed together an d weighe d, .

Other m e an s o f evoking id e as may be m entione d ,

though none o f them i s so valu able a s those just sug

geste d One o f the m ost frui tful i s the di s c overy of a
.

gener al an a lo gy between your subje c t an d the l aws whic h

govern i t an d som e other subje c t an d its l a ws I n thi s .

manner all br an che s o f hu man knowle dg e an d s p e cul a

ti on h ave been tr ans for m e d by re al or s u pp ose d an a logi es
to bi ology An alogi es suggest questi ons an d a questio n
.

rightly a s ked i s a p r o blem h alf solve d I n the s am e .

 E NGL IS H COMP O SI T I ON I5

w ay c ontr a st may serve to stimul a te questioni ng an d

,

thought

.

3 .Pro c urin s
g p e cial k no wle d g e At so m e tim e e a rly ,

o r l a te ,
i n the c ourse o f thi s p re par a tory work you ,

may feel the nee d o f sp e cia l knowle dg e I f your gener a l .

knowle dg e a n d your p ower o f th i nkin g are goo d you ,

shoul d h ave som e ide a o f where to n d the s p e cia l

i nf or ma ti on you requ ire I f y o u nee d to consult books
.
,

bi bli o gr aphi es may be o f a ssi st an ce U s ing your sour c es .

o f in forma ti on p rop erly i s of no less imp ort an c e th an

n di n g the right s our ces L et your a tti tu d e be c ri tica l
.
,

ac tively re ce p t ive c re a ti ve ,
.

4 S ele ction
. At thi s a n d a t every e a rli er a n d l a ter
.
-

, ,

st age o f your work id e a s an d ma terial n o t sui te d to

,

your gener a l ide a o r to your pl a n o f tre a tm ent must

be reje c te d So m e ide a s will app e a r unt as so o n as
.

c onsid ere d ; oth ers wi ll not manifest the i r un tn ess

unti l l a ter ; so m e not unti l your c omp osi tion is t aki ng
,

or even h a s t aken its n a l f or m Do not hesi t a te ei ther.

,

now or l a ter to s ac ri c e a ny ide a or ma terial not stric tly

,

g er mane to your p urp ose I t t akes cour ag e an d h a r dn ess

.

to d o thi s but the s acric e w ill be rew a rd e d E xc e llen c e

,
.

li ves by s ac ri c e Partia li ty to o ne s o wn ide a s unw ill
.
,

in gn es s to omi t wh a t see m s to h a ve been well thou ght

o r well s aid i s a mai n cause o f d e f or m e d di sp ro p orti one d
, ,

wri ti ng T he mania to tell i t all hi n d ers c le a rness a n d
.

p re ci si on a n d uni ty an d e mp h a si s M oreover a c omp o .

,

s itio n th a t e mp ti es the wri ter r a rely lls the re ad er ; an d

the lees o f a ny subj e c t a re bi tter to the pal a te .

I6 A M ANUAL FO R WRITE RS

O R GAN IZATI ON
IV .

T he two essentia l l aws o f co mp osi ti on a re those o f

f o cu s an d of m ovem ent F ro m these a re d eri ve d the
.

four usu ally sta te d a s fundam ent al those o f uni ty o f , ,

c le arness o f c oherenc e an d o f e mp h a si s b es id es all the

, , ,

mi n o r l aws an d ordi n an ces F o cus is the result o f

.

selec ti on an d o f a rrange m ent M ovem ent i s se cure d .

i n part by a rr an gement an d in pa rt by e xp ressi on .

A rr angem ent or der organi z a ti on is theref ore the

, , ,

m os t imp ort a nt el em ent i n co mp osi ti on O r d er is .

essential for the re ad er f or wi thout i t a c o mp osi ti on

,

i s unre adable a m ere ch a os of fac t s a n d id e a s I t i s

. .

equ ally essential for the wri ter Wi thout i t wr i tin g .

,

be co m es p rac tically imp ossi ble ; a book is not wr i tten

as a whol e but one ch ap te r a t a tim e
,
T he wri ter .

mus t di vid e hi s t a sk i n or d er to ma ster i t an d di vi si on ,

i s imp ossi ble wi thout a rr ange m ent .

Goo d organi z a ti on c o m es not by i nspi r a ti on but

, ,

by careful thi nk in g E ven m en of gen i us a rr an g e an d

.

organiz e thei r work w i th care N a tive t alent o r lon g .

pr ac tic e may gre a tly abridge the p ro ce ss but the p ro c ess ,

i s ne cess a ry B ad organiz a ti on an d c on fuse d a rr ang e ment

.

h av e cause d a s many fai lures a s ha s p overty o f thou ght .

A p l an i s the only means o f se curin g p rop orti on o f ,

avoidi ng superuity an d m e agerne s s a n d w an d er in g .

An ar chi te c t who truste d to i nspi ra ti on r a ther th a n to ,

ca reful thought f or the a rr ang em ent o f the roo m s a n d

,

h alls a n d st ai rw ays an d doors a n d wi n dows o f the

house he w a s bui ldi ng woul d p ro du c e a sorry s tru c ture .
 E NGL IS H C OM PO SI T ION I 7

I . F o cus .
As
i t i s the aim o f every c omp osi ti on to
s et f orth so m e g ener a l id e a i t is ne c ess a ry th a t the
,

ma terial shoul d be c hosen a n d a rr a n ge d wi th thi s i n

vi ew T 0 f o cus the ma teria l up on thi s ide a the main
.
,

topic s m ust be a rr ange d i n p rop er or d er ; e ach mu s t be

sub di vid e d i nto i ts subor di n a te pa rts ; an d e ac h main a n d
subor di n a te topic must be gi ven i ts p rop er p rop orti on ,

an d no m ore of space a n d e mp h a s is O ne o f the gre a test

, .

foes o f the gener al ide a i s the subor din ate to pic favore d
by the wri ter f or so m e re a son an d gi ven un due emp h a si s .

Another is the rebelli on of subor din a te id e a s T h acker ay .

a n d others tell us how i n c ti on c h a r ac ters som etim es

, ,

f ollow thei r own bent di sobey the i r ma s ters The youn g

,
.

wri ter n d s th a t id e a s of all sorts d o thi s c ontinu a lly .

But he Shoul d p er mi t rebellion only i n hi s p l an not ,

i n his c o mp osi ti on a n d if he cannot supp re s s the rebel

,

li on he Shoul d yiel d to the vic tors an d p ro du c e a new

,

p l a n F o cus the e xp re s sion of the gener al ide a is im

.
, ,

p ossi ble excep t u p on the b a si s o i deni te p l ann in g .

2 The b egin n ing T he be gi nni ng is one o f the m ost

.
.

imp ort ant parts of a c omp osi tion The l a st thin g one .

le arns i n maki ng a book s ays P a s cal i s wh a t to put r st

, ,
.

T he ol d er rhetoricia ns an d wri ters fa vore d Sp e cia lly

prepa re d begi nni ng s o f ten very re mote f rom the mai n
,

the m e M o d ern wri ters f ollow only one xe d rule :

.

to begi n p ro mp tly

.

3 Th
. e o r d e r o f to p i cs T he ord er o f topic s may be
.

d eter mi ne d by any o n e of a num ber o f p ri n cip les T he .

or d er o f tim e the or d er o f p osi ti on i n spac e the cli mac t ic

, ,
I8 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

order o r the ord er of i n cre a sin g c omplica ti on may d omi

,

n a te T he o n e thi ng n ec ess a ry i s th a t no ne o f the s e

.

p rin ciples s ho uld tyr ann iz e over the wri t er Hi s bu s i .

ne s s i s to have an d to give a c le a r V i ew o f the whol e

an d o f the r el a tions o f the parts I t i s also d esi r a ble
.

th a t the ord er Should b e s u ch th a t e ach pa rt is exp l ai ne d

by wh a t h a s p re c e d e d Som etim e s however c le a rnes s
.
, , ,

o bt ai n a bl e i n thi s w ay m ust be s ac ric e d to se cure

,

s urp ri s e or emp h a s i s
. E ac h to pic e ach id e a s h o ul d be
, ,

plac e d where i t will c on tri bute the gre a test eff ec ti ve

n es s to the o th er s a n d to the who le I n gener a l e a ch id e a
.
,

Shoul d be use d only o nce but a wri t er s hould n ever

,

h es it a te to r ep e a t wh a t n ee d s rep eti ti on

.

4 R e latio ns an d proportion s o f topics

. The s urest
.

m e ans o f giving to topic s th ei r p rope r rel a t i on s a n d

p ro po rti o n s is the f o rma ti on o f a ca ref ul stru c tur a l
p lan of the whole c ompo s i ti on T hi s wi ll kee p h ead s a n d
.

subhe ad s in th ei r p rop er rel a tions and s e cure to them

a ttenti on p rop orti o n a te to thei r imp ort a n c e i n the p resen
tatio n o f the p ri n cipa l id e a Sp e cia l d evic es f or the
.

h an dli n g of dif cult p robl em s of rel a tion and p ro p ortion

i n different f orm s of di s c ourse may be foun d i n a ny goo d
tre a ti se on c omposi tio n

.

5
. M ove m en t Mo vem ent may b e d ef e c ti ve i n e i ther
of two w ays : the wri ter may d r ag the re ad er a lo ng s o
f a st th a t he has not time to s ee wh a t i s shown him or
to re ac t to the new id e as p re s ented ; or he may hi n d er

the re ad er s p rogress by p ointing out i n d et ai l wh a t w a s
alre ady familiar o r wh a t be cam e cle ar a t a Si ngle gl a n c e .
20 A M ANUAL F OR WRITE RS

li ter a ture is d ep en d ent up on every elem ent o f f or m f ro m ,

the general p l an o r organiz a ti on o f a c o mp o s i tion to the

choic e an d p l ac e o f the s mallest word E xp ressi on i s .

the p erf e cti n g o f thi nki n g A thou ght is not wholly .

born unti l it i s exp ress e d .

VI . DE TAI LS OF COM P OSIT I ON

P a s s i ng to the smaller f e a tures o f a c omp osi ti on ,

we may note th a t the go verni n g p ri n cipl e s a re i n the

main the s ame th a t app ly to the c omp os i ti on as a whole
an d to the larger f e a tures H ere to o the m ost imp ort ant .

ma tter i s arr angem ent organi z a ti on

The par agr aph
.
,

.I A ll l arge c o mp osi ti ons a re di

.
~

vided an d sub di vid ed acc or di n g to the i r len g th a n d

,

c omp lexi ty i nto books parts ch ap ters se c ti ons et c

, , , , ,
.
,

an d agai n s ub di vide d i nto pa r agr ap hs a n d s enten c e s .

N one of these divi si ons has a ny x e d o r st an da r d siz e

or leng th A ll are p l a stic an d may be m o di e d to sui t
.
,

the i nner stru c ture o f the whol e o fwhi c h e ac h is a pa rt .

T he l aws o f all these pa rts are f un dament ally the

s ame ; a nd sin c e they a re parts the l aws a re o f two ,

c l a sses those o f c onne c ti on a n d those o f inn er stru c ture

, .

Co nn ecti ons a re so m etim es mad e e xp li ci tly by m e a ns ,

of li nks i e wor d s p hr a ses senten c es pa r agr ap hs or

,
. .
, , , , ,

c h ap ters as the ca se may be But o f ten the rel a ti on

, .

of the id e a s the m selves i s cle ar enough w i thout e xpli ci t

exp ressi on if they f ollow in the right ord er an d when
, ,

thi s i s not the ca se i nteri or a rr ang e m ent o f ten wi ll

ma ke c onne c t ing li nks unne cess a ry T he best w ay to .
 ENGL IS H COM PO SI T I ON 2I

le arn how to c onne c t the sub di vi si on s of a c omp osi tion

is to stu dy care fully the m etho d s o f goo d wri ters notin g ,

where the c onne c ti on i s e xp lici t a n d by wh a t m e an s

i t is mad e an d where i t i s impli ci t i n the id e a s or i n the
a rr angem ent of d et ai ls .

There is no o n e rule f or c onstru c t in g pa r agr ap hs ,

a s there i s none f or c onstru c ting ch ap ters or senten c es .

E fforts to f orm ul a te a sin gle rule a re su cc ess ful only when

they exc lud e from c onsider a ti on a s b ad all examples th a t , ,

do n o t c onf orm to the rule T he p ri n cipa l qu ali ti es to

.

aim a t a re uni ty c oherenc e c le arness a nd e mph a si s

, , ,
.

Uni ty i s l a rgely de p en dent up on exc ludin g in app rop ria te

ide a s ; c oheren c e de p end s u p on a rr angeme nt an d sen
ten c e c onne c ti on ; cle a rness is a fun c ti on o f organ iz a
ti on c onne c ti on senten c e stru c ture gr amma r an d
, , , ,

vo ca bul a ry ; e mp h a si s i s usu ally a ma tter o f climax ,

but even wi thout c limac tic a rr angem ent the end o f the
, ,

pa r agr ap h i s f or p urely m e c ha nica l re a sons the m ost

, ,

emp h a tic p osi ti on .

2 The s ente n ce The essentials o f the senten c e

. .

a re g oo d c onne c ti on soun d or ga niz a ti on a n d c orre c t

, ,

gr amma r To the untr ai ne d wri ter senten c es a re h a r d

.
,

c ryst a lli z e d affai rs When on c e a thought has t aken

.

form i n word s i t seem s p r ac tica lly imp ossible to c h ange

,

i t T he exp eri enc e d wri ter knows th a t a senten c e i s as

.

e a sy to mani p ul a te a s a lu mp of p utty H e can ch ang e .

i ts Sh ap e twi st i t a bout di vid e i t joi n i t wi th another

, , , ,

d o wh a t he wi ll wi th i t F o r style f or eff e c ti ve.

,

ness ski l ful organ iz a ti on o f the senten c e i s even m ore

,
22 A MANUAL F O R WRI TE RS

imp ortant th an c orr ec t gr amma r T he intelli gent re ad er

.

can usu ally c orre c t fa ults of gramma r wi th li ttle eo rt;

b adly c onstru c ted senten c e s can be cure d only by
rewriti ng The genera l p r in cip les of s enten c e stru c ture
.

a re a s h a s been said the s am e as tho s e o f pa r agr ap h

, ,

s truc ture M a ny Sp e cial d evic es of i nterest a n d v a lue

.

a re di scusse d i n books o n c omp o s i ti on Stu dy esp e cia lly .

re ferenc e a nd c onnec ti on the p osi ti o n o f m o diers the

, ,

retenti on o f the subj ec t the us e o fpa r a llel struc ture a n d

,

phr a sin g a nd the r edu c ti on o f p redic a ti on

.
,

3 V
. o cabul ary Word s are the ultima te elem ents o f
.

sp ee ch So import ant i s ca re ful stu dy o f the m th a t style

.

h a s been d ened a s c on s i s ting o f the right wor d s i n the

right p l aces a nd thi s deni ti on is c o rre c t if t aken i n a ll
,

i ts imp lica ti ons .

T he w ay to ac qui re a vo cab ul a ry is to m eet new word s ,

ei ther i n books or i n s pee c h and le arn wh a t they m e a n

,

an d how they a re us ed M any o f us t ake no pai ns to

.

le arn ac cur a tely wh a t a new wor d m e a ns o r how i t i s

use d a nd c onsequ ently there a re l arg e nu mbers of wor d s
,

whi ch we kn ow by sight a s i t w ere but ca nnot use, , ,

be cause we h ave never re a lly kn own the m T o note .

new word s an d then stu dy their me aning s rela ti ons , ,

di stin c ti ons an d u s e s i n dic ti on a ri es tre a ti ses on

, ,

synonym s a nd anto nym s and o ther books o n us age , ,

i s imp er a tive .

The fun dam ental l a w o f l an gu age is us age M u ch .

ha s been wri tten about p rovi n ciali s m s colloquiali s m s , ,

sl ang neolo gi sm s
,
n e wri ti n g
, p oetic dic ti on a n d
, ,
 ENGL IS H C O MP O SI T ION 2 3,

the li ke Questi ons o f d et ail must o f c ou rse be t aken u p

.

i n d et ai l but m ost questi ons th a t a ri se wi ll be ren dere d

,

e a si er of solution if we re me mber the b a si s o f the l a w

o f us ag e L anguage i s a so cia l p ro du c t C orre c tne s s
. .

i n l a nguage i s not li ke keepi ng the m or a l l a w or the l a ws

of the state but li ke d ressing p rop erly or beh avi ng
,

p r o p erly Vi ol a ti ons o f us age i n l angu ag e a re li ke

.

vi ol a ti ons o f other so ci al us ag es ih the main o f f enses ,

agai nst c ustom an d g oo d t a ste T here a re d egrees .

,

of c ourse Som e li nguis tic errors a re an alogous to the

.

weari n g o f a ski rt by a man ; others to a ttendin g an

eveni n g pa rty w i thout a c o a t o r a c olla r ; others to
we ari ng a gau dy w ai stc o a t ; a n d s o on Word s a n d .

exp ressi ons tha t a re p er fec tly t f or one o cca si on or

purp ose a re in b ad ta s te f or oth er s

.

4 . R e ady mad e p hr a s e-
s T he hab i t which i njures
one s vo cabul a ry m ost i s the h ab i t of usi ng c ryst alliz e d

phr a ses T hou ght a n d the re a l p hr a sin g of thought

.

soon be c om e imp oss i ble Sl ang is not b ad in i tself ;

.

in dee d mu ch sl an g is f resh vigorous pic turesque a re a l

, , , ,

addi ti on to the resour ce s o f the l an gu age But the us er .

o f sl ang is a user o f re ady mad e phr a ses not a us e r -

o f li vin g wor d s an d he soon be c om es in capable o f

,

any i n d ep en d ent organi z a ti on o f hi s thou ght A d oz en .

c urrent p hr a ses sufc e f or a ll hi s re ac ti ons to the man i

fol d obje c ts a nd inuenc es o f life At rst the use o f the .

re ad y mad e phr a se re ac ts only up on the user s faculty o f
-

exp ressi on but soon his thoughts a nd e m oti ons be c om e

,

as v ague as ill den ed as f or m less as the e xp ress i ons he

,
-
, ,
24 A MANUAL F O R WRITE RS

has cultiva te d the h ab i t o f using Thi s result i s n o t

.

p e culia r to sl an g ; i t i s n o t a t all due to the un co n ven

tio nal c h a r ac ter o f Sl an g but r a ther to its c onventi ona l
,

use ; i t is just a s mu ch to be f e are d i n c onne c ti on wi th

the hab i tual use o f quotatio ns o r o f an y c o nventi on a l
j a r gon
5 R evis ion M u c h wri ti n g i s d one un der s u c h c on
.

. .

ditio n s tha t c orre c ti on o r r evis i on i s imp ossi ble

. A nyone
who h abi tu ally wri tes under these c ondi ti ons m ust le arn
to thi nk r apid ly an d cle arly an d must red u c e the or gan i
z atio n a n d exp ressi on o f his id e a s to auto ma tic p ro c ess es
.

Wri tin g o f very hi gh qu ali ty can be p ro du ced an d i s

daily p rodu c ed in thi s w ay The wri ter whos e am b i ti on
.

i s lim i ted to bei ng a li ter ary a rti s a n m ust tr ai n him sel f

to th ese r apid automa tic p ro c esses But even he wi ll
.

imp rove hi s p ro du c t a nd his p ower o f p ro du c ti on if , ,

when o cca si on p ermi ts he will p r ac tic e revi sion a n d

,

reorganiz ati on .

The wri ter who wi shes to be c o m e a n a rti st m ust

d evote m u ch o f his a ttenti on an d ener gy to reor ga niz a
ti on co rre c ti on a nd rewr i tin g I d e a s an d l an gu age a re
, ,
.

i nd ee d p l a stic and the ma ster ca n do wh a t he w ill w i th

them but even he m ust o f ten rewr i te a page ma ny tim es
, ,

an d the novic e cann ot le a rn the a rt w i tho ut givin g

hi s days an d nights to p roblem s o f rem od elin g a n d
re p hr a si ng .
 CHA PTER II

GRAMM AT I CAL N O TE S

A gr amma r o f a l an gu age is a systema tic acc ount o f

i ts stru c tur a l l aws a s est a bli she d by us age L ogic an d .

gr ammar a re c losely rel a te d an d lingui s tic us age ten d s

,

to be c om e logica l ; but the two s ci en c es di ffer funda

m ent ally L ogica l p ro c esses h ave no rela ti on to tim e ;
.

they never we a r n o r w a rp nor be c om e dis torte d ; they

, ,

be a r no ma rk o f pa st us e A l an gu age li k e a livin g
.
,

c re a ture be ars i ts whole hi story in its own bein g ; i t

,

is wh a t i t i s to day be cause o f wh a t i t did an d was y es

terday . U s age is the n al l aw o f l a ngu age a nd vi ol ati ons
,

of u s ag e though they may on o cca s i on be justia ble

, ,

a re li ngui stic errors Wh a t was on c e an error may b e

.

c om e us ag e ; i t then c e a ses to b e an error an d be c om es

.

c orre c t E xamp les o f thi s tr ans fo r ma ti on a re num er

.

o us : the rst d i n s o un ded w a s on c e a n e rr o r o f the s am e

sort as the rst (I i n dro wn ded; the I i n if I pleas e w a s

on ce a n error f or me L ogic an d a n a logy a re uns afe
.

guides i n gr amm ar ; they le ad one a right only where

they h ave a lre ady been i n c orp or a te d i n us age .

Gr amm a r c onsi sts o f a c ert ai n nu m ber o f genera l

f orm s and l aws o f very wid e va lidi ty an d a c ert ain
,

nu m ber of sp e cia l ca ses e xc ep tion a l form s a nd u s ages

, ,

an d idio m s a ll of the m re c or d s an d results o f cert ain

,

parts o f the lif e hi story o f the l an gu age Sca r c ely any

-
.

25
26 A M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

tre a ti se on E ngli s h gr amma r is ex hausti ve enough to gi ve

all the det ails c onc erni ng whi c h wri ter s o cca s i on ally w i sh
i nforma ti on Here a s we h a
. ve s pac e f or b ut a f ew
, ,

we Sh a ll p re sent only s u ch a s e xp erie n c e Shows to be i n

nee d o f s pecial emp h as i s .

I . NO U NS
I. A ttention sho ul d be given to i rre gul ar
M ur als
p lura ls an d to exc ep tion al uses o f s ingul a r a n d p lur a l
f orm s Li s t s w ill be f ound i n all gr amma rs
. .

2 .Poss es s ive s T he ten d en cy to tre a t a wor d

.

group a s a whole i s ca rried o ut p erfe c tly i n the p oss essive

ca se T he p ossessive en di n g is a tt ac he d to the l a s t
.

word of the group however l a rge the g rou p may b e :

,

the King o f E ngl an d s c rown Jo nes the h a tter s

,

Smi th an d Brown s sho p

house ,
C o mpa re the .

p lur al s o n s i n law wi th the p ossess ive s on in law s
- - - -
.

Sc hola rs now generally re co gn i z e th a t the p ossess ive o f

s o m ebo dy [ so m eone a nybo dy a nyone] e l s e

,
i s f orm e d ,

by a tt aching the p os s es s ive sign to the en d o f the

g r o up : som ebo dy e ls e s N ote th a t when se pa r a te
.

ownership is to be i ndica te d s epa r a te po s ses s ive fo rm s ,

mus t be u s e d : Smi th s an d B rown s hors e s .

The p ossessive f orm i s gener a lly u s e d only of p er

sons or animals but we s ay a day s work
, a night s
,

rest a yea r s vaca t ion

, .

3 C.o lle ctive noun s C olle c tive nouns a re g r am

matically Sin gula r s but may be tre a te d as p lur a ls if
,

i ndi vidu a l ra ther th an c olle c tive ac tion is to be e xp resse d :

28 A M AN UAL F O R WRITE RS

The use of the obje c ti ve af te r ni te for m s o f the

co pul a i s c omm on in sp ee ch but not a llow a ble i n a style

wi th a ny p retenti ons to ele gan ce : I t i s me [I ]

It is
him et c .

Who for who m i s c olloqu ial an d careless Who m f or .

who i n Who m do you thin k I am " an d

I did not
know who m he w a s i s due to an unenlightene d eff ort

a t c orre c tness O ne e xc ep tio n al u s e however may be

.
, ,

noted : the phra se than whom i s i n goo d use i nste ad o f

than who :

M r Jones than who m there i s no m ore
.
,

co mp etent judge et c ,
.

In li ke m anner John an d me went i s in c orre c t an d
,

a vulga ri sm whi le T hey went w i th John an d I
,
Keep ,

i t between you an d I whic h a re equ a lly c ommon an d
,

equ ally in c orre c t a re due to the eff ort to be c orre c t

,
.

Af ter let s a sup eruous i ts is o f ten i nserte d : L et s

us g o .

Som e spe cial difculti es wi th relati ve p ronouns may

be m enti one d The comm onest i s the use o f and who
.

o r and wh i ch when no rel a t ive h a s p re c e de d : He
intro du ce d m e to a very n e p layer f rom E ngl an d an d

who h ad won many m e da ls there ; H e picke d u p a
book lying on the w ind ow s ea t and which I h ad not

se en be fore . As an d c onne c t s only ele m ents o f the
s am e order su ch e xp ressi on s a re obvi ously i n co rre c t
, .

Another error consi sts in shif tin g f rom which to that or

f ro m that to whi ch; for the s ake o fc le a rness a n d elegan c e

the s am e form shoul d be used i n pa r a llel cl auses : A man
who m you can trust a n d that [who m] every bo dy likes .

 GRAMMAT I CAL N OTE S 29

Another c omm on error is d ue to c on fus i on o f ante

ce d ents : He i s one o f the best s chola rs th a t goes [go]

to our s chool .

T he exc essive use o f rel a ti ve cl a uses o f ten results i n

he aviness a nd slowness of m ove m ent T he rem e dy i s .

to substi tute word s or p hra ses for the cl auses wherever

th i s i s p oss i ble .

In d en i te p ronouns (a n d adj e c ti ves) gi ve li ttle

trouble exc ep t in the case of the di stri buti ves any
, , ,

every each
, . Sin c e these a re a ll sin gular p ronoun s tha t ,

refer to the m must be sin gula r : E very man must hear

his o wn burd ens ;

E veryone did a s he p le a se d .

III . ADJ E CTIV E S

T wo topic s requi re di s cussion :
I . T he artic le shoul d be rep e a te d wi th two or m ore
c onne c te d nouns or adje c ti ves when separ a te p er s ons or

thi ng s are m e ant : H e h ad a black an d whi te ti e

me ans th a t he had one ti e whi ch was black an d whi te ;

He h ad a black a nd a whi te t i e m e an s th a t he h ad
a black ti e an d a whi te one The s am e rule should be
.

observe d wi th the his her thi s an d other d em ons tr a

, , , ,

tives : The se c retary a n d tre a surer in di ca tes o n e

p erson ; The se c ret a ry a n d the tre a surer i ndica tes
two But where the two thi n gs a re c lo sely c onne c te d
.

o r where no c on f us i on can a ri se us ag e a llows the use o f

,

only o n e d e m onstra tive wor d : T he l aws o f the M e des

an d Persians ; H e love s his fa ther a nd m other ; H e
i nvi te d all the boys a nd girls .

 30 A MANUAL F OR WRITE RS

On the other h a nd when there is no p ossi b ili ty of

,

amb igui ty the a rt icl e is o f ten r ep e a te d for e mph a s i s :

,

He is a g entleman an d a s c ho l a r ; H e w as a c ruel
,

a tre acherous an d a relentle s s foe

.
,

2 .When speakin g o f two p ersons or thing s n o t the ,

sup erl a tive but the c ompa ra t ive Should b e us e d : Thi s
,

i s the better o f the two When any p erson o r th in g

.

is compa red wi th o th er s o f the s am e c l a ss o ther must be ,

use d to exclud e the p erson or thin g c ompa re d : H e i s
qu icker th an a ny o ther b o y on the te am .

Wi th s up erl atives the p ro p er wo rd to us e i s not any , ,

but all: I t is the l ar ge st ca na l o fan y [ a ll] in the worl d ;

I t i s the best fru i t o f any

IV . VE RB S
I . Agree ment A verb shoul d agree wi th i ts s ubje c t
i n num b er an d i n p erso n .

In E ngli sh two S i ngul a r subje c ts c onne c te d by ei ther

o r (or n ei ther n o r) t a ke the verb i n the

s ingul a r : E i th er he or she go es to town every day .

C omp oun d subj ec ts requ i re p lur a l verbs a s a rule ;

but i f the subje c t is a single id e a the verb may be ,

s i n gul ar : Bre ad an d mi lk is a ll She can eat
A .

p lur a l subje c t if rega rd e d as f ormi n g a sin gle qu anti ty

, ,

may be tre a te d a s si n gula r : T en mi les i s noth in g to

h im ; but : T en men are here

.

Phra ses joi ne d to the s ubje c t by with or as well as

d o not affe c t the num ber of the s ubje c t or the verb :

John wi th hi s two b rothers was there .

 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S .

3 1:

T he gre a test cause of l ack o f agreem ent of the verb

wi th i ts subje c t i s the o ccurren c e between the two o f a
lon g e xp ressi on cont ain in g o n e or m ore wor d s differ in g

i n nu m ber from the subje c t : The cause o f all hi s
troubles wi th the workm en are [i s] h i s c onst ant d e man d s
f or e x tr a wor
T wo or m ore subje c ts differi ng in p erson if c onne c te d,

by o r t ake the verb form requi re d by the subjec t ne a rest

,

the verb :
Do you or he know the p l ace "
She

o r I go to s ee h i m every day ; Do es he or I help you

m ost " But when su ch senten ces s oun d a wkw a rd

they s hould be re c onstru c te d : H e or I am a t hom e all

day whi le corre c t i s better a void e d
, ,
.

T he cop ul a ag rees wi th the subje c t even if the ,

p re dica te i s o f a different p erson o r nu mber : I am

he ; Yo u are he ;

The many comp l aints are the

cause o f hi s le aving ; T he cause o f hi s le aving i s

the many c omp l ai nts ; The three are one .

T he explet ive (or Sham) s ubjec t i t t akes i ts p re dica te

in the thi rd p ers o n sin gul a r : I t i s I I t is o ur f ri end s

who wrong us .

T he e xp letive there is not a Sh am subje c t an d d oes

not aff e c t the num ber o f the verb : T here are ten .

2 O mis s ion o f the s ub j ect In adverbia l c l auses

.

o f manner a n d d eg ree the Subje c t i s o f ten omi tte d :

Geor ge re ce i ve d these p resents gr aciously a s be cam e ,

hi s sup eri or m eri t ; I guessed an d as a lways h app ens

, ,

guesse d wrong ; AS may be imagin e d we were ,

f rightene d ; We set o ut as happy a s c ould be ; A s

'
32 A M ANUAL F OR WRI TE RS

sur e a s can be here he c om es ,

But the o mi ssi on o f
.

the s ubj ec t of an i n dep en dent c l au s e i s b ad E n gli s h :

Wen t to to wn ye s terday Saw an a erop lan e . .

3 .S h am o b j e ct In vulgar an d co lloqui a l E n g li sh
.

many verbs take a s ham obj ec t i t: Yo u wi ll ca t c h i t

ho t ;

I h a ve mad e i t up w ith him ; Yo u a re t akin g

i t e as y ;

He i s goin g i t p retty f a st ; He h ad rou ghe d

i t all his li f e T his locuti on alm o st a lway s has a

.

collo quia l ton e .

4 .T ense s It shoul d b e note d th a t the p r es ent

p erfe c t ten s e i s not a pa st but a p resent ten se I t .

makes a s t a te ment f ro m the p oint o f V i ew of the p re sent ,

though being a p erf e c t tense i t i s c on cerne d onl y wi th

, ,

ac tion th a t is co mplete d th a t i s th a t o ccurr ed i n the

, ,

pa st : I s aw hi m is a st a tem ent concernin g the pa s t ;

I have s een him is a s t a tement co n c erni ng the p r esent

.

and therefore mu s t n o t b e u s ed wi th a ny ter m in di

ca ting a p oint o f V i ew o f the pa st I have s een your .

f a ther yester day is not goo d E ngli sh I n ever s aw .

a better ca r is a gener a l denia l wi th r egar d to pa s t

ac ti o n ; I have n ever s een a better ca r covers the s am e

f ac ts but impli es the p re s ent as the b a se or p oint o f

,

ref eren c e

.

5 .C on ta m i n a te d tense f or ms C ar el ess Sp e ak ers

-
.

som etimes p ro du ce i ncorr ec t f or m s o f the verbs th a t a re

due to c ontami n a tion : I w i sh you had have gone ;

I would have let him go n e

'

6 S e quen ce o f ten s e s In g ener a l the u s ag e i n re

.

gar d to the tenses o f subordi n a te c l auses i s c lea r a n d well

 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S 33

un derstoo d But a gener a l truth is of ten wron gly put

.

i n the pa st tense i n a subor din a te c l ause dep en d ent

up on a verb i n the pa st tense : Ke a ts s aid tha t be auty
was [i s] truth

.

7 The s ub j un ctive
. T he subjun c ti ve is use d in
.
-

i n d ep en d ent c l auses :
a) I n the p resent tense to e xp ress a wi sh f or the ,

f uture : Go d help u s "

L ong li ve the ki ng "

b) I n the pa st tense to e xp ress an imp ossible wi sh

,

wi th re ga r d to the p re s ent : O h th a t he were here now "

c) I n the pa st
,

p erf e c t tense to e xp ress an imp ossi ble ,

wi sh wi th re gar d to the pa st : O h th a t I had been there "

,

In subordi n a te cl auses the subjunc tive i s li ttle used

,

i n current E ngli sh T he only f orm in regula r use i s the

.

pa st tense o f the verb be to e xp re ss a c on di ti on untrue

i n the p resent : If he were here I should not be af r aid ,
.

But i n p oetry an d eleva te d p ros e the subjun c tive i s use d ,

i n clau s es o f c ondi ti on c on cess ion or purp ose an d in

, , ,

temp or a l cl auses rel a tin g to the future : I f thi s be true ,

make the be s t o f i t ; T hough H e s lay m e yet w ill I

,

trust Him ;
Take hee d lest he n d you sleepin g ;

I wi ll depa rt ere he co me up on m e .

8 The impe rative It may be note d th a t a con di

. .

tion may som et imes be p resente d vi vid ly by the us e

of the imp er a tive : S tri p a kin g of hi s robes an d he ,

S pare the ro d an d s po i l
: 3
is but a ma n l ike ourselves .

the c h il d.

9
. T h e in n itiv e
T he
. in n i t ive has tensef orm s but ,

they exp ress not the tim e but the st age of the ac tion
, ,
.
 34 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

F ai lure to r eco gni z e thi s is resp on s i b le f or o n e o f the

c omm onest error s in the u s e o f the inn i ti ve T he .

p res ent inn i tive m er ely indi ca tes th a t the ac ti o n

exp ressed is in co mp le te a t the tim e i n di ca te d by the
pri n cipa l verb ; the p erfe c t i nn i tive th a t i t i s c o mp lete
,

a t the tim e of the p ri n cipal verb : I am gl ad to s ee

you ; I am glad to have s een you ;

H e tol d him to


go ; He is reported to have gon e I t is e vid ent th a t
.

the p er f e c t i nn i ti ve cannot be us ed af ter verbs o f p ur

po s e o r anticipa tio n C onsequently a ll s u ch sent en ces

.

as the f o ll owin g a re i n c o rr ec t : I int en d ed to have


go n e ; I hop ed to have s een him ; I e xp e c te d to have
been ther e But wi th o ught the p erf ec t i nn i ti ve may
.

be u sed even though the ac t io n cannot b e con c e i ve d a s

,

c omplete d b ef ore the obliga tion b ecam e va lid : They
were a ske d to go an d they ought to have gon e .

Am bigu i ty of ten ari se s f rom the ca reless use of in n i

tives : He s aid th a t he wi shed to take his f ri en d wi th
him to vis i t the capi ta l an d to s tudy m ed cine Am b i
i

.

gui ty may som etime s be re m e di e d by the i nserti o n o f

exp lici t c onnec ti ves ; but o f ten the am b iguou s senten c e
must be recas t
P articiples P a rticip les Shoul d a lw ays be at
.

Io . .

tached to so m e noun o r p ronoun : Go in g ho m e I f oun d

a dim e ; T he leader havin g been killed the rebel s e d , .

A very c omm on erro r c ons i sts i n usin g a pa rticipia l

phra se wi th no a tt ach ment : Gettin g no rep ly i t was ,

c le a r th a t we had b een d e c eive d ; Op en ing the d oor ,

the ol d ch ai r c ould e a s i ly be seen .

36 A M ANUAL F O R WRI TE RS

the subje c t i t is usu a lly an adj ec ti ve a s H e was late
, , , ,

Be quick" But the co mp lement may be an ad verb

(or an adverb p hra se) o f p l ace : I wa s thereyesterday ,

He w a s in the wreck .

I3 Copul ative verb s Su ch verbs a s s eem appear

. .
, ,

loo k feel tas te s mell s ou nd beco me remain con tin ue

are of ten use d as link
, , , , , , ,

verb s ; but i n addi ti on to c onne c t

i ng the subje c t an d the p redi cate c omp le m ent they st a te
the n a ture o f the c onne c ti on T he wor d use d after su ch .

verbs to e xp ress the qu a li ty o f the subje c t i s not an

adverb but an adje c t ive : I t s eem s go od
,
I t app e a rs ,

i mp o ssi ble

H e look s ill
, H e f eels ill I t tastes , ,

s o ur , The ower s s m ell s weet The bell soun d s ,

hars h She re maine d s ad

I t be cam e dark
, Yo u , ,

She k ep t qui et

c ontinue d s ilen t ,
He turne d pale , ,

He went craz y Wi th s o m e of these verbs thi s con

.

struc ti on origin a te d by the omi ss i on of the co mp le

m entary inni ti ve to be ; w i th others by the omi s
,

si on o f a ree xi ve p ronoun as obje c t Som e re c ent .

wri ters h ave use d i n the s am e w ay many other verbs ,

simil a r i n m e anin g to these : The le aves tou che d co o l

,

et c ; but su ch us age is bol d an d Should be le f t to the

.

e xp eri en c e d wri ter .

O f c ourse these verbs may t ake an adverb to e xp ress

i
a m od ca ti on o f the ac t ion e xp resse d by the verb : H e

ill
f elt dden y
s u l ; I t be cam e gradually da rk ; She

remaine d long si lent .

I4 S hall an d
.

af rma ti ve senten c es ,

sh all in the rst p erson s ign ies e xp e c t an cy future ,

 GRAMMAT I C AL NOTE S 37

ac ti on ; i ts m e ani n g is reverse d in the se c on d an d thi r d

p ersons an d signi es determi n a tion on the pa rt o f the
,

sp e aker ; will in the rst p erson s ignies will in gness

, ,

o r d etermi n a ti on or p ro mi se ; i n the se con d an d th i r d

p ersons i t signi es m erely future ac ti on : I [o r we]

sh all go to town w i th h im ; He [o r you they] wi ll g o

,

to town w i th him (both these senten c es e xpress future

ac ti on) . I [or we] will go to town wi th him He ,

[o r you they] s hall go to town wi th him e xp res s

,

determina ti on or a p romi se on the part o f the sp e aker .

In i nterroga t ive senten ces will (or wo uld) i s used in ,

the rst p erson only in re p e a tin g a questi o n add resse d

to the sp e aker ; in the s e c on d p erson i t consults the wi sh
o f the p erson add resse d a nd i n the thi rd p erson i nqui re s
,

c onc erni ng the future ac ti on o f the p erson (s ) s p oken

of

Will I [o r we] go to town w i th you " i s imp o s s ible

excep t in rhetorica l rep eti tion o f a questi on addre s se d to

the Sp e aker ; Will you go to town wi th m e

cons ults
the wi sh o f the p erson or p ersons add resse d or a sks for
a p romi se ; Will they go to town wi th m e P i nqui res
'

c on c ernin g future ac ti on .

S hould an d wo uld f ollow the rules for s hall an d will:

I [or we] s hould travel if I h ad the m e ans He [or you ,

,

they] wo uld tr avel if he had the m e ans both exp ress

c onc lusi on m erely as a fac t I [o r we] wo uld tra vel
.
,

if I h ad the m e ans He [or you they] s ho uld tr avel

'

, ,

if I h ad the m e an s both exp ress a d e ci s i on or a tti tu d e

o f the s p e aker S hould must never be use d in the sense

.

o f to

: I w an t y o u s ho uld [to ] go to town ; i t may
,
38 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

however be use d i n the sense o f ought to
,
M y wi f e :

s ho uld [ ought to ] a rr ive soon

.

T he u s e o f s hould a nd wo uld in in di r ec t di s c ourse i s

in gener al determine d by the fo rm use d i n the s p ee c h
reporte d ; but there are many s ubtle ti e s whic h ca n be
le a rned only by care ful a nd minute ob s erva tion .

V . ADV E RB S
1 . negatives
Do uble In Old an d M idd le E n g li s h
.

d oubling o r trebling a n ega ti ve m erely strengthene d i t ,

but the in uen ce of La tin an d the d omi n an ce o f logic

h ave cause d the reje c ti on of thi s idi om fro m En gli sh
wri ting I t is s till he ar d in the Sp ee ch o f c hi l dr en an d
.

of the une du ca te d who s ay wi th emp h a tic intenti on :

,

He n ever did no thing wron g to n o bo dy Double .

nega tives cancel e ach other in su ch p hr a ses as n o t impas

s ible n o t un li kely et c C areless .

wri ter s s ti ll u se e xpr ess i ons in which a n e xp r e sse d ne ga

t ive c oni c ts wi th another exp resse d or im p lie d : T he ,

woman does n t l ive who is n o t afr aid to be a lone i n the
o p en n o t even o n the brightest day

Adverb s re s e mblin g a dj ectives M a ny adverbs

, .

2 . .

h ave the s am e for m a s the corresp on di ng adje c ti ves .

Som e o f thes e had i n e arli er E ngli s h the adverb ia l

en ding e which h a s s in c e been dropp e d ; su c h a re :
,

fas t low lo ud lo ng an d many other s So m e origina te d

, , , , .

by ana l o gy wi th these some i n other w ays H e f ou ght

, .

hard Go s lo w

, He w a lke d fas t
, L ove m e lo n g ,

,

H e t alke d lo ud I bought i t cheap are goo d E n gli sh
,

.
 GR AMMAT I CAL NO TE S 39

Se curi ty i n the use o f these

a t ad verbs can be
a tt aine d only by careful observa ti on o f idio ma tic sp ee c h
an d wri tin g .

3
. R e d u n d an t par ti cles Wi th some verbs up is
use d a s an adverb (or a separ a ble partic le) to e xp ress

c omp leteness of the ac ti on a sserte d by the verb : H e

shot up the town The strikers ti e d up the r ai lw ay
, ,

H e cleane d up the gan g H e intend s to rest up
,

be fore be ginnin g hi s duti es All the s e e xp ressi ons a s
.
,

wi ll be note d a re c olloqu ia l if not vul ga r In others

, ,
.
,

mad e on the s am e m o del up se em s to add nothin g to ,

the m e anin g o f the verb : a s cen d up ; bree d up ;

mix up ; freshen up ; Op en up .

O ther adverbs or pa rtic les a re use d in the s am e w a y :

, ,

follow after ;
conne c t [o r jo in] together ; so f ten ,

do wn ;
e xamine in to ; acc ep t a But eup hony
o r rhyth m so m etim es just ies su c h f orm s .

4 . Like
. In su ch senten ces a s
-
She sin g s li ke a
b ir d,

Wh a t i s the use o f ta lk in g li ke tha t " H e

w alks like him like i s an adverb wi th p rep osi ti on a l

,

f or c e Ca reless wri ters an d s pe akers use like as a

.

c onjun c tion wi th the f or ce o f as : Dre adin g thi s day

li ke I use d to dre ad Sun day ; Do i t li ke I d o
T hi s .

us ag e i s very slovenly .

VI . P RE PO SITION S
The p re pos i tions most o f ten c onfuse d in use a re at
an d to by an d wi th i n an d i n to
,
C are ful stu dy shoul d
,
.

be given to thes e an d to the sta nda r d form s o f su ch

40 A M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS
N
phra ses as wi th rega rd to wi th a vi ew to c ompa re ,
n
,

to,

compare with agree to agree wi th
,

di ff er ,

,

fro m
diff er wi th
,

different fro m (not to or than )
,

,

di s appo inted by di s app ointe d in
,

T he corre ct a n d .

idioma tic u s e o f p rep osi ti on s i s very h a rd to l ea rn ;

but there a re f ew subj ec ts wh ich wi ll better repay the
Ca reful stu dent o f l angu ag e .

V II . C ONJU NC TI ON S
I . A ttenti on Shoul d be given the di st in c ti on to
b etween and an d but an d to th a t between and an d o r ,
.

C areles s n es s may c au s e inel egan c e or even o b s cur i ty :

I did not s ee Thomas and [or] Jo hn He s ees the ,

right an d [but] d oes the wro ng .

2 Ei ther
. or n ei ther no r a re c orrela
,

tive conjun c ti on s C are s hould be t ak en th a t e ac h

.

m em ber o f the pai r use d be p l ac e d i n the s am e rel a ti ve

p os i tio nth a t is b efo re the s am e pa rt o f s p e ech T he
,
.

f ollowi ng is wrong : I c ould n ei ther s ee him n o r his

f a ther Never u se either
. n o r or n ei ther

o r as c orr e l a t i ves .

T he rule ju s t given for the p o s i ti on o f ei ther

o r n ei ther
, n o r hold s g oo d f or all o ther c orrel a t ives ;

th a t is S in ce they are correl a tive i n f orm they s ho ul d

, ,

be correl a tive in p o s i tion als o So we may s ay : It .

belong s bo th to you an d to m e or I t belong s to bo th ,

you and m e but n o t I t belon gs bo th to you an d m e ;
,

fo r i n the l as t e xamp le the p osi ti on o f the two m em bers

o f the correla tive pai r i s not simi l a r I n li ke ma nner .
,
 GRAMMAT I C AL N OT E S 41

H e n o t o nly gave m e a ticket but als o lent m e ve

d olla rs i s corre c t whi le N at o nly he ga ve m e a ticket
,

but als o lent m e ve d ollars i s in c orre c t

.

E ven wri ters who a re ca reful about correlati ve word s

som etim es vi ol a te the p ri ncip le o f c orrelative arr a nge

m ent in the ca se o f he adi ng s o r sub divi si ons : Henc e
our di s cussi on fa lls un d er two he ad s : (a) T he rel a ti on
o f the envi ronm ent to inventi on ; (b) to the sele c tion

or so cia li z a ti on o f i nventi ons Thi s obviously should
.

be : Henc e our di s cussion fa lls un d er two he ad s : The
rel a ti on of envi ronm ent (a) to inventi on ; (b) to the sele c

ti on or so cializ a ti on o f inventions .

3 One o f the c ommonest causes o f a loose a nd

.

sh am blin g style is the exc essive use o f c omp oun d sen

ten ces . The re m e dy i s to re constru c t su ch senten c es .

Thi s may be d one by omi tting c onjunc ti ons by ch angin g ,

one o f the clauses into a p hr a se or by subordin a tin g

,

one o f the c l auses A li ttle pr ac tic e in su ch ch anges

.

wi ll gre a tly in cre a se the wri ter s sk i ll an d p ower o f

c ontrol .

M I SCE LLAN E OU S NO TE S
I. In verte dr de r The usu a l or der of the de cl ar a
o .

tive sentenc e is o f ten le gi tima tely i nverte d f or emph a si s

or f or rhyth mica l re a sons An abuse o f thi s p r ac tic e is
.

c urrent no w wi th c ertai n magaz ine wri ters who, p erhap s ,

in uen c e d by lega l form s h ave mad e a manneri sm o f

,

su ch exp ressions a s C om es John an d s ays ; C am e

a day when he was no longer a ble to w a lk .
42 A
'

M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

2. The in dir ect ques ti o n in dire c t questi on i s .

A n

not rhetorica lly a questi on an d co nse quently Shoul d not ,

be f ollowe d by a question ma rk I a s ke d whe ther .

he could go wi th me " i s i n c orre c tly p unc tu a te d

should ha ve a p eri o d i nste ad o f a n i nterro ga ti on p oint) .

3 .T h e po s it i on o f m o diers M o diers whether .

,

s ingle wor d s or phr a ses or c l aus es requ ire a ttenti on

, , ,
.

I n s p ee ch we a re o f ten ca reless a s to the p osi ti on o fthe m ;

i n wri tin g careles sne s s on thi s p oint of ten gi ves ri s e to
,

amb iguous or absurd exp ressio ns :

I o n ly s aw him .

Wh a t does this me an " M oss grows o n the roof als o ;

Wante d a c omf ortable r o om for two b achelors wi th

,

s team heat ;

O ne o f the la r gest cave s i n I ndia na ,

whi ch has o nly been di s co vered recen tly i s i n Posey ,

C ounty . In gener al m o diers should be ke p t c lose to
,

the wor d or phr a se o r cl ause which they m o dify If

, ,
.

giving a m odier su ch a p osi tion results in awkw ar dness ,

the s enten ce Sho ul d be re co nstru c te d .

A n appa rent e xc ep ti on to the gener a l rule tha t a

m o dier sho uld b e p l ac e d a s close a s p ossi ble to the wor d
i t m o dies is fo und in c onne c ti on w i th the in n i ti ve .

Goo d wri ters avo id p laci n g a ny word between the to

a nd the verb to whic h i t belong s a n d p uri sts a re vi olent ,

i n th ei r o pp osi ti on to thi s s o calle d s pli t or c le f t in ni-

, ,

tive There are however few wri ter s who h ave not
.
, , ,

a t s o m e tim e ei ther c arelessly or p ur p osely been gu i lty

, ,

o f thi s inelega nc e ; a nd p erh ap s the m ost tha t can be

s aid about i t i s th a t sinc e i t is seld o m ne c ess a ry o r
,

justiable i t should be avoid e d if p ossi ble :
, It is
44 A M AN UAL FO R WRI TE RS

may be due to thi s or to the an a logy o f

a ll day ,

a ll night Su ch c olloqui ali sm s a re admi ssible i n

.

wri ti ng only when c onvers a ti on i s re p e a te d or a c onver

s atio n al tone i s aim e d a t .

The objec ti onable vu lgari sm s a ri si ng fro m the omi s

si on of to be fore place or places may h a ve a ri sen from

careless a rticula tion : L et s go s o me place [som ewhere]

She won t go an y place [a nywhere] wi th him ;


He
a lways wa nts m e to go [to ] p l ac es wi th him .

PIT FALL S IN DI C T I ON

Und er thi s he ad h ave bee n c olle c te d som e of the

m ost c ommon i nst an ces of the mi suse of wor d s an d
phra ses The li st is by no m e ans exh au s ti ve ; a n d i n
.

gener al an effort h a s b een mad e to exc lu d e f ro m i t

examp le s of faulty dic tion which illustr a te the p rin cip les
of gr ammar di s cusse d i n the f orego in g Gr amma ti cal

Notes .

A ca re ful stu dy o f the N ote s is reco m

m en de d in c onne c ti on wi th the f ollowin g li st .

Ab breviate is so metimes us ed fo r abridge . A bo o k or a lecture

is abridged when it is given in co n d en s ed fo rm ; it is abbrevi ated
when s ho rten ed in an y way .

Dictio n is di scuss ed in gen eral an d in d e tail in every textb o o k o f

En glish co mpo sitio n Lo n g an d valuab le l is ts o f faul ts in dictio n are
.

g e
iv n in th e S nd rd
ta a D ic i on ary ; G en un g s Outli n es ofRhetori c;
t

Al fred
Ay res The Verbalis t; Fitz edward Halls R ecen t E xemplicatio ns of

F als e P hi lo lo gy an d M o dern E n gli s h; Ho dg s o n s E rro rs in the Us e of

E ng is h; Lo n g
l S lips f Ton g ue and llectio n and dis

s o P en . The bes t co

cuss io n o fvul g ar an d co llo q uial E n g lishis in Sto rm s En glis che P hilo lo i e

g .

V ery valuab le are J espe rsen s Gro wth and S tructure of the En glis h Lan

g
gua e, and G reen o ugh and Kittredge s Words an d Their Ways .
 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S 45

Ab ove s ho uld no t be used as an adj ective, as : Rules s tated in
me

the above sectio n . Sub s titute preceding, foregoing, o r so

si milar adjective .

Ad apt s ho uld b e dis tinguis hed fro m dramatiz e . A no vel is

dramatiz ed; a play is adapted when it is changed to s uit
.

changed co n di tio ns .

Adm in i s t r is wro ngly us ed in the s entence

e

He ad minis tered a
fatal blo w applied in He a d minis tered

. It is co rrectly

a do s e o fmedicine ; the laws ; an o ath; the go vernmen t

.

A dmi t s ho uld b e dis tinguis hed fro m co nfess : She admitted the

She confess ed her s ins

accusatio n ;

.

Advent means an epo ch making arrival -

. We speak o fthe ad vent
o f Chris t, but o f the arri val o f a train .

A ect is to b e dis tinguis hed fro m the verb ej ect . To a

j ect is

to in uence ; to ej ect is to cause o r bring abo ut . A minis ter

ej ects the co n versio n o f a s inn er ; he aj ects the feelings o f his

audien ce .

Aggravate Sho uld no t be us ed in the sense o f to pro vo ke o r to

It pro perly expresses a heightening o r in tens ify ing :

an n o y .

His o f
fense was aggravated by h s inso len ce ;
i His guilt
was aggravated by his fals ehoo d

.

Alike s ho uld no t be rein fo rc ed by both: They are [bo th]

alike in this res pect T he abs urdity is easily seen in the s to ck
.

Sam and Jim are bo th very much alike, es pecially

example :

Sam

.

All, in co nnectio n with right, is a separate wo rd : all right, never

alright All an d un ivers ally S ho uld never be us ed to gether :
.

r
The p actice is esr o rted t o u n i vers ally [ y
b all] T he prae
tice is reso rted to [univers ally ] by at Avo id the redundan t

use o fof: He received all [o f] the vo tes
.

Allege is a co mmo n erro r fo r s ay : The legis lato rs , it is alleged
[s aid] , will adjo urn is b ad ; the wo rd means to d eclare

,

to a
"

i rm to ass ert with the idea o f po sitiveness an d it

, , ,

is applicable to an
no t o rdinary s tate men t o ffact no t n eeding
emphas is .
46 A M ANUAL FO R WR ITE R S

Allo w m eans perm it n ever think o r admit

.
,

Allud e to do es no t m ean men tio n

A perso n o r t hing .

alluded

to

is f
re erred to , n o t by name , b ut in directly : In s p eaking
b es t frien d , he allud ed to his b ro ther

o fhis .

Alo n e p
ex resses mpanied an d sho uld be dis
the s en se o f un acco ,

tin guis hed fro m on ly whichmeans n o o t her ,
I fo und Henry
alo n e d is turb ed by the news It can b e do n e by him alo n e ;

Virtue alon e is happ iness b elo w All these are ambiguo us

.
.

Altern ative indicates a p o ss ibility o f two co urs es S everal .

altern atives are o p en to me is therefo re b ad

.

Alto gether mus t be d ieren tiated fro m all together See A ll . .

Amo n g is e n e used with o n e an other: T hey divided his

mo n ey amo ng o ne an other [ amo n g

An d is frequen tly misused in a variety o f way s o f w hich the fo l ,

w
lo in g a e r e xa mp les : T r y a nd t ake s o m e ex e rci s e ; He

o wn ed a vio lin m ade by S tradivarius an d w hich was fo rmerly ,

the p ro perty o f his gran dfather ; I have received y o ur

rem ittan ce and f o r w hich I b eg to thank y o u

,
See Try . .

An o ther sho uld no t b e fo llo wed by fro m b ut by than :

M en o f ,

an o ther temp er from [ than] the Greek s See Di

" '

eren t . .

An s w er is that whichis given to a ques tio n ; reply to an ass ertio n : ,

He an swered the q ues tio n ; he repli ed to the argum en t .

An ticipate s ho uld no t b e us ed in the sen s e o f exp ect

It .

m ean s fo res tall

fo retaste
,

to an ti ci pate his death
'

is faulty ; to an ti ci pate o ne s in co m e in the sen s e o f in

,

currin g o bligatio ns in advance o f its receip t is co rrect , .

Anxi o us mean s fee g anx ety ; it d o es n o t m ean des iro us

i i
l n .

I am an xious abo ut her health is co rrect ; I am an xio us

[desiro us ] to o b tain a p o sitio n is b ad

.

Any is s o metim es ambiguo us A n y o f them may b e either
.

sing u lar o r p lu ra l S o a ls o :. It is n o t in ten d ed fo r an y

m achin e m ay m ea
,

n T here is n o machine fo r which it is

It is n o t in ten d ed fo r every m achin e b ut o n ly

in ten ded or , ,

fo r a s pecial ty p e

.
 G RAMM AT I CAL NOTE S 47

An y place See p 44 . . .

An yway , anyhow, as co n j unctive adverb s , are co llo q uial :

An y
way [o r -
how] [ N evertheles s ,
or.
At any rate ] I shall do as I
please .

Apparen t is generally used witho ut any implicatio n o f the

no w

truth o f the m atter s tated He did it with apparent will .

is to b e dis tinguis hed fro m

He did it with evident

ingn ess
willingne s s .

Appear is physical, external, in its meaning, and sho uld be dis

tinguis hed fro m s eem, which expresses a men tal exp erience :

The fo res t appears to be impenetrable ; This do es no t

seem to m e to b e rig t

h .

Apt sho uld n ever b e used in place o f li kely o r liable . It means

capable o r skilled

He is an apt pupil
is co rrect ;

He is apt to arrive so o n is in co rrect . I t also mean s havin g

a n atural ten dency ,

as : T he child is apt to learn

; Iro n is
"
apt to r us t . See Liable .

As to is red un dant in As to ho w far he can b e trus ted is aq ues

tio n fo r y o u to d e cide .

At is red un dant in

Where is he at T he ex re p ssio n is a
vulgaris m . See To .

At b es t, A t preferable to At the bes t At the

rs t, A t las t are ,

rst A t the las t b ecaus e they are well es tabli shed idio ms
, ,
-
.

They aro se fro m fo rms in which the denite article co alesced

with the p repos itio n ving atte which when nal unaccented
'

, , ,

e becam e silent gave a t , .

At length is by s o m e writers res tricted to the m eani ng fully

,

in detail ; b ut there is go o d autho rity fo r us ing it to m ean

after a lo n g tim e

.

Audi en ce is o f ten impro perly used fo r s pectators An audien ce .

lis ten s ; s pectators lo o k o n o r w itn ess .

Aught (any thing) is frequen tly co nfused w ith naught (no ught) :

Six times aught [naught] is aught On e hundred
is written with a o n e an d two aughts [naughts
48 A M AN UAL FO R WR I TE R S

Aven ge mean s to
ss the wro ngs do n e to o thers ; revenge the
redre ,

wro ng do ne to o urselves ; avenge usually implies j us t retri

b utio n ; revenge may b e us ed o f m alicio us retaliatio n .

Avo catio n is no t the s am e as vo cati on A m an s vacati on is his call

.

princip al o ccupatio n ; his avocation is a seco ndary o cen

ing, his
patio u which ho wever may in teres t him mo re than his vocati on
, ,
.

Awful s ho uld be u sed o nly to mean awe in s pirin g : I am
-

awful[ly] s o rry is a vulgar co llo q uialis m

"
.

Balan ce do es no t m ean rem ain der o r res t H ence the

.

balan ce o fthe cro p is a mis use o fthe w o rd .

is slang, an d sho uld s sen s e o f

B an k on no t be u ed in the rely o n .

B eg is o ften s
u ed in the sen se o f b eg leave .

T he co rrect fo rm
of I beg

to s ay is

I beg leave to s ay
.

B etween applies o nly to two p erso n s o r thin gs :

B etw een y o u
is un grammatical

three .

Big is s
u ed co llo q uially fo r large o r great, but s o m etimes it can n o t

be placed by either o f thes e wo rd s : A big man may m ean

re

a man w itho u t p etty q u alities o f heart o r o f m ind .

Blame o n as a verb is a vulgaris m : Do n t blame i t o n me

, ,

mea s D o t accus e e o f t o r D o n t putthe blame o n me
n n m i

,

.

B o th .See A li ke an d p 40 sec 2 .
, . .

B o un d in the s en s e o f determined is an Americanis m : He is

, ,

bo und [determ in ed ] to d o it

; .

Brainy is a co llo quial Americani s m .

Bri g m ea s to tran s fer to ward the s peaker an d m us t b e

n n
,

dieren tiated fro m fetch which m ean s to go to an d b rin g,
.

b ack an d fro m carry w hichimplies a tran s fer o pp o s ite to that

, ,

express ed by b ring an d fetch
F etch go an d b rin g]

me a glass o f water ; B ri n g a b o o k ho m e fro m the s to re ;

Carry t s b as et to hi
h i m
k .

But used in co n nectio n with that is red un d an t, unle ss in ten ded

to ex ppo site o f what the m ean ing wo uld b e w itho ut
press the o

it : in I have n o do ub t but that he w ill die but s ho uld no t

,

be used ; n I have no fear but that he w ill co m e
i the mean ,

 G R AM M AT I CAL N OTE S 49

in g in ten ded is I am s ure he will co me and here the us e o f
,

but is co rrect . T he co llo quialis m but what freq uen tly o ccurs

fo r but that: I
b elieve but what he is guilty generally
cann o t

mean s I canno t but b elieve that he is guilty

; an d I cann o t

but b elieve mean s I mus t believe

.

Calculate d is o ften wro n gly used in the s ens e o f likely : His

inn o cen t actio n is calculated to cause great in j ury

. The w o rd .

m ean s in tended o r planned fo r the purp o se .

Can has the meaning o f ability

po wer and s ho uld no t be ,

,

co n fused w ith may which implies perm issio n : Yo u may

,

s kate if y o u can .

Carry . See Bring .

C ertain is o f ten u ed s
a way that it may m ean either
in s u ch

s ure o r s o me : They bro ught him certain in fo rmatio n .

C aply , fo r cheap, s o un d s affected
he He s o ld it cheap is co rrect

. .

Cheap is an adverb as w ell as an adj ective .

Claim, in the sense assert,

maintain

of

,
or say, is no t

s anctio ned by go o d usage : He clai ms that a bushel o f wheat
w e g s s ixty o und s sho uld be
p
He ass erts

i h etc .

Clever m eans
b rillian t,

acco mplished ,

skilful ,

b ut no t

kin d ,

go o d n atured
-
.

That is very clever o fy o u m eans

That sho ws y o u to b e very s kilful .

C o me is frequen tly us ed when go s ho uld be emplo y ed ; come

.

d en o tes m o tio n to ward ; go m o tio n fro m : They go fro m us

,

to their ho me ; they me fro m their ho m e to us

co .

C o mmo n is a common frien d is a

co n fused with mutual ;

o ften
f riend who m two o r m o re p erso n s have in co mmo n ; a mutual
frien dship is the friendship o f two perso n s fo r each o ther

.

C o mmo nly . See F requently .

Co mpare to

m eans
lik en to

; co mpare wi th mean s meas ure by
or

po in t o ut similarities and differen ces .

C o mpelled . See Bound .

Co n dign mean s s uitable ,

deserved ,

no t nece ssarily s evere

;
fo rm erly it was s
u ed o f re wards as well as o f p unishm en ts .
50 A M AN UAL FOR WR I TE R S

Co n d o n e do es mean m ake amen d s

no t fo r,

b ut fo rgive
wo rd o r act Jo hn co nd on ed the o ffen s e he had

or n ulli fy by .

mmitted again s t J am es Her husb an d

co is in co rrect . con

don ed her fault is co rrect .

Co n s cio us s ho uld no t be u ed s fo r aware o r s ens ible . We can

be co n s ci o us o n ly of the facts o f o ur o wn inn er lif e ; we

are s ens ible o f extern al facts which affect o ur feelin gs ; we
are aware w hatever extern al facts o r general truths are
of

kno wn to us

I was co ns cio us o f his treachery is in co rrect
.

.

Co n s ider in the s e s e o f rega d s lo o k up o n as sho uld
"
, n r a , ,

us ually n o t b e fo llo wed by as : I co n s id er him abrillian t man

.

C o n temptible is used o f an o b j ect o f co n temp t; co n temptuo us o f ,

w hat is directed at s uch an o b j ect : He is a contempti ble

fello w ; I gave him a contemptuous lo o k ; He acted
'

conte mpti bly an d was treated co nte mptuo us ly by all .

C o n tinually . See F requen tly .

C o n tinuo us mus t b e dis tinguished fro m con tin ual; the fo rm er

implies s o methin g un in terrup ted , un cea in g ; s the latter, s o me
with in terrup tio n s :
thing f requen tly recurrin g, b ut The
rain was co n tinuo us fo r seven ho urs

;

T he s uccessio n of

sho wers was con ti n ual thro ugho ut the mo n th .

C o n ven e is o f ten w ro ngly u s ed fo r co n vo ke:

He con ven ed [ co n
vo ked ] asse mbly m ean s me

the Co n ven e

. co to gether,

b rin g to gether : The co mm ittee co nven ed

no t .

Crime is lo o s ely us ed fo r an o f
fen s e again s t the s p eakers s en se
o f right ; it pro perly m ean s o nly an f
o f en e s again s t law ; the
mo s t cruel o r dis ho n es t actio n is no cri me if there is no law
again s t it .

D angero us fo r dangero usly ill is a pro vin cialis m

, , .

Data is plural : This data is as b ad as this facts
.

D ecid ed mus t no t b e co n fused with decis ive; the fo rmer has mo re

than o e shad e o f m eani n g e g s tro n g o fsettled

rm

n ,
. .
, , ,

co n vic tio n
'
He is a man o f decid ed co nvictio n s
; the latter

m ean s deciding o r determ inin g an even t

:

T he en e my wo n
52 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

E ach is dis tribu tive an d therefo re is sin gular, no tplural : Each
o f us have [ has ] o ur [ his ] o wn d uties to perfo rm
. E very ,
alsois alway s s ingular
, .

E ach o ther is co mmo nly dis tinguished fro m on e ano ther; the
fo rmer is s
u ed as a pplicable to two o nly; the latter, to o re m

than two : Husb an d an d w ife lo ve each o ther; several
bro thers an d

s is ters lo ve on e ano ther .

E ect .See Aect .

Ego tis t sho uld be dis tin guished fro m ego is t; the fo rmer is o n e with
a high o r co n ceited Opini o n o f him s elf ; the latter, a b eliever
in ego is m (the do ctrine o f in dividual co ns cio usness) .

Either is distributive an d therefo re s ingular an d sho uld n ever be ,

used o m f o re tha n tw o : Have [has ] either o fy o u s een my pen
Elegant is o ne o f the m any ad j ectives in co mmo n us e as a s lang
term o f gen eral appro val ; pro p erly used it alw ay s implies ,

d elicacy ren em en t :
,

What a p erfectly elegant b ull do g " -

is n o t an elegan t exp ress io n .

E li m i n ate m e a n s
tak e o u t

remo ve fro m , ; we may eli mi n ate

an unk no w n q uan tity fro m an equatio n o r elimin ate a pdis o n

fro m the b o dy ; ifwe eli min ate a truth fro m a gro u p o fideas we
d o an inj ury either to truth o r to lan guage .

Els e s ho uld be fo llo w ed by than , no t by but:

No o n e el e s but
[than] he s o m uch
co uld have do n e
.

En o rmi ty is n o lo nger used to express m erely great siz e ; it is

app lied to wick edn ess cruelty o r s o m e mo n s tro u s o f
, fen s e
, .

E normo us n es s is s
s to mean great s iz e
o cca io n ally u ed .

E n thu s e h as no t y e t o b tain ed the s anctio n o f go o d usage :

He is

en thus ed o ve r the in ven tio n s ho uld be He is enthus ias tic

o ver, etc .

Evid en ce is metimes used when testimo ny wo uld be preferab le

so .

T he tes timony o fawitness may co n tain no eviden ce .

Evid en t See Apparent

. .

Except sho uld n ever b e us ed in the s ens e o f un less o r

bu t

:

N 0 o ne will be emplo y ed except [ unless] he is qualied

;

T he
 GRAM M AT ICAL N OTE S 53

farm wo uld have been pro ductive except [but] fo r his unin telli
g en t manage ent
m
.

Ex eptio nal means un us ual ,

c

fo rmin g an excep tio n ; excep

tionable means

O pen to o bj ectio n o r exceptio n : He was
a man o fexceptional character is the o ppo s ite o f He was a
man o fexceptionable character .

Expect invo lves a sense o f the future ; hence I expect y o u kno w
all abo ut it is in co rrect, an d s uch a wo rd as s uppo se sho uld

be subs tituted fo r it .

Factor is lo osely used fo r caus e by careles s writers : One facto r
"
i n [cause o f] his refus al was his dislike o f no to riety .

Fals ity pplies to things o r ideas ; fals enes to perso
a s ns : The
falsi ty o f his argument is as evident as the falsenes s o f the
man himself
.

Fault At fault means at a lo s s what to d o next, as when a

.

d o g has lo s t the trail ; i n fault m ean s in the wro ng,

to
blame

.

Favo r, in s
the sen e o f

s mble
re e ,

is a pro vincialis m:
He
favors [ resembles]
his father

.

F emale fo r wo man is a vulgaris m :

Clo thing fo r males and

females [ men and wo men] .

F etch See Brin g

. .

F ew s ho uld b e dis tinguished fro m afew; few emp has iz es the fact
that the number is s m all ; afew, the fact that there is anumb er,

F ew shall part where many meet ;

tho ugh it b e small :

A
few perso ns were saved in the ar

Fewer applies to nu mb er; less , to q uan tity : I have fewer [no t
less] bo o ks than y o u
.

Firs tly sho uld no t be emplo y ed fo r rs t, even tho ugh s ucceeded

in an enumeratio n by
se co n dly ,

thirdly,

etc Firs t is .

an adverb , as well as an ad j ective .

Fix, in the s ense o f rep air,

tl , is bad usage :

arr ng ,
a e se t e

avo id all s uch exp res s io ns as :

Fix the b ken table ;
ro F ix
y o ur hair ;

F ix y o ur affairs ;

Fix the rules ;

We are
xed.


54 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

F o rmer, an d its an tithesis latter, sho uld be used to designate o ne

o f two p ers o n s thin gs ideas e tc In cas e o f mo re than two
, , ,
. ,

the exp ressio n s

the rs t

the seco n d the

the third

, , ,

last s ho uld b e emplo y ed

.

Fre quently s ho uld b e dis tin guis hed fro m commo n ly gen erally per , ,

petually us ually ; each has its o wn renem en t o f mean ing

,
.

Co mmon ly exp ress es the an tithes is o f rarely ; frequen tly

an d gen erally , the an tithes is o f seldo m s
o cca io n ally

or ;
us ually is the o o s ite o f

cas ually

: pp
M ankin d co mmon ly

acco rd s sp ect
re to religio n

; It frequen tly rain s win ter
in ,

tho ugh the co ld is gen erally severe eno ugh to cause s no w ;

He us ually rises

at AM .

F ro m . See When ce .

F unn y s ho u ld no t b e us ed to m ean s trange

,
mark able
re .

G en erally . See F requen tly .

Go . See Co me .

Go od mis used in the sens e o f well ; shuns uch an

is freq uen tly

p
ex e r ss io n as :

I am feelin g go od
G o t in the s en s e o fp o ssess io n is s up er
,
uo us an d is to b e avo ided : , ,

I have go t a large ho use T o express o bligatio n o r co mpul

.

sio n avo id s uch terms as : I have got to [am o bliged to ]

,

Gotten is an o b so lete fo rm o f the pas t parti

catch a train .

ciple rein tro duced in to E n glis h fro m S co tlan d

,
Such a use .

o f the wo d as It has gotten to b e a co mmo n thing has

r in

n ever b een reco gn i ed z as go o d .

G ues s , in the sen se
suppo se thin k of imagine ,
( I gues s

,

he is a rich is a p ro vincialis m s anctio ned in co n vers a

tio n b u t co n demn ed in writin g This applies equally to the .

pro vin cial reckon , the e q uivalen t o f guess .

Han dy sho uld never pro ximity : They had

be s
u ed to ex ress p

s everal neighb o rs quite handy [very near is pro vin cial .

H an ged s ho uld b e us ed to expres s the executio n o fahuman b ein g ;

hun g a the pas t pa ticiple ses : It is the s en ten ce

s ,
r in o the r u

T he drap eries

o f the co urt that y o u b e han ged by the neck ;

were no t hun g with go o d tas te .

 GR AM M AT I CAL NOTE S 55

Healthy sho uld b e distin guished f ro m healthful an d fro m whole

s o me: h
T e child is healthy ;

Exercise is healthful ;

Who leso me fo o d an d healthful exercis e make him healthy
.

H ence See When ce

. .

High sho uld b e distin guished fro m tall It is a mis tak e to s ay .

,

as a N ew Yo rk ne ws pap er recen tly did :

T he Walwo rth
building is the highes t in the wo rld ; there are tho usan ds o f

huts an d cab in s that are higher by tho us an d s o f f eet .

H o me is no t a mere sy no ny m fo r ho us e: He has a b eautif ul

home may if he has a b eautiful ho us e See

no t b e true, even .

R es ide .

Hun g . See Han ged .

If is o ften m isus ed fo r whether :

I d o ub t if [ whether] I shall be

ab le to go ; I wo uld [sho uld] like to

o b tain y o ur advi ce
[o pinio n ] if [as to whether] I co uld o btain [ p ro cure] this letter
by law [legal

Ilk is careles s ly s mean s o rt pro perly

u ed kin d , It

to .

m ean s the s ame

R o b M acGrego r an d o thers o f that
.

i lk m ean s

R o b M acGrego r an d o ther M ac Grego rs


In .

phrases like this it was m is un ders to o d to m ean clan
,
.

Illy is avo ided by careful w riters Ill like well is an adverb .

, ,

as w j
ell as an ad ecti e
v : His illy [ ill] fo rmulated views hardly
d es erve

n o tice .

In augurate a wo rd which implies the acco mpan imen t o f

,

fo rm al an d dign ied ceremo nies is lo o s ely used fo r begin ,

by w riters who like big wo rd s T he rs t s tep s in this .

refo rm have recen tly b een in augurated an d are no w m aking

rap id p ro gress was recen tly written by a teacher o f m any

y ears exp erience S teps canno t b e in augurated no r can they

.
,

make progres s .

In divi dual mean s a p ers o n o r thin g regarded

It is as a unit .

impro perly us ed as a m ere sy n o ny m o f pers on : E ight
indivi duals [p ers o n s] w ere s aved in the ark

.

In s id e o f expressing the idea o f tim e is pro vincial and co llo q uial :

, ,

I n side of[ within ] ay ear I s hall b e o ut o fdeb t

.
56 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

Invite s ho uld no t be used fo r i n vitatio n :

She sen t me an in vi te

[ invitatio n] to the wedd in g

.

"
Kin d is no t plural ; do no t s ay these (o r tho se) kind
o f things .

Kin d o fs ho uld never b e fo llo wed by the in denite article : What

kind of [a] man is he "

K ind of an d s ort of in the sense o f

rather

are co llo quial : I feel kind of[ rather] ill
.

Kin dly Withs tran ge co nfusio n o ftho ught, many p ers o n s write :
.

Yo u are kindly req ues ted to reco mm end a teacher o f E nglis h
fo r N o do ub t the in ten tio n is that kindly s ho uld

o u r s cho o l .

mo dify recommend , but its p o s itio n prevents it fro m do in g so .

I t is b etter to write : Yo u are req ues ted to have the kindnes s

to reco mmend ,

or

Will y o u have the kindness to reco mm d
en ,

etc .

Las t is o ften mis used fo r lates t His lates t letter o r bo o k may no t

.

b e his las t; he may wri te m o re .

Latter applies o nly to the las t o f two See F ormer . .

Lay as a verb express es causative actio n ; lie exp ress es pass ivity :
, ,

She lays the bo o k do wn ; He lies quite s till ; He lays

p s ; A ship lies at a cho
lan

n r

T he pas t tense o flay is laid ; .

that o f li e is lay : She laid the bo o k do wn ; it lay there

unn o ticed .

L earn is a vulgaris a hen e mplo y ed in the sense o f teach

:

I ll learn [ teac h] y o u to be go o d "

L es s T
. he p as e no thin g les s than
h r

is o f ten m
a biguo us :

He was n othin g les s than co n d escen d ing in his m anner

See .

Liab le is passive , and in go o d mo dern us age is rarely fo llo wed by

an innitive ; do no t s ay , He is liable to co me at an y mo m ent ,

or He is li able to b e hurt . It u uas
lly implies weakn ess or

d efect : liable to acciden t in j ury It is als o s

or . u ed to

ex re p ss o b ligatio n : He is liable fo r this deb t . See Apt .

Li e . See Lay .

Like mus t n ever be used in the s en se of as

: He lo o ked like

his father ;
He died as he lived .

 GRAM M ATI CAL N O TE S 57

Like . See Love .

Lik ely . See A pt .

Literally implies that a s tatem en t to which it is attached is accu

rately an d precisely true : T he audien ce was literally m elted

to tears , is no t literally true .

L o an , used as a verb , is n o t in acco rd w ithgo o d usage :

Lo an me
y o ur umb rella

is an p ss io n
ex re to b e avo ided . Loan is a
no un .

Lo cate in the sen se o f settle

is regarded as a vulgaris m ; do no t

s ay o f a man that he located in the co un ty .

Love s ho uld o rdinarily be e mplo y ed to p s affectio n ; like

ex re s ,

to ex ress p the ta tes : s A man lo ves his family ; he likes fresh
air, bo o ks , fo o d , a p leas an t acquaintance ,
etc .

Lo vely like elegant is a greatly o verwo rked wo rd

, , .

Luxurian t as dis tinguished fro m luxurio us m ean s s uperabundant

, ,

in gro w th o r p ro d uctio n :
T he vegetatio n is luxuriant ; He

lead s a luxuri o us [in dulgen t, given o ver to luxury ] life .

M ad , in the sen s e o f a gry , is a ro vin cialis

n

hich can hardly p mw
be co n de mned as fo rb idden , b ut is better avo ided .

M ale See F emale

. .

M ay See Can
. .

M ighty , in the se se o
n f very ,

is to be avo ided . Do no t make

s p It s mighty hard

us e o f uch an ex ress io n as : .

M in d , in the sen se of o b ey ,

is to be avo ided . Shun s uch

ex re p ssio n s as : make y o u mind me "

I ll

M inus in t e h s en s,e o f

w itho u t lackin g is co llo quial ,

,

.

M o s t has been used in s tead o falmost fo r almo s t a tho usan d y ears ,

It rain ed mos t every day

b ut this us e is no t p ermiss ible

.

is bad s
u age .

M utual . See Co mmon .

N ece s s iti e s has almo s t en tirely u ur ed s p the place o f necess aries

in curren t E nglis h . T he necess i ties of life o f ten red uce o ne

to the b are n ecess aries . It is un fo rtun ate that the dis tinctio n
betw een the wo rds is no lo n ger s
o b erved .
58 A M ANUAL F OR WR I T E R S

N egligen ce is s
d en o te a q uality o f character ; n eglect, to
u ed to

p
ex ress f
a ailure t act
o : The accid en t was caus ed thro ugh
the n egligen ce o f the agman [ o r b y his n eglect to dis play a

N either deno tes o ne o f two , and s ho uld no t be s

u ed fo r n one

Of the two men ,

o r n o o n e: n ei ther was ever s een again ; .

N o ne o f tho se p resent heard him speak As a co n j un ctio n ,

.

neither sho uld b e fo llo wed , no t by or, b ut by n or: He
o wn ed n ei ther mo ney n o r lan d See N o t; als o p

. .
40 , s ec . 2 .

N ever has be co m e co llo q uially an e mphatic n egative : He
lo o k ed at it o n ce an d n ever s aid a wo rd .

N ice , in the s en se of pleasant ,

agreeable, has

es tabli s hed
its elf in co llo q uial, but no t in go o d literary , us age .

N o ho w, a vulgaris m , is rarely s
u ed exce t p by perso n s who us e

[d o esn t]

the do uble negative : He d o n
t

lik e her, n oho w

N o n e sho uld be treated as as in gular : N on e O f the m was presen t
There is n on e o fthem that doethgo o d .

N or . See N either; N at .

Not mus t b e fo llo w ed by the co rrelative nor in s uch sen tences

as :

N o t fo r w ealth n or fo r fame d id he strive ; She

was n ot presen t n or was her hus b an d .

See N either .

N ot b ut, to p ss
ex re a n egative, is a vulgaris m no t to b e

to lerated . S hun s uch a phrase as : I have n o t had but o n e
meal to day .

See p .
38, un der D o uble N egatives

.

N o thin g lik e and n owhere n ear, in such phrases as T he mine is

n o thi n g li ke as rich as p
re o rted ,
"
She is n owhere n ear as
b eautiful as I tho ught,

frequently met wi th in
are co nver

s atio n , b ut are to b e avo ided in all careful w riting .

0 s ho uld be u ed s with the vo cative, an d witho ut pun ctuatio n ;

Oh, fo r the j aculatio n and s ho uld be
e , fo llo wed by a co mma
o r a po in t o fexclam atio n : 0 C aes ar hear me " Oh

, , ho w
Oh"is it p o ssible " See chap v s ecs 5

happy I
.
, .
, 35 ;
p 7 2 s ec 6
.
,
. .
60 A M AN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

Pers o n See Party

. .

Place , when used in the sense o f where, is a vulgaris m ; s hun

such a phrase as : Let us go s o me place See

p 44 , un der Ellipsis
. .

Po pular means pleas ing to m an y p eo ple

It is n o t very papu
lar with me is therefo re ab s urd

.

Po s t and posted , fo r inform an d informed , are to o co llo quial fo r

serio us writing .

Practical and practi cable are o ften co nfused A plan may b e .

practicable cap able o f b eing carried o ut] , b ut no t practical

[because o f its co s t o r so m e o ther feature] In the sen se o f .

experien ced ,

s kilful practical is abs urd :

or Practical
ho rs es ho er
.

Pre dicate is m is used in two way s : (I ) to mean predict ; (2 )

to m ean b ase,

fo un d : H is early return was predicted b y

his f rien ds ; He predicates [b as es] his assertio n o n these facts

.

Pre mature To call a false repo rt premature is lud icro us , unless

.

there is reaso n to believe that the even t re o rted p will o ccur

later .

Pro mi s e in the sense o f

ass ure

is slang . Avo id s ucha use o f

the wo rd as : I p unis hed him, promis e y o u "
I

Pro po s e is o ften mis used fo r

purpo se, in the s ense o f to plan ,

to o

To propo s e m ean s

to in ten d . er a prOpo s al,

i . e .
,

to s ub mit a p ro po s itio n fo r the co n s ideratio n of so m eo n e ;

to purpo se has the m eani ng o f to d es ign

on the p art of

o ne who entertains the plan :

What do y o u propose [ o er]

as the b es t plan P
; I purpos e [ plan] to write a bo o k See .

als o Propos iti on .

Pro po s itio n isften mis used fo r propos al A propos iti on is a

o .

statement o fa j udgment o r a plan ; a propo s al is the presenta

tio n ment o f an o ffer See Pro pose
o r s tate . .

Pro vidin g is so metim es misuse d fo r provid ed : Yo u may go pro

eiding [ pro vided] y o u are acco mp a

nied .

Purpo s e . See Propose .

 GR AMM ATI CAL N OTE S 61

Q uali ty is gross ly mis used as an adj ective ; fo rtun ately the mis
use is co nned a lmos t en tirely to ad vertisements , where all

s o rt s o f vio lence are do n e to the language : Quality clo thes "
B uilt fro m the mo s t exclus ive des igns .

Q uite m ean s

entirely ,

who lly .

It is therefo re mis used in the

sentence She was quite [very m uc ] pleased with the boo k ;
h

quite dark s ho uld expres s the meaning o f co mpletely

Quite in the sens e o f so mewhat is equally to be

dar
avo ided .
Quite a j aw is no n s en se as well as bad E nglish , .

See also R eal .

R ais e is mis used in s everal senses . It is no t a no un, an d co nse

quen tl y to say , I made a rais e ,

in the s ens e o f I o b tained
so me mo ney ,

is ungrammatical . As a verb , it mus t b e dis
tingui s hed fro m rear: We raise vegetables ; we rear children .

Avo id s uch expres s io ns as : She was rais ed [bro ught up] in

Ken tucky [increas ed] my ren t

T he lan dlo rd rais ed

o ld ; .

R eal, in the sense o f very ,

is a vulgaris m . Avo id : 1 was real

[very ] angry .

See also Qui te .

R eck o n See Guess

. .

R e f erence is o ften wro ngly with the prepo sitio n in : In use d
l s ho uld be With reference, etc

eren ce to yo ur p ro p os a

ref .

The s am e rule applies to the w rds reg

o ard an d res pect :

With
rega rd to

is preferable to I n regard to

Withres pe tc t o

is preferable to In res pect to .

R egard See Reference

. .

R emain d er See Balance

. .

R es earcher is a vulgaris m o f the w o rs t s o rt .

R e si de is us ed fo r live by tho se who like ne wo rds , as res id ence

is fo r ho us e, dwelli ng:

He resides in a p alatial res id ence [ He
lives in a n e
R es pe ct See Reference
. .

R es t See Balance
. .

R etire, fo r go to bed, is aected :

Yo u may retire to y o ur ro o m
an d go to b
62 A M AN UAL FO R WR IT E R S

R even ge . See Aven ge .

R everen d . Co mmo n us age has es tab lis hed the rule that, when
u eds as a title , this wo rd sho uld b e abb reviated and
that it sho uld no t b e preceded b y the d enite article (see ,

ho w ever, chap iii, . sec .

R ev A V . . . S mith was p res en t .

Right sho uld n ever b e us ed in the sens e o f du ty : Yo u had a

t to warn me is avulgaris m fo r Yo u o ught to have w arned

righ

w m R ight, in the s en s e o f

me ,
Itwas y o u r duty to arn e

.

very ,

is a pro vin cialis m :

It is right [very ] pretty .

S uch

p
ex res sio n s as

right no w ,

right o ff,

right away ,

right

here

are no w pro vincial
merly in go o d use , tho ugh fo r .

R ubb ers o r I ndia rubbers fo r o vers hoes is pro vin cial

,
-
, , .

S ame sho uld n ever b e used as a p ro no un Avo id the co mmo nly .

used express o n s
i : Yo ur letter received ; in reply to s ame ,

I have to s ay etc (s ee chap vii p , Likewis e the expres.

.
, .

sio n s ame as in the sens e o f jus t as

,
in the same mann er ,

,

is a vulg aris m A vo id :

He treated me the s o me as if I were
.

o wn child

his .

S co re is to be avo ided in the fo llo wing : She s cored [achieved] a
co mplete success

.

S eem See Appear

. .

S et m eaning s it is a vulgarism n eedin g o nly to b e p o in ted

, ,

o ut to in s ure its avo ida nce: S et [s it] in this chair is en tirely

in def ens ible ; His clo thes s et well is mo re frequently co n

do ued, b ut equally ungrammatical .

S ettle . See Lo cate .

S hall See un der

.

Grammatical N o tes p 3 6 ,

. .

(under Grammatical N o tes

S ho uld See S hall
.
,

p .

S ho , t e
w in h se n s e o f p y, p f
la
e r o rm c

an e, is b ad :

Let s go

to see a s how

S ho w up, in the sens e o f expo s e, is a vulgaris m : I will s how

him up [ exp o s e him] at all co s ts

.

S iz e u p, in the s en s e o f es tim ate,

we gh, is also a vulgaris m :
i

I want y o u to s iz e him up [estimate his
 G RAM M ATICAL N OTE S 63

So me , fo r so mewhat is , a vulgaris m :

I feel so me [so mewhat]

b etter .

S o rt . See Kind .

S o rt o f . See Kind f
o .

S plen did means s hining b rilliant ; it sho uld n o t be used as ,

a term o f gen eral co mm en datio n Avo id s uch expressio n s as : .

M y car run s s plendid ly ; M y watch keeps s plendid time ;

He is do in g as plendid wo rk .

S tan d fo r w hich pro p erly mea s b e res po n s ible fo r
,
n has ,

recen tly co m e in to co mm o n us e in the Un ited S tates fo r

s tand end ure an d also fo r permit:

, ,
I wo n t s tand for [s tan d]

his treatmen t O f me It is s till if n o t a vulgarism at bes t

.
, ,

co llo q uial and p ro vincial .

S tate is no w us ed vulgarly fo r s ay: I s tated [s aid] that I tho ught
so methin g o ught to b e do ne abo ut it and he n ally s tated ,

[ replied] in an in differen t way fo r me to co me in [ that I sho uld

co m e in ] again this week ; I pressed him fo r an an swer
,

an d he s tated , No ,

S ure, as an adverb , is n o t permissible : I s ure will do it ; I

will co m e s ure .

In each ca e us e s urely , s o r remo del the s en

tence to read :

I s hall b e s ure to do it .

T each . See Learn .

Team is a pro vin cialis m used co mmo nly in N ew England fo r a

ho rse drawn vehicle an d its use has sp read to o ther p arts o f
-
,

thi s co un try .

in the s en se is a vulgaris m : I

That, of so or s uch a, was

that [ so ] pleas ed I p ss my self clearly ; I
,
co uld n o t ex re

didn t kn o w it was that [s o ] b ad The w o rd that has so many

.

fun ctio n s that care m us t b e taken to avo id the awkward

rep etitio n o f it S uch a s en tence as the fo llo wing needs
.

w The p o lice had a bo o k that they fo un d in his o f

i
re rit gn : ce
that co n tain ed the n am es o f p eo ple that he to o k o rders fo r an d
that was valuable fo r the rea o n s that we co uld inq uire o f these

peo ple .

See p .
41 , s ec .
3 .
64 A MAN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

Thin k sho uld no t have the wo rd fo r

added : He is mo re to

blame than y o u thin k for See p 39 , sec 3

. . . .

am

Thro ugh s ho uld no t b e used in the sens e o f n ished

: I
thro ugh [ have ni hed] s my wo r
To is s uperuo us and w ro n g in

Where have y o u b een to "

See A t .

Tran s pire do es no t m ean
happ en

; it is pro p erly used fo r co me
b eco m e kn o w n T he treas o n did

tran s pi re

to light, : no t

fo r two y ears

.

Try . See An d . Try and [ to ] eat s o methin g

is co llo q uial .

Ugly , in the s ense of

bad temp ered ,

vicio us ,

sho uld be
avo ided :

He keep s an ugly [ bad mpered] do g
-
te .

Unique do es n o t m ean rare o r ,

Odd as m any ,

s ee m to s up
po s e ; it m ean s alo n e o f its kin d

:

V ery un ique,

mo re
an d the like , are therefo re ab s urd

un ique, .

Un les s . See E xcept an d Wi tho ut .

Upward o f is no t go o d us age w hen , us ed to ex res p s mo re than

:

I have b een co nned to the ho use fo r upward o f [ mo re than]
"
a y ear .

Us ually . See F requen tly .

Ve rb al.

A verbal mess age m ean s o nly a m essage in wo rds ;

a message by wo rd O f mo uth is an o ral m essage : He gave

them verbal [o ral] ins tructio n s

.

Vo cati o n . See A vo cati o n .

Way sho uld s no t be u ed in the sen s e o f

a ay w : T he

ho us e
sto o d way [ aw ay ] b ack in the w o o ds
;

Way [ away ] do w n

eas t .

Way s is O ften misused fo r way : It is quite a ways [way ] Oil

.

Well See Good and Illy

. .

What See B ut. .

Who les o me See Healthy . .

When ce mean s fro m what place o r cause an d hence in the

,

exp ess i R eturn to the p lace fro m when ce y o u cam e
r o n ,

from is redun dan t This applies eq ually to hence which .

,

sho uld no t b e preceded by from .

 GR AMM AT I CAL N OTE S 65

Will See S hall (under Grammatical N o tes p

.

,

.

Witho ut fo r unles s is pro vin cial : I will no t go without [un les s]

, ,

y o u go w ith me

See E xcept
. .

Witnes s is used fo r s ee by perso n s who like large wo rds We .

may wi tn ess an even t but ,
no t ap s er o n o r a thin g : T his is
the larges t audien ce I ever wi tn es s ed
Wo rs t kind is slang N ever use such an expres sio n as I want to
.

[ o f a way is s o metimes

go to the theater the wors t kind

added to this o b j ectio n able p hras e] in the s ense O f very

m uch .

I

Wo uld in the sense o f the auxiliary do o r did is a vulgar

,

,

It s a wo nder the

is m : o wers wo uldn t gro w there


See .

S hall (under G rammatical N o tes p
.
,
 CHAPT ER III

S PELLIN G ; WI TH E S FO R ABBR EV IATIN G

R UL AN D
COM POUN D I N G WOR D S

T he l
ru es in ten d ed : (I ) to in di cate
whi ch fo ll o w are
the b etter fo rm where two o r m o re spellin gs Of a wo rd
are reco gn iz ed ; (2 ) to m ak e clear when abb revi ati o n s
s ho ul d n o t b e used i e when go o d fo rm requires wo rd s
,
. .
,

o r gures to b e spelled o ut in s tead o f abb revi ated ,

an d vice vers a; (3) to Offer co n s tru ctive rul es whi ch

will en ab l e a wri ter to mas ter the d if cul t s ubj ect Of
co mpo un ding wo rd s .

M o s t o f the rul es gi ven are s o framed as to rel ate

to co n crete cas e s Several Of thes e are taken fro m the
.

M an ual of S ty le (T he Un ivers ity o f Chi cago

A few gen eral rul es are added in the b eli ef th at they
wi ll pro ve servi ceab l e to wri ters an d o thers who may
co n sul t thi s b o o k It has n o t b een tho ugh t wise to
.

cumb er the b o o k wi th elem en tary rul es nor o n the , ,

o th er h an d wi th rul es go vern in g co mpli cated o r un u

,

s ual cases .

SPE LLI N G

1R ules fo r s pe llin g d erivatives a) In derivatives

. .

fo rmed fro m wo rd s en din g in c by addin g a termi n atio n

b egin n in g wi th e, i, or y , the l etter k is in s erted after
the c wh en the l atter is no t to b e pro n o un ced li k e s :
co lic, co licky ; tra
i c, trafcked , traf
cking, traf
cker .

66
 68 A M AN UAL FOR WR I TE R S

e) In derivatives fo rmed fro m wo rds en d ing wi th

s when the termin atio n b egin s wi th a vo wel , the
i len t e ,

e is generall y o mi tted :
bride, bridal ; guide , guidance ; plum e plumage ; , s
us e, u able ,

us age .

In o rder to guard again s t mi spro n un ci atio n the s i len t

e is so metimes reta ned i (s ee s ec .
4 b elo w)
,

ho e, ho eing ; sho e ,
sho eing ; peace p eaceable ; , change ,

changeab le ; advan tage, advan tageo us .

f) In d erivatives fo rmed fro m wo rd s in y , en d n g i

preced ed b y a co n so n an t, by appen din g an y termi n atio n
except o n e b eginn in g wi th i , the y is usuall y ch an ed
g
in to i :
m ercy m erciful ; mo dify mo dies ;
, , gay , gaiety .

g) T he en d n gs i s i on an d ti on are di s tin gui s h ed in

- -

practice as fo llo ws :
s i o n is gen erall y the fo rm in the cas e o f no uns
-

rel ated to verb s en d ing in nd , de,

ge, re, s e, s s , mi t,
- - - - - - ~

-
vert:
a pprehen d pprehensio n ; pro vide pro visio n ; subm erge
, a , ,

subm ersio n ; co here co hes io n ; immerse immers io n ; co n fess

, , ,

co n fess io n ; p erm it p ermissio n ; pervert p ervers io n

, , .

Exceptio n s to the rule are :

atten tio n co n tentio n in ten tio n (als o with diff eren t m eanin
, , g , ,

in ten sio n) .

-
ti on is the fo rm in all o th er cases wi th few exceptio n s :
co n struct , co ns tructio n ; co n travene, co n traven tio n ; culti
vate, cultivatio n ; e migrate , e migratio n ; po llute po llutio n ;
,

s
re urrect, resurrectio n .
 S PELLIN G 69

Exceptio ns to the ru el are :

co ercio n, diss ens io n , scansio n , m ans io n , to rs io n , di s to rs io n .

Give preference to the fo llo wi ng fo rms o f spelling:

2 .

abridgmen t cen ter favo r J udea '

acco uter check fetid j udgment

acknowledgment chlo rid kidn aper
Ko ran
aegis' cla mo r b er labo r
clinch avo r
aes thetic clue uo rid
after ard w co eval fo rward
full
aluminum
co tillio n gai ety
co un cilo r maneuverx
amo n g s
co un elo r ps
si ) " Markan
anemiaI co zy m
gla o r
arbo r cue gly c erin meager
archaeo lo gy x defen se go o db y e mediaevalx
ardo r demean o r gray meter
armo r d iarrhea grue o mes miter
ascen dancy disk guaran tee (v ) . Mo hammedan
ascendent dispatch guaran ty (n ) . mo ld
Athenaeum di stil harb o r mo lder
ax do wnward m
he o rrhaget mo lt
ay e d raft H in du mo vable
bark (vessel) mustache
b az aar d ueler imb ed n eighbo r
B ed uin d uln ess incase niter
b ehavio r dwe lt in clo se o do r
blessed embitter incrust o ense
bo wlder emir o ne

s self (not
burned emplo y ee
s
cae ura' en cy clo pedic
'

endeavo r in graft
can do r engulf in stal ( en t)
m paean

canno neer enro l in stil paleo g ra p

h y

canyo n en sn are ins ure paleo n to lo gy

I

carca ss en velo pe (n ) . in tren ch paro le

caro led E skimo in trust parq uet
s
ca to r (ro ller) exhibito r w
in ard parti san
caviler fan tasy w
j e eler peddler
I
See sec 9 . be ow
. l .
I
See sec
. r c) , abo ve
.
70 A M AN UAL FO R WR IT E R S

Pho en ixI saber subtle tro us ers

p m
ig y salab le succo r tum o r
p w
lo Savio r sumac upward

practice savo r sy rup valo r

(n an d v ) . . scepter tab o o vapo r
preten e s sepulcher talc vend o r
primeval sergean t techniq ue2 vigo r
pro gram Skepticism theater while3
reco n no iter skilful thraldo m whis eyk
reinfo rce smo lder thras h f
wil ul
renco un ter so mb er to rmen to r f
wo e ul
reverie S pecter to ward wo o len
rigo r staun ch tran q uili e z wo rs hiper
ruble steadfast tran q uilli ty Yahweh
ru mo r s ubpo en a
I
traveler

N O TE M ake wo rd o f m

o ne any o ne, every o n e, to day , to o rro w,

to n ight,

canno t

(s ee s ec .
46 , b elo w) . s
Di tinguis h b et een w

so metimes
an d

so me so meo ne
an d

so me o n e [ o r
m o re ] o f the n u mb er .

3 Dif
feren ti ate b etween
. the termin atio n s -
is e an d
-
iz e as fo llo ws :
SPE LL WITH is e -

adverti e s co mpro mise en ter ri ep s merchandise

advi e s de isem excis e premise
affranchi e s des ise
p exerci e s reprise
p s
a pri e (to devise exo rcis e revise
info rm) d isfranchise fran chise rise
s
ari e dis guise im ro vise
p su ervise
p
chastise p
em rise inci se surmise
circu mcis e en fran chise manuprise sur rise
p
mprise
WITH i z e
co

SPE LL y z e)
-

aggran di e z apo stro phiz e brutaliz e characteri e z

ago n i e z apprize (to can o n i e z christian iz e
an aly e z apprai e) s catechiz e civiliz e
an ato i e mz z
autho ri e catho liciz e classicize
anglici e z auto ly z e cauteriz e co lo n iz e
p
a o lo gi e z b aptize cen traliz e criticiz e

x See s ec .
9 , be o w l .

= In med ca wo rki l no w genera y spe ed ll ll

techn i
c .

Whilst" is ally p f l i

J the fo rm gener re erred in Eng and , but it is to b e avo ded in
the i
Un ted States .
 SPELLIN G 7I

y
cr s talliz e immo rtaliz e o s traciz e s o lilo q uiz e
demo raliz e italiciz e o xid iz e s peciali z e
deputiz e j eo pardiz e paralyz e s piritualiz e
do gmatiz e legaliz e particulariz e s tan dardiz e
eco no miz e liberaliz e pas teuriz e s tig matiz e
emphasiz e lo caliz e patro niz e b
s u s idiz e
energiz e magn etiz e philo so phiz e s ummariz e
epito miz e man umiz e plagiariz e syllo giz e
eq ualiz e memo rializ e po lariz e symbo liz e
eulo giz e merceriz e f
pro es s io n aliz e sy mpathiz e
evangeliz e mesmeriz e pro tes tan tiz e tan taliz e
extempo riz e metamo rphiz e v
pul eriz e tempo riz e
familiariz e metho diz e realiz e tran q uili z e
fertiliz e min imiz e reco gn iz e y
t rann iz e
fo ssiliz e mo dern iz e reo rgan iz e u tiliz e
fratem iz e mo n o po liz e v
re o lutio niz e vapo riz e
galvaniz e mo raliz e s atiriz e visualiz e
generaliz e n atio n aliz e s candaliz e vitaliz e
go rmandiz e n aturaliz e scrutiniz e vo cali e z

harmo niz e ne utraliz e s ign aliz e vulcaniz e

hellen iz e o rgan iz e s o lemniz e ulgariz e
human iz e

4 . T he f ollowin g participles ret ain the n al 6 o f the

primary word (see sec . 1 (1 ) above) :
agreeing y
e eing ho ein g s ingeing
y
d ein g hieing s ho ein g tin gein g

T he following participles illustrate the omiss ion o f

the 6 be f ore the termin al (see sec 1 (1) above) : .

abridging bluing gluing mo vin g

ackn o wledging changing grudging o rgan iz ing
arguin g enco uragin g icing o wing
awing lin g is s uing trudgin g
biting ring j udgin g truing

Differentiate between farther

5 . an d
further

bY usin8 the form er in the s ense o f
'
more remote ,

at a gre ater distan ce

; the latter in the sense of more

in addition

over ,

the arthe f r end ; he wen t s till farther ; further ,

he s ugges ted ;

a further reaso n .
72 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

6 . f orms of add ress (vocative) use the O wi th
In

out a comma following ; f or an exclamation use Oh

,

f ollowed by a commaor an exclamation point (see p 58 .

,

ch ap iv s ec 3 2 ; ch ap v se cs 5
.
,
. .
,
.
,

O tho u mo s t mighty ruler " Oh that I had n ever b een bo rn ,

.

7 .F orm the possessive o f proper names en din g in

s or another sibilant if m onosyllabic by addin g an, ,

apostrophe an d 3 ; ifo f more than o n e syllable by addin g ,

an apostrophe alone :
King James s Vers io n B urns s po ems M arx s theo ries ;

,

,

M o ses law Jesus birth Demo s thenes o ratio n s B erlio z co m

, , ,

po s itio ns ; fo r co nvenien ce s ak e

.

But in the case o f proper n am es en ding in a s ilent sib i

l ant the po ssessive is fo rmed by the addition o f the apos
tro phe an d 3 whether the word is m onosy ll ab ic or not :
,

Charlevo ix s dis co veries ; Illin o is s legislature ; Des M o in es s

po pulatio n ; M aupas s writin gs .

8Be fo re soun de d h long u (or eu an d the wor d s

.

( i
o ne on ce use a as the form o f the indeni te
,

,

article (not
a ho tel, a harmo n ic, ahis to rical, a un io n , a eupho nio us wo rd ,
s uch a o n e , a o n ce -
read bo o k .

9 . T he ligatures ce an d (2 are not use d at the present

day , either in Latin an d Greek word s , or in word s
ad opted in t o English from these langu ages In English .

these words are written either with ac o e separ ately or , , ,

with e alone The ligature is retained however in Old

.
, ,

E nglish an d in F r en ch an d other m od ern langu ages :

,

aetas ; Oedi pus Tyram ms ; aes thetic ; (e uvre b ut : man euv er ; ,

lElfred bu t : Alfred , .
 SPELLIN G 73

1 0. to the exceptions note d in s ec 2 7 spell

Subje c t .
,

out religious civil an d mi li tary titles o f honor an d

, ,

respe ct and f orm s o f address pre ceding the nam e :

,

Admiral Dewey ; General M cclellan ; Bis ho p Kan e .

I I. out Christian names as George Charles

Spell , , ,

John (not : G eo Ch as

an d von as part o f a
.
,
.
,

person s n ame except where the abbreviated form is

,

used in quoted matter or in original signatures (see

chap v sec I ).
,
. .

12 T reat all numbers in conne cted groups ali ke as

.
,

far as possible ; do not use gures f or som e an d spell

out others ; if the largest contai ns three or more di gits ,

use gures for all (see below s ec ,

.

The fo rce emplo yed during the three mo n ths was 8 7 9 3 and , ,

1 0 6 res pectiv ely

, .

A s ageneral rule however d ecimals d egrees dimensions

, , , , ,

distances enumerations money percentage weights

, , , , ,

an d like expressions shoul d be given in gures :

4 5 miles 3 cubic feet 2 4 pages I I I bus hels 9 per
, , , ,

cen t (see chap v s ec 43 po un ds.

,
etc .
, .

Spell out roun d numbers

13 . approximate
nu mbers in tens , hundred s , thous and s , or millions) :
T he attendan ce was es ti mated at ve hundred ; a thes is of

abo ut three tho usand wo rd s .

: 4 . Spell out all numbers no matter how high , , co m

men cin g a senten ce :
F ive hundred and n ine t y three men
-
, 4 1 7 wo men , an d 1 89

chi ldren und er eighteen , bes ides 63 o f the crew , wen t do wn wi th

the s hip .
74 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITERS

When this is imprac ticable or f or an y reason und esirable , ,

re constru ct the sentence ; e g . .

T he to tal numb er o f tho se who wen t do wn with the s hip was

5 9 3 men , etc .

15. Spell out the time o f day in ordinary re adi ng

matter :
at fo ur ; lf
at ha pas t two in the a tern o o n ; at se en
-
f v
l k
o c oc .

Statistically , in enum erations an d always in conne ction ,

wi th A M an d P M use gures :
. . . .
,

at 4 : 1 5 P M (o mit o clo ck in such co nnectio ns )

. . .

1 6. Spell o ut ages :
eight y years and fo ur mo n ths o ld ; chi ldren b etween s ix and
fo urteen .

17. out numbers o f sessions o f Congress o f

Spell ,

mi litary bo dies o f thoroughfares o f centuries o f Egyp

, , ,

tian dynasties an d o f all sim ilar categories unless brevity

, ,

is an import ant consid er ation (see ch ap iv se cs 2 1 .

, .
,

Fifty eighth Co ngres s s eco nd sessio n ; Fifteenth Infan try

-
, ,

Sixth Co ngres s io nal Dis trict; Seco nd Ward ; Fifth

Avenue ; n ineteenth cen tury ; Fifth Dynas ty .

1 8. Spell out re ferences to particular decades :

in the nin eties .

19 . out n ames o f m on ths except in statis tical

Spell ,

matter or in long enumerations (see pp 1 30 .

,

fro m January 1 to April 1 5 (o mit after dates st d rd nd , , , , , ,

and th) .

Spell out Unite d St ates except in quotations
2 0. ,

and in su ch conne ctions as : Gener al Scho eld ,

76 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

Md . N ev . PI . . Philipp ine T H = T errito ry . .

M ich . N H . . Islands o f H awaii

M in n . NJ . PR . .
=
Po rto R ico Utah
M is s . N M . . R I . . Va .

Mo . N Y . . SC . . Vt .

M o nt . Ohio SD . . as h W .

Okla T enn . Wis .

W Va
.

Ore T ex . . .

Wy o
.

N eb . Pa . .

techn ical matter (f ootnote re f erences bibliog

25. In ,

raphies etc ) abbreviate Company an d Brothers
,
.

,

an d the word an d in names o f commer cial rms :

The M acmillan Co .
, M acmillan Co .
, Harper B ro s ; Chicago , .

M ilwaukee St Paul R ailro ad

. .

In text matter not o f a te chnical ch arac ter Company , ,

an d Brothers shoul d however be spelled out :

, ,

Harper B ro thers have recen tly publis hed two wo rk s o f travel ;

The C en tury C o mpan y ann o un ces a new s eries ; T he extrao r
d inary s to ry o f the So uth Sea Co mpan y .

An d when the n ame o f a commercial con cern does not

consist o f proper n ames the an d should be spelle d out : ,

American Steel an d Wire Co .

A bbreviate Saint

2 6. or Saints be fore proper
n am es :
St Lo uis , St Peter s Church, SS Peter and Paul

. . . .

A bbreviate M r M essrs M rs (F rench M

27. .
, ,
.
,
.
,

M M M me M lle) Dr (but see pp 1 3 3

.
, , R ev ,
. .
, .
,

Ho n St an d Es q Spell out all other religi ous civi l

.
,
.
,
.
, ,

an d mi li t ary ti tles o f honor an d f orms o f add ress Do .

not except on the envelope an d in the address line of

,

letters write the R ev the Ho n (see s ec 1 0 above ;

, .
,
. .
,

ch ap iv s ec 6 an d chap vii p
.
,
.
, .
,
.
 SPELLIN G 77

ref erences to Scripture passages the books o f

2 8. In ,

the B ible and o f the Apoc ryph a and vers ions o f the ,

B ible should be abbreviated as f ollows (see chap iv .

,

sec .

OLD TESTAI ENT

I and II Chro n . Is a . Jo nah

Exo d . Ez ra Jer . M ic .

Lev . N eh . Lam .

Esther Ez e k . Hab .

Deut .
Jo b Dan . Zeph .

Jo sh . Ps (Pss )
. . Ho s .

Judg . Pro v . Jo el
R uth Amo s M al .

I an d H Sam . Song of So l . b
O ad .

I an d II ings K (or Can t ) .

NE W TESTAMENT

M att . I and II Co r . I and II T hese .

Jas .

M ark Gal . I and II T im . I an d II Pet .

Luke Eph . T itus I, II , and III Jo hn

Jo hn Phil . Philem . Jude
Acts Co l . Heb . R ev .

Ro m .

APO R P HAC Y (APOC ) .

I and II E sd . R es t o fEs ther So ng o f P1 o fM an

. .

To b = T o b it
.
W isd o f So l . . Children I , II , HI , and IV
Ith Judith
. Ecclus . Sus .

Bar . B el and Drago n

VE R SI ON S OF THE BIB LE COMM ONLY F

RE ERRED T O

AV. . Autho riz ed Vers io n .

R V
. . R evised Vers io n .

R V
. . m . R evised Vers io n margin ,
.

= American Standard R evised Vers io n .

= American Standard R evised Vers io n margin , .

ER V
. . . nglis h R evis ed Versio n .

= English R evised Vers io n margin ,

.

E V
. . Englis h Vers io n (s ) o f the Bible .

Vulg .
=
Vulgate .

LXX Septuagint .
78 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

29 re feren c es in f ootnotes an d in matter

. In li terary , ,

o f a bibliographical char acter abbreviate volum e , ,

ps alm

nu mber article

division ch apter

, , , , ,

c olu m n

se ction page verse
,

line note ,

,

,

,

,

gure f ollowed by their num ber (s ee chap iv s ec

. .
, ,

an d abbreviate the wor d

f ollowing af ter the number

to d enote co ntinu ance or sequ en ce :

V o l I (plu ral Vo ls ) N o 1 (N o s ) Ps 2 0
. Div III , ,
.
, . .
,

chap ii (chaps ) art iii (arts ) s ec 4 (s ecs )

p 5 co l 6

. .
.
, , , . .

vs .
7 n .
9 F ig 7 (Figs ) ; pp 5 7
. .

( pages 5 to 7 inclusi e) , pp 5
= v . f ( .
=
page 5 an d the fo llo win g
p g ) , pp 5
a e if ( page 5 and the
=
. . fo llo wing pages) .

A bbr eviate the co mmon d esign ations o f weights

30 .

an d me asures in the m etric system as well as the s y m ,

bols of me asurem ent in common use when f ollowing a ,

nu meral
1 m 2 dm 3 cm 4 mm ; c m ( cubic meter) c d c c
.
,
.
,
.
, . . .
=
, . .
,
. .
,

c . mm .
; g .
gr . h . min .

s ec . lb . oz .
yd .
, ft .
,
in ; .

AU ( Angs trtim units)

. .
=
, ( hp
. .
= ho rs e po wer) , C -
.

F . and lcm (
. . .
=
lo wes t co mmo n multiple) , etc .

(See chap v .
, sec .

T he f ollowing is a list o f the standard abbreviations f or

te chnical valu e s recommen d ed by the A merican Insti ,

tute o f E lectrical E ngineers :

altern ating curren t ac (wh . en u sed as a co mpo und
ad j ective ; o therwis e s pell o u t )
brake ho rse po wer -
b hp . . .

bo iler ho rs e po wer -
bo iler h p . .

Britis h thermal units B tu

. . .

candle po w er -
c p .
 SPELLIN G 79

meters
c en ti
circular mils cir . mils
co unter electro mo tive fo rce co unter e . mf . .

cubic cu .

d irect current d -
c .
(when a co mpo und
us ed as

elect ric ho rse po wer

electro mo tive fo rce
-
e 1 pj
e mf
.

.
at d
.
ec
.
ive ; o therwise spell o ut)

. .

feet ft .

foo t po unds
-
ft lb s
.

gallo ns gal .

r
g ains gr

g ams
r g .

g am calo ies
r r g cal
-
.

ho urs hr .

in ches
indicated ho rs e po wer -

kilo grams
kilo gram meters -

kilo gram calo ries -

kilo meters
kilo watts
kilo watt ho urs -

magneto mo tive fo rce

miles per hr (s eco nd) .

millimeters
milligrams mg .

minutes min .

meters 111 .

meter kilo grams

-

po un ds 1h .

revo lutio ns per minute rev .

per min .
, or r .
pm
. .

s eco nd s

s quare
ro o t o f mean s quare
- - sq .

eective, o r r . ms
. .

kilo vo lts kv .

kilo vo lt amperes
- kv a -
.

watt ho urs
- watt hr -
.

watts per candle po wer - watts per c

-
p .

yards yd .

N OTE
In the cas e o fhyphen ated abbreviatio n s , the rst element
o fthe co mpo un d do es n o t take aperio d .
80 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

C OMP OUN DIN G

T he ompoundin g o f word s is accompli she d either

c

by joining two word s so as to mak e one word or by ,

conn e cting two wor d s with a hyphen T he mod ern .

tend en cy is against the hyph en an d in f avo r of uni ting ,

in o n e two word s whi ch when uni te d convey but one , ,

id e a:
s cho o lro o m wo rks ho p headquarters
, ,
.

T hus far,howe ver this practice can be spoken of ,

only as a tenden cy an d there are many compound word s

,

which are better hyphenate d than consolidate d T he .

following rules are d esigne d to cover su ch cases .

31 . Hyphenate as a rul e, nouns f ormed by the

, co m

bin ation of two nouns one o f whi ch stand s in an objective

relation to the other :
mind -
read er, s to ry
ho lder, pro perty
teller , of
ce - -
o wn er ; hero
wo rship, child s tudy ; wo o d turning, clay mo deling
- - -
.

Exceptions are ommon an d brie f compound s usu ally

c , in
a spe cic or te chn ical sense :

lawgiver, taxpay er, pro o fread er, bo o kk eeper ,

s to ckho lder .

A large group o f these word s is f orme d by word s the

rst elem ent of whi ch is a verb al noun in z ng stan ding
'

in the s am e rel ation to the se con d element as if it were

the object o f a preposition :
bo ardi ng ho us e -
, din in g hall, -
l
s eeping ro o m, -
dwelling plac e, -

pgin ting o ice,

-
walkin g s tick , -
s tarting~po in t, s teppin g s to ne , -

s tumbling blo ck , wo rking m an

- -
.
 SPELLIN G 8I

A verbal noun ending in z ng uni ted wi th a

'

32 -
.

preposition used absolutely not governing a follow

in g noun) should t ake a hyphen :
the pu tting ih o r taking o ut o fa hyphen
- -
.

33 Hyphenate two or more word s (except proper

.

n ames f orming a unity in themselves) combin e d in to

one adje ctive preceding a noun :
s o called Cro es us , well kno wn autho r, rs t cla
-
s s in ves tmen t,
- -

high s cho o l co urs e, half dead ho rs e, up to date apparel ; but : N ew

- - - -

T es tamen t times , Old En glis h s pelling .

But do n o t connect by a hyphen adje ctives or participles

with adverbs ending in ly or su ch combinations as the -
'

above when f ollowin g the noun or when predicative : ,

highly d evelo ped s pecies ; a man well kn o wn in the n eigh

b o rho o d ; the fly leaf s o called ; Her go wn and carriage were
-
,

s trictly up to date .

3 4 Hyphenate two or more nouns when combined

.

in an adje ctival sense be f ore a proper noun :

the marty r pres iden t Linco ln ; the po et artis t R o ssetti
- -
.

35 Compoun d s o f fellow
. father mother
,

,

,

parent an d f oster

brother sister ,

d aughter ,

, ,

should be hyphenated when forming the rst element

o f the co mpoun d :
fello w man fello w bein gs father lo ve (but : fatherland)
-

mo ther
-
, , ,

to ngue bro ther o f cer s is ter natio n fo s ter so n daughter

,
-
,
-

,
-
,

cells parent wo rd
,
-
.

3 6 Compoun d s o f in dicatin g the fourth

.
great ,

degree in a dire ct line o f d escent shoul d be hyphen ated :

,

g r ea t gran-
d father gre at grandso n ,
.
82 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

37Compound s o f d ealer
.
go d (when this word ,

f orm s the se cond element o f the co mpound) lif e , ,

maker master an d world take a hyphen :

, ,

co al dealer s un go d
-

(but : go dso n go d father go ds end)

,
-
, , ,

life principle (exceptio n : lifetime)

-
to o l m aker mas ter s tro k e ,
-
,
-

(exceptio n : mas terpiece) wo rld ,

-

po wer .

38 . qu arter etc combine d with a noun
Hal f ,

,

.
,

should b e followed by a hyph en :

half truth half to n e half year half
-
title ; q uarter mile
,
-

,
-
,
-
.

Compound s h aving self or by
39 .

as the rst
element o f the compound are hyphenate d :
s elf eviden t self res pect ; b y pro duct b y laws
-

,
- -

,
-
.

Combinations with fold should be written as
4o .

one word if the number cont ains only one syllable ; ifit
cont ains m or e as two : ,

two fo ld ten fo ld ; fteen fo ld a hun dred fo ld

, , .

41 . A dje ctives o f li ke formed by the s ui xatio n

to a no un are usu ally written as one word if the noun

c ontains only one syllable (except when end in g in l) if
it contains more (or is a pro per noun) they should be ,

hyphenate d :
childlik e ho melik e warlik e go dlik e ;, eel like bell like ; , ,
-

,
-

wo man like bus iness lik e ;

-
N apo leo n lik e (but : Chris tlik e)
,
- -
.

Vice
42 . ex elect gener a l
an d lieuten
, ,

,

,

co nstitutin g parts o f titles

an t , should be connecte d ,

with the chi ef noun by a hyphen :

Vice Co nsul T aylo r ex President R o o s evelt the go verno r
-

,
-

elect the po s tmas ter gen eral a lieutenan t co lo nel

,
-

,
-
.
84 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

46 the hyphen f rom today
. Omi t

,

tomorrow ,

standpoint (See sec 2

tonight viewp oint ,

,
. .
,

note p 70 above )
,
.
,
.

47 Qu asi
. extra supra and ultra (pre
,

,

,

xed to anoun or an adjec tive) as a rule call for ahyphen :

quasi co rpo ratio n quasi
-
hi s to rical extra haz ardo us supra
, ,
-
,

tempo ral ultra co ns ervative (but : extrao rdinary Ultramo n tane)

,
-
, .

48 . Over

an d under shoul d ordinarily be pre

xe d to a word wi thout a hyphen except in unusu al ,

ca ses :
o veremphas iz e o v erweight ; ,
u nder ed,f un deres timate ; but :
o ver s piritualis tic o v er careful
-
,
-
.

In f raction al numbers
49 . spelled out conne ct by , ,

a hyphen the numerator an d the denomin ator unless ,

either alre ady contains a hyphen :

The year is two thirds go n e ; fo ur an d ve sevenths ; thirty
- -

hundredths ; b ut : thirty o n e hundred ths -

.

But do n o t hyphen ate in su ch cases as :

o ne half o fhis fo rtun e he b equeathed to his wido w ; the o ther ,

to charitable ins titutio ns .

5 0 In the
. se o f two or m ore compoun d word s
ca

o ccurring together which have one o f their component ,

elements in common thi s element is frequently omi tted ,

from all but the last word an d its implication should be ,

indicated by a hyphen (though some wri ters regard this

prac tice as an obje c tion able T euto n is m) :
in English and German s pe aking co un tries ; o n e ve and -

ten cent piec es ; Ifthe s tud ent thinks to nd this character where
-
 SPELLIN G 85

ritic is searching
many

a literary c 4n ni th and tenth century -

Euro pe he must loo k o utside o f manus cript tradi tio n .

A hyphen is used to in di cate a prex or su x ,

as a syllable not a complete wor d :

,

The prex a ; the German di minutive sufxes chen and

" -

52 F ollowing is a list of hyphenate d word s of every

.

day occurren ce o f which so me ar e dif ,

cult to clas sify ,

and others do not fall un der an y o f the cl asse s given

abo ve (see sec 3 1 abo ve) :
d eath
.
,

after years
-
rate s ubj ect matter -

has relief
-
rs t fruits o bj ect les so n
- -

birth rate
-
fo lk so n g -

bloo d feud -
foo d stu -

blo o d relations fo untain head well being

po o r law

- - - -

co mmo n -
sens e go o d will po s t o f
ce
-
well nigh
-

mine v well wisher

cro ss- exa guin ea pig s ea le el

- - -

cro ss- re erencef ho rse po wer-

s ense p erceptio n will po wer
-

cro ss - s ectio n man o i war

- -
so n -
in law
-
 C HA PT E R IV

CAPITALIZATION

T here is pro b ably no subje ct covered by thi s book

ab o ut which id eas o f good fo rm will be f oun d to dif
fer
more widely than that o f capitaliz ation . It is a subjec t
cult
dif to tre at with arbitrary rules since it must ,

b e admitted th at in very m any cases there is equ ally

goo d authority f or an d against capit aliz ing (see chap .

viii p 1 5 7 ) a word und er id entical cir cumst ances In the

, . .

preparation of this book it has been d eemed best ho w

, ,

ever not to state an y rule in the alternative but to

, ,

enunciate as the rule to be f ollowed that for which there

is n o t o nly good authority but the best authority
,
To .

a writer accustom ed in an y given case to a pr ac tic e

dieren t f rom that calle d f or in thi s book some of these ,

rules may appear arbitrary Each however has been

.
, ,

f rame d in view o f its be aring on some other rule or

situ ation an d adheren ce to these rules in the prepar ation
,

o f a manuscript or in or dinary practice will insure a

harmonious co nsistent whole It is h ar dly necess ary to
,
.

add f or great er cle arness th at a dire c tion to
, , capit al

iz e appli es o f co urse only to the rst letter o f a word

, , ,

an d n o t to the whole word .

M any o f these rules have been t aken in an abbrevi

ate d an d con densed f orm f rom the M an ual of S ty le

(Chi cago : T he University of Chicago Press 3 d ,

86
 CAPIT ALIZATION 87

1 C apitaliz e proper nouns an d adjectives :

.

N o rth America E nglis hman ; Eliz ab ethan French

, ,
.

But do n o t capitaliz e proper n am es or their derivatives

in whose present generaliz ed accept ation the origin has
,

become forgotten or obscure d :

u to pia b o hemian philis tin e plato nic quixo tic mo ro cco
, , , , ,

(leather) bo yco tt ro man (type) pasteuriz atio n ;

, , ,

an d do n o t capi taliz e su ch word s as the following when

used in the sense o f ele ctrical units :
vo lt , ampere watt farad henry o hm co ulo mb etc
, , , , , ,
.

2.C apitaliz e epithets use d as substitutes for proper

names or afxe d to a n am e :
,

the Pretender the Virgin M ary R ichard the Lio n hearted

, ,
-
,

Alexander the G reat .

3 .C apit aliz e nouns an d adjec tives used to designate

the Supreme Bein g or Power or an y member o f the ,

Christian T rinity ; an d all pronouns ref erring to the

Deity unless closely pre ced ed or followe d by a dis tin c
tive n ame or unless the ref erence is otherwise per fe ctly
,

clear

the Almighty the R uler o f the univers e the Firs t C aus e the
, , ,

Ab s o lute Pro viden ce (pers o nied) Father So n Ho ly Gho s t

, , , , ,

the Spirit Sav io r M ess iah So n o f M a
, ,
n the L o o
g ;s T rus t
, ,

Him who rules all things (but : When Go d had wo rked s ix

days , he res ted o n the

But do no t capi taliz e such expressions and derivatives as :

(Go d s ) fatherho o d (Jes us ) s o ns hip mes siahs hip mes s ianic

, , ,

ho pe chris to lo gical (b ut : Chris to lo gy)

,
.
88 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ERS

4C apitaliz e the names

. an d epithets o f peoples ,
races an d tribes :
,

Aryans , Kars , N egro es , Ho tten to ts , Bugin ese, C eles tials .

5C apitaliz e the particles in F rench nam es as 1e
.
, ,

la ,

de du when standing without a Christian
,

,

n ame or title preceding ; but no t when pre ceded by su ch

nam e or title :
Le B o ss u , La To rre, De Co ligny , D Aub ign (b ut : R en le

Bo s su, M iguel de la T o rre , Gas pard de Co lign y , T ho mas

d Aubign ) .

A lways capitaliz e Van in Dutch names ; never capit al

iz e von in German n ame s :

Stephen V an R ens s elaer ; Hugo vo n M artin s , vo n Do b s chii tz .

N o re
Pers o n al preferen ce is re spo ns i le fo r the b fo llo wing amo ng,

o thers , as excep tio n s : Henry van Dy e, J H an t HOE

k . . v .

6 C apitaliz e titles o f honor an d respec t whether

.
,

religious civil or mili tary prece ding the n am e an d

, , , ,

acad emi c d egrees in abbreviate d f orm following the ,

nam e ; all titles of honor or o f nobili ty when re ferrin g ,

to spe cic persons e ither pre ce din g the n ame or used ,

in place o f the proper n am e ; familiar n ames applied

to particular persons ; orders (decorations) an d the
titles accompanying them ; titles without the name , ,

used in dire ct address ; titles without the nam e when

used o f existin g incumbents o f ofce ; an d su ch word s

President King K aiser

as C z ar , , ,

Sultan an d Pope
, standi ng alone when re ferring ,

,

to a spe cic ruler or incum bent :

King Geo rge IV ex President Taft R ear admiral Dewey
,
-
,
-
,

United States Co mmissio ner o f Educatio n Claxto n St Paul , .

,
 CAPIT ALIZATION 89

Father Bo niface Deaco n Smith; the Prince o fWales His M aj es ty

, , ,

Yo ur Grace ; Dav id Starr Jo rdan Ph D LL D (Litt D Sc D ,

. .
, . . . .
, . .
,

the Father o f his C o un try ; Knight Co mmander o f

Allo w me to s ugges t Judge ; the Secretary o f the

the B ath; ,

Treas ury ; the Bis ho p o fLo ndo n ; but : T he king in En glan d the ,

cz ar i n R us s ia the s ultan in Turkey repres en t o ppo s ite extremes

, ,

o f the mo n archical idea .

But do n o t capitaliz e the o f cial title o f a person when

the title follows the name o r the title when standin g ,

alone with out the n am e (with the exceptions note d

above) or when f ollowe d by the n ame it is prece de d
, , ,

by the article the :
Wo o dro w Wilso n president o fthe United States ; Paul Sho rey
, ,

pro fess o r o f Greek ; the empero r o f G ermany (meaning gen erally , ,

an y ho lder o f the o f ce no t a s pecic in dividual) ; the senato r

,

(when no t referring to a specic pers o n ) ; the apo stle Paul .

an d similar term s

7 C apitaliz e N ature an d

.
,

abstract ide as when personie d : ,

F o r N ature wields her s cepter merciless ly ; representatio ns

ofVice in the o ld English mo rality plays .

8 C apitaliz e n am es f or the B ible an d other s acre d

.

books :
Ho ly (Sacred) Scriptures Ho ly Writ Wo rd o f Go d Bo o k o f
, , ,

Bo o ks ; Ko ran Vedas M is hna the Upanis hads Apo crypha

, , , ,
.

But do n o t capit aliz e adjectives derived from su ch nouns :

biblical s criptural ko ranic vedic talmudic apo cryphal
, , , , ,
.

9 C apitali z e books an d divisions o f the B ible an d

.

divisions o f other s acred boo ks (s ee ch ap iii s ec 2 8 ; .

,
.

ch ap vi s ec 4)
.
,
.

Old Tes tament, Pen tateuch, Exo dus , II (Seco nd) Chro n icles ,
the Bo o k o f Jo b , the (M o s aic) Law and the (writings o f the)
90 A M AN UAL F oR WRITER S
Pro phets , M ino r Pro phets , Wis do m Literature , Go s pel o f Luk e,
Syn o ptic Go s pels , the Fo urth Go s pel, Pas to ral Epis tles , Sermo n
on the M o un t .

But do taliz e word s like book
no t capi gospel , ,

epistle p s,
al m

in su ch uses as :

the ve b o o ks o f M o ses the rs t thirty ps alms biblical apo ca , ,

lypses .

1 0. C apitaliz e versions an d edi tions o f the B ible :

King James s Vers io n Autho riz ed Vers io n

R evis ed ,

Vers io n Po lychro me B ible Septuagin t (LXX ) Peshitto , ,

(see chap . iii, s ec .

11 C apitaliz e the n ames or titles o f biblical par ables

.
:

the parable o f the Pro digal So n .

12 . C apitali z e such mis cellaneous te rms as :

Las t Supper, E ucharis t, the Pass io n , the T welve (apo s tles ) ,
the Seven ty (dis ciples ) , the Sn ering Servan t, the Go lden R ule .

13 .C apitaliz e the names o f poli tical parties religious ,

denomi n ations or sec ts an d phi losophi cal l iterary an d , , ,

artistic schools an d their adherents : ,

R epublican C o nserv ative ,N atio n al Lib eral ; Chris tian , ,

Pro tes tan t C atho lic Papis t Ultramo n tane R efo rm ed G reek
, , , , ,

Ortho do x An abaptis t Seven th Day Ad ven tis ts the Es tablis h

, ,
-
,

ment High Church; Epicurean Sto ic Gno s ticism (but : n eo

Plato nism ps eudo Chris tianity
, , ,

, s ee s ec 2 4 b elo w ; chap iii s ecs

-
.
, .
, .

the R o man tic mo v emen t ; the Symb o lic s cho o l o f painters .

But do no t capitaliz e an y o f these or simi lar word s or ,

their d erivatives when used in their original or acquired

,

general sense :
repub lican fo rm o f go vernment a true d emo crat and a co n ,

s ervative s tates man the co mmunis tic theo ries ; catho licity o f
,

mind puritanical id eas pharisaic s upercilio us ness ; epicurean

, ,

tas tes .
92 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

19C apit aliz e the word father
. when used f or ,

chur ch father an d re f ormers when use d o f R efo r
, ,

mation le aders if the meani n g would be ambiguous

,

otherwi se :
the early Fathers the Pilgrim Fathers the R efo rm ers
, ,
.

2o C apitaliz e the names o f legislative jud iciary

.
, ,

an d admi nistrative bodies an d govern mental d epart

ments an d their branches when specically applied :
, ,

Co ngres s the Ho use o f R epresen tativ es the Co mmittee o f

, ,

Ways and M eans the Ho use o f Co mmo ns the General Assembly

, ,

o f Illin o is .

But do n o t capitaliz e su ch general or in complete designa

tions as :
the natio n al as s embly the s tate legis lature the co uncil the
, , ,

departmen t the b o ard ,

.

z r C apitaliz e ordinals use d to d esignate sessions

.

o f Congress names o f regimen ts Egyptian dyn ast ies

, ,

an d in similar connections (see ch ap iii s ec .

,
.

the Fifty s ixth Co ngress ; the Sev en th Illino is R egimen t

-

the E ighteen th Dyn as ty .

22. C apitaliz e generic terms for political divisions :

(1 ) when the term is an organic part of the name an d
f ollows the proper n ame direc tly :
Ho ly R o man Empire French R epublic Uni ted K in gdo m , , ,

N o rthwes t Territo ry C o o k Co un ty ; ,

(2 ) when with the preposition of it is used as an

, ,

integral part of the name to in di cate certain minor

administrative sub divisions in the U n ite d S t ates :
Department o fthe Lak es , Bo ro ugh o fM anhattan ;
 CAPIT ALIZAT ION 93

(3) when used singly as the acc epted design ation f or a

specic division :
the M iddle Wes t Canada Wes t the Do minio n the Wes t Side ;
, , ,

(4) when it is part of a fanciful or popular appellation

used as a re al geographical name :
the W indy City the City o fBro therly Lo ve the Ho o s ier State
, , .

But do n o t capit aliz e su ch terms when standin g alone ,

or when not an integr al part o f the specic n ame :

the city ; the empire o f R uss ia; s tate o f Illino is co un ty o f ,

Co o k city o f Chicago
, .

23 . Capitaliz e numbered poli tical divisions (see chap .

iii , sec .

E leventh Co ngression al Dis trict, Seventh Ward ,

T hirty
s eco n d Precinct .

C apitaliz e the names o f political alliances an d

2 4. ,

su ch te rms from se cular or e cclesiastical hi story as have ,

through their associations acquire d spe cial signi can ce ,

as design ations f or parties classes movemen ts etc (see , , ,

.

s ec 1 3 above) :
.
,

Pro tes tant League Ho ly Alliance Dreibun d ; the R o s es

, , ,

the R o undheads Indepen den ts Independ ency (Englis h his to ry)

, , ,

N o nco n fo rmist Diss enter Separatis t

, ,
.

C apitaliz e generic terms f orming a part o f geo

25.

graphical n ames :
Atlantic Ocean, Dead Sea, B anin

s B ay , Gulf of M exico .

But do no t capitaliz e wor ds of this clas s when simply

add ed by way o f d es cription to the specic name wi th ,

out forming an organic part o f such name :

the river Elb e the des ert o f Sahara the is land o fM ad agascar
, , .
94 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

Subject to the rule just state d the following li st will

,

be found useful :
CAPITALIZE , IN SIN G ULAR FORM ONL Y WHE N
, IM MEDIATEL Y
FOLLOWIN G THE N AME

Archipelago Creek Harbo r Park

Bo ro ugh Delta Head
B ran ch (s tream) Fo res t Ho llo w R ange
B utte Fo rk M es a R eser atio nv
N arro ws R idge
Co un ty Ri erv
Crater Gulch Parish (La ) . R un

CAPIT ALIZE IN SI N GU LAR 0R PLU R AL FOR M WHE N IMME DIATEL Y

FO LLOWIN G THE N AME

Hill Islan d M o un tain Spring

CAPITALIZE , IN SIN G ULAR FOR M , E ITHE R F

BE ORE OR AF TE R Tn
N AM E ; AND IN P LUR AL FOR M F
B E ORE THE N AME

Bay Desert M o un t Po rt
Bayo u F all s Oas is Sea
Camp (military) Fo rt Pas s Strait
Cape Isle Pe ak Valley
Dalles Lak e Po in t Vo lcano

C apitaliz e adjectives an d nouns use d singly or in

2 6.

conjun ction to distin gu ish den ite regions an d when

, ,

use d in conne ction with a geogr aphi cal name ; an d also

terms applied to groups o f states :
Old Wo rld Wes tern Hemis phere N o rth Po le Equato r
, , , ,

the N o rth the Eas t (the Orien t) the F ar Eas t; ,

the N o rth So uth Ea

, s t Wes t (Uni ted States ) ; N o rthern Euro e
, , p ,

So uthern Califo rnia; N o rth Atlan tic s tates M idd le Wes tern ,

s tates .

But subje ct to the foregoing rule do no t capitaliz e adj ec

, ,

tives derive d f rom such n am es 0 1 nouns simply d esi

g ,

n ating dire ction or point of compass :

o rien tal cus to ms the so uthern s tates a so utherner (but :
, ,

N o rthman Scandin avian) ; the win d is fro m the west

=
.
96 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

CaPitaliz
: e ti tles o f specic tre aties ,
acts , laws
(juridical) bills etc : , ,
.

Treaty o f Verdun Peace ,

of Prague, Ed ict o f N an tes , Co n
co rdat, the Co ns titutio n (o f the United States ) , Declaratio n of

Independen ce, Act o fE mancipatio n , M agn a C (h) arta Co rn Law , ,

R efo rm B ill (Englis h) Fo urteenth Amendment ,

.

32 . Capi taliz e the exclamations O

an d Oh

(see chap . iii, s ec .

33 A s a rule capitaliz e nouns followed by a numeral

.
,

pa rt i cul arly a capi t aliz e d R oman nu meral in dicatin g

their order in a sequence :
R o o m 1 6 Ps 2 0 Grade IV Act I Vo l I N o 2 Bo o k II
, .
, , ,
.
, .
, ,

Div III Part IV

.
, .

But do n o t capitaliz e su ch min or sub divisions or their

abbreviations as :
rule 9 sec 4 s cen e i art iii chap 2 (ii) p 7 (vii) vs 1 1
, .
, , .
, .
, .
, .
,

l 5,
. n . 6 .

34 . R e f erences to parts of a spe cic work should be

capi taliz ed :
The Intro ductio n s tates ; T he Index is very co mplete .

But gen eral referen ces should not be capitaliz ed :

The bo o k has a co mplete ind ex (See chap v s ec . .
, .

35 C apitaliz e the rst wor d o f a ci ted spee ch or

.

thought in direct di scourse whether prece de d by a colon ,

or a comma (see chap v secs 9 .

,
.
,

On leavin g he re mark ed : N ever s hall I fo rget this day

;

With the wo rds , N ever shall I fo rge t this day ,

he departed .
 CAPIT ALIZAT ION 97

36 resolutions capi taliz e the rst word following

. In
'

Whereas and R esolved (see chap vi sec

.
,
.

WHEREAS It has pleas ed Go d

, therefo re be it
Res olved , That

37 C apitaliz e the rst word af ter a colon only when

.

introdu cing a complete passage or a senten ce whi ch ,

would h ave an ind epend ent meaning as in summariz a ,

tions an d quotations not closely connecte d with what

prece d es ; or where the colon has the weight o f su ch

expressions as as follows namely for instance
,

,

,

or a similar phr ase an d is f ollowed by a logically complete

sentence :
In l
co nc us io n I wis hto say : I t will b e seen fro m the ab o ve that
there is n o alternative ; As the o ld pro verb has it : Has te makes
was te ; My theo ry is : The mo men t the ho t r
cu ren t s tri es k
f
the s ur ace, the g as s l breaks .

But do t aliz e the rst word o f a quotation if

no t capi
immediately connected wi th what preced es ; or the rs t

word af ter a colon if an implied namely or a similar
, ,

term is f ollowed by a bri e f explanatory phrase logically

, ,

d epen d ent upon the pre cedi n g clause ; or if the colon

in dicates a note o f comment :
The o ld adage is t ue that r
has te makes was te ; T wo ex
r
planatio ns p esent thems elves : eithe r he came to o late fo r the
train, o r he was detained at the s tatio n .

38 A s a rule capitaliz e the rs t word in sec tions o f

.
,

an enumeration if an y one link contains two or more

distin ct clauses s eparated by a semi colon colon or
, , ,
 98 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE R S

perio d , unless all are d epen d ent upon the s am e term

pre ce ding an d leading up to them (see chap v s ec .
,
.

His reaso n s fo r refus al were thes e : (1 ) He did no t have the

time .
(2 ) He d id no t have the means ; o r at any rate had no , ,

funds available ; but : He o bj ected that (1 ) he did no t have

the time ; (2 ) he did n o t have the mean s ; o r at any rate had n o , ,

fund s available .

39 C apitaliz e all the prin cipal word s

. nouns ,

pro nouns adje ctives adverbs verbs rst an d last

, , , ,

word s) in English titles o f publications (books pam ,

phlets do cuments periodicals

, reports pro cee dings
, , , ,

an d their d ivi sions (parts chapters sections , , ,

po em s articles ,
in subj ec ts o f lec tures papers
, , ,

toasts etc (see sec 43 below) :

,
. .
,

S tand ard Thes aurus f

o E nglis h Words and Phras es ; In
Harper s Di ctio n ary of Class ical Li terature and Anti quiti es will b e

fo und a useful article o n The T emples o f Ancien t R o me ; a

The Gues t o f the Even in g v

to as t to .
(See chap .
, s ec .

40 f oreign titles in addition to capit aliz ing the

. In ,

rst wo r d f ollow these general rules :

,

a) In Latin titles capit aliz e proper nouns an d adj ec

tives d erive d there f rom :
De co mpendio s a do ctrin a, De bello Gildon ico .

b) In F rench Italian Spanish an d Scan dinavian

, , ,

titles capitaliz e proper nouns but not adje ctives derive d

,

there f ro m :
La vi e de R ons ard, His to ire de la litt rature frangais e; Il B oc
cacci o a N apoli , N ovelle e racco nti popolari italiaui; An to logi a de

p oetas lirico s cas tellan os , S vens ka litteraturens his toric

.
 1 00 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

44 . bot an ical geological z o ological an d paleo n to

In , , ,

logical matter capitaliz e the Latin (scientic) names o f

,

divisions ord ers f amilies an d genera but not their

, , , ,

English derivatives :
C o tylo s auria bu t : co tylo s aurs ; F elidae but : felid s ; C arni
, ,

vo ra but : carn ivo res

, .

In botanical an d z oological matter capitaliz e the n ames ,

o f species if d erived f rom n ames o f persons or f rom

, ,

gen eric n ames ; but in geological an d m edical matter ,

the names o f species are never capitaliz ed :

F elis leo , Co co s nuci era, f R o s a Caro lin a, Parkins o nia Torreyan a,
S tyrax californ ica, Ly thrum hyss o pifoli a; Phy teuma Halleri , Carex
Hallerian a (but [geo lo gical] : P terygo matopus s chmidti , Con odectus
favos us) (see chap . vi, s ec . II ) .

45 . In astronomical work capitaliz e the names o f

,

the plane ts stars an d groups o f stars (bu t not sun

, , ,

earth mo on
,

,

J upiter Aldebaran the M ilky Way

, , , the Great B ea r , the B ig
Dipper .
 C HA PTER V
PUN CT UATION

T he Cen tury Diction ary , M r

Wilson s work A
.

,

Treatis e o n E n glis h P unctuati o n an d the M an ual of

,

S tyle o f the University o f Chi cago Press have been

used as authorities in compiling the rules whi ch follow
un der thi s head .

T he present ten dency is to redu ce pun ctuation to

a minimum . What is a proper mi ni mum is to a great
extent a matter o f taste an d pred ilectionm ore so in
E ngli sh than in an y other langu age Wi th the possible
.

exception o f rule 2 0 (regardi ng which the practice must

be admitte d to be quite irregular) no rule which is ,

unnecessary or which could consistently be omitte d

has been given an d conversely every rule given i s
, , ,

believed to be ne cess ary for good practice .

Be f ore entering on spe cic rules the general one ,

may be laid d own : N o punctu ation mark should be

used unless necessary ; let the punctuation assist in
maki ng the meaning clear ; when that en d is attaine d
further punc tuation is superuous an d should be
avoid e d
.

THE PE R IOD

1. A period should be placed af ter all abbreviations

(f or contractions see chap iii s ec
,
. T he metric
, .

symbols should be treated as abbreviations but not the ,

10 1
10 2 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITERS

chemical symbols nor the , phrase per ent
c ,

nor the
format of books :
M acmillan M r Smith, St Paul, N o 1 , Chas (see
Co .
, . . . .

cha 9 mm ; but : m fg pl t ( manu

p iii , sec ibid , =
. . . .

facturing plan t) (see chap iii , sec 0 , H20, F e ; 2 per cent ; . .

4to , 8 vo (s ee chap iii .

, sec .

But do no t use a period in technical matter af ter the , ,

r ecogniz e d abbreviations f or linguistic epochs or for ,

titles o f well known publications o f which the in itials

-

only are given or af ter su ch symbols as M S ( manu

=
,

script) ; IE In d o European) OE Old E ngli sh) , ,

M HG ( M iddle High German) ; AJ S L ( American

= =

J o urn al ofS emiti c Lan guages an d Literatures) See al so .

p 7 9 n o te
.
, .

2 U se no period af ter R oman numerals even when

.
,

they are used as ordinals :

Vo l IV ; Lo uis XIV was
. on the thro ne .

A perio d is use d to indi cate the en d o f a d eclara

3 .

tive sentence .

4 When a quotation f orm s the en d of a declarative

.

sentence the period should always be place d wi thi n the

,

quotation marks But when a parenthesis fo rm s the .

en d o f a d e clarative senten ce the perio d shoul d be place d ,

outside of the marks o f paren the sis A perio d may .

occur withi n a paren thesis only af ter an abbreviation

or an ind ependent sentence lying en tirely within the
parenthesi s
'

Tenn yso n s In M emo riam

When the parenthes is fo rms .

part o f the preced ing sentence put the perio d o uts ide (as fo r , ,
1 04 A M AN UAL F OR WRIT ER S

The interrogation point should be place d insid e the

8 .

quotation marks only when it is a part o f the quotation :

The q ues tio n : Who is who and what is
What Were
y o u ev er in Ts ints in nati

THE C OLON

9 . olon has two distinct f unctions o n e separa

T he c .

tive the other continuative (I ) It may separate two

,
.

clauses or grou ps o f clauses which might be tre ate d as

in depend ent senten ces an d s eparated by a perio d but ,

which the writer wishes fo r purposes o f clearness or ,

emphasis to connec t in a single sentenc e T his use

,
.

is antiqu ated an d has almost entirely d isappe are d .

may separate a clause which is grammatically

ts f rom a se cond which presents an illustr at ion
or an amplicatio n o f its meaning Or (3 ) it may .

intro du ce a f ormal st atem ent a list an extract or a , , ,

long quotation n o t intro du ce d by that (see sec
.

(1 ) A s in less creature , transgress ing the mo ral law is , then

no t an un s cien tic ass umptio n : co n s cience f
as s ertin g its el as the
vo ice divine within the hum an s o ul is then no t o nl y po ss ible , b ut
actual and real, in the his to ry of man s earlies t pro genito rs .

(2 ) M o s t co un tries have a n atio n al o wer : Fran ce the lily ;

E ngland the ro s e, etc .
(3 ) T he ru le may b e s tated thus :
A s en ten ce s ho uld always begin with a capital letter . We
quo te fro m the ad dress :

I am called upo n to pro po s e the

health, bu t : Declaring, The letter is a mo n s tro us
f o rger y ,

he tried to was h his han ds o f the who le affair .

10 . T he olon thus o f ten takes the place o f an

c

implie d

n amely
as f ollows
,

f or in stance or a ,

,

 PUN CT UATION I O5

similar phrase Where su ch a word or phrase is use d

.
,

it should be f ollowe d by a colon if what follows co n

sists o f one or more grammatically complete clauses ;
otherwise by a c omma (see below sees 2 2

, , ,
.

This is true o f o nly two natio ns the wealthies t, tho ugh
no t the larges t, in Euro pe : Great Britain and France ;

but :

This is true o f o nly two natio n s the wealthies t, tho ugh no t

the larges t , in Euro pe viz , Great Britain and France
-

. .

1 I.U se a colon af ter the salutatory phrase at the

beginning o f a formal letter an d af ter the salutation ,

o i a speaker to the chairman an d the au dien ce he is

addressing :
M y dear M r Bro wn : (See chap vii pp 1 3 3
. .
, .
,

M r Chairman , Ladies
. and Gentlemen :

12 . U se a colon between chapter an d verse in Scr ip

,

ture re ferences an d between hours an d minutes in time

,

indications (see sec 1 7 below) : .

,

M att 13 ;
. PM .

13 . U se a colon between the place o f publication

an d the publisher s n ame in literary an d bib liographical

re ferences :
Clement of Alexandria (Lo ndo n : M ac millan) II 9 7 (see , ,

chap viii p I 6 1 )
.
, . .

14 . Theolon should be placed outside the quotation

c

marks unle ss it is a part o f the quotation :

,

The fo llo wing ins tructio n is given un der the head o f Bus ines s
C o rres pondence : When a rm is the add ressee the salutato ry

,

phras e s ho uld b e Gentlemen : o r Dear Sirs :

106 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

THE SE MI COLON

15 . semicolon is used wi thin a sentenc e to mark

T he
a di vision somewh at more distin c t than that mark ed
by a comma (see above s ec ,
.

Are we giving o ur lives to perp etuate the things that the pas t
has created fo r its n eeds fo rgettin g to ask whether thes e thin gs
,

s till s erv e to day s n eed s ; o r are we think in g o f liv ing m en "

T his is as impo rtan t fo r s cience as it is fo r practice ; in d eed , it

may b e s aid to b e the o nl y impo rtan t co n s id eratio n .

16. enu merations separate the item s by semi colons

In ,

u nless they are very short an d contain no commas ; or

they are very lo ng an d require by their gr ammatical ,

stru cture period s exclamatio n o r interrogatio n poin ts

, , ,

colons or oth er s emi colons :

,

T he memb ers hip o f the in tern atio n al co mmis s io n was mad e

up as fo llo ws : France 4 ; G erm any 5 ; Great B ritain I (o win g
, , ,

to a misun d ers tanding, the anno un cemen t did no t reach the

E n glis h s o cieties in tim e to s ecure a full quo ta fro m that

co untr y) ;
Italy , 3 T he d efendan t, in j us ti catio n o f his act,
.

plead ed that (a) he was d espo n d en t o v er the lo s s o f his wife ;

(b) he was o ut o f wo rk ; (c) he had had n o thing to eat fo r two
d ays ; (d) he was un d er the inuen ce q
o f li uo r . B ut : The ques
tio ns ,

What is y o ur n atio n alit y"
What is yo ur religio n "
Are y o u n aturaliz ed " all pro ved to b e

s tu mblin g blo cks

-
to
the applican ts .

17 . re ferences the semi colon is us ed to

In Scripture
separate passages co ntainin g chapters (s ee sec 1 3 above)

.
,

Gen . 6 , 9, 14; chap .

5;

18 . semicolon should be place d outside the quo

T he
tatio n marks unless it is a part o f the quot ati on
, .
1 08 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

can be t ci ed .
3) The d isco urse was beautifully , l quently
eo ,

and fo rcefully d elivered ; T he b rav ery its men ,

of the b eauty
of its wo men , and the in telligen ce o f the ris ing generatio n ,

co mbined , etc.

a comma

Etc . should always '

b e preced ed by .

2 1. use a comma (two if necessary) to

Ordinarily ,
separate from the rest o f the sentence clauses introduced

by su ch conjun ctions as an d but if while ,

,

,

,

as ,

whereas since be cause when
,

af ter ,

,

, ,

although etc especial ly if a chan ge o f subjec t takes
,
.
,

pl ace :
When he arrived at the railway s tatio n the train had go ne , ,

and his friend who had co me to bid him go o dbye had departed
, , ,

but left no wo rd As the next train was no t due fo r two ho urs

.
,

he decided to take a ride abo ut the to wn al tho ugh it o ered little ,

o f interes t to the Sights eer While he regretted his failure to .

meet his frien d he did no t go to his ho us e

, .

But do no t use a comma before clauses intro du ce d by

su ch conj un ctions if the pre ceding clause is not logically

complete wi thout them ;

nor be fore if but an d ,

,

altho ug in brief an d closely weld ed phrases :

This is especially in teres ting b ecause they repres ent the two
extremes a nd b ecaus e they pres en t dif feren ces in their relatio ns ;
This is goo d b ecaus e true ; I s hall agree to this o nly if y o u accept
my co nditio ns .

22 onjun ctions ad verbs connective par ticles

. Such c , , ,

an d phras es as

now then however in d eed , , , ,

therefore m or over
e ,

furthermore
n everthe ,

,

in f act

less , though in short ,for instan ce , , ,

 PUN CT UATION 19 9

2 u
that is of course
, on the contrary , on the ,
(d

other han d af ter all ,

to be sure for example
,

,

,

etc . should be followed by a comma when standing at

,

the beginni ng o f a sentence or clause to introdu ce an

in f erence or an explanation and shoul d be place d ,
"

between co mmas when wedged into the midd le o f a

sentence or clause to mark o ff a distinc t break in the
continui ty o f thou ght or stru c ture to in dicate a s um ,

mariz in g of what prece des the point o f a new departure , ,

or a mo difying restrictive or antithe tical addition etc :

, , ,
.

In deed this was exactly the po in t o fthe argumen t; M o reo ver

, ,

he did no t thin k it feas ible ; N o w the ques tio n is this ,

N evertheless he co nsented to the scheme ; In fact rather the

, ,

revers e is true ; This then is my pos itio n : ,

The s tatement
, ,

therefo re canno t b e veried

,
.

But do n o t use a comma with su ch wor ds when the

conne ction is logica lly close an d structurally smooth
enough not to call for an y pause in re adin g ; wi th

there f ore nevertheless etc when directly follow
,

,
.
,

in g the verb ; with ind eed when directly preceding

or followin g an adje ctive or another adverb which it

qu alies ; nor ordinarily with su ch terms as perhaps
,

also ,
li kewise etc :

,
.

He was therefo re unable to be presen t; It is nevertheless true ;

He is reco vering very s lo wly indeed ; He was perhaps thin king
o f the future ; He was a s cho lar and a s po rtsman to o .

2 3.A comma is pr ef erably omi tted before rather

in such an expression as :
The tun e value is to be meas ured in this way rather than b y
-

the time equivalent o f the s trata

- .
1 10 A M AN U AL F OR WR IT ER S

2 4. If among
several adje ctives pre ceding a noun
the last bears a mo re direc t relation to the noun than
the o thers it should not be prece de d by a comma:
,

The admirable po litica

l ins titutio n s o f the co un try ; a hand
s o m e wealthy yo ung man
, .

Participial phrases , espe cially su ch as cont ain an

25.

explan ation o f the ma in clause , sho uld usu ally be set

of
f by a comma:
B eing as leep, he did n o t hear him ; Exhaus ted by a hard day s

wo rk , he s lept lik e a s to n e .

26 . omma b efore not introd ucing an

Put a c

antithetical clause or phrase :

M en addict thems elves to in ferio r pleas ures n o t because they ,

d eliberately prefer them but because they are the o nly o n es to

,

which they have access .

27. F o r parenthetical , adverb ial ,

or apposi tion al
clauses or phrases use commas to ind icate stru c tur ally

disconn ected but lo gically relate d interpolations ; use

, ,

d ashes to indicate both structurally an d lo gically di s ~

c onn e cted inserti ons ; do not use the two togethe r

(s ee below secs 5 9 6o
,
.
, ,

Sin ce fro m the naturalis tic po in t o f view men ta

, l s tates ,

are the co nco mitants of phys io lo gical pro cesses ; T he French,

gen erally speakin g, are a natio n o f artis ts ; The Engli sh, highly
demo cratic as they are, ne ev rtheless deem the no bility fun da
men tal r
to thei po litical and s o cial ys tems ; There was a time
fo rget the exact date
s h
I
when thes e co nditio ns were changed .

Use a comma to separate two identi cal or closely

2 8.

similar word s even if the sense o r grammatical co n

,
112 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE R S

33 A comma is employed to indicate the omission

.
,

f or brevity or convenience o f a wor d or words the ,

r epeti tion o f which is not ess ential to the meaning :

In Illino is there are seventeen such ins titutio ns ; in Ohio ,

twenty two ; in In diana thirteen ;

-
Price ten d o llars
, , .

Of ten , however such constru ctions are smooth enou gh

,

not to call for commas (an d the consequent semicolons) :

One puppy may res emble the father ano ther the mo ther and , ,

a third so me d is tan t ances to r .

34A direct quotation maxim, or simil ar expression

.
, ,

when brief , Should be separated from the pre ce ding part

o f the sentence by a comma (see above s ec , .

Go d s aid , Let there b e light

.

35 . Ordin arily put a omma af ter the exclamation

c

(see above ; chap iii s ec 6 ; chap iv

0h p 58 ;
. sec .
5, .
, . .
,

s ec .

Oh, that I had n eve r been bo rn "

U se a c omma bef ore
36 . of
in c onnection with
residence posi tion or title : , ,

M r and M rs M cIntyre, o f Detro it, M ich

. . . Pres iden t Harry
Pratt Judso n, o f the Univers ity o f Chicago .

Exceptions are those cases hi storical an d political in , ,

which the place n ame practically has be co me a part o f

-

the person s n ame or is so closely connec ted wi th it

,

as to ren der the separation articial or illogical :

Clement o f Alexan dria; Philip o f Anj o u ; Kin g Geo rge o f

En gland .
 PUN CT UATION 1 13

37 Do not use a comma b etwe

. n c
. onse cutive pages
in li terary re ferences but use the , eu -
dash (see below ,

sec

.

pp 4 , 7 8 ,
. 10 ; Ez ra 8 .

38 . Put a comma af ter digi ts indi catin g thousand s ,

except in a date or in a page reference : -

January 1 9 09 2 200
, p , . 2 46 1 .

39 . Separate month an d
year , an d similar time di vi
sions by a co mma (see abo ve s ec ,
.

N o vemb er 1 9 0 5 ; N ew Year s Day F riday M ay

, , 1 906 ; , 3 .

40 Omi t the
. omma in signatures when followe d
c , ,

by or position in a separate line an d af ter

add ress , title , ,

address f ollowe d by a date line etc (f or the practice ,

.

in letter writing see chap vii und er The
-
, .
,

JAME S P R OB IN SON .

S uperintenden t ofS chools

4 1 The . c omma is always place d inside the quotation

marks .

THE APOSTR OPHE

42 . The apostrophe is use d to mark the o mis sion o f a

letter or letters in the contraction o f a word , or o f
gures in a number :

do n t, twas , takin me at ; m fg ; the class

of

ne er, 96 .

(See chap iii , sec 2 3 ; chap v, s ec

. . . .

43The possessive
. se o f nouns common and ca ,

proper , is f ormed by the addi tion of an apostrophe ,

or apostrophe an d s (see chap iii s ec .

, .

aman s ho rses tails ; Sco tt s I vanho e Jo n es s farms Themis

, , ,

to oles era; fo r appearance s ak e

.
1 14 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

44 T he plural o f num erals , an d of rare or articial

.

noun coin ages , is fo rme d by the aid o f an apostrophe

-

an d s ; that o f pro per nouns of more th an one syllable

ending in a sibilant by addin g an apostrophe alone ,

(monosyllabic proper names ending in a sibilant add es ;

others s ) : ,

in the 1 9 00 s ; in two s an d three s the three R s the

thes e I j us t d o
, ,

ll the T o mmy

as I a - - -

Atkins o f England (but: the R o sses and the M acdo ugals) ;

the Pericles and So crates o fliterature

.

Q U OTATION M AR K S

Quotations of a passage f rom an au thor in his

45 .

own wor ds run into the text should begin an d en d wi th

, ,

quotation marks .

46 U se quotation marks f or qu o tations f rom dif

.

feren t authors o r f rom different works by the s ame

,

author f ollowing each other unin terrupted by an y

, ,

intervenin g origin al matter or by an y re f eren ce to ,

their respective sources (other than a re f eren ce gure

for a footnote) even though su ch quotations are to be
,

in reduced type (see chap viii p I .

,
.

47 Quote a wor d or phrase accompan ied by its de

.

n itio n :

fo lio mean s a page number at the fo o t o f the page
Dro p -

-
.

48 Quote an un usual te chn ical iron ical etc wor d

.
, , ,
.
,

or phrase in the text whether or not accompan ie d by a ,

word like s o called direc ting attention to it:
,
-

,

Her ve o clo cks were famo us in the n eighb o rho o d ; She

lo bs ter

was w i f co lo red s ilk ; He was elected

ear ng a go wn o
1 16 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

etc .
,
su ch word s should be capi taliz e d but not quote d
,

(s ee chap . iv, s ec .

See the Preface , p iii ; T he Intro ductio n co n tains much o f

.

in teres t ; T he Appendix o ccupies a hundred pages ; but : T he

bo o k has a very co mplete index .

54 . N ames of ships are put in quot atio n marks :

The US

. SS . Orego n .

55 . Titles pictures an d works

of of art are quote d :
T he Ho ly Family

M urillo
s

.

5 6 Quotation marks shoul d always in clu de elli pses ,

.

an d the phrase etc

when it otherwise would not be .

l r that it stand s for an omi tte d part o f the matter

c ea

quo ted per fect clearness in each individual cas e b ein g

,

the best cri terion :

Art II s ec 2 o f the Co n s titutio n pro vides that each s tate

. .
, ,

s hall appo in t a numb er o f electo rs equal to the who le

numb er o f s en ato rs and representatives He also wro te

a s eries o f Helps to Disco very etc

here indicatin g , .
,

n o t that he wro te o ther wo rk s which are unn amed but that ,

the title o f the o ne named is n o t given in full ; b ut o n the ,

o ther hand : Preachin g fro m the text F o r Go d s o lo ved the
,

here bein g placed o uts id e o f the

wo rld etc ,

quo tatio n marks in o rder to s ho w that it do es no t s tand fo r o ther ,

unn amed o b j ects o f G o d s lo ve

.
,

57Quoted prose matter whi ch is broken up into

.

par agraphs should h ave the quot ation marks repeated

at the beginn ing of each paragraph .

D ouble quotation marks are used f or primary

58 .

quotations ; f or a quotati on within a quotation , single ;

 PUN CT UATION 1I 7

goin g back to double for a thi rd to sin gle for

, a fourth ,
an d so on :

The r then pro ceed ed : The dictio nary tells us that
o rato

the wo rd s freedo m and liberty tho ugh o ften interchanged

,

,

are dis tinct in so me o f their applicatio ns .

THE DASH

5 9 A dash is use d to d enote a sudd en bre ak , stop ,
.

or transition in a sentence , or an abrup t ch ange in its

constru ction along or signi cant pause or an unexpe cte d
, ,

or epigrammatic turn o f sentiment :

Do we can to es en d o u t educated b o ys and girls fro m the

high s cho o l at eighteen " The Plato nic wo rld of the s tatic ,
an d the Hegelian wo rld o f pro cessho w great the co n tras t "

that is the magic wo rd o f the mo dern perio d ; Yo u
b
Pro ces s
'

will un ders tan d ut n o , I believe vo u are in capa le o f un der b

s tanding "

U se dashes (rarely parenthesessee below sec

60 .
,
.

7 0) f or parenthetical clauses whi ch are both logi cally

an d stru c turally in d epend ent interpolations (see above ,

see .

This may b e s aid to b e but, v mind we will v er

pass
ne er ,
o

that ; There came a time let us s ay , fo r co n v enience with

wh
,

Hero do tus and Thucydid es en this atten tio n to actio ns was

co n s cio us and d eli b erate .

A clause add ed to len d emphasis to or to explain

61 .
,

or expand a word or phrase occurring in the main

,

clause wh i ch word or phrase is then repe ate d should be

, ,

introdu ced by a dash :

To him they are mo re impo rtan t as the so urces fo r his to ry
the his to ry o f ev ents an d ideas ; Here we are face to face
I 18 A M AN UAL FOR WRITER S

with a n ew and di

icul t pro blem n ew and difcult, that is ,
in the sense that we are un prepared fo r it .

62Wherever a n amely is impli ed be fore a paren
.

thetical or complementary clause a dash should pre f er ,

ably be use d (see above sec

.
,

These dis co veries gu n po wder, printing press ,

-
co mpas s ,

an d te les co pe were the weapo n s b efo re which the o ld s cien ce

b
trem led ; B ut here we are tren ching upo n ano ther divis io n
o f o ur eld th e inte rpretatio n o f N ew Tes tament bo o ks .

63 In
senten ces broken up into c lauses the n al
summariz ingclause should be preced ed by a d ash :
.
,

Amos , with the id eathat Jeho vah is an upright judge

Ho sea, who se M as ter hated in j us tice and falseho p d
Is aiah, who s e Lo rd wo uld have mercy o nl y o n tho se who relieved
the wido w and the fatherles s these were the spo k es men .

64 A word or phrase set in a separate lin e an d

.

su ccee de d by par agraphs at the begin nin g o f e ach o f ,

which the original phras e is implied should be f ollowed ,

by a dash :
I reco mmend
1 T hat we k ill him
. .

2 . That we ay him .

A d ash should be used

65 . in onne ction with side
c

heads whether paragr aphe d or
, run in :

B i bli cal cri ticism in o ther den omin atio n s

A mo s t interesting ar ticl e appeared in the E xpos itory Ti mes
o f Decemb er, 1 8 9 1

The language of the N ew Tes tamen t The

21 . lexico ns of
Grimm Thayer, Cremer, and o thers treat this sub j ect
-
fully .
1 20 A M AN U AL F OR W RITERS

68 A dash should not ordin arily be used in conne c

.

tion with an y o ther pun ctu ation point except a perio d ,

(s ee above sec
Dear Sir : I have the ho no r etc ; no t: Dear Sir:
.
,

I have the
ho no r etc ; T his I say it wi th regret
.
,

T his
, . was no t do ne ; no t :
,I s ay it with regret was no t do ne
,
-
.

But in a senten ce where a co mma woul d be necess ary if

the parenthetical clause set o ff by dashes di d not exist ,

the co mma may b e retaine d be fore the rst dash :

Darwin the pro mulgato r o f the theo ry tho ugh by no mean s
its o nly s uppo rter
, ,

is regarded to day etc ,

.

An d when the parenthetical cl ause set o by dashes

i tsel f requ ires an interrogation or exclamation poin t ,

su ch pun ctu ation may be retaine d in conn e ction with

the se cond d ash :
Sen ato r B lan ks hall we call him s tates man o r po litician

in tro duced the bill ; If the s hip s ho uld s in kwhich Go d fo rbid "
he will be a ruined man .

PARE N THE SE S

The term parentheses is applie d to the elli ptical

as di s tingu ished f rom the squ are brackets .

69 . Paren theses are

used to in close gures or letters
th at mark divisions in enum erations whi ch are run into
the text :
The reaso ns fo r his res ign atio n were three : (1 ) advanced age ,

(2 ) failing health (3) a d es ire to travel

, .

When su ch di visions are separate d into paragraphs ,

by means o f gures or capital letters parentheses should ,

 P UN CT UAT ION 121

not be used but a period should follow the gure or

,

letter If the paragraphed sub divisions are ind icate d

.

by the symbols a b c etc these should be used with a

, , ,
.
,

half parenthesis
-
a parenthesis on the right o f the
gure only) (see chap vi s ec .
,
.

A Un der the head o f

.

1 Under .

1 Under .

a) Un der

70 . should not ordinarily be use d to

Parentheses
mark parenthetical clauses (see above secs 2 7 ,
.
,

unless confusion might arise from the use o f less d is

tin ctive marks or u n less the content o f the clause is
,

wholly irrelevant to the main argu m ent :

He mean t I take this to b e the (s o mewhat o b s cure) s ense o f
his s peechthat the matter was o f no co nsequence ; T he perio d
thus in augurated (o f which I s hall s peak at greater length in a
later chapter) was characteriz ed by man y exces s es ; T he co n ten tio n
lIas been made (o p cit ) that he was no t the o rigin ato r o f the plan

. . .

B R AC KE T S

T he term brackets is applied to the square

marks as d istinguishe d f rom the elliptical paren

theses (
7 r Brackets are use d (I ) to inc lose an explanation
.

or note (2 ) to indicate an interpolation in a quotation

, ,

(3 ) to rec tify a mistake (4) to supply an omission an d , ,

(5 ) for parentheses within paren theses :

(I ) [T his was written b efo re the pub licatio n o f Spencer s

bo o k EDITOR ] (2) T hey [the free s ilver Demo crats ] ass erted
.

.
-
122 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

main tain ed in den itely

that the present articial rat o i can be .

(3 ) As the Italian [Englishman] Dante G ab riel R o s [s ] etti has
s aid (4) Jo hn Rus kin . By Henry C arpen ter .

[ Englis h M en o f Letters series Lo ndo n : B lack

,
1 9 00 .
,

(5 ) Gro te the great his to rian o f Greece (s ee his Histo ry

, , I, 2 04

[s eco nd s ays that etc ,

.

E LLIPSE S

7 2 Ellipses , consisting of a series o f d ots , or period s

.

usu ally fo ur are used to indicate the omission f r o m a

quotation o f one or more wor d s not essential to the id e a
whi ch it is desired to convey an d also to in dicate ,

illegible word s mutil ations an d other l acun ae in a docu

, ,

ment M S or other material whi ch is qu o ted

, , Where .
,

in poetry one o r more complete li nes are omitte d insert

, , ,

a full line of perio d s .

The po in t is that the s am e fo rces are s till

the und ercurren ts o f ev ery human life We may n ever .

unrav el the metho ds o f the phys ical fo rces ; b ut

he so ught the lumb erer s gang
,

Where fro m a hundred lak es yo ung rivers s prang ;

Thr
o ugh these green by eld es t n ature dres t
ten ts , ,

He ro am ed , co n ten t alik e with man and b eas t .

7 3 A n ellipsis wi thin a quotati on should be tre ate d

.

as a part of the quot at ion ; an d consequently shoul d be

in close d in the quotation marks (see above , secs .
56,
71
H YPHE N S

hyphen is use d (I ) at the end o f a line when

7 4 T he.

it is ne cessary to divide a wor d there an d (2 ) in many ,

compound wor ds (see chap iii se cs 3 1 .

,
 1 24 A M AN UAL F OR WR I TE RS

or brief passages not o f s uicien t length to call for formal

quotation
the Darwini an Weltans chauung; the lais sez faire habit ; -

the deb ater par excellen ce o f the Sen ate ; De gusti bus n on es t
dis putandum o r as the French have it Chacun ason go ut
, , , .

But do no t italiciz e foreign titles preceding n ames or ,

names o f foreign institutions or places streets etc the , ,

.
,

m e aning or posi tion o f which in E ngli sh would r equire

roman type :
Pere Lagrange Freiherr vo n Schwenau the Champs E lys ees
, , ,

the German R eichs tag the M useo d elle T erme , .

F ollowing is a partial li st o f word s which h ave been

ad opted into the Engli sh lan gu age f rom other langu ages ,

but which are now r egarded as angliciz e d an d should

'

no t be it ali ciz e d even when retaining the ir origin al

,

accents

ad in terim bo na de co n sen sus d no uemen t

adden dum bo n to n co n tra depot ( =
depo s i
(plur da) .
-
bo uillo n co n trete mps to ry)
ad lib litum] bravo co rrigen du m de rigueur
bric abrac - -

d to ur
a po s terio ri cabaret

co up d etat dilettan te
a prio ri caf co up de grace divo rcee
apro po s creche do ctrin aire
aide de camp canto criterio n d ramatis per
alias carte blan che (plur a) .
-
so n ae
ali bi cen sus c ul d e s ac
- -
clat
Alma M ater chapero n datum (plur a) .
-
lite
amateur charg d aaires

b
d ris enco re
ann o Do mini chau eur b
d ut enn ui
an te ellum
-
b che f d o euvre


d co ll et ensem ble
atelier Chiaro scuro d elicatess en en tr e
attach cle f d emi lun e
-
en trepot
has reli e
-
f clien tele d emi mo nde
-
erratu m (plur .
-
a)
beau ideal co n re f
re demi relie o
-
v et cetera
billet do ux co nno is seur demi tas s e
-
ex cathedra
 THE USE OF ITALIC 1 25

ex o cio perso nn el s auer raut k

expo se matad o r sa van t
facade matinee po s tmo rtem (u . seno r
facsimile melee seraglio
menu po s t o it b so briquet
fete mo tif s o ir e
n is n ai ve pro an d co n [ tra] s pirituel
fracas n e pro c s er al v b s tein

garage net pro rata su bpoena

gratis n v pro t g techn iq uex
b
ha eas co rpus n iche pro tem [po re] tete atete- -

b
ha itu n il pro toco l to nn eau
hangar no l 1e [ ]
pro s q ui]
no m de plume q uo n dam umlaut
hegira o nus q ueue verbatim
ho rs do euvres papier ma ch rago ut verso
pater amilias f vers us (v .
, vs )
.

l s e maj es t pato is regime

levee vice versa
litterateur per capita r su m vis -
avis-

litterati per cen t

M agn a C [h] arta per co n tra tale viva vo ce
man damus per se
l
See chap iii , . sec . 2 .

3 . The f ollowin g
word s phrases and abbreviations , ,

l ref erences should be it ali ciz ed :

u se d in liter ary an d lega

ad circa et al .
, ibid .
,
id em, i nfra, loc . cit , o p cit ,
.

pas si m, sic , su ra, s

p . v, aide
. .

But do no t i taliciz e :
cf , etc. .
, eg i e
. .v , . .
, . or vs .
(versus) , viz .

e ti tles of publi cationsbooks (in clu ding

4 Italiciz
.

plays ess ays cycles of poem s an d single poems o f co n

, , ,

s iderable length usually printed separately an d not , ,

f rom the context un derstood to fo rm parts of a larger

volume) pamphlets treati ses tracts documents an d
, , , , ,

periodi cals (in cludin g regularly appe arin g pro cee dings
an d tran sactions) ; in the case of newspapers , perio di cals ,
1 26 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT E R S

etc the n ame of the city (where published) when f ormi ng

.
,

an integral part o f the n ame (but see chap iv s ec .

. .

but n o t books o f the B ible canoni cal or apo cryphal , ,

or titles o f an cient manuscripts or sy mbols use d to ,

design ate manuscripts (D 1 6 ; M b ; P) which should

.
,

invariably be in ordin ary type (see chap iv .

,

secs 3 9 4o
.
, ,

M id s ummer N ight s

Spencer, Principles o f S o cio lo gy; A -

Dream; I dylls of the King; P aradise Lo s t; the Ind ependen t, the

M odern Lan guage R eview, R epo rt ofthe Un ited S tates Co mmis s ion er
f Educati on
o ,
Trans actions fthe Illino is
o S ociety for Child S tudy .

T his rule may b e departed f rom in extensive bib lio gr aph

ical lists in t ables or in o ther matter wh ere to fo llo w it
, ,

would result in an undue prepond erance o f i tali cs .

5 I taliciz e the word s S ee an d S ee als o when used in

.
,

an in dex or simi lar compilation f or the purpo se o f a ,

cross ref eren ce where the differentiation o f those word s

,

f rom the context is desirable ; an d the word s fo r an d read

in li sts of errata to separate them f rom the in correc t an d
,

corre c t readin gs (see p .

S ee als o So cio lo gy ; for lev ee read lev e .

6 signatures italiciz e the title or

. In position added
af ter the n ame :
ARTHUR P . M AGUI R E , S ecretary
CAR TE R H HAR RI S ON .

M ay or of Chi cago

7 Italiciz . e the symbols a) b) c) etc use d to indicate

, , , .
,

subdivisions when beginnin g a paragraph ; an d a b c , , ,

1 28 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

b) Italiciz
e d esignatio ns of celestial obje cts in well
known cat alogues ; also the F lamsteed num bers an d
B aeyer letters :
M I3 (fo r N o . 13 of M es s ier s Catalogue of N ebulae

and
Clus ters ) , B ond 6 1 9 , N G C 6 1 65 ; 85 Pegas i , f Tauri , Laland e 5 7 61
. . .

c) I taliciz e symbols f or the chemi cal elements (but in

all other cases these shoul d be wri tten in roman) (see
ch ap v sec
.
,
.

H , Ca, Ti .

d) I taliciz e the lower -

se l etters design ating certain
ca

F raunho fer lines :

a, b, g, h;

but n o t the capital le tters given by F raunho f er to Spe ctral

lines :
A H an d K ;
,

an d the letters d esign ating the spe ctral types o f stars are
n o t i t ali ciz ed :

A5 , B 3 , M b .

12 resolutions italiciz e the word
. In , R es o lved ,

but

(See chap iv

not the wor d Where as . .
,
s ec .
 C HA PTE R VII

LETTE R -
WRITIN G
In general , the considerations applicable to compo
sitio n (see chap i) should govern the writin g o f letters
.
,

an d in this connection a care ful stu dy o f chap ii is also .

recommende d T here are however several mo di ca

.
, ,

tions o f the general rules to be taken into consideration ,

d epen din g on the character o f the letter the position o f ,

the person add ressed etc Bef ore we dis cuss the vari
, .

ous classes o f letters a f ew general rules applicable to

,

all may be laid d own :

1 .T he writer of a letter Should be ar in mi n d that
the written page is to con vey ideas to the min d of ano ther .

T he su ccess with which thi s can be accompli she d de

pen d s o f course primarily on the langu age use d ; but
, ,

there are other details whi ch have a highly important

bearing on the effe ct a letter will create Paragraph .

in g pun ctu ating an d the arr ange ment of the id eas

, ,

expressed are subje cts d emandi ng especial care an d

thou ght T o o o f ten id eas are not co ordin atedare
.
-

not expresse d in proper sequence A ski lful letter .

writer is one who having rst mastered the general

,

rules of composition visualiz es so to spe ak the frame

, , ,

work o i his letter an d build s it up on a coherent an d

,

c onnecte d plan which will make itsel f clear to the mi nd

of the re cipient .

1 29
1 30 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

2 . omi t the d ate in even the most in f ormal

N ever
note ; the d ay o f the m onth expressed in gures should , ,

be un accompanie d by s t n d d rd or th: September , , , ,

not Septemb er 9 th .

3 Do not jump f rom the rst page to the f ourth

.

an d then b ack to the se cond Write on conse cutive .

pages .

4 N ever wri te in the margin o r acro ss what has been

.

written .

5 A void po stscripts
. .

6 Place the letter in the envelope so f o ld ed that

.

when r em oved it will open with the right sid e up in

position to be re ad .

Letters may be classed as (1 ) private or social ;

(2 ) business ; (3 ) formal The style an d general tre at.

ment o f these should differ considerably .

I . PR IV ATE OR SOCIA L LE T TE R S

The private or soci al letter m ay be very inf ormal ,

the d egree o f info rmality al lowable being d ependent

upon the intimacy o fthe writer an d the person add resse d .

In general one may s ay that su ch a letter should re

,
ect
the personali ty of the writer an d give the impression o f
c onvers atio n But since it is a letter attention should
.
,

be given to securing ord er (f or the s ake o f cle arness) an d

variety of expression (in order to avoid monotony an d
trivi ality o f tone) .

Colloquial language an d even Slan g are permi ssible

in a letter to one with whom the writer is on very f amili ar
15 2 A M AN UAL FOR WRI TE RS

or the di ctation o f su ch a letter to ano ther is felt as a

lack of courtes y to the person add ressed as well as an ,

in dication of carelessness an d in di fference on the part o f

the writer Only the most extraor din ary circumst ances
.

can justif y f ailure to observe thi s man date o f custom

The he ading In so cial correspon d en ce there is

.

1 .

no h ard an d fast rule requiring the address (city or

- -

town) o f the wri ter al though i t is always desirable th at

,

it should be given an d pre f erably at the right h an d ne ar

, ,

the to p o f the sheet in two lin e s thus :

, ,

9 00 M ICHI GAN AVEN UE

CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS

letters o f this kind however it is permi ssible to

In , ,

place the address of the writer as well as the date at

the en d of the letter but in that case the position should
,

be at the lef t of the shee t below the line o f the sign ature ,

thus :
9 00 M ICHIGAN AVE N UE
CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS
September 9 , 19 13

N o pun ctu ation sho ul d be placed at the end o f the

lines ; an d the day of the month is usuallyto be expressed
in gures (see chap iii s ec It is customary
.
,
.
,

however in social correspondence th at is at all formal to

, ,

spell out the day of the month an d the year : September
the ninth ninteen hundred [an d] thirteen

The addr es s
.
,

2 . In so cial letters the name an d ,

address of the addr essee m ay be inserted or omi tted .

If inserted it may be placed at the lef t in a line below

,
 LETTER -
WRIT IN G 1 33

the signature at the close In this case the city and .

,

state o f the writer an d the d ate should be placed at the

beginnin g o f the letter in the posi tion indi cate d above

.

.
3 Th e s al uta to ry p hra s e Thi s may take any one .

o f a great number o f forms The formal Dear Sir

.

is o f course rare in social correspond ence Where for .

mality is desired Dear M r Brown or (slightly more

,
.
,

cordial) M y dear M r Brown may be reso rted to
.
,

.

In the increasing degrees o f familiarity goo d taste an d

common sense wi ll di ctate the f orm o f s alu tation
-
Vary .

ing cir cu ms tan ces will at dif ferent times afford achoice
, ,

o f wide range from which however phrases such as

, , ,

F riend Brown
Frien d John 01 almost as had
,

,

, ,

simply John Should by all m eans be exclu de d The

,

.

rst word and the n ame or the wo rd use d in place of the

,

name and the title before the name should be capital

, ,

iz ed :

M y very d ear Brother ; an d the n ame should

be followed by a comma A void abbreviations in the .

s alutation : D ear C aptai n B rown is better than

Dear Capt Brown ; but M r M rs an d D1 are
.

.
, , .

al ways to be pref erred to the unabbreviated f orms (see

c hap iii s ec

. .
,

.
4 The text O u the subjec t o f the text nothing ,

need be add ed here to what has been said in the intro

ducto ry paragraph o f this subdivis ion

.

.
5 T h e co m plim en tary cl o s e In so cial letters the .

language used depend s on the d egree of cordi ali ty ,

intimacy or relation ship exis ting be tween the corre

,

The cust omary phras es : Yours sin cerely

spo n den ts .
,
1 34 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

Yours very truly may be added to emphasiz ed or

,

, ,

varied but the writer shoul d always remember that

,

mod eration an d reserve are pref er able to effusiveness .

Und er all circu mstances shun the offensive Yours etc ,
.

T he close is f ollowed by a comma an d is place d a li ttle

to the right o f the center o f the page
6 The s ign atur e T his is to be written on a li ne
.

by itself to en d ne ar the right hand m argin T he Chri s

,
-
.

tian nam e may be spelled o ut or abbreviated by ini tials ; ,

the surnam e sho uld of course be given in full Except .

when wri ting to an intimate friend a woman should Sign ,

her full n ame or indicate in parentheses the f orm in

I
which she should be add ressed :
GEOR GIA M ARIA BR OWN
(M R S GE OR GE C )
. .

(M R s ) . G E OR GIA M AR IA BR o wN
(M ISS) GE ORGIA M AR IA BR OW N

7 . The nv e lope
e The add ress on the envelope
.
~

Shoul d begin with the n am e pl ace d about mi dw ay b e

tween the to p an d bottom o f the envelope (In the .

Uni ted States M r preceding the n ame is pref erre d
,
.

to Es q following it ) In the li ne below rather m ore
.

.
,

to the right are placed the number an d n ame o f the

,

street (avoiding all abbreviations such as Ave , ,

an d this in turn is f ollowed in the next line still ,

more to the right by the name o f the city or town an d

, ,

in still another line by the n am e o f the state Spelled ,

in full In the lef t hand co rner may be place d an y di

.
-

re ctions or instru ctions su ch as : T o be f orward ed , ,

1 36 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITERS

is the time at which y o u expect to leave . She wan ts to d o so me

wo rk in the B ritis h M useu m an d to meet s o me dis tan t relatives

o f o ur mo thers who m s he has ne ver seen She had in ten ded

.

v
tra eling with an aun t, b u t that lady has n ally allo wed her
q ualms o ver a s ea vo yage to cause her to ab and o n the plan .

I am wo n dering if, un der the circums tances , my s is ter co uld

j o in yo ur party Witho ut Yo ur mo ther

in co n v en ien cin g anyo n e .

an d s is ter are go in g I hear an d while they have no t me t M ary

, , ,

they hav e do ub tless heard abo u t her an d her wo rk s o that they ,

wo uld n o t regard her as a s tran ger Will y o u tell me frankly.

ho w they wo uld co n s ider this s ugges tio n

With b es t wishes fo r a pleas an t trip ,
Very s incerely yo urs ,

J OHN B R OW N
September 9 , 19 13

II . B U SIN E SS C OR R E S PON DE N CE

The writing o f business letters is an art to which

all too little attention i s paid T erseness clearness .
, ,

poli teness an avoidance o f monotonous an d hackneye d

,

expressions are all as essential as is the rigid obs ervance

,

o f the rules o f grammar spelling punc tuation an d , , ,

paragraphing N o unn ecessary word s should b e us ed ;

.

nevertheless the personality of the wri ter an d the

,

atmosphere

so to spe ak of the relations existing
, ,

between the correspond ents should be manifest throu gh

out A curt formal or h ackneye d letter m ay cre ate
a poor impressionmay even ten d to d estroy or injure
.
, ,

business relations A business letter should be so

.

written as to compel attention d evelop interest create , ,

d esire or eect a de cision

,
T he su ccessf ul writer o f a.
 LETTER -
WRIT IN G 137

business letter is one who sen d s hims elf along with hi s

message A su ccinct well word ed polite letter inuences
.
,
-

the recipient u nconsciously to himsel f in the writer s

, ,

f avor .

T he stationery used the character o f the printe d

,

or the engraved letter head the appearance o f the type

,

writing even the manner in which the letter is f old e d

, ,

all tend to exert a subtle in uence on the min d o f the

re cipient
The he ad in g The arr angement o f the place an d
.

I .

d ate in business letters is usu ally arbitr ary sinc e the ,

name an d details of the business an d the location ,

together with the name o f the city or town are usually ,

printed a space f or the date being left blank on the

,

right Either of the f ollowing forms may be used

.
,

d e pending somewhat on the space available :

9 00 M ICHIGAN AVE .

CHICAGO, ILL , September 9 , 19 13

or ,
in block
f orm :
9 00 M ICHI GA N AVE .

CHICA GO, I LL .

Septemb er 9 , 19 13

ses such as the forego ing the word Street or
In ca

A venue is usually abbreviated Ordin arily no pune .

tuatio n f ollows an y o f the lines T he n ame o f the .

month should not be abbreviated nor should the day ,

of the month be f ollowed by s t nd d rd or th

The add r es s The business n ame an d add ress
.
, , , ,

2 .

of the add ressee should be placed at the beginning o f

1 38 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

every business letter at the lef t o f the sheet b elow the , ,

d ate line the n ame in a line by itsel f the add ress in

, ,

two lin es below Either of the f ollowin g f orms may be

.

use d :
M ess rs B ro wn Jo nes 69 Co
.
,

.

9 00 M ichigan A ve .

Chi cago , I ll .

or ,
in block
f orm :
M ess rs Brown , Jo n es {9 Co
.
'
.

9 00 M ichigan A ve .

Chi cago , Ill .

Whichever o n e o f these f orms is ad opte d the practice ,

should be uni form in respec t to the place an d date lines ,

an d the name an d add ress o f the ad dr essee In a .

typewritten le tter unless it be very short the add ress, ,

lines sho uld in both cases be single spaced

3 T.he s a l utator y ph ras e In business letters thi s .

,

should begin ush on the le f t lining up with the rst ,

line o f the address an d sho uld be f ollowed by a colon ,

.

When a rm is the ad dressee the phr as e should be : ,

Gen tlemen z or De ar Sirs : and when an in dividu al

is addressed i t should be : ,
D ear Sir : or M y d e ar

Sir : substi tuting in the case o f a woman eith er marrie d ,

or single the word M adam f or Sir
, In thi s

.

country contrary to the E nglish pr ac tice

, the phrase ,

M y de ar Sir is regard ed as more cord ial an d less

formal than De ar Sir

4 T.he t e x t A s state d in the intro du ctory par a

graph to this se ction all hackneye d phr ases are to be ,
1 40 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

Awaiting an y reply earl ,

I am
Yo urs very truly ,

GE OR GE C B R OWN .

01
Yo urs truly ,

BR OWN PUB LISHING Co .

per Geo rge C Bro wn .

T he vulgar Yours etc 13 never permitte d an d no
,
.
,

d egree o f haste or famili ari ty will excuse its use

.

6 Th
. e s ign ature A s indicate d in the illustration
.

given in the preced ing section in a letter signed by the ,

rm n ame the latter should be f ollowe d by the sign ature

,

o f the person wri tin g the le tter pr eceded by the word ,

per . F or addi tional suggesti ons s ee sec 6 under

.
,

Private or Social Letters

.

7 The e n velope
. See s ec 7 under . Private an d .
,

Social Letters ,

an d s ec 7 under F ormal Letters .
,
.

8 Examples o f b us in es s letters
. .

{I "
CHICAGO, ILL , July 24, 1 9 1 3

M essrs S mith
.
, Jon es 59 '
Co .

9 9 F etter Lane
London , E C . .
, England
GE NTLE MEN :
We are ingreceipt o f yo ur co mplai nt to the effec t that N o s 7 .

an d 8 o fthe Jo urn al ofPetro lo gy were no t received by the Directo r

o fthe Geo lo gical Survey .

Our reco rds s ho w the d ispatch o f thes e n umb ers by regis

tered mail o n February 2 In V iew o f the fact that so much time
.

has been allo wed to elapse befo re the claim was made an d o f ,

the fact that o ur s to ck is V ery lo w we hes itate to duplicate this ,

 LETT ER -
WRITIN G I41

o rder further inves tigatio n We are to day sending o ut

witho ut .

a tracer and will repo rt to y o u later when we hear fro m the

, ,

po s t o
ice autho rities In the event o fadvice fro m yo ur cus to mer
-
.

that the package co mes to hand later yo u will o f course let us ,

kno w .

Yo urs very truly ,

BR OWN PUB LISHIN G Co .

per J G . .

[ 2]
C HICAGO, ILL .
, July 2 4, 19 13

M essrs S mith,
. Jones 5 '
Co .

9 9 F etter Lane
London , E C , En gland
. .

G ENTLE ME N :
Yo ur letters o f Jun e 4 an d June 1 3
Re:
We have b een delayed in canvas sing the details o f yo ur
in vo ice o f J une 4 fo r 1 6 1 53 5d and yo ur credit no te o f June 1 3
. .

fo r 7 s 6d
. On the item o f
. catalo gues there s ee ms to b e

a m arked discrepan cy b etween the amo unt autho riz ed an d the

amo unt charged . R eviewing the deta
i ls fro m o ur les we nd

the fo llo wing:
(a) Our o rder N o . 2 2 5, January 2, 1 9 13 , autho riz ed
Catal o gue o f Publicatio ns fo r Englis h and
co pies o f the

fo reign boo ksellers , private indi viduals , and Sco ttish

minis ters in acco rdance with yo ur letter o f Decemb er
1 5 , 1 9 1 2 , to co s t appro ximately 7 1 0s
'

(b) Our letter o f January 9 autho riz ed y o u to include the

co s t o f extra co pies o f the cata logue fo r Indian univer
sities a nd co lleges .

(c) The charges o n yo ur invo ice o f February 2 4 fo r 1 6 1 4s .

1 1d a nd o f July 4 fo r 1
. 1 0d are fo r the to ta l .

charges o n cata lo gues fo r the Indian univers ities an d

co lleges as per (b) abo ve .
 14 2 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

(d) Yo ur invo ice of June 4 fo r the catalo gues is 8 1z s . 6d .

plu s 4 1 7s .
3d .
, to tal 13 9 s 9 d . .
, les s credit no te 7 s .

1 od .
, 13 1s . 1 1d . T his , witho u t dis co un t, is , we un

ders tan d , yo ur to tal charge fo r (a) abo ve .

If we are co rrec t in o ur deductio n regarding (d) in the fo re

feren ce o f appro ximately
go in g, y o u wil l n o te that there is a dif
6 b etween the es timate in yo ur letter o f Decemb er 1 5 , 1 9 1 2
which was the bas is o f o ur o rder , an d the actu al amo un t
charged . We ,
o f co urs e , appreciate the act that the amo un t f
7 1 0s . was merely an es timate ; y e t we certainl y d id no t expect

that the to tal co s t wo uld amo un t to nearl y 13 . M ay we as k

y o u to go o ver yo ur gures again an d see ifa mis take has no t been
made
Yo urs very truly ,

B R OW N , WHI TE Co .

per J G . .

III . F OR MA L LE TTER S

Formal letters as distingu ished f rom either private

,

or business letters are (1 ) those add ressed to persons

,

o ccupying high positions to whom it is d esired to Show ,

some mark o f unusu al respect an d (2 ) in vit ations or ,

accept ances o r d eclin ations o f some n ature

The he adin g
.

I . In f ormal s o ci al letters the place

an d d ate are never given at the to p but at the en d an d ,

o n the le f t ; in other f orm al letters however the place , ,

an d date should b e at the right han d near the to p o f the

page as in busin ess letters without abbreviation o f the

, ,

n ame of the mo nth .

The add res s This is place d at the en d an d on

'

~
2 .

the le f t below the pl ace an d date if the l atter are not at

, ,
1 44 A M AN UAL FOR WRITE R S

5 . o m pl im e
The n tary close
c A s not ed in the pre .

cedin g sec tion f orm al le tters writt en in the th

,
i rd person
take n o complimentary close The complim entary close .

in extremely f ormal letters addressed to persons in high

o i cial positions may be (with m odications) as f o llows :

I have the hon or to be Sir yo ur most o b ed ient serv , ,

o r in case o f a lesser d egree o f f o rm ali ty I am

an t , , , ,

Sir yours mo st respe ct fully ; except however in

, , ,

unusu al an d especially f ormal letters the phrase

, ,

Yours very truly is greatly to be pre ferred Except

.

in o fcial corr espon d en ce f rom an of cial o f the

gov ernment to a private perso n an d som etim es between ,

o f
ce rs o f the rmy or navy the phr ase Yo ur obe di
a

,

ent s ervant is passing out o f u s e In re cent years the .

phrase Yo ur obedient servant has been use d in this

country by a public of cial in writing to a private

in dividu al to in dicate the relation o f servant o f the
,

public which exi sts on the part o f the occupant o f
the pub li c of ce But in letters from private persons
.

it is n o longer regarded as am on g the customary co n

ven tio n s F or special form s see li st at the en d o f this
.
,

subdivision (pp 1 4 5

.

h
6 T e S ign ature
. See s ec 6 und er Pr ivate or .
,

Social Letters (p

.

7 T h e.e nvelo p e Ordin ary cases will be f oun d to be

.

covere d by the rules in s ec 7 un der Private or Social .
,

Letters (p

F or comprehensive form s covering
.

many special cases see list at the en d o f this subdivision

,

(pp 1 45
 LET TER -
WR IT IN G 145

F or conveni ence f orm s fo r the name an d add ress

, ,

the salut a tion the complimentary close an d the envelope

, ,

required in spe cial cases are grouped in the f ollowing

li st
. E very class o f persons to whom f or an y reason , ,

the f oregoing rules are not applicable is enumerate d ,

an d letters to an y person not comi ng withi n an y o f the

c lasses enu mer ated in the list should be governed by the

gener al rules given above In f ormal business letters

.

to persons covered by the li st below the name an d ,

ad dress o f the ad d ressee should ordinarily be pl ace d at the

en d of the letter an d on the le f t h an d sid e the langu age
,
-

f or the envelope being the s ame as that given for the

nam e an d address in the li st below T o place the n ame .

an d add r ess at the beginnin g however is in perf ectly , ,

good taste the choice o f the en d inste ad o f the begin ning

,

f or these details being customarily a mark o f gre ater

f ormality .

Pres id en t ofthe Un ited S tates

N ame an d address : T he Pres iden t, Was hin gto n DC , .

Salutatio n : Sir : (o r
, less fo rmal) Dear M r Presiden t: .

Clo se : Yo urs v ery trul y ,

Envelo pe : Same as given fo r name and address .

M ember of Cabin et
N ame an d address : T he Secretary of State, Was hingto n ,

DC .

Salutatio n : Dear M r Secretary : .

Clo s e : Yo urs very tru ly ,

Envelo pe : Same as give n fo r na me an d address .

146 A M AN UAL F OR W R ITER S

A mbas s ad or
N ame an d address : His Excellen cy the French Ambass ado r ,

Was hingto n DC
,
. .

Salu tatio n : Dear M r Ambas s ado r:

.

Clo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E nvelo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

S en ato r
N ame an d address : T he Ho n . Shelby M . C ullo m United
States Sen ate, Was hin gto n , DC . .

Salu tatio n : M y dear Sen ato r : (o r mo re

,
in timate) Dear M r .

Cullo m :
C lo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E n velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

Co n gress man
N ame an d address : M an n , United States
T he Ho n .
J . R .

Ho use o f R epresen tatives , Was hingto n , D C . .

Sal utatio n : Dear Sir: (o r, mo re in timate) Dear M r M ann : .

Clo se : Yo urs very trul y ,

E n v elo pe : Same as giv en fo r na me and address .

Go vern or
N ame an d addres s : The Ho n E . . F . Dunne, Executive M an
s io n , Sprin geld , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear Sir : (o r mo re

,
in timate) Dear Go vern o r
Dunn e :
Clo se : Yo urs v ery trul y ,

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d addres s .

S ecretary fState
o

N ame an d address : T he Secretary o f State, Sprin geld , Ill .

Sal u tatio n : Dear M r Secretary : .

Clo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E nvelo pe : Same as given fo r name an d address .

1 48 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

Cardi n al
N ame an d addres s : His E min ence , William Cardinal O Co n

n ell, Archbisho p o fBo s to n , 2 5 Granb y Street B o s to n M as s , , .

Salutatio n :Yo ur Eminence :

Co mplimentary clo s e : F aithfully yo ur Eminence s s ervan t

,

o r Sin cerely yo urs ; if the writer is a C atho lic the wo rd s

,

in Chris t are us ually add ed

.

E n velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

A rchbis hop
N ame an d address : T he M o s t R ev . Jo hn Irelan d, D D . .
,

Archbis ho p o f St Paul, C athedral, St Paul M inn

. . .

Yo ur Grace : o r Sir :
Salu tatio n : ,

Co mplimen tary clo se : Any o f the o rdin ary fo rms s uch as ,

Very truly yo urs o r Yo urs s incerely will b e fo un d to b e

, ,

in go o d tas te ; if the writer is a Catho lic the wo rds : Sin
cerely yo urs in Chris t,

Sho uld be used .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r name an d address .

B is hop
N ame and address : T he R t R ev . . James A M cFaul, D D
. . .
,

B is ho p o f T rento n , Tren to n , N J .

Salutatio n : Right R everen d an d dear B isho p : o r, R ight R ever

en d B is ho p : o r, s i mply , an d perhaps mo re co mmo nly , Sir :
Co mplimen tary clo s e : Same as that given fo r an archb is ho
p
a b o ve .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d addres s .

Dean or Archdeacon
N ame an d addres s : T he Very R ev . Dean R o b inso n , St .

Paul s C hurch, e tc .

Salutatio n : R everen d Sir :

Co mplimen tary clo se : Very truly yo urs , o r, Sin cerely yo urs ,

Envelo pe : Same as given fo r n ame and address .

 LETT ER -
WR IT IN G 1 49

Pries t
1 . A Paris h Pries t :
N ame and addres s : [The] R ev . Jo hn A . B ro wn , 9 00 M ichigan
Avenue, C hicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : R everen d an d dear Father : 01 , Dear R everend

Father :
Co mplimentary clo se : Yo urs s inc ere ly , or any of the mo re
fo rmal phrases .

Envelo pe : [The] R ev Jo hn A Bro wn , R ec to r J

. . o f St. o hn s

Church, etc .

2 . A Do cto r of Divinity or

N ame an d addres s : Add the letters indicating the degree to

the n ame .

Salutatio n : R everend an d dear Do cto r:

Co mplimen tary clo se and en velo pe : Same as fo r a paris h
pries t .

3 . A Vicar General o r Head o f an

-
eccles ias tical ins titutio n , s uch

as a semin ary :
N ame an d addres s : Very R ev . Francis C . Kelley ,
DD . .
,

Chicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Very R everend and dear Father : 01 , Very R ever

end Do cto r : as the case may be
an d dear .

Co mplimen tary clo s e : Same as fo r a paris h pries t .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d address .

8 . Exampl es o f fo r mal letter s .

[Invitatio n]
M rs G eo rge Charles B ro wn reques ts the pleasure
.

o f M r J o hn Smith s co mpany at d inner o n Wed nes

.

day even ing, Septemb er the nin th, at eight o clo ck

.

9 00 M ICHI GAN AVE NU E

September the third
N ineteen hun dred thirteen
1 59 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE RS

[Acceptan ce]
Mr Jo hn Smith accepts with much pleas ure M rs
. .

B ro wn s kind in vitatio n to di ne o n September the

n inth As M rs B ro wn failed to name the ho ur M r

. .
,
.

Smith ho pes he is right in as s uming it to b e half

after s even o clo ck

.

9 LA KE SHORE DRIVE
Septemb er the third
N ineteen hundred thirteen

9 00 M I CHI GAN AVEN UE

CHI CAGO, ILL .
, September 9 , 19 13

The S ecretary o fState ,

Was hingto n , DC . .

D EAR M R SECRETAR Y :
.

I b eg to reques t that a pas spo rt fo r travel in Russ iahe is s ued

to me with all po ss ible d ispatch .

I am a citiz en o f the Uni ted States , and I trans mit herewith

the n eces sa ry credentials .

I am, Sir,
Yo urs respectfully ,

(o r Yo urs very truly )

, ,

G EOR GE C B R OWN .

[or,
ins tead o f at the beginning place the n ame and address
, at the
end ; s ee pp . 132

THE SECRETAR Y OF STATE

WASHIN GTON , DC . .
15 2 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

regarding the measure an d the siz e o f the type to

be used before he can begin composition AS to siz es

o f type see chap xi pp 1 88
.
,

,
89 .
,
. .

The term legen d is applied to the de scriptiv e lan

guage afxed to illustrations A n illustration printed

with text
.

o n the same page as the text material

above below or besid e i t) is called a text

, ,
gure ;
a full page illustration o n spe cial paper d iff ering f rom ,

that on which the text is printed is calle d an insert ,

(see p .

T he imprint is the inscriptio n usu ally appearing

at the f oot o f the titlepage giving the n am e o f the ,

publisher the city an d year o f publication etc (see

, ,
.

p .

2 O rd er o f materi al
.

Be fore the copy re aches .

the printer however there are several things to be d one

.
, ,

by the author or by an editor f or him It should be .

b o rne in mind that it is n o part o f the du ty o f the pub

lis her or Of the printer to write an y part o f the copy f or
the author Every part o f the book there f ore m ust
.
, ,

be written out bef ore it goes to the printer What are .

termed the prelimi nary pages are too o f ten overlooke d

by the author but e ach is an in tegral ne cessary part o f

, ,

the work .

T he rst printed page in the book is known as the

half title -
som etimes calle d the short title or

b astar d title It is a page bearing only the main

.

title of the book an d is usu ally blank on its reverse ,

s id e Hal f titles are sometimes inserte d in the bo dy

"
-
.
 PR EPARATION OF M AN U SCRIPT F OR PRIN TER 153

o f the boo k either be fore e ach ch apter or to mark

, ,

special divisions o f the work T hey should usu ally .

appe ar be fore an appen dix an d be fore an index unless

these are very short .

T hen f ollows the title page bearing the ti tle an d sub

-

title (if any ) the author s name hi s academi c or other

,

,

titles (ifd esired) an d in case the book is to be privately

, ,

is not to be ar the imprint o f a publi sher)

printed ,

such imprint as the author may desire su ch as Pub

,

Printed for Private C irculation

lis hed by the A uthor , ,

etc. with the year o f publi cation below

,
.

On the next page should follow the d e claration o f

copyright in case the book is to be copyrighte d an d thi s ,

should re ad : Copyr ight 1 9 by A ll R ights
R eserve d (see chap xii p

. .
,

In case a d edication to the work is planned the page ,

cont aining the d ed icatory l anguage f ollows .

N ext in ord er should come the Pre face if an y is co n ,

templated .Thi s is usu ally placed be f ore the T able o f

Contents an d is not enumer ate d in the latter bein g ,

regarde d as not strictly a part o f the text proper .

T hen f ollows the T able o f Contents F or thi s it is .

ordin arily enough to list the titles o f the several chapters .

Sometimes however the sub divisions o f each chapter

, ,

are summariz ed un der the chapter ti tle but th at is a ,

matter to be governed by the pref erence o f the author

an d by questions o f expedien cy space available etc , ,
.

T he preparation o f the T able o f Contents should be

attend ed to in the beginni ng or the matter may be over ,
1 54 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE RS

looked an d the book be printed wi thout it" The actu al

page num bers can be inserted later when the book has ,

be en made up into pages T he compilation o f this pre

.

supposes that titles have be en a i xed to e ach chapt er

an d th at e ach has b een numb ered in its proper or d er .

If a List o f Illustration s is desire d its proper posi tio n ,

is o n the rst o dd numbered page f ollowing the T able

-

o f Contents .

Af ter the prelimin ary matter has been prepared an d

put in place the S heets o f the complete d work should
,

b e numbered consecutively Great con f usion an d po s

.

sible expense may ari se fro m negle ct to number every

page of the copy Sheets are e asily transpose d or even
.

lost an d if they are set up o ut of their ord er the mis

, ,

take may be overlooked until too late or may involve ,

an expensive readjustment o f typ e .

If an In dex is desired one b ased on page numbers,

-

canno t o f course be prepare d un til the book has reache d

, ,

the page proo f stage when the page numbers become

-
,

available If the re f eren c es are however to be mad e to

.
, ,

sec tions or paragraphs instead o f to pages it is obvio us

, ,

that the Index can be made fro m the manuscript Ih .

d exes b ased on paging are however more convenient , ,

an d customary except in r ar e inst an ces

, F or hints on .

making the Index see below s ec 7 this chapter

, ,
.
, .

If the book is to cont ain illustr ations a d e ci sion ,

should be re ached as to their ch aracter an d number an d

siz e (whether full page o r o therwise) pref erably be fo re
-
, ,

the manuscript leaves the author s hands There are

.
1 56 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

rule an d in regard to which customs may di er as

, ,

spelling capitaliz ation an d d ivision punctu ation abbre

, , , ,

viatio n s , etc .

Within certain limi ts therefore the style appli ed , ,

to any particular manuscript may be either that pre

s cribed by the author o r that ad opted an d en for ce d by
the publishi ng house F ar abo ve all questions o f the

.

ho o f style i the rule a cast iron one in all

c ice s -

hi gh class est abli shm entsregarding cons is tency Within

- .

cert ain limi ts

style do es not matter provided only
,

,

that consistency o f treatment is followed T hat is to .

s ay it is o f comparatively li ttle m omen t whether su ch

,

word s as St ate Christology presid ent
,

are ,

spelle d with a capital or lower case r st letter ifonly they -

are co n s is ten tly treate d throughout A ll high cl ass pu b .

-

lishi n g hous es h ave their own rules o f style but in the cas e ,

o f books an d other ind epend ent publications su ch ,

e st ab lishm ents are generally willi ng to waive their

own rules within re asonable limits in favor o f the
, ,

author s pref eren ce ifhi s manus cript consistently f oll ows

,

an y goo d an d well recogniz e d practice -

If a manuscrip t .

is n o t prepared by the author with due care in this

particular ei ther it wil l be edited by the copy re ad er at
-

, ,

some co st to the author or later when it is in type the , , ,

proof reader will point out the in consisten cies ; an d the

ne cessary corre ctions which are som etimes very he avy , ,

are then charged to the author s alterations (see p

.

It shoul d be borne in mind that the copy is usu ally

d istribute d among several co mpositors who all work ,

 PR E PARA T ION OF M AN U SC R IPT FOR PRIN TER 157

on it at once If there fore consistency in capitaliz a

.
, ,

tion an d other d etails is not brought about in advan ce ,

it is f olly to expe ct consisten cy to result f rom the work

o f sever al in dependent compositors none o f whom has auv
knowledge of what rules of style are bein g observed by
the others .

Some rules ind eed un der the he ad o f

, ,
style are
too technical for the ordinary author to burd en his mind
with Yet the subje ct as a whole is one on whi ch every
.

writer should be informed in a gen eral way T hose .

who wish more detaile d inf ormation th an is given in thi s

ch ap ter an d who desire an authori t ative standar d as a
,

guide in all typographi cal matters where rules are need e d

'

are re f erred to the M an ual of S tyle (Chicago : The Un i

versity o f Chicago Press 3d

,

4 . T e chn i cal pr acti ce s T he ordin ary roman type has

C A PITAL S (called by printers SMA LL CAPS

capital letters usu ally about half the Siz e o f the

an d lower case the ordinary un capital

iz ed letters) T he term s
.

upper case (sometim es

appli e d to caps ) an d lower case cam e into use from

the fact that the type set by hand is kept in two cases

shallow wood en boxes d ivid ed into compartmen ts ,

f or each char acter) the upper of which hold s the caps
, ,

an d the lower the lower case
,
.

T o in dicate on the manus crip t

that caps

are d esired dr aw three li nes an d to in di cate
,
small ,

caps draw two lines un der the letter or word to be

,

capit aliz e d It is also a f requent practice to express

.
 1 58 A M AN UAL F OR WRITE RS

(small caps)

these directions by writing caps s e ,

.
,

(lower case) o r c an d LG (caps an d lower

or ,
. .

case) in the margin as a dire ction f or a li ne or pass age

Small caps are

to be so treated (s ee belo w p , .

rarely use d alone fo r an y purpose other th an center

heads or legend s f or illustratio ns Except in extremely .

rare cases they should not be used in the plac e o f italic , ,

f or one or more wo rd s in the text o f ordi nary re ading

matter .

T o indicate a redu ction o f a capi tal letter to a lower

case letter d raw an o bli que line throu gh it d ownwar d
,

f rom r ight to le f t .

T o indicate i tali c un d ers core with a straight line

, .

F or itali c caps und erscore with three lines an d add the

,

word s italic caps in the margin F onts o f itali c

.

type do not contai n small caps .

T o in dicate b lack f ace or b ol d f ace type un d erscore

- -

with a wavy line thus , T hi s type is f requently

M .

resorte d to f or side h ead s or center he ad s and to secure

- -

spe cial emph asi s where f or an y reason ordin ary italic

would not accompli sh thi s result .

The G erman practice o f hair spacing word s (some

-

times calle d letter spacing in ord er to express empha

-

s is is one whi ch is r arely resorted to in th is country

, .

F or this purpose it alic shou ld invariably be pref erre d .

A hair space is the thinn est space made an d when

,

inserted between the letters o f a wo rd the effec t is to

cause the wor d to st an d out prominently f ro m the rest

o f the text Its use in this country is practically limite d

.

,
 A M AN UAL F OR WRITE R S

pages are taken out s ay f rom 9 to 2 7 inclusive af ter the

, ,

pages o f the co py are numbered page 8 shoul d be ,

marked 8 2 7 to show the omi ssion ; o r at the bottom o f

,

the page may be written p 2 8 f ollo ws ,
. .

Wh er e copy is written in lo ngh and the letter u ,

should be unders core d an d a co rresponding li ne should

,

be drawn above the n T hi s prac tice will obviate co n

.

fu sion an d mist akes in proper n am es f oreign word s

, , ,

etc .

having written a gure or abbreviation the

If af ter
author desires to have it spelled out the printer will ,

un d erst an d the wish if a ring is d rawn aroun d the

ch ar ac ters o r wo rd s to b e so tre ated .

Pun ctu ation sh o uld b e care f ully in dicated on copy .

T he period Shoul d always be surroun d e d with a circle ,

thus 0 The hyphen should be distingu ished from the

.

dash by using two short lin es fo r the f ormer thus l; ,

an d care shoul d be taken to make the colon an d the

semico lo n e asily distin guish able f rom e ach other
6 F ootnotes A f o o tnote Shoul d not be placed at
.

the f oot o f the page in the manus cript but should be ,

place d imme diately below the line whi ch carrie s the

number o r oth er ref eren ce mark an d set o ff f rom the ,

text by drawing a li ne across the page imme diately above

an d below it The text should continue below it
. When .

the matter is rst put into type the f ootnote will be ,

put in this s ame relative position so that when the pages

,

com e to be made up n o mi stake or con fusion can

ari se as to whi ch f ootnote belongs on the page in question .

 PR E PAR ATION OF M AN U SCRIPT FOR PRIN T ER

If ref eren ce numbers are used f or footnotes these should ,

be contin uous on the page but not continuous throughout ,

the chapter Thi s prac tice will permit o f later ins ertions
.

of additional f ootnotes without expense for renum bering ,

the entire series N umber in g o f footno tes is pref erable

.

to the use o f asterisks or other symbols .

If the au thor s n ame is given in the text in connec tion

with a reference to or a quotation from his work , , ,

i t should not be repe ate d in the f ootnote :

This theo ry is ques tio ned by Herb ert as fo llo ws : I cann o t ,

admit, etc .

1
Laws o fthe Ancients , I , 1 53 .

[Autho r s na me is o mi tted ]
It is better to place at the en d of the quotati on rather ,

than be fore it the index gure or symbol which re fers in

,

the text to the footnote (see illustration above) .

T he f ollowin g should be the f orm of ref eren ces in

f ootnotes :
I
C R Henderso n I ndus tri al I n s urance (2 d cd ; Chicago :
. .
, .

The University o f Chicago Pres s p 3 2 1 ; S I Curtis , . . .

,

The Place o f Sacrice B i blical World XX I

,
24 8 E , .

The order o f the details Should be : (I ) author s nam e

,

fo llowed by a comma not a colon ; (2 ) ti tle (if o f a book

'

or periodical und erscored ; if o f an article quoted ) ;

, ,

(3 ) number of edition if desired ; (4) place o f p ublica ,

tion f ollowe d by a colon ; 5) n ame of publi sher an d date

,

o f publication ; (6) reference to volume an d page In .

cas e the ref erence in clud es the volume number i t is ,

better to omit the abbreviations Vol an d p as in .

.

the sec ond example above (see chap v s ec .

,
.
1 62 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

7 . In d e x T he makin g
. of a good in d ex is far m ore
technical an d difcult than many autho rs suppo se T he .

su ccess o f a book may be s aid o f ten to d epend on its

in d ex; certainly the pro per us e o f the b o ok d oes Unless .

the author is f amiliar with the elementary requ irements

o f a go od index it is o f ten d esirable if the b o ok is te ch
, ,

n ical or complicated to h ave the in d e x c ompile d by o n e

,

who mak es a business o f this sort o f work T he pub .

li sher can always d ire ct the autho r to som eone o f this

class .

T he m echan ical wo rk o f compiling an in d ex Shoul d

b e accompli shed by m eans o f card s Pro cure car d s o f
a conven ient siz e an d make one entry on e ach car d
, ,

adding o f course the page number belongin g to the

,

entry T hi s work is d one irrespec tive o fthe alph abetical

.

ord er o f the entries While the car d s are still in the or der
.

in whi ch the work was d one the re f eren ce s should be ,

verie d It is impo rtant that verication sh o uld be d one

.

at this st age sin ce i t results in a large s avin g o f time an d

,

lab o r an d there is m ore li keli hoo d o f d is covering the

,

loss o f a car d o r re f eren ce at this tim e than later when

the card s are arrange d alphabetically When this work .

is completed the card s are arr anged in their alphabetical

,

ord er an d at this stage o f the work those cat ch word s
,
-

the rst o r ind ex word s un der whi ch the s ub

,
-

divisio ns o f the subje c t are arrange d) whi ch are dupli

cate d o n various card s are e rased thus bringin g to gether ,

the various sub

subj ects und er the main subjec t or

wo r d T hese sub subjects are best arr anged with
.
-
1 64 A M AN UAL FOR W RIT ER S

Compoun d names should be li sted un d er the rst

b)
part of the n ame List the other parts o f the n am es in
.

their respe ctive alphabetical positions an d give a cross

re ference to the rst :
C ampb ell B an n erman , Sir Henry
-

Llo yd G eo rge, David-

Watts Dunto n , Theo do re

-

Geo rge , Llo yd David . S ee Llo yd Geo rge

-
.

the other hand in the case o f hyphenate d n ames

On ,

gratuitously ad opte d as in the case o f marri e d women,

adding the maid en n ame to the married n ame the n ame ,

prece ding the hyphen may be disregard ed an d li stin g ,

S hould be un d er the letter of the true n ame wi th a ,

cross ref eren ce un d er the n am e pre ce di n g the hyphen

-
.

c) N ames with prexes S hould be li sted un d er the

part f ollowing the prex except (i) in English (see b ,

above) ; in F rench when the prex consists o f or

cont ains the article ; (iii) in I t ali an an d Spani sh when the

prex consists simply of the article ; (iv) in D ut ch the ,

V an T en etc bein g always capit aliz e d (see chap iv

, ,
.
,
.
,

sec .
5 note) ; (v) when the prex an d the name are
,

wri tten as one word N aturaliz ed nam es with prexes

.

should be tre ated accor ding to the rules f or the langu age
ad opte d .

Ho mann , vo n ; Lima, d e ; Po n te e Ho rto , da; San to s Pereira

J ardin , do s .

E n glis h: A Becket ; De Quin cey ; De M o rgan ; DIsraeli ;

M acDo nald ; V an B uren .
 PREPARATION OF M AN U SCRIPT FOR PRIN T ER 1 65

F ren ch: Du M o ncel ; La R o chefo ucaul d ; Le Sage ; Du Pin ;

Du Bo cage ; but : R o sny, d e ; B o uille, de ; Allard , de .

I tali an and Span is h: La Lumia; La Farina; Lo Gatto ;

but : Farina
da; R io , d el ; To rre, d ella
,
.

Prex compo und ed wi th the n ame: V anderkin de, Zurlauben ,

Dechamb re, Vanderho eck , Delacro ix .

In the case o f the exceptions above note d the rst ,

letter of the prex governs the alphabetical position o f

the name .

d) N ames Spelle d wi th the u mlaut a a u should be , ,

li sted as if the umlaut were Spelle d out ae o e ue: , ,

M ii ller, A .

M ufo la, C .

M uller, B .

e ) h aving two parts or names o f rms co n

N ames , ,

y
(Spani sh) 01 et (F rench)

nected by an d , , ,

(G erman) e (Italian) should be listed accord

un d ,

in g to the rst letter of the n ame pre ceding the connective :

Smi th 81 E vans (und er Gomez y Pin eda (under
Loubet et M euni er (un d er Duncker un d
Humblo t (und er San d ro ne e Vallardi (un der

f) On the subject of cross

ref eren ces see chap viii .
,

p. 1 63 .

What been said appli es to what may be terme d

has
the mechan ical sid e of index m akin g T hi s is all highly
-
.

important o f course ,
But o f far greater importan ce is
.

the intelle ctu al side o f the work for unless thi s is d one ,

in a manner whi ch will make the bookan d every part

1 66 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

an d subje ct in itre adily an d e asily accessible the us e ,

fuln ess an d consequently the su ccesso i the book itself

will be destro ye d .

Some books an d o f course some subje cts len d them

, ,

selves mo re easily to the work o f ind exing than do others .

In su ch cases the work is co mpar atively simpl e It is .

in the ind exing o f complex an d involved subje cts that

the art of the ind exer is seen at its b est Suppose by .
,

way o f example th at the work o r passage to be ind exe d

,

is o n e covering the several processe s o f colo r printing -

a complex an d intricat e subj ec t If each pro cess is

.

treated separately in the text und er its appropriate

title the work of in dexin g will be co mparati vely e asy
,
.

But if all the various processes are covere d by par a

graphs m or e o r less general an d wi thout special segre
,

gatio n of subje c ts an intelli gent pickin g out f or ind ex

-

, ,

in g o f e ach pr o cess an d of each word which will express

, ,

an y phase o f the subje c t is necessary ,

Without su ch .

discrimin ation a casu al glan ce at the in dex m ay f ail to

in dicate to the read er that some particular bran ch o f
the subje ct on which he is seeking in f ormation is tre ated
at all Supercial in d exing may cause a f ailur e to use
.

the bo o k in the belief that it d oes not cover the sub

,

j ect thou gh all the whi le the inf ormation may be there
,

though un disclose d by the ind ex .

A n in dex unli ke the book i tself can s car cely be too

, ,

prolix or lib eral T he in dex unlike the text is not read

.
, ,
.

It is referred to an d only those catch

,
word s actu ally
nee ded are re ad at an y one time Hen ce every wor d .
 C HA PT ER IX

ILLU ST R ATION S

If authors an d tors were better acqu ai nted with

edi

modern method s o f illustrating mu ch more adequ ate ,

an d satisf actory results might be o bt ained .

In considering the subje ct o f illustr ations f or a book ,

the rst qu estion to be d ecid e d is whether the gures

shall be distribute d in the text (see pp 1 5 2 1 8 2 ) or aggre .
,

gated into pl ates Sin ce the d e ci sion o f thi s qu estion has

.

a distin c t bearing on the mechanical mak e u p o f the book -

it shoul d be mad e only in consul tatio n with the printer

or publi sh er If a ro ugh eggshell paper is d esirable
.

for the text o n account o f its lightness an d bulking prop

,

erties ,
only the coarsest o f line d rawings can be use d
unless the illustrations are pu t in as plates
see pp 1 8 2
. while the presence o f n e line d r awin gs
an d h alf ton es in the text requ ires the u s e o f a highly
-

nishe d heavy an d non bulking paper

, ,
-
A d e cision o f .

the questions involved in these d etails can there fore be

mad e only af ter consultation with an expert .

T he pro cess o f engraving on wood was the origin al

an d costly m etho d o f illustr ating books an d magaz ines .

Later the inventi on o f lithography o ff ere d a vastly

,

cheaper metho d which was quickly ad opte d T he

, .

Fo r the fo llo win g chapter o n Illus tratio n s the autho rs are ln

debted to M r A C M cFarlan d general s up erin tendent o f the Un i

. . .
,

vers ity o f Chicago Press .

1 68
 ILLUSTR ATION S 1 69

ad vantage o f having gures close to the text they illus

trated was surrend ere d chie y on acc oun t o f the nancial
,

advantage an d partly be cause better effe c ts could be

,

se cure d by the new process M o dern metho ds however .

, ,

have made possible again the use o f the text cu t at the

point where the gure will be o f the most service to the
re ader T here are in scientic works however cases
.
, .

in which plates are pre f erable to the text cuts ; e g . .

,

when a large series o f gures must be be fore the eye

at one time or when some gure must be re ferre d to at
,

many points .

When it has be en determin e d whether text cuts or

plates are to be use d the mo de o f repro du c tion must be
,

sele cte d for it is ne cess ary to adapt the copy for the
,

illustr atio ns to the f orm o f illustration de cide d upon (see

ch ap x p
.
,
.

T he f ollowing forms o f illustrations appe ar in bo o ks

an d magaz ines : (I ) lithogr aphy (2 ) photolitho gr aphy , ,

(3 ) photogravure (4) hal f tone 5 ) z inc an d copper

,
-

etching (6) wax engraving It is purpose d to state the

,
-
.

nature o f e ach o f these its limitations its adaptab ility , ,

to special nee ds an d the requ isites for success ful repro

,

duc tion o f illustr ations by e ach pro cess .

.1 Litho gr aphy While this pro cess was formerly

.

mu ch used for illustrating s cientic works it has been ,

l argely superseded in sin gle color work by pho to litho g -

ra phy . It is still the most satis factory m ethod f or

the reprodu c tion o f obje cts in color although the cost ,

is almost prohib itive F or this re ason i t is being

.
1 70 A M AN UAL F OR WRIT E R S

replace d by the three co lo r hal f tone pro ce ss later - -

(s e c 4

describe d un der the subj ec t o f h al f ton e -
.
,

below) .

Litho graphs are m ade by drawing on sto ne with

c r ayo n o r pen the d esign to b e printe d It requires an .

expert d raf tsman f amiliar with the subje ct in h and

, ,

to make su ch dr awings well an d even the best o f draf ts ,

men may make mistakes an d intro du ce interpretati ons

foreign to the author s design T he poo rer the o rigin al

.

drawin g the gre ater the ch an ces o f error an d the m o re

, ,

the litho graph er has to alter it to make it presentable .

2. Pho tolithography B y this pro cess an exac t repro

.

du c tion o f the original dr awing in one co lor is o btain e d , , ,

enlarge d redu ce d o r o f the sam e siz e as desire d T he

, , , .

pro cess consists o f photogr aphing o n a sensitiz e d pl ate

o f z in c the copy to be re ro du ce d T hi s pl ate is then
p .

treated in su ch a way as to make only the lines o f the

d esign pervio us to acid an d the pl ate is then very slightly
,

etche d F ro m this as many trans fers as may be desire d

.

are taken to the li tho graphi c stone f rom whi ch the print ,

in g is do ne B e cause o f the very slight etching require d

.
,

mu ch ner lines an d d ots m ay be repro du ce d than by

z in c e tchin
g where there is d an ger o f the lo ss o f very
,

n e de t ail .

Copy for repro du ction by thi s pro cess should be

d rawn with black in dia in k on whi te paper or cardboard , ,

an d be made exactly as it i s inten de d to appe ar in its

complete d f orm N o wash or ti nts o f an y k in d should
.

be introdu ce d .
1 72 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

o f paper to be used an d the author should n o t there fore

, , ,

attempt to designate on his copy the siz e o f s creen to

be use d in the making o f the hal f tone If the copy -
.

consists o f photo graphs good cle ar prints should be

, ,

furni she d an d faili ng these the original negative

, ,
.

A lmost an y so rt o fprin t can be repro du ce d but engravers ,

pre f er those made on Solio paper tone d brown If an y ,

.

alter ations in the photograph are to be m ade su ch as ,

blotting out marks o r toning out und esirable lines e tc ,

.
,

dire ctions to this effec t S houl d b e clearly given in writ

in g attache d not marke d o n the print itsel f
,
Paintin g .

out o f portions o r all o f the b ackgroun d can e asily be

accomplishe d by the engrav er .

If wash or pencil d rawings are to b e r eprodu ce d ,

contrast should be gre ater than is d e sir ed in the n ishe d

engraving since the high

,
lights are o f a light gray
inste ad o f whi te be cause o f the h alf
,
tone screen .

R e cent d evelopm ents h ave made possible the r epro

du ction o f colored subjects by the hal f tone pro cess By .

thi s pro cess a set o f thre e plates is made to carry the

three primary colors in the sam e proportion as in the
original subje ct so that when superimposed in their
,

proper position the result will be a repro d uction o f the

,

copy in i ts original colors A fourth plate is fr e quently

.

added by many engravers carryin g black o r neutral ,

tint to give the subject a body which it is sometimes
,

impossible to obtain by the us e o f the primary colors

alone A lmost an y colore d subject can be repro duced
.

by this process an d while not so satisfactory artistically

, ,
 ILLU STR ATION S 1 75

as is li thography its deli ty to det ail as a res ult

, ,

o f photogr aphy an d its comparative cheapness have

,

brought it into more general use

.

5
. Zi n c an d co pp er e tchin g Like half tones z in c -

an d copper etchin gs are printed f rom r eli ef plates an d ,

there f ore may be inserted in the text as text gures -

.

Unlik e half tones however they do not require so hi ghly

-

, ,

n ishe d a paper f or printing An y drawing or print .

having black lines or dots on a whi te b ackground wi thout ,

any wash or middle shades may be repro du ce d by this ,

pro ce s s .

The d rawing or print is photographed on a sensi tiz ed

z in c or copper plate wh i ch is treated so as to make the
lines of the picture impervious to acid af ter whi ch the ,

plate is et ched suf ciently to make them of the height

requ ire d for prin ting Zin c is ordin arily used f or this
.

purpose but copper bein g o f a d enser h ar der texture

, , , ,

gives better resul ts f rom very n e drawings The plate .

is then mounted on woo d or metal type high an d may ,

-
,

be inse rted in the page o f type at any point d e sire d

(see p 1 8
.

In preparing co py f or etchi ngs care shoul d be ,

t ak en that the ink is a de ad black Win so r N ewton s

.

or Higgins indiaink should be us e d an d always in suf

,

cient quan tity to avoid gray or brown lin es or dots ,

which are likely ei ther to be lost or to appe ar as ifbroken ,

in etching

.

6
. W a x en gr avi-
n gs T hi s pro cess is used prin cipally
.

[
in the reprodu ction of maps an d geometrical gures .
1 74 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

A copper plate is prepare d by be in g rst blackene d an d

then coate d with a thin layer o f wax on which the copy is ,

transf erre d either by photography or by d rawi ng d irec tly

on the wax T he outlines are go ne o ver with an en grav
.

in g tool which cuts a chann el d o wn to the sur f ace o f the

co pper pl ate representin g the lines o f the copy
,
The .

lettering is pu t in by pressing ordinary type into the

wax T hi s wax cov ered plate f orms the matrix f or
.
-

the molding o f a co pper shell by ele ctrolysis the shell ,

b eing b acked up to the requ ir ed thickness wi th met al .

Thi s process is superior to etching in the case o f maps

an d similar subjec ts sin ce a cle aner sh arper pr int in g
, ,

plate is possible Copy should b e prepare d in black

.

an d whi te so that it may e asily be phot ographe d on the

,

wax Care however is not so ne cessary in maki ng

.
, ,

lin es as they are to appear as it is in d rawings f or etch ,

in g in asmu ch as the engraver can e asily corre ct an y

,

irregul arities o f outli ne in the copy T he essential .

parts o f the d rawing however shoul d be cle arly repre , ,

sente d .

7 G e ner
. al s u gge s ti o n s In sen ding dr awin gs an d
photographs by mail it is advisable th at they be un ,

mounted Ii they are to be arranged in groups which

.

cannot be design ated by s erial nu mbers the outl ines ,

may be roughly trace d on sheets o f paper an d su ch ,

ch arts may be f orward e d with the se ar ate d r awin s

p g
or photographs In writing on the b acks o f unmounte d
.

photogr aphs care shoul d be use d not to press har d enou gh

,

to Show m arks on the face as su ch marks reprodu ce in ,

 C HA PTER X

ST AG ES T HR OU GH WHICH A BOOK PASSE S IN T HE

M AKIN G

1 Pro o f s an d proo f re ading

. Wh en all preliminary
qu estions h ave been s ettled , su ch as the editing an d
pr eparation o f the manuscript for the printer the siz e o f ,

type to be use d the length o f the type line etc the next
,
-

,
.
,

stage on which the book enters is the composition or ,

setting up o f the type A s this pro ceed s type is place d

-

in a gall ey
.
,

a lo ng me t al tr ay usu ally about 2 f eet

long an d varying in wid th A s each galley is lled

.
,

a proo f is t aken ull e i the r int r s t r m

p d s p e e an d
is then given to the proo f reader who corre cts it (s ee ,

Proof r eader s M arks p 1 7 9 ) f r o m the copy which i s

,
.
,

re ad to him by a copyhold er

Sin ce this is a process .

which in m ost cases should b e repeate d b y the autho r

him self it may well be explain ed at som e length her e
, .

T he copyhold er is se ated at the sid e o f the proo f
re ader an d on her car eful an d co rr ect r eading o f every
,

wo r d in the copy her clear enunciation an d her accurate

, ,

in dication o f the presen ce o f i talic o f unusu al capit aliz a ,

tion of paragraphs o f an y d eviatio n from the general

, ,

stan dard s e tc very mu ch d epend s Copyhold ers an d

,
.
, .

proof re aders f r equently agree on a series of sign als to t ake

the place o f oral statement o f the fact that it alic or caps
are indicate d in the copy T hus one tap on the t able .

1 76
 STAGES IN THE M AKIN G OF A B OOK 1 77

with the pencil coincidently with the utterance of a word

may serve to indicate th at su ch wor d is itali ciz e d in the
manuscript an d the practice enables the copyholder to
,

continue the reading without a bre ak an d ten d s to dis ,

tract the attention o f the proofread er less than would

the necessary statement in wor ds .

T he proo f bearing the proof read er s marks is taken

to a printer who m akes the corrections indicate d an d a ,

corre c te d proo f is then pulled which together with
,

,

the original marke d proof is t aken to a reviser who sees

,

that all the corrections in dicated have been made T his .

proo f is term ed a revise d proo f

T hese pro cee din gs .

are repeate dsome times sever al times if the origin al ,

proo f is dirty or f oul i e contain s very many

, ,
. .
,

e rrors until nally the proo f is cle an i e f ree f rom ,

. .
,

errors an d this clean proo f is then sent to the au thor

, ,

accompani ed by the origin al c opy or manuscript

.

T he au thor makes any corre ctio ns an d changes he sees

t by marking them in the margin o f th e proo f in d icat ,

in g in the type lin e where the corre ction is d esir e d an d ,

returns it to the publisher f or these corre ctions or changes

to be mad e The pr actice o f having the copy re ad to
.

the author by a copyholder at the time he re ad s the

proof is strongly re comm end ed He shoul d re ad the .

proo f s with the id ea in min d that some of the pe culi

arities o f the origin al copy h ave been overlooked or mi s
un derstoo d o r th at some passage or sentence has been
,

misplaced misread or even omitte d However cle arly

, ,
.

he may think he has his original work in min d the ,

1 78 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

author never be sure that he is saf e in these par

can

ticulars unless he follows thi s plan .

It is better to corre ct proo f s with in k than with

pen cil sin ce pen cil marks of ten b eco m e too blurred in the
,

hand ling which the pro of s und ergo by the time they
reach the printer to insure their being corre c tly re ad or
deciphered If corrections are too nu m erous to be re ad
.

cle arly an d e asily the whole pass age should b e r ewri tten
,
.

Correc tions an d alter ations sho uld b e mark ed on the

pro o f o nly an d never o n the co py
,
.

If it is f oun d ne cessary to change or add a word or

phrase an eo rt Should be made to substitute new
'

matter equ al in length to that d eleted or to add matter ,

which will ll o n e o r mor e complete lines T he addi tion .

o f an extra word in a par agraph so m etime s ne cessitates

running over the whole paragraph which m e ans a

,

rehand ling o f every word an d a respacing of every lin e ,

in order to get the new wor d in T hus a seemingly.

trii ng additio n o f ten proves to be a costly altera

tion (s ee s ec

requiring an expenditure o f mu ch time
.

on the part o f the printer at the expense o f the author .

Corrections an d changes m ade in proo f s should be

made by me ans of the re cogniz ed marks an d signs used
by proofread ers an d und erstoo d by printers On the .

f ollowing page a facsimile o f the several marks is given ,

an d these should be care fully stu die d be f ore an attempt

is mad e to correc t proof s .

T o in dicate that a le tter or s vllab le Shall be carried

from the en d o f a line to the begi nni ng o f the next or ,
1 80 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

that o n e o r m ore word s sh all be tr ansposed f rom o n e

po sition in the senten ce to ano th er su ch letter syll able
, , ,

wo r d or word s sho uld be in closed in a rin g an d a line

,

sho uld then b e drawn f rom the ring to the position to

which the transposition should be mad e .

In case a corre ction or chan ge cann ot be design ate d

with certainty or clearness by any o f the above d escribe d
m arks o r signs it is b etter to write a brie f directio n to the
,

printer o n the margin o f the pro o f : T ranspos e thi s

par agr aph to the point mark ed A o n gall ey Insert
new matter here

A lter ation s It should be b o rne in mi nd th at

.

2.

af t er matter has b een put in type all changes f rom the

original copy are charged fo r as alterations T he n e
.

ces s ity f or many changes o f th i s so rt may be avoid ed if

the author will exer cise a li ttle car e to de cid e in advance
what he wishes d o ne an d will mark his copy accordingly
, .

Lack o f suf cient thought at the right tim e i s responsible

f or many later changes which would b e avoid e d by a
care ful wri ter an d which pr o ve h i ghly expensive .

A n ad dition al re ason f or care an d d ecision at the right

timem or e potent than that o f expenseis that
eleventh hour additions or ch anges are Of ten mad e in
-

su ch a mann er as to be out o f harmony with the context ,

or in c onsistent in matters o f style with the rest o f the

, ,

wo rk an d when too late arise to plagu e the author the

, , , ,

publi sher the proof re ad er an d the r eading publi c

, , .

A goo d exhortation with which to en d this se ction is :

Do not let your manuscript go to the printer until you
 STAGE S IN T HE M AKIN G OF A B OO K 181

h ave wri tten every word just as you wish it in type an d ,

until matters o f capitaliz ation punctu ation paragraph

, ,

in g etc
, have been brought into consistency an d
.
,

uni f ormi ty throughout An d set your face stead fastly

.

against changes in the proof which are not essential to

c orre ctness o f st atement or to consistency o f style .

3 .C o rrec ti o n s in pro o f Ii the proo f read er sees

.

occasion to question the accuracy o f a statement or ,

suspe cts an error on the part o f the author whi ch it is ,

not his province to correc t or change he will mark ,

a query 3) on the margin o f the li ne in question

'

A uthors too o f ten igno re these queries T hey are .

meant in good faith to call attention to the wor d or

passage indicated an d should be replie d to by the

author on the galley proo f being marke d O K if no

.
,

change is d esire d or corre cted if an y corre ction is

,

nee ded Do not write a message o n the subje ct but

.

simply your d e cision A ll the proofre ad er wishes to

.

know is whether the word or passage is correct or ,

whether a change is de sired .

M arks or queries made by the proo f re ad er should

never m erely be er ase d by the author If for an y re ason.

the author does not agre e with the mark he should draw ,

a li ne through i t substituting his own mark f or it

,
If .

su ch queries or marks are erased the proo f re ad er is likely

,

to repe at them at a later stage or even to make a co rrec

,

tion on his o wn responsibili ty whi ch m ay not be d esired .

T his can be obviated if the author will pay attention to

all su ch ma rks as they are en countere d on the galley pro ofs .
18 2 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

Do not dr aw rre ctions made in the

a line around co

margin for pr inters are tr aine d to re gar d su ch a mark as

,

in dicatin g th at the matter so in cl o se d is not to be set up .

T he galley proof s bearin g the author s changes an d
alter atio ns are then returne d to the printer along with
the original manuscript an d the type is corre c te d in ,

accor dan ce with these n ew marks If f or an y r easo n the .

author wishes to see another galley proo f he sho uld ,

indorse the rst set : Send revise .

4 I
. llustration s A t the time o f returni ng the galley

proof s all proo f s o f illustrations shoul d also be r eturned

with their appro priat e legend s written below an d e ach ,

one nu mber ed its appro ximate position in the text b ein g

,

marke d in the margin of the galley proof thus : Insert

c ut N o I here
. Cuts o r charts whi ch run in with
.

the text i e whi ch do not o ccupy a full page cannot

, . .
, ,

always be placed exac tly wher e in d icat ed since th ere ,

may not be room betw een th at point an d the f oot o f the

page . Some latitud e an d discretion must there f ore
always b e allowed to the printerin thi s case the

make up man-
as he i s calle d

A failure to indicate
,
.

the approximate position on the galley proo f however , ,

will o f ten result in an expensive reh and ling o f the paged

matter if the position accorde d the cut by the make up
,
-

man turns out to be un desir able ; an d an author will

frequently save a charge for alterations by f ollowin g

the f oregoing direc tions car efully .

Full page illustrations are known either as text
-
1 84 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

taken by the pub lisher without co nsultatio n wi th the

author .But if for an y reaso n the author wishes to
re are hi own runn in he ad s (an d thi s esp ecially in
p p s g
-
,

techn ical wo rk is o f ten highly d esirable) previous co n

, ,

s ultatio n wi th the publishe r wil l be n ecess ary It is o f .

c ours e axio matic th at only a giv en num ber o f letters an d

spaces can be put into a line o f a given length T he .

questio ns o f what siz e or kind o f type is appropriate to

be use d fo r runni ng head s an d o f the maximum nu mber
-

o f letters an d spaces available in each case are f or the

publi sher to settle Havin g thi s in form ation the autho r
.
,

f requ ently nd s that he is called on to m ake use o f co n

s iderable ingenui ty to r ed u ce the l angu age o fa l o ng ti tle

to a satis factory par aphrase within the typographical

limi ts o f the Space at hi s disposal T hus if su ch a title .

as : Stage Decoration an d the U nity o f Place in F r an ce
in the Seventeenth C entury were encountered an d a
,

maximum o f 4 6 letters an d spaces were avail able f or

the runn ing h ead it would b e ne cessary to re d u ce the
-
,

matter to : Seventeenth Century St age D ecor ation in
-

F rance thus expressing the s alient points o f the title
,

in a f ew wor d s T o o o f ten this work is not in telli

.

gently o r eectively done an d enough is not expr esse d ,

in the runni ng he ad to give a clear idea o f the subject

tre ate d .

6 Drop f o lio T here is of co urs e the altern ative o f

.
-
.

having no runnin g head at all In this case the f olio or

-
.

page n umber is usually placed at the f oot o f the page in ,

the center o f the li n e an d is th en termed d rop f olio
,
-
.

 STA GE S IN T HE M AKIN G OF A BOOK 1 85

The position o f the drop foli o is sometimes varied ; it may

-

be place d at the extrem e right or le f t o f the line bein g ,

then usually pre cede d or followe d by a single bracket -

thus : 9 6] if at the le f t ; [ 9 7 if at the right

.

7
. P a e
g p r o o fs All preli mi nary questions having
-

been settle d the type is next made up in to pages

,

,

is sent to the author accompanied

an d a page proof -

by the marke d galley proof s A t this stage it is danger .

ous an d expensive to make an y further ch anges or

additions T he addi tion or d eletion of a Single line may
.

mean that every f ollowing page may h ave to be made

over to the en d of the chapter since every page must be ,

o f exactly the same length as every other page On the .

other hand the page proo fs should be re ad care fully by

,
-

the author to see (I ) that the appropriate running head s -

an d f olios are in position (2 ) th at no li nes are tr ansposed,

or omitte d espe cially at the to p or at the foot o f pages

, ,

3) that f ootnotes are in place on their appropriate pages ,

(4) that alterations in dicated on galley proof s have been

corre ctly mad e (5 ) that letters or punctu ation marks
,

have not been d roppe d f rom the end s o f lines .

Ifno revise d page proo f s are desire d this is ord in arily

-

the last the author see s o f hi s work be f ore it i s printe d .

He marks the page proo f s O K or O K with co r
-

,

.

re ctions o r O K with alterations as the case may be

,

.
,

,

an d returns them along wi th the galley proofs to the

, ,

printer .

8 In dex M e anwhi le the author should be preparin g

. .

the in dex (see chap viii p F or thi s purpose two

.
,
.
1 86 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

or more sets o f page proo f s are usu ally sent one o f which
-

is to be retained f or in d ex makin g the other bein g-

,

returned as above dire cted All m arks corrections or

.
, ,

changes mad e on the set returne d to the printer should be

mad e also on the set retained f or ind ex making T he -

.

in dex should not be m ad e until all ch anges in the pages

necessi tating a making over have actually been mad e

an d aproof showing the changes is in the author s hand s

9 . B in din g If the author has s een that each page is

.

properly numbere d in the proofs that all ill ustrati ons are
,

in place or if inserts that the page e ach is to face has

, , ,

been duly indicate d hi s labors are en de d The respo n

,
.
~

sib ili ty o f seein g that the page s are printe d in their right

sequen ce an d that th ey an d the illustrations are duly

bound in their proper o r d er rests on the printer an d the
binder .

Be fore binding actu ally t akes place it is so metimes the

custom to show the author an unboun d set o f the sheets

f olded and placed in their sequen ce with the inserts ,

in their places so th at the bin der m ay be s ure he has

,

made no mi stake in their relative posi tions but except in ,

rare cas es thi s is unne cessary .

Publication an d copyrighting (see chap xii

.
,

pp 2 0 5 10) will follow an d the completed book is then

-
.
,

on the market .

 1 88 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S
bre ad th The length o f a type
. line is express ed in
picas by a printer T hus on the b asis o f 7 2 po ints to
.

the inch as above stated an d a pica being 1 2 points

, ,
.

0 1 % o f an inch a type line o f 3 in ches in length is spo k en

,
-

o f by a printer as being 1 8 picas T he len gth o f the .

line is called the measur e by the printe r an d the
,

phr ase : T he m easure is 1 8 picas means the type

line is 3 in ches in length T hi s who le subje ct is o f .

interest to the author only in en abling him to sele ct the

type f or hi s text matter or to d etermi ne how much
-

matter in a given Siz e o f type will go in a given space .

B o th o f these subjects are better re f erred to the publi sher ,

who in addition to f urni shi ng an estimate o f space more

,

accurate th an the author hi m self can make will giv e ,

intelli gent advice as to the siz e o f type best adapte d to

the boo k in question .

Be f ore the ad option o f the point system the diff er ,

ent siz es o f type were kn o wn by nam es arbitrarily

appli e d an d printers still occasion ally use som e o f th ese
,

term s when speaki ng o f the more commonly use d siz es

o f type Fo llowing are illustrations o f the var ious siz es
.

o f type in ordinary use in book work with their respec ,

tive new an d o ld names :

S p o in t ty p e .
-
or PEAR L , meas ures ap p ro xi mately 14 lin es to the inc h .

-
y
6 po int t pe, o r NONPAR EIL, meas ure
s 12 lin es to the inch . It is ju t s o ne f
hal
o f the pica in v
ertical meas uremen t .

7 po in
-
t typ M IN ION meas ures appro ximately
e, o r , 10 lines to the inch .

It is no t in v ry e co mmo n use .

-
y V
8 po in t t pe , o r BR E IER , meas ures 9 lin es to the in ch It is a .

v y
fa o rite t pe , an d is in mo re co mmo n u s e than an y o f the s maller s iz es .
 T YPOGRA PHIC AL PRACTICES AN D TER M S 189

9 po in t type, o r BOU R GEOIS, measures 8 li nes to the inch

-
.

The name is pro no un ced as if spelled bo orj oy ce .

t type o r LON G PRIM ER me asure s appro xi

I o - po in , ,

mately 7 lines to the inch It is a favo rite siz e fo r bo oks

.

in to which it is d esired to co mpress as m uch matter as po s

sible within a limited space .

1 I-point type or SM ALL PI C A measures appro xi

, ,

mately 6% lines to the inch It is a siz e very frequently .

use d in book work .

12 po in t type, o r PICA, meas ur es 6 lin es to the

-

in ch. It is the lar ges t s iz e co mmo n ly used in bo o k

w ork .

The siz es o f type in most common use in books are

9 point 1 0 point 1 1 point or 1 2 point f or the text ;
, , ,

6 poin t 7 point or 8 poin t f or f ootn otes ; 8 point 9 po int

, , , ,

or 10 point for poe try or reduced matter (see p
.

an d 6 point 7 point or 8 point f or the in d ex

Table I (p 1 9 0) states the
.
, ,

2 T ype meas urement

. .

approxim ate average num ber of word s o f lead ed matter

,

to the average type page in a book whose siz e is known

-

as o ct avo (8 vo ; see p the average siz e o f whose

.

type page is 4% by 7 in ches

- .

T able II (p 1 9 1 ) shows the average number o f wor ds

.

to thesquare in ch of type and is useful in d ecidi ng on ,

the siz e of the type page an d the siz e o f type in whi ch

-

to set a man uscript the number o f word s in which is

,

known .
190 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

By a resort to either o f these t ables an d by ob serving

the f ollowing d et ails an autho r may f orm an id ea o f the
,

nu mber o f pages his book will make in an y given siz e

Of typ e A llowing 2 pages for the half ti tle (see p 1 5 2 )
.
-
.

(the revers e Sid e b eing blank) 1 page f or the title page

'

,
-

1 f or the copyright page 2 pages f or the d e dication if

,

an y (the reverse being blank ) 2 (o r a multiple o f two),

f or the pre face 2 (or a multiple o f two) for the table o f

,

TABLE I

ll l r r h i
il gfgh
l Wig t: f
b i
y
Siz e o fT pe L re t : l t: g fd{l
V e
Page Lin e Page

6 po in t
-
6o 1 7 1 ,0 2 0

8 48 13 % 648

9 44 13 572

10 40 I2 480

11 37 11 % 4 20

12 36 10 3 60

contents all of whi ch are termed preliminary matter

, ,

the text may be estimated on the basis of the tables

given above but it must be borne in mi n d that the rst
,

page in each chapter is shorter than the stan dar d page ,

since there is wh at is term ed a s ink or blank space

above e ach chapter title F or each chapter

. endin g half
a page should be added as a m e asure o f s af ety Sin ce a ,

ch apter rar ely end s a f ull page If hal f titles (see p I 5 2 )

.
-
.
19 2 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

are used in the bo dy of the book 2 additional pages f or,

e ach must be counte d To this tot al must o f course

.
, ,

be adde d the illustr ations counted as full or frac tional

,

pages as the case may be

, .

The cost o f composition calculated by the page varies

in inverse ratio to the siz e o f the type used bu t thi s is ,

o f co urse largely be cause o f the f act th at the smaller

the type the more there is o f printe d matter on the page

3 . M achi ne co mpo s iti on M onotype composition is

.

that whi ch is done on the m onotype machin e nam e d

Lan s to n af ter the patentee a co mposin g machi ne on -

which by tou chin g a keyb o ar d per forations are m ad e

, ,

in strips o f paper whi ch the n are tr an s fe rre d to a se cond

,

machine where the matrices to which the per for ations

,

corr e spon d are brou ght in co nt act with molten type

met al the type char acters b eing cast separ ately an d

,

arr anged automatically on a galley in

justied lines .

T he advantage o f this machi ne lies in the fac t th at a

c orre c tio n can be mad e by c han ging a single letter or

word inste ad o f resettin g an entire line as is ne ce ssary ,

on the linotype where the line is in a sin gle slug
,

or s o lid pie ce o f met al .

Lino type co mpositio n is that which is d one on

the lin o typ e machin e n ame d M ergen thaler af ter its
inven tora co mposing machin e on whi ch by tou chin g
-

a keybo ar d the matrices f rom which the ch ar ac te rs are

,

c ast arr an ge the mselves auto matically in a line in a

re ceptacle whi ch is then brou ght in contact on the ,

s ame machin e with molten type met al from which

,
-

,
 T YPOG R APHICAL PRACTICES AN D TE R M S 19 3

the entire line is then cast in one pie ce or strip termed ,

T he advantage o f thi s m achine consists in the

a S lu g .

fac t th at the pro cess o f setting an d castin g is conn e d

to one o peration on the s ame machin e Co mposition .

is there fore spee dier than o n the monotype whi ch ,

requires two machines T he disad vant ages may be

.

s aid to be that the s ingle slu g which constitutes the line

is liable to co ol unevenly with the result th at so me o f
,

the letters in the line m ay be higher than others T hi s .

results in the ir presenting a blacker appe aran ce on the

printe d page with a co nsequent irregular effect whic h
,

mars the gener al results Or if the matrice s be come

.
,

worn in dividu al letters appe ar out o f alignment th at
, ,

is above or b elow the level o f the others

,
A nother dis .

adv ant age lies in the fac t th at in or der to correc t an

error the entire slu g has to be reset with the consequent ,

poss ibility o f a new mist ake bein g made again ne cessi ,

tating a resettin g o f the line .

In most of ces all the co mposition on a book will be

,

done on one or the other o f the machines n ame d above ,

e xcept the co mposition o f the h alf ti tle an d the title -

page . If the use o f some f an cy or job type is desired
f or chapter titles or subhead s an additional expense is
, ,

in curre d sin ce these have to b e set by h an d an d co n

, ,

s titute an Oper ation distin c t f ro m the contin uous work

o f the operator o f the machine .

4
. P l ates Books are prin ted either directly from

the type or fro m plates
T hes e are repro du ctions
.

o f the type page in o n e solid sheet o f metal an d are

-

,
.

,
1 94 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

kno wn either as ele c tro type s o r as stereotypes
.

Stereotypes are made by po ur in g molten type me t al -

into a mol d cont ainin g the matrix or reverse impres

sion o f the type page which re sults in a repro du c tion

-

o f the type face o f the page T he matr ix c onsists o f
-
.

several layers o f thi ck paper presse d to gether an d

so f tene d by ste am an d then applie d und er gre at pres
,

sure to the typ e matter to be plate d -
Of co urse the .

impression o n the matrix is the reverse o f the f ace o f

the type but when in turn metal is poure d over
, , ,

the m atrix the r e sult is the reverse o f the matr ix

,

the type f ace repro d uced The ordin ary stereotype will
-
.

pri nt f ro m to impressions wi thout we ar

in g out Sever al plates can o f course be made f ro m the
.

same matr ix .

E le ctrotypes are produ ce d by depositing by electro ly ,

s is a thin copper shell u pon a wax matr ix o f the type

,

page .T his Shell is then backe d up with lead to the

requ ired he ight f or printi n g T he copper coverin g o n .

the face o f the plate add s to its d urabili ty an d hard

ness an d consequently to the nu mber o f impressions
that can be t aken from it be fore it wears outusually
,

many m ore than f rom the type metal cast in the type -

setting machines The ordinary electrotype can be use d

.

for more than impressio ns be f ore we arin g out .

In addition to the gre ater nu mber o f impressions which

can be t aken f ro m the m the chie f advant age o f ele c tro ,

types over stereotypes lies in the f act o f the ir gre ater

strength If af ter they have been made an y corree
.
, ,
 19 6 A M AN UAL FO R W RITE R S

i nvaria bly 2 0 X 2 4 in ches These ter m s then h ad a n .

exac t signicanc e a foli o m e anin g a book the s iz e
,

o f whose pag e was the s iz e o f the sheet (2 0 X 2 4 in ) .

f old ed on c e t hus maki ng the f old e d sheet c onsi st o f two

,

le aves o r four pages I n li ke m anner a
. qu a rto

resulte d from folding the shee t tw ic e p ro du ci ng f our ,

le aves or eight pages A third f ol d p ro du c e d a sheet o f

eigh t le aves or six t een pages an o c t a vo

.

F
an d s o on
.

A book spoken o f a s an oc t avo h ad theref ore a

, ,

re cogniz ed siz e o f 6 X 1 0 i n ches N ow aday s however .

, ,

wi th the g re a t va ri ety o f p resses i n use a n d the equ a lly ,

gre a t vari ety of siz e in sheets o f pap er these term s h a ve ,

li t t le m e ani ng beyond exp ressin g t he app ro xim a te siz e

o f the book The f ollowi ng rep resen t the app roxima te
.

dim ensions o f books und er thi s sy stem o f no m en c l a ture :

3 2 m o 4 X 5 % in ches ; I 8 mo 4% X 6 % i n ches ; 1 6 m o 4% X
, , ,

7 % i n ches ; I em o 5 % ; X 7 i i n c hes ;
, c rown 8 vo ,

i n ches ; 8 vo 6 X 9 in ches ; roy a l 8 vo 6% X 9 % in ches ;

, ,

4 to I O X 1 2 i n ches ; f oli o 1 3 X I 5 i n ches

, S p e cia l siz es
, .

such a s small 4 to squ a re 8vo squ a re I om o et c

, , , .

are m o dica tions of the siz es n am ed a bove The .

gures here gi ven re f er in all ca ses to the e x tern a l

m e a sure m ents o f the cover The typ e
, ,

page is o f c ourse
.

c onsid er ably sma ller

6 Err ataAf ter a book i s p l a te d or p rinte d i t
.

.
,

som etim es h app ens th a t errors a re f oun d to exi st in the

tex t etc I f i t is imp oss i ble or und esir able to c orre c t
,
.

the p l a tes thi s si tu a tion i s m et by p rinting the li st o f

errors on a separ a te sheetp refer a bly a full pag e siz e
,

-
 TYPO GRAPHI C AL PRA C T I C E S AN D T E RM S 19 7

a nd i nsertin g i t between the p relimi n a ry ma tter

(s ee p 1 5 2 ) an d the rs t page of the te x t The page

. .

shoul d be he ad e d E rr a t a and e ach error di sc overe d , ,

wi th its app rop ria te c orre c ti on should be i ndica ted i n a ,

sep a r a te li ne thus : ,

Page 8 1 line three : fo r j udgemen t read judgment

.
,

Page 9 4 line s even : fo r s eems read s eemed

.
,

Page 9 9 Table III third co lumn fo urt h line fro m bo tto m :

, , ,

for read

7 . Lead ed i d m a tte r
an dO rdin ary re adin g
sol .

ma tter is le ade d i e between e ach two lin es of typ e
,

. .
,

i s inserte d a thi n m etal strip usu ally 2 p oints (see ,

p 1 8 7 S iz es of Typ es ) i n thi ckness La rge t yp e

usu ally any siz e l arger th a n 1 2 p oint typ enee d s thicker

.
, .

le ad s ; very small typ e i e f rom 6 poi nt d own may t ake ,

. .
,
-

thi nner le ad s usu ally 1 p oi nt in thickness When

,
.

di re c ti ons a re given to a p ri nter to i nser t le ad s he

,

w ill wi thout further i nstru c tions und erst an d 2 p oint

, ,
-

le ad s to be m e ant I f i t is d esi red to d etermi ne whether

.

a given typ e page i s le ad e d or not sele c t a c oup le o f

-

lines where the t ai l of a p or a g i n the upp er li ne m eets

the he ad or upp er p orti on o f an h o r a n I in the line
below I f no app re cia ble whi te spac e remains between
.
,

the t yp e is solid i e wi thout le ad s (The ma tter on
,

. .
,
.

th i s page is le ad ed ) .

Thi s word solid is f requently use d by the unin

itiated i n p l ac e o f the di re c ti on to
.
run i n in to one
pa r ag raph ma tter whi ch has been wri tten i n sepa r a t e
pa r ag raphs a n d mi sund erst an din gs o f ten result fro m
,
198 A M AN UAL FO R W RI TE R S

thi s mi st aken us e o f the term S olid never m e ans.

any thing but the a bsenc e of le ad s between the lin es

8 T ab ular m atter
.

. Ta bles a re e xp ensi ve to set

.

up in an y event but they are frequently mad e m ore

,

exp ensive th an i s ne c ess ary through the w a n t of f ore

,

t hought o r through ignor an c e on the part o f t he author .

A t able should a lway s be so c ompi le d a s to t t he type

page of t he book I f it i s not conveni ent to set i t across
.

t he page i t can be set bro ad sid e th a t is w i th the
, ,

,

page turned s o tha t t he lon g sid es of the page a re mad e

the head and foot resp e c ti vely of the t a ble I f a s fre
, ,
.
,

quently h app ens a t able i s to o l arge to p ermi t o f bein g

,

set u p t o t the page in ei ther o f these two w ay s i t is ,

ne c ess ary to m ake of i t an in sert th a t is i t is set u p ,

,

and p rinte d on a l arger sheet an d when the book is ,

boun d the insert i s tipp ed in i e fa stene d in between
,

. .
,

the book pages an d f old e d to t the siz e of the book .

N o t only is thi s awkw ard ne c essi t a tin g un f oldin g

, ,

before t he t able can be examined but it is exp ensi ve ,

.

A li ttle care i n c ompi li ng the t able wi ll o f ten result in

m a terially re du cing its siz eei ther b y con densin g an d
c omb in ing sever al c olumn s or if ne cess ary mak ing
, , ,

two or m ore sepa ra te t ables out o f the m a teria l .

T he p ro cess of d etermini ng the s iz e of typ e i n wh ic h

a t a ble should be s et to make i t t the pag e in ei ther

o f t he man ers d es cribe d i s term e d ca stin g u p from
n ,

the fac t th a t c onsid er able ca lcul a ti on is nee d e d to a llow

for the rules , le ad s c olumns of gures a n d the

, ,

ne cess ary spac e on e ac h sid e .

 C HAPTE R X II

MI S C ELLAN EO US IN FO RM AT IO N
1 . S ee ki nga publi s her An author who h a s to seek
.

a publi sher for hi s work shoul d end e a vor to ex er ci se

som e di s crimi n a ti on a nd j udgm ent in the sele c ti on o f t he
ho use to which he submi t s his c opy A religi ous work .

should not be submi tte d to a house w hose m ain business

is the p ublica ti on o f novels T hi s apparently obvi ous
.

fac t would if observed i n p r ac tic e s a ve a goo d d e a l o f

, ,

di s app oi ntment I nd ee d m any rep ut a ble p ubli shers

.
,

d e cli ne p erfe c tly meri tori ous books be cause no t available

f or t heir sp e cial l ine of business I n other word s a rm
.
,

engage d in publi shing ed u ca ti on a l works woul d a lm os t

certa inly d ecline a novel a lthough i n the h an d s o f som e
,

other p ubli sher the book might sell through sever a l edi
tions an d p rove highly su ccessful .

T he m anus crip t should be acco mpani e d by a let t er

containin g a con ci se st a tem en t o f t he s co p e of the w ork ,

t he n a ture o f the p resent a ti on an d the c on c lusi ons ,

re ache d Authors shoul d bewa re o f i n corp or a ting i n

.

su ch letter an y a rgument i n favor of the acce p t anc e o f

the work The publi shing house wi ll d e cid e f or i tsel f as
.

to the meri ts of the m a teria l .

2 Publication An au t hor e i ther may p ub li sh a

. .

book hi m sel f or arra nge wi th a publi sher to d o so

, .

The advant age o f the l a tter c ourse li es in the fac t th a t

2 00
 MI S C ELLAN EO US IN FO R M ATI ON 20 1

the boo k w ill bea r on i ts ti tle page the imp rin t o f the -

publi shin g rm which a t on c e ten d s to give i t a stand

,

in g an d fur ther in the fac t tha t the exp eri en c e and

,
"

faci li ti es o f a publi shi n g rm insure m ore or les s o f a

m arket f or the book a result whic h the au thor b y hi s
, ,

o wn ef f orts can obt ain onl y a t gre a t exp ense T he

,
.

arr angem ents op en to an author f or who m a book is

p ubli s he d by a rm o f publi shers are v a rious : (1 ) the
publi sher buy s the manus crip t outright f rom the author ,

pay s a ll exp enses o f p ublica ti on an d takes a ll the ,

p ro ts ; (2 ) the author pay s all exp ens e o f p rin tin g ,

adverti sin g et c i n which ca se the publi sher accounts

,
.
,

to him f or all c opi es sol d retai nin g a c ommi ssion on ,

the p ro c ee d s of s ales ; (3) the e xp ense is divid e d between

the author an d the publi sher to the ex tent o f the ,

author payi ng a ll the cost o f p rintin g bin ding etc but , , .

,

ret aining the copyright in hi s o wn n am e and re c eiving ,

a royalty f or hi s c opy right an d a f ur ther roy a lty f or the

use o f hi s p lates (see p of whi ch he ret ains the
.

ownership ; (4) the publis her pay s all exp enses takin g ,

the copy right in hi s own n am e and paying a roy alty on ,

e ach copy sol d The am ount of the roya lty va ri es

.

gre a tly o f c ou rse the char ac ter o f the work the rep u
, , ,

tatio n o f the a u thor a n d va ri ous other c onsid er a ti ons

,

enteri ng i nto the question I t is usu a lly on a p er c ent

.

age b a si s however an d thi s may be ca lcul a te d o n the

, ,

li st p ric e o r retai l p ric e o r on the gross o r the net
, ,

re c eip ts from the s ales E ach ca se d ep end s on i ts own

.

ci rcu m stanc es The roy alty p lan in o n e o r other of i ts

.
,
20 2 A M AN UAL FO R W RIT E R S

f orm s is p erh ap s the m ost usu al a n d i s gener ally the ,

m ost s a ti sfac tory to both pa rti es A ny or a ll of the .

d et ai ls m enti oned may o f c ourse be var i e d by c ontr ac t

, , ,

an d no a ttemp t is mad e here to give m ore th an a m ere

outline of the a rr angem ents which an author m ay m ake
in any gi ven ca se .

Wh a tever t he b a si s o f the c ontr ac t between the

author and publi sher i t is a wi se p lan to obtai n f rom the
,

publi sher an es t ima t e o f the number of pag es whic h

the book wi ll m ake Thi s wi ll serve a s a conveni ent

.

che ck on the publi sher ; on the other h and it ten d s to ,

give the author a cle arer i d e a o f the typ og r ap hica l tre a t

m ent th a t is p ro p ose d . F requently it i s desi r able th a t
s pe cim en pages be set u p i n or der to settle di fcult
questions o f arr an gem en t o r minor questi ons o f the
,

ch a r ac ter o f ty p e to be use d T he author wi ll then .

cle a rly un d erstan d the siz es o f typ e p lanne d f or t he

vari ous pa rts o f t he work and a t thi s st age he wi ll be
,

f ree to exp ress hi s p ref erenc es thus avoidin g di s app oi nt

,

m ent o r exp ensi ve c h an g es when the work i s set u p

, .

T he rights of tr ansl a ti on an d d r ama tiza tion a re of ,

c ourse a subj ec t f or agreem ent between author a nd

,

publi sher I n the a bsen c e o f an y agreem ent to the

.

c ontr ary the l aw vests t hese rights i n the owner of the

,

c opyright (see pp 2 0 5
.

O ne of the d et ai ls of p ublica ti on is the p repa ra ti on

o f a ci r cul a r d es c r ip t i ve o f t he book be a ring the n am e ,

of the publi sher o f the book and sen t o ut by him to the

,

tr ad e a nd to individu a ls A g re a t d e a l d ep en d s on the
.
204 A M AN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

4 Bin din g
.
Avai lable
b indin gs are of an inni te
va ri ety and a re best sele c ted i n consultati on w i th the
,

p ri nting or publi shin g house A book m ay be boun d in

(1 ) pap er of an y thi ckness u p to car d bo a r d ; (2 ) pap er

bo a rd s
,

usu ally str awbo ard s wi th a pap er c overin g

pa sted on such a s is f req uently used f or s choolbooks ;
,

(3) bu ck r am a co arse c otton or li nen s tiened wi th

,

g lue ; cloth of whi ch there is a wid e v ari et y of qu ali

,

ti es ; (5) ro an mad e f rom sheep skin ; (6) calf the cus

, ,

to mary b in di n g f or l aw book s ; (7) russia a s m oo th , ,

o d orous calf le a ther c onsid ere d p roo f against mold and

-
,

inse c ts ; (8) m oro cc o mad e f rom go a tskin ; (9 ) pa r ch

,

m ent ; (1 0) vellum .

The ch ar ac ter of the b in din g the c olor o f i t the , ,

style o f typ e used on the c over shoul d a ll be t aken in to

acc ount an d shoul d be a r som e rel a ti on to the charac ter
o f the book A work on buria l c ustom s f or inst an c e
.
, ,

woul d be i n app rop ria tely bound in a bright re d The .

author shoul d i n every ca se avai l hi m self of the advi c e

which exp eri en c e an d un d erst an din g o f the condi ti ons
en able the p ublis her to gi ve Poor j udgm ent on the.

p art o f a n inexp eri en c ed author wi ll som et im es be f oun d

to be a subtle cause for a book s l ack o f su cc ess .

A book shoul d never be hurri e d through the bin d ery ,

an d no e ag erness on the pa rt o f the author to s ee hi s

ni shed work shoul d be a llowe d to interf ere wi th the

rip eni ng of the b in ding p ro c ess I f a book is rushe d.

through the b in di g st age i t c om es out green i e
n , ,

. .
,

li kely to w arp an d fad e in a short tim e A f ew day s o f .

 MI S C ELLANEO US IN FO RM AT ION 20 5

ex tr a t im e a llowe d to the bin d er will add mu c h to the

lif e an d app e ar a nc e o f the book .

T he te rm b ackbone is appli e d to the b ack of the

book i e th a t part which i s e xp ose d when the book

,
. .
,

stan d s on the shelf The b ac kbone usu ally be ars the

.

ti tle f ollowed by the author s n am e an d a t the foot

,

, , ,

the n am e o f t he p ubli sher O r in the ca se o f a thin .

,

book nothi n g may be p rinte d o n the b ackbone and the

, ,

ti tle wi th the author s n am e below i t may be p rinte d

,

,

on the c over O n bin ding s o f the gr ad e o f cloth an d

.

up w ard the stampin g or printing i s usu ally d one with

,

letters cu t in bra ss an d he a ted a t the t im e the stamp

ing is d one O r din a ry t yp e would give w ay un d er the
.

pressure ne cess ary .

5 W h a
.t m ay b e co ri
py g hte d The followin g li st
s p e cies the cl a sses o f works capable o f be in g co py
righte d and in dica tes the bl ank f orm ne cess a ry in e ach
case T hese f orm s can be obt ai ne d on applica ti on to
.

the R egi ster of C opyrights Wa shi ng ton D C , ,

. .

0 ) B o o ksprin t ed fro m ty p e o r fro m plat es made in the Uni ted

,

S tates fro m ty p e s et within the limit s o f the Unit ed S t ates :

(a) written by a citizen o r res id ent o f the Uni t ed S t at es (Fo rm
A ) ; (b) writt en by a citizen o f a fo reign co un try but prin t ed
I
,

in the Uni t ed S tat es (Fo rm A Fo reign ) ; (c) a new edi t io n

I

o f a b o o k by a cit iz en o r res iden t o f the Uni t ed S t at es (Fo rm

(d) the American editio n o f a bo o k in the Eng

N ew ,

lis h language o n which ad in terim co py right has previo us ly

b een s ecured (Fo rm A) by a fo reign autho r in a fo reign
lan guage (Fo rm A3) ; published ab ro ad in the E nglis h lan
guage (ad interim co py right ) (Fo rm A4) .
206 A M AN UAL FO R W RIT E R S

b) Peri odicals : (a) gle co n tribu t io n s to newspap ers o r j o urnals

s in

(Fo rm AS) ; o n e co mple t e issue o f s uch p erio dical (Fo rm

(c) several (future) issues und er o ne co py right (Fo rm B ) 2

.

6) Oral works : lectures sermo ns o r addres s es (Fo rm C )

, ,
.

d) Dramas : (a) publis hed dramatical co mp o s it io n s (Fo rm D ) "

(b) un publis hed dramatical co mpo s itio n s (Fo rm (c) pub

lis hed dramatico mus ical co mp o s it io n s (Fo rm D )
- 3 .

6 ) M ns ic: (a) publis hed mus ical co mp o s it io ns (F o rm

(b) unpublis hed mus ical co mpo s it io ns (Fo rm E ) 2
.

M aps : published maps (Fo rm F) .

3) Works of art: (a) pain t ings drawin gs s culp ture mo dels o r

, , ,

d es igns fo r a wo rk o f art (Fo rm G ) ; (b) repro ductio ns o f

wo rks o f art n o t a litho graph o r pho to engraving (Fo rm H)
,
-
.

h) Drawin g o r plas tic wo rk: o f a t echnical charact er as dis tin ,

guished fro m a wo rk o f art (Fo rm I) .

i) Pho tographs : (a) published fo r s ale (Fo rm (b) no t to b e

published (Fo rm J ) 2
.

j) P rin ts or pi ctori al illus trati on s : prin t ed p ictures co mplete in

themselves an d having artis tic quality (Fo rm K) .

Ari
exi s t i ng c opy right may be renewe d f or a term of
2 8 y e a rs on w orks origin a lly entere d fo r c o p y rig ht si n c e

July 1 1 88 1 (F orm
,
an d a n exi stin g r enew a l ter m
of 1 4 y e a rs may be ex ten d ed to 2 8 y e ars on works alre ady
renewe d und er the ol d l aw sin c e July 1 1 8 9 5 (F or m
6 H o w copyright is o btai n e d
,

. Appl ica ti on is made

.

to the R egi ster o f C opy rights C opy right Of c e of the

,

Li bra ry o f C on gress Wa shi n g ton D C settin g f orth :

, ,
. .
,

(1 ) the da te ; (2 ) the n ame an d add ress of the c lai man t ,

wi th the lega l n am e an d resid en c e o f the p erson or c om

pany i n whose n am e the regi str a ti on i s t o be mad e (no
p seu d onym o r c ti ti ous n am e may be gi ven) ; (3) the
 20 8 A M AN UAL FOR W RITE R S

) In t he ca se of works of art (paint ing s d r awin g s

c , ,

sc ulp ture) or of d r awin gs or p l a stic works o f a s ci entic

,

or te chnical ch ar ac ter one photograp h or other id en ti

,

fyin g re p ro d u c tion o f the work .

There a re 2 3 different form s o f app lica tion for c op y

right and it would be a n undue en c ro ac hm ent on space
,

to rep ro du c e t hem here T he app rop ria te bl ank may

.

b e obtaine d b y app lica tion to t he R e gi ster o f C o py

rights Wa shi ng ton D C I n t he se c ti on a bove on
, ,
. .

Wha t M ay B e C opy righte d (s ec the d esign a ti on

.

o f the p ro p er f o rm is gi ven i n pa rentheses f ollowi n g the

enum era tion R eferenc e t o thi s li st will en able the

.

re ad er to make a request for the app ropria te bl ank

.

7 D u
. r ati on o f c o pyr i gh t A co py right c overs a
.

p erio d o f 2 8 y e a rs and ma y be renewe d fo r a further

p erio d o f 2 8 y e a rs (see p .

8 Dramatization an d tran s lati on

. T he e xc lusive
.

right o f d rama tiz a ti on and tr ansl a t ion o f an y c opy

righte d m a tter is by law veste d in the authors a nd
their a ssigns (see p

9 . In te rn a ti on al c o r
py gi ht F ore ign authors may
obt ain c o pyright i n the Un i te d S ta tes on the s ame
term s as n a tive authors e xc e p t th a t t he fee is d oub le d
, ,

p rovided th a t the author i s a ci tiz en or sub j e c t o f a

n a tion whic h p ermi ts to ci tizens o f the Uni te d S t a tes
c o pyr ight p rivi le ges o n subs t antially the s am e term s a s
t hose p res c ribe d i n the Uni te d S t a tes I n ca ses o f .

doubt app lica tio n fo r in format ion shoul d b e made to

,

the R e gi s t er o f C o py rights .
 MI S C ELLANEO US IN FORMAT ION 2 09

10 . N o ti ce of ever y c o p yrighte d
co pyright O n

work a notic e must app e a r statin g the fac t o f co py right

a n d gi vin g the da te (ye ar) an d the n am e o f the pro
prieto r o f the c o p y right T he l aw requ ires th a t in ca se
.

o fbooks thi s not ic e s h a ll be e i ther o n the t i tle page o r o n -

the b ac k o f the ti tle page (see ch ap viii p -

In .
,
.

the ca se o f map s p hoto grap hs works o f art pic tor ial

, , ,

i llustr a ti ons et c thi s must app e a r o n some access i ble
,
.
,

p ortion the margin b ack p ermanent b as e or , ,

p e dest a l o r , the subst a n c e on whic h su c h c o pi es

sh all b e m ounte d

What i s infringemen t
.

11 . The question o f wh a t
c onsti tutes i nfrin ge m ent in a ny given ca se i s usu ally one
fo r the c ourts to d e cid e the intent the e x tent a n d the
, , ,

questi on o f inj ury o r damage bein g elem ents o f the

ques ti on A ny m ere. c olor able alter a ti on o f the

c opyrighte d ma tter will not serve to avoid liab i l i ty for

in fri ngem ent T he l anguage o f pa rt o f the c opy righ t
.

l aw on thi s subj e c t makes o f any o f the followi ng an ac t

o f i n f rin gem ent : in the ca se o f a book : p ri nti n g p ub ,

lishin g d rama tizin g tr ansl a tin g importin g or e xp os in g

, , , ,

for s ale ; i n the ca se o fmap s ch a rts d rama tic or musica l

, ,

c omp osi tions p rints c uts engr avin gs p hoto graphs

, , , , ,

c hrom os and works o f a r t : engr avin g etchi ng worki ng

, , , ,

c opyin g p rintin g p ubli shi ng d r ama tizi ng tr ansl a ting

, , , , ,

imp orti n g or e xp osi ng for s ale E xp resse d i n un techn i

,
.

cal l an gu age in fri ngem ent may b e des cribe d a s c opyi ng

, ,

i n whole or i n par t the c op yrighte d work o f a nother

, ,

wi th intent to evad e the l a w And thi s applies not .

,
2 10 A M AN UAL FO R WRIT E R S

only to the comp lete work but to any part o f itj ust
,

ho w l a rge o r ho w sm a ll a p orti on h a s never y et been

d ened wi th any s a ti s fac tory exac tness There fore not
.

even a p oem from a copyrighte d book o f poetry may be

p ri nte d wi thout the lic ense of the c o pyright owner ; a nd
thi s i s t rue o f a ny thin g other than the bri e fest quota
tion I t ca n there fore be rega r de d as the well settled
.
~

rule tha t if a ny c onsiderable pa ss age o f a c op yrighte d

work is to b e m ade us e o f i n a n ew w ork the c onsent o f
,

the own er o f the c o py right m ust rst be obtaine d in

every ca se .

The p enalties for i nfringe ment are numerous and ,

va ry wi th the char ac ter o f the work inf rin ge d u pon an d

the n a ture and ex tent o f the i nfringement E num era ti on
.

o f t hem ca n h a r d ly b e c onsid ere d as o f m u c h m om ent

i n a work o f thi s ch a rac ter F o r sp ecic informa tion

.

t he re ader is re ferre d to the R evi sed S t a tutes of the

Un i te d S ta tes (C opy right Law o f
 IN DEX
Re f n ere ces are to pag es .

va i u w d a d ph a t at d un d Pit fall in Di ti n (pp 44 6 5 ) a

T he ro s or s n r s es re e er

s c o

.
-
re

t li t d in th Ind x
no s e T h w d th m lv a a an g d alphab ti ally a d a y
e e . e or s e se es re rr e e c , n n

w d d i d may b f un d by a f n t th li t m
or es re xp d iti u l y than b y th
e o re ere ce o e s o re e e o s e

un d ab o ut m th d f a
ro f n t th Ind x t e o o re ere ce o e e rs .

A
and

an ,

ho w di erentiated, 7 2 . a, a, wh n u d a ligatu 7 e se s re, 2 .

af (n g ativ p ti l
-

e mp nd e ar c e) , co ou s

A ft lau
er mma u d b f

-
c 8s es , co se e o re , 10
Wi th 8 3
.

, .
Ag his t ri al lin gui ti g l i al
es : o c s c, eo o c
Abb viati n di tiat d f m api t alizat i n f 9 5 ; t b p ll ut
, ,
_

re o s: eren e ro co n c o o o e s e e o
t a ti n 7 5 ; in lit a y f n 7 8 ;
, ,

r c o s, er r re ere ces , 74
f a ad mi d
o c e 76; f bo k
c f e ees , o o s o Ag m nt f ubj t a d p di at 7
ree e o s ec n re c e, 2
th Bi bl a d t Ap ypha 7 7 ; f ,
e e n e oc r o

f
3 0
C mpany B th
, .

o
f l t ical valu
a d
,

a d

ro ers ,

n

n ,

Alg b aic na titi l tt d ignating

e r n es , e ers es .

76; o 7 8 79 ;
e ec r es , o
t b i d
f m f add
or s o 7 6; f nam f ress o es o
Allian
o e 7
p liti al apitalizati n f
eiz e , 12 .

tat a d Unit d Stat p

s es n in e es o sses s o s,
n am f 9 3
ces , o c , c o o

f Sai t f titl fh n
es o
76 ;
, .

75 ;
a d
o
p t 7 6 ; f titl f publi a
n . o es o o or
A lt ati n d n d 8 ; t b av id d
er o s: e e 1 0 o e o e
a dan g
n res ec o es o c ,

ti n fv i n f th Bi bl 7 7 ;
,
s u 8 ero s, 1 0
; s , 102 o ers o s o e e,
.
o
f w ig ht a d m a u 7 8 ; ul es f M t ug b m lau mma us ed b f
g
o e s n e s res , r o r, o c s es , co e o re,
10

Ab t a t id a apitalized wh n 89
s r c e s, c , e , .
Am ba ad f m in l tt t 45
ss o r, or s e er o, 1 .

A ad mic d g
c e abb viati n e rees : f 76; re o o A mbiguity in th in itiv 3 4 ; da g : e n e, n er
apit alizat i n f 8 8 f in mp un d nt n
,

c o o o co 4 ; f o se e ces , 1 o
p n un 7
, . ,

A nt tenti n f in f ign w d
cce s , re o o o re or s
Anal gy u f 4
ro o s, 2 .

in p at d i nt Eng l i h 4
,
o se o 1
co r o r o s 12 , , .

e ,

An d wh n abb viat d 7 6 ; mmau d

.

A tiv
c ptivity 8
e rece , .
:
b f wh n 7 8
e re e
10
, co se

A t ju idi al apitalizati n f 9 6
c s, r c , c o o , .

Ant
e o re ,

mpo und with 83

e~
e , 10 ,

s
dd f m f t b p ll d ut
ress : or s o o e s e e o
Anti mp un d with 83
co , .

wh n 7 3 7 6 ; t b abb viat d wh n
,
co o s ,
e
.

e o re e e
7 6 ; titl in di t t b apitaliz d
,

es
,

rec o e c
,

e A ntith ti al lau int du d by t

e c c s e, ro ce
"
no
"

nv l p 34 44 E
. ,

88 ; on e e o es , 1 , 1 . 1 10 .

Addr titl
esses , f p in ipal w d in es o r c or s A poc ypha lk t fabb viati n f 7 7
r , o re o s o r, .

apitali d 9 8
, ,

t b o e c z e , .
Ap t ph ul f u f 7 3 4
o s ro e: r es or se o 2, 1 1 -
1
Adj tiv apitalizati n f in titles f
ec es : c o o o t f m plu al f num al
o or 4; t r o er
,

s, 11 o

publi ati n 9 8 ; mp und 8 ; p p

c o s, co o 1 ro er, f mp or iv 7 ; t in di at mis
o ss ess e, 2 o c e o

apit alizati n
c f 87 ; mi i n f
o o o
,

ss o o i n f l tt
s o ogu 3; u
e of ers o r res 11 se
in nt a ti n 7 5
, ,

mma b tw n ; ad v b m
,
co e ee 1 10 er s rese co r c o s, .

bling 3 8 ; with pulativ v b 3 6

, co
,

e er s , . A pp iti nal lau

os h w pun tuated
o c s es , o c ,

A dmini trativ b di apitalizati n f

s e o es , c o o 1 10 .

nam f 9 es o , 2. A h bi h p f m in l tt t 48
rc s o , or s e er o, 1 .

A dv bial clau h w pun tuat d

er ses , o c e , 1 10 . A h d a n f m in l tt t 48
rc e co , or s e er o, 1 .

Adv b apitalizati n i in titl f

er s : c o o es o A ti l d nite f m f wh n t t
r c e: e or o e no o
ub li ati n nding b u d b f
, .
"
9 8;
c o s, ly t e in no e se tce o re e
p
-

t t b t ated a pa t f ti tl e
yph at d Wi th adj tiv
.
,
_

en e a ec es or r 7 6; no o e re s r o
t pl ic1 8 ; n gativ
es , 38 ;
1 mb ing e e, rese f p ri dical
o 9 8 ; in d n t
e o f m f s, e i e or o
adj tiv pa at d by mma b f h l ng u u n e ad
,

ec3 8; es , se r e co s, e o re o e o c n
wh n 8 ; with pulativ v b 3 6
e , 10 co e er s , .
H
o ne,

7 2 ; us e o f the , 2 9 .

2 13
2 14 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT E R S
A ti l apitalizati n
r c es c o of p in ipal w d
r c or s B uilding pitalizati n f nam f 9 5
s , ca o o es o
in ti tl f 9 8 , .

es o , .
But lau
mma u d b f
-
c 8
s es , co se e o re , 1 0
A ti lati n inn
.

"
r cu o , er,

43 .
By mp un d with1 8

co o s 1. 2
A ti ti h l n am pitaliz d
.
,

r s c sc o o s , es o f, ca e , 90 .

As lau -
mma u d b f
c 8
s es , co se e o re , 1 0 . Cabin t m mb f f m in l tt t
e , e er o , or s e er o

A f ll w impli d by a l n wh n

s o o s,

e co o e 45
1 .

4 10
, ,

Capitalizati n d n d 86 ; f adj tiv o : e e o ec es

a d n un d ignati g g g aphi al
.
,

A t n mical t m
s ro o apital izati n f er s: c o o
n
gi n 9 4 ; f adj tiv n un a d
o s es n eo r c

mg ul f
,
re o o ec es , o s,
. .
s, n
ta l
1 00
; i 7 i Ciz , r es o r, 1 2 .

p n u u d t d ignat th Sup m
ro o ns se o es e e re e

Ba k b n d n d 5 ; h w tamp d
c
B ing a y m m b f th T inity
e or n e er o e r
f a t n mi al n am
o e, e e , 20 o s e ,
,

87 ; o s ro
; f o c es , 100 o
5 20 .

B a ta d titl S Half titl b k f th Bi bl a d th a d

oo s o e e n o er s cre
s r e . ee -
e .
b k 89 ; f hu h wh n 9 ; f
oo s, o

c rc

e 1 o

( b f hun d d t b pith t u d a ub titut f p p

, ,

B C e o re re s o e e e s se s s s es or ro er
p at d with 9 nam x d t a nam
. . .

re e e 11 af es or 87 ; f e o e o
ivil a d milita y titl 88 ; f fath
, .

,
mma u d b f

co se e o re , c n r es , o ers
10 a d n f m wh n 9 ; f t

re o r ers e 2 o rs
w d aft a l n wh n 97 ; f t
,

B ginning in mp iti n 7
e , co os o , 1 .
or
w d f ll wing Wh a a d R
er co o

, e ,

o

rs

Bi mp u d with 83 co o n s , .
so
or
lv d 9 7 ; i t w d in ti n
e
o

o
o rs
ere s
or
n
sec o
e
s
Bibl bo k f abb viati n f 7 7 ; num ati n 9 7 ; f t w d
,

e: o s o re o s o r, fa
o n e er o o rs or
apital izati n f nam 89 ; ti tl fa it d p h 9 6; f i t m
, ,

c f o o es o r, es o c e s eec o ener c er s
f b k apit aliz d 8 9 ; f mi g pa t f g g ap i al nam
,

o f t b oo s o o e c e or n r o eo r c es
v i n f abb viati n f 7 7 ; f g n i t m f p li ti al
, ,

ers o s o re o s o r, 9 3; o e er c er s or o c
apitaliz d 9 d vi i n 9 f g g a hi al d ig na
,

t b o e c e 0. i s o s, 2 o eo r c es
ti n a d nam 9 4 ; mi llan u
,

Bi bli al b k abb eviati ns f 7 7 ;

c : oo s, r o or
o s
t m 9 ; f nam a d pith t f
n es , o s ce eo s

b k n am f apital izati n f 8 9 ;
oo s es o c o o
er s,
p pl a a d t i b 88 ; f n am
0 o es n e e s o

pa abl nam f api talizati n f 9 ;

, ,
eo es , r ces , n r es , o es
r
mi llan u t m api tal izati n f
es , es o , c o o , 0
f th Bi bl a d
or th a d b k
e e n o er s cre oo s
f n am f b ib li al pa abl
s ce eo s er s, c o o ,

i
,
89 ; o 9 ; es o c r es 0
f nam f ivi h liday a
9 0.

Bill l gi lativ apitalizati n f 9 6

s, e s e, c o o , .
o
l ia ti al fa t a d f a t day
c es s
es
c 95; f
o
s
c
n
c
e s
o s
s,
n ec
o
Bindin g f ld d h t h wn auth : o e s ee s s o or nam f nv nti n es o ng a d
co e o s, co resses . n
bf 86 ;
e o re, ugg ti n n ning
1 s es
.

o s co cer xp iti n
e os
9 ; f n am fo d ad
s, 1 o es o cree s n
4 ; va i t i
,
20 f 4 re es o , 20 .
n f i n f faith 9 ; f nam f
co es s o s o 1 o es o
p h 9 5 ; f n am f imp tant
,

Bi l gi al t m apital izati n f
o o c er; s, c o o 1 00 e oc s, o es o or
ital iz d wh n 7 ic e e 12
,
v nt 9 5 ; f nam f l gi lativ
e e s, o es o e s e,
, ,
j udi i a y a d admini t ativ b d i
.

Bi h p f m in l tt t 48
s o , or s e er o , 1 .

9 ; 2 f nam
c
f m n a ti
o
r
d ad
, n
es o o
s r
s c
e
o r ers
o es ,
n
Bla k fa h w in di at d 5 8 ; wh n
c -
ce: o c e 1 e th i m m b 9 ; f n am f phil
e r e ers , 1 o es o o
u d
,

58
se , 1 .
phi al lit a y a d a ti ti h l
so c er r n r s c sc oo s ,
a d th i ad h nt 9 ; f nam f, ,

B k f Ap ypha abb viati n f

oo s: o oc r re o s o r, n er ere s 0 o es o
p liti al allian f n am
,

f Bi bl abb viat i n
,

77 ; o f 77; e, re o s o r, o tc 3; f ces , e c o es o
p liti al pa ti 9 ; nam f r li
.
,

titl ul f apitalizati n f 9 8
es , r es or c o o o c r es , 0 0 es o e
g u d n minati n t 9 ; f
, .

B tanical t m apitalizati n f
o ; er s: c o o 1 00
io
nam f p i
s e o
in b tani al
o s or s ec s , 0 o

itali w d wh n
, es t o s ec es , e c o c
g l gical l gi al a d pal t
.
, ,
c 7 e , e , 12 .

eo o z o o c n eo n o
B u g i d n d 88
o r eo s ,

e e , 1 .
l gi al matt
o c ; f n am
,

f er, 10 0
,

o es o

B a k t di t ui h d f m p
r c es : a th s
'

s e ro ren e th ug hfa pa k q ua bl k
o ro res , r s, s res , oc s ,
ul
ses , 1 2 0
; u f ; with
r es or se o 121 22 buil di g t 9 5 ; f n am f t ati
n s, e c o es o re es .
a t l aw b ill t 9 6 ; f N atu
.
,

d p f li 4s
,

ro o o s, 1 c s, s, s e c o re
a d ab t a t i a wh n p ni d
-
.
.
,

B ak in nt n u f da h t indi
re se e ces , se o s o
89 ;
n
f n am
s r c
f ll w d by a num al
e s, e erso e ,

at
o es o o e er
f num b d liti al divi i n 9 ,
c 7 e, 1 1
9 6;
.

o ere o c
p 9 6; f d a
s o s

B vi d n d 88
re er,

e e , 1 . f O
o

a d

n l o or in
,
s

B ad id d n d 9 8
ro s e,

e e 1 d ignatin g i n f C ng
es
.

nam s ess o s o o ress , es

f gim nt Egyptian dyn a ti
, .

B th ro mp und with 8
er,

co o s , 1 .

9 ;
o
2
re
f ganizati n a d in tituti n
o
e
or
t s,
.

o s n
s
s
es , e c
o
.

s,
,

B the a pa t f m nam h w
ro rs ,

s r o r e, o 9 ; 1 f pa ti l in F n h G man
o r c es re c er
t at d 7 6
re e , . a d Dut h n am
n 88 ; f p in ipal
c es , o
,

r c
,
 2 16 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S
f
Co ngres sman , o rms in letter to , 1 4 6 16r; d, rd, nd , th, o mitted with 7 4,
v
.
,

to b e o mitted in letter
Co ngresses , names o f, to b e capitaliz ed, o r 1 3 0 , 13 7 ; ne er
use o f co mma to sepa
.

writing , 1 30 ; rate
j
Co n unctio ns : 40 ; us e o f co m a with, time di is i o n s , v r1 3 .

1 08 , 1 0 9 u
Daug hter, co mpo unds with, 8 1
.

b
Co nnectio ns , etween paragraphs , 2 0 .
.

De : rules fo r treatment o f, in indexing ,

1

v
Co nnecti e particles , us e o f co mma wi th, when to be capitaliz ed , 88

1 64 ; .

: 09 .

y
Co nsi s tenc o f s t le , r5 6 5 7 y Deal er co mp o un ds with, 8 2
, .

f
.

f
Co ns ul, orms in letter to , 1 4 7 .
Dean , o rms in letter to , 1 48 .

b
Co ntents ta le o f, pos itio n o f, rss ; what Decad es , re erences to , to b e spelled f o ut,

it sho uld co ntam, 1 5 3 ; when prepared , 74

: 53 .
Deco ratio n s , capitaliz atio n o fnames o f, 88 .

Co ntractio ns : dieren tiated f m

ro abbre Dedicatio n, o f oo , po s itio n o f, 1 5 3 b k
v f by a
.

iaticus , s ; no t o llo wed

75 ; use 0 apos tro phe in , 7 5

De n itio n o ftechnical terms , rs r, r 5 7 .
.

Degres m mic : abbreviatio n f

zatig
v e 0 7 6;
entio ns , n ames o f, c apita
,
Co n liz ed , gr .
capitali n o f, 88
,

Co n v ers atio n : as training, 4; v ers us

Demi co mpo un ds with, 83
.

Den o mination s , religio us , capitaliz atio n o f

Co pula: the, 3 5 ; predicate with the 3 6
n ames o f, 9 0
, .

v v b
Co pulati e er s : ad ec ti es with, 3 6 j v D epartmen ts , go ernmental, capit
.

v
v b
ad er s with, 3 6 .
,

ti o n o f n ames o f, 9 2
" "
y
Co p : de ned , : 5 1 ; co rrectio ns no t to
v v
Deri ati es : rules fo r spelling , 66 6 8 ;
.

f
be trans erred to , in pro o reading 1 7 8 ; f En glis h, o f scien ti c mes
7
to be written o n o ne s ide o f s heet o n l
,

y ,
iz ed , 1 0 0
na , no t capi tal
S ee also M anus cript, hin ts o n the
.
1 59 .

preparati o n o f, etc .
Details o f co mpo sitio n , 20.

Co py right: co ndi tio ns of, 2 0 7 ; duratio n v

De elo pment, co nditio ns o fintellectual, 8 .

0f
f
2 08 ;
o rms necess ar
dramatiz ati o n rig hts , 20 8 ;
20 6 ; y
ho w and where
Diagrams letters re erring to , italiciz ed
, f
1 27 .
ro cured , 20 o w o tain ed, 2 0 6
'

h b Dictio n : 22; f
pit alls in , 44 65
-

ringemen t o 2 0 9 ; in tern atio n al, 2 0 8 ;

.

no tice o f, where to appear, 1 5 3 , 2 0 9 ;

Digraphs . S ee Ligature .

ren ewa l o f, 206 ; trans latio n rights , 2 0 8 ; Do cto r o fDivin i t , yf or ms in letter to , : 49

what may be co p ri ghted, 20 5 , 20 7 ; y Do cumen ts , titles o f: capitali z atio n o f
.

when to ta e place, : 8 6 k .

pri nci pal wo rds in , 9 8 ; to be

.

italiciz ed,
Co rrelati es , 4o v . i 2s .

Creeds . capitaliz atio n o fnames o f 9 1 . b

Do u le n egati es , 3 8 v .

Dramatiz atio n , rig hts o f, 2 0 2 , 2 08 .

Cuts . See Illus tratio ns .

-
f
Dro p olio , de n ed, : 84 ; us e o f rac et b k
Wi th, 1 84
Cz ar, when capitaliz ed, 88
.

r amo (duo decimo ) de ned :

9 5 ; no t to be
b bb v
, ,

Danish titles of pu licatio ns , c apitaliz a treated as a re iatio n , ro r .

tio n o f, 99 Dl tch n ames capitaliz ing o f Van in , 1

s
.

Das h: de ni tio n
and illus tratio n o f use o f,
use o f, at end o f wo rd o r phras e
bf
D ynas ties , Eg p tian, y capitaliz atio n of
implied e o re each o f succeeding para na mes o f , 92 .

gra us ed fo r emphas is , r1 8 ;
wit references o llo wing uo tatio n , f q Eccles ias tical ins ti tutio n, head o f, fo r ms
use o f with o ther
n o;
, punctuatio n , in letter to , : 49 .

ra o; preceding a s ummari z ing clause , Educ atio nal ins titutio ns and o rganiz a
: 18 ; used to deno te rea , s to p , o r b k ti ons , cap i taliz ati o n o f names o f, o r
_

transiti o n rr7 us ed afte r sideheads ,

' .

: 1 8 ; us e in p a

c e o f to ,

l
co nn ecting
-
y
8 po int t pe, illus tratio n o f, 1 8 8 .

two wo rds o r num ers , : 1 9 b . E lec t, co mpo unds with, 8 2 .

Date: hundreds repeated ,when 1 1 9 ; o f Electrical alues , v s tandard a bb eviati r o ns

b f v b
.

pu li cati ons, o llo win g o lume num ers , o f. 7 8 7 9 -

 IN DEX 217

Electro t pes : ad antage y descri ed , v b Fath er co mpo un ds with, 8 x; when

b
a

1 9 4; n um er o f i pressi o ns ro m, 1 9 4 ; m f capitaliz ed , 9 2.

patchi ng and cutting fo r alteratio ns in Figu (illu t ati ) i t xt l tt

res s r o ns n e e ers
f g t 7 S al Illu t at
, ,
19 5 .
re erri n o , 12 . ee so s r i on s .

r r- po in t y
t pe , illus tratio n o f, 1 89 .
Fi w iti g 5
ne r n , .

Ellips is : in s peech and writing, rules Fi m am f mm ial abb via

r s, n es o co erc : re
fo r use o f, 1 2 2 ; to be treate as part ti f 7 6 ; apitali ati
on o , fp c z on o , r .

quo tatio n , : 2 2 ; use o f, to in di cate s p i t typ

of -
o n illu t ati f 88 e, s r on o :
mis sio n , 1 2 2 , .

Emo tio nal li e, 1 1 f

.

F u i mp iti 6 7
oc s , n co os on, 1 , 1 .

Emphasis : in the in the

.

s ent i ce ,
F ld mbi ati with 8
o ,

co n o ns , 2 .

paragraph, 2 1 : use o f das hfo r, : 1 7 ; us e

21 ;
F li d d 9 5
o o,

e ne , : .

o f exclamatio n po in t f o r , 1 03 ; us e o f
italic fo r, : 2 3 ; us e o f lac k ace fo r, b
f
F optn o tes :
in co :
exa
60 ;
mple o f, r6 1
; ho w placed
o rder o f material in , 1 6 1 ;
1 58 to ta les , r9 9 .

End , the, in co mpo s itio n , 1 9 Fo r, when italiciz ed, 1 2 6 , 1 9 7

8

. .

nglis h: e ui alen t o f o rei q v

g n wo rd o r f F o rei n
g in s titutio ns and o rgani z atio ns ,
hras e to be no ted , r1 5 ; ti tles o f pub capi taliz ati o n o f na mes o f, gr .

icatio ns to e c apitali z ed , 9 8 ; to be
italiciz ed, 1 2 5
F i
o re gn Eng lis h e ui a
la l ent, to
uages : q v
.
be uo te q u s ; lis t o f wo rds ado pted
En umeratio ns , to be s pelled o ut, when, 7 3 . into Englis h ro m, 1 2 4 ; titles of pu li f b
mes , to catio ns in , ho w capitaliz ed, 9 8 , 9 9 ;
pithets , wh en us ed as pro per n a
be capi taliz ed, 8 7 , 88 f
wo rds ro m, when italiciz ed, 1 2 3 .

by a
.

y implied
4 "
F o r ins tance, co lo n , when ,
po chs , his to rical, linguis tic, literar , and
geo lo gi cal, to b e capi tali z ed , 9 5 .

q
E uipment, intellectual, 7 .
F m d d 95
I
or ,

e ne , 1 .

Errata: fo r an d read to be italiciz ed in lis t

H
F mat f b k ( 4t 8v
or
1
o oo s
U
o
I, u
o,
N

t t b t at d a ab at
'

o f, 1 2 6 , 1 7 ; ho w in di cated, 1 9 6 ; rules no o e re e s reVi i o n , ro r

9
.

fo r prepari n g lis t o f, r9 7 .
F t t b p ll d t 7 5
or , o e s e e ou , .

y
Ess a s , titles o f: principal wo rds in , to F a ti
r c fhyph i 84
o n s , use o en n, .

be capi taliz e d, 9 8 ; to be i taliciz e d, 1 2 5 .

F h th pa ti l i wh a itali
renc : e r c es n, en c z ed ,
Es timate, o f pages in a o o k , 2 0 2 b .
88 ; in in dexing, : 64 ; titles 0 pu lica b
Etc : use o f co mma e o re , 1 08 ; treated bf tio ns , us e o f capitals in , 9 8 ; use o f
q
.

as part o f uo tati o n , when , : 1 6 . lig atures a, (z in , 7 2 .

eu f
o rm o f in de n ite article e o re , bf (I
F urther

an d

fa thr er,
n
ho w differen
72 .
tiated , 7 r .

E v en ts , impo rtant, capitaliz atio n o fn a mes

o f. 95 .
(l
y
Galle , de ned , 1 7 6 .

Ex co mpo unds with, 8 2 .

General, co mpo unds
H
o f, 82 .

Exclamatio n po in t: rule s fo r us e o f, 1 0 3 ; Geo graphical n ames , capitaliz atio n o f,

placed i ns i de uo tatio n mark s , when , q 93, 94
1 03
G eo lo gical terrn s , capitaliz atio n
.

o f, 95,
Experience as so urce o f materials , 1 0.
mo ; i tali ciz ing o f, 1 2 7
I

b ack
.

Explan atio n , e ts used fo r, when ,

r r2 1
Geo metri cal matter italiciz ing in 127
v
, , .

Expleti es , 31 .
German names with umlaut in d o i,
b
, ,

Expo s itio ns , capitaliz atio n o fnames o f,

_

9 1 . 1 65 ; titles of pu licatio ns , capi

Expres sio n , 1 9 .
tio n o f, 9 9 .

Gerun d, the, 3 5 .

F .
, . us e o f, 78 . v
Gi en n ames S ec Chris tian names . .

Fa ce ,

de n ed , : 87 . Go d, co mpo un ds with, 8 2

.

Fah h it abb viati f

ren e , re on o r, 78 . v
Go ernmen tal departments , capitaliz a
Fa th a d fu thr er

n

r er,

ho w di er
'
tio n o f names o f, 9 2 .

en tiated , 7i . v
Go erno r, o rms in letter to , : 46f .
 2 18 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S
bb v
Grain , a re iatio n fo r, 7 8 . In
7
co mpo unds with, 8 3 .

bb v
Grain , a re iatio n fo r, 7 8 . Inde nite p ro no un s , 29 .

Grammatic al no tes , 2 5 Index: ba s ed o n p age nu m b ers o r s ectio n

b
.

Great, co mpo un ds with, 8 1
nu m ers , 1 5 4 ; co mpo und na mes ho w ,

lis ted , 1 64 ; rm n ames , ho w lis ted ,

.

h (s o un ded ) , f or m of inde nite article 1 64 ; card s , use o f, 1 6 2 ; cro s s re er -

f
bf e o re, 72 .
ences , im o t tan t, 1 63 ;
1 66 ;
dis criminatio n ,
mec an ical wo rk , ho w clo n e, 1 6 2 ;
Hair s pacing 1 5 8
-

, .

n ames b e inn ing with M , M c , M ac ,

Hal

f
co mpo unds with 8 2 i
St , Ste , o w li s ted , 1 6 4 ; n ames wi th

, , . . .

f
Hal title (s ho rt title) what it is
-
, , 152; p re xes , ho w lis ted , 1 6 4 ; n ames with
umlaut, ho w lis ted , 1 6 5 ; page pro o s f

where placed , 1 5 2 5 3 , 1 9 0
-

f
-

urn is hed autho r fo r mak ing o f, 1 8 5 ;

.

His to rical : epo chs , ca pitaliz atio n of

rules fo r ma k ing , 1 6 2 6 5 ; S ee and S ee
n ames o f, 9 5 ; even ts , capita liz atio n o f als o , itali ciz ed 1 2 6 ; treatment o f pre
n ames o f, 9 5 ; terms o f s pecial s igni~

,

xes an d particles , with pro per n o uns ,

c an ce ,
93 1 63 65
.

y
.

Ho lida s , capitali z atio n fn ames

o o f, 95 .

q
In direc t ues tio n , punctuatio n o f, 4 2 , 1 03 .

Ho no r, titles o f capitaliz atio n o f, 88 , .

In dus trial o rgan iz atio n s an d in s titutio n s ,

Ho rs e po wer a re iatio n fo r 7 8 , 7 9
-
, bb v , .
capitaliz ati o n o f n ames o f, 9 1 .

y
H phen : ho w indicated o n co p 1 60 ; y , Inn iti v e: the, 3 3 ; am igui t b yi n the, 3 4 .

wh en us ed, 85 .
In fa r co mpo un ds with 83
Hyph

, .

enated
wo rds , lis t o f, 8 5
mpo und ed
u
ing in , 3 5 ; when
.
-
: no un s co
Hyph en atin g : rul es fo r, 80 8 5 ; reso rte d 80
m
.

to , to in d icate a pre x o r s u z as a
particle o r s lla le , n o t co mplete in y b In ner articulatio n , 43 .

itsel , 8 5 f
S ec o mpo un di n g
. C . In sert, de n ed , 1 5 2 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 .

Ins ertio ns in co p y S ee M an us crip t, hints

b
.

Ideas : a s tract, capitaliz e d when pers o ni on preparati o n o f, etc

b .

ed , 8 re elli o n o f, 1 7 ; s acri ce o f,
1 5 ; s e eeti o n o f, 1 5 .
Ins titutio n s , capitaliz atio n o f na mes of
91

mma with
.

claus es , us e o f c o

Ii 10 8
v l pm
-
, .

In tellectual de e o en t, co n ditio ns o f

Il co mpo un ds with 8 3 ,
,
8
.

Illus tratio ns : character o f, depen den t o n

p aper o f oo k , 1 68 ; b
drawings an d Intellectual q
e uipmen t, 7 .

pho to graphs fo r, 1 5 5 ; gen era l s ugges In ter co mpo un ds with, 83 .

tio ns co ncerni ng , 1 7 4 ;
1 8 2 ; legen ds f
i n serts , 1 5 2 ,
o r , 1 5 5 , 1 8 2 ; le tters re
In terpo latio n s , us e b
o f rack ets fo r , 121 .

ferring to par ts o f, italiczi ed , 1 2 7 ; lis t In terpretatio n s f

o f li e, 1 1 .

o f, where pla c ed , 1 5 4 ; po s itio n o f, to b e In terro gatio n po in t : placed in s ide uo ta q

indicated o n pro o , 1 8 2 83 ;

text f -
ti o n mark s , when , 1 0 4 ; us e o f 1 0 3 ;
ario us k in ds v
. ,

gu re s , 1 5 2 , 1 69 , 1 8 2 ; used Wi th das h, 1 20 .

o f, i 68 7 s ; when to b e dec ided o n , 1 5 4 ;

~ u
In tra mpo un ds with 83
f
hal to ne : descri ed , 1 7 1 co p fo r, ho w
-
b y v
co , .

to b e repared , 1 7 2 ; co lo red s u ects in , bj In erted o rder o f s en tence , 4r .

172; itho graphy : des cri ed , 1 6 9 ; pro b -

is e an d
H
-
iz e, lis ts of wo rds s pelled
cess o f, 1 6 5 ; pho to graphs an d drawmgs Wi th, 7 0
v b
.

fo r, r 5 ; pho to gra ure: des cri ed , 1 7 1 ;

co p y
o r, ho w to b e prepared , 1 7 1 ; pho
Italian pu li catio ns , titles b o f, capitaliz a
ti o n o f, 9 8
to litho graphy : des cri ed, n o ; co p fo r, b y .

ho w to be prepared , 1 7 o ; wax eng rav Italic : fo r as tro no mic al n ames , 1 2 8 ; fo r

b
ing : des cri ed , 1 73 ; co p fo r, ho w to b e y letters des ign ating alg e raic uan tities , b q
p repared , 1 7 4 ; z mc and co pper etching geo metrical lines , etc , 1 2 7 ; fo r letters
b f
. .

descri ed , 1 7 3 ; co py fo r, ho w to b e pre re errin g to parts o f illus tratio n s , 1 2 7 ;

pared , 1 7 3 . fo r n ames o f gen eraand species , 1 2 7 ; fo r

Im co mpo un ds with, 83 .
in itial wo rd R es olved 1 2 8 ; fo r names o f .

plan ets , co nstellatio ns , an d s tars , 1 2 7 ;

Imperati ve, the, 3 3 .
y b
fo r s m o ls in dicating s u divis io ns , 1 2 6 ; b
Imprint, de n itio n o f, 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 , 20 1 . fo r titles o r po s itio ns after s ig natures .
2 20 A M ANUAL F OR WR IT E R S
in dex, directio ns fo r, 1 6 2 6 5 ; ins ertio n s familia app ied to p r ticu ar pers o ns ,
r,
l a l
y
in co p , 1 5 9 ; italic , ho w in d icated , 1 5 8 ; to be capi taliz ed , 88 ; i n dexmg o f, 1 6 3
o rder o f material o f, 1 5 2 ; perio d, ho w 6 5 ; pro per, to be capi taliz ed , 8 7
q
.

indicated , 1 60 ; uo ted matter, ho w to

treat, 1 5 9 ; reductio n o f capital letter to

N ature, pers o ni ed , c apitaliz atio n o f, 8 9 .

N egative p articles ia il

"
ho w in dicated , 1 5 8 ; un
lo wer c a s e
co mpo un ds Wi th, 8 3

im
,
s mall caps , ho w in d icated , 1 5 7 5 8 ; an d a .

f
s pecial o rms o f s pellin g , cap italiz atio n ,

N egati v
do u le , 3 8
es , b .

etc , 1 5 9 ; s pell o ut, ho w directio n is N ewspapers , titles o f: article no t to b e

y
.

in dicated 1 60 ; s t le,

what it is , an d treated as part o f, 9 9 ; c api taliz ati o n o f
v v b
,

what it in o l es , 1 5 5 ; ta les , ho w to
pri nci p al wo rd s i n , 9 8 ; to b e i tali ciz ed ,
repare f o r prin ter, 1 9 8 ; i4 s an d n s ,
g o w mark ed , 1 5 9 ; co p to be wri tten y . 125 .

N ew T es tamen t o o k s , lis t o f a re ia b bb v
o n o ne s ide o f s heet o n l , 1 5 9 y .

tio ns fo r, 7 7 .

M an us cripts , titles o f, c apitaliz atio n o f,

y
9 po in t t pe, illus trated , 1 89
-
.

99
M as ter, co mpo un ds with, 8 2 .
b y
N o ilit , c apitaliz atio n o f titles o f, 88 .

co mpo un ds with, 83

No n
M aterials , experien ce as so urce o f 10
.

,

.

M ac M c rules fo r in d exin g
N o n pareil, de n ed , 1 8 8 .

1 63
, , ,

co mma placed bf e o re in an ti

y f
M a o r o rms in letter to , 1 4 6 thetical clauses , 1 3 4 .

N o tes , m etho d o f tak ing , 1 3

.
,

M eas ure, de n ed , 1 5 1 1 8 9 9 2 , .
.

liz atio n o f, in titles , 9 8 ;

M easuremen t a reviatio n o f s m , bb y b o ls o f,
o uns : c ap ita
co llec ti e , 2 6 ; v
co m in atio n o f, in o h b
78 y
j ective relatio n to e"ach o ther , h phen
.

M eas ures metric ho w des ign ated 7 8

, , , .
ated , 8 0 ; in in g 3 5 ; to des ig n ate
-
,

M edical terms : capitaliz atio n o f 100 ; no t Supreme Being, capitaliz ed , 8 7 ; fo l

italiciz ed , 1 2 7
,

lo wed by
n umeral , to b e capitaliz ed , 9 6 ;
v b
.

M ergen thaler S ec Lino t pe y pro p er, to b e c apitaliz ed , 8 7 ; er al, 3 5 .

b v
. .

M etho d o f tak in g no tes 1 3 um ered

po litical di is io ns , n ames o f,
to b e c ap i tali z e d , 9 3
.
,

y b
M etric s m o ls ho w to treat 7 8 , 1 0 1 10 2 , , , .

N um ers : b b
egin nin g a s en tence, to be
.

y
M etric s s tem, a re iatio n s fo r 7 8 bb v ,
.
s p elled o ut, 7 ; co n s ecuti e treatmen t
3 v
y
M ilitar titles capitaliz atio n o f 88 , , .
o f, 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 ; i n co n n ected gro ups , ho w
treated , 7 3 ; ro un d , treatment o f, 7 3 ;

M inio n , de n ed, 1 88 .

d igits repres en ting tho us an ds re uire a q

M is cellaneo us terms c apital iz atio n o f 9 0 co mma, 1 1 3 ; us e o f das h in co nnecting
v
, , .

c o n s ecuti e , 1 1 9
M lle ho w treated , 7 6 .

b
.
,
N um er o f multiples , 2 7
M me ho w treated 7 6
.

N umerals , R o man , tak e

, , .

M o di ers po s itio n o f 4 2 , , .
no perio d, 10 2 .

M o nas tic o rders c apitaliz atio n o f n ames

Oh : capitaliz atio n o f, 9 6 ;

0 an d
,

o f, 9 1 .

y um f wh i g ff
ho w di eren tiated , 7 1 ; when o llo wed f
M o ne , s s o , en n ures , 73 .
by
co mma, when n o t, 5 8 , 7 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 2
yp d d 9 ; mp
.

M o no t e: e ne , 1 2 co o s itio n o n , v
8vo (o cta o ) , de ned, 1 9 5 ; no t to b e
19 2 .
treated as a re i ati o n , 1 0 1 bb v .

M o n ths , na mes o f, when to be spelled o ut, O bj ect, s ha m, 32 .

7 4~

a, when used as ligature, 7 2

M o ther co mpo unds with, 8 1
.

,

M o tto es , princ ipal wo rds in capitaliz e d ,

.

Of, co mma us ed e o re, when ,

bf 112 .

when c apitaliz ed , 8 8 , 89
,
O cers , titles o f,
98
.
.

M o un t to be s pelled o ut, 7 5 .
Oi ces , names o f, when capitaliz ed , 88 , 8 9 ,
,

v
M o emen t, in co mpo s itio n 1 6 , 1 8 , .
9 2

Old T es tamen t
.

b k oo s, bb viati
lis t o fa re o ns
M ultiples , n um er o f, in co mpo sitio n b , 27 .
fo r, 7 7 .

Omiss io n : o f gu i umb f

N amel y , implied

a co lo n , when , 1 0 4 by .
letters in wo rds ,
res
n
n
i di at d b y apc
n
e
ers , or o
os
N ames : Chris tian, to be s pelled o ut, 7 3 . tro phe, 7 5 , 1 1 3 ; o f p i d aft R ma
er o er o n
 IN DEX 22 1

nu merals , 10 2 o f s t, nd , rd , (1 ,
in dates , Parties , po litical, capitaliz atio n o f n ames
7 4 , 1 3 0 , 1 37 ; o f s u ect, 3 1 ; o f wo rd o r bj 0i 9 0
by b
.

wo rds i ndicated co mma, 1 1 2 ; rack

Paus e, us e o fda
s h to in dicate,
y
ets , to s uppl , 1 2 1 ; ellips is , to ind icate , H
Pearl,

de ned , 1 88 .
117 .

122
b
.

Once , fo rm o f in de n ite article bf e o re

Peo ples , races , an d tri es , capitaliz atio n
o f n ames an d e pithets fo r 8 8 .

72
gu
.

One,

f o rm o fin de n ite article bf e o re , 72 .
Per cen t : to be express ed in
do es n o t tak e a peri o d, 1 0 1
res , 73 ;

Order: o fsen ten ce, in v erted , 4 1 ; o fto pics ,

Perio d : ho w in dicated o n co p , 1 60 ;
.

y
17
within parenthes is , when , 1 0 2 ; o mitted
.

Orders (deco ratio ns ) , capitaliz atio n of f bb v

a ter a re iatio ns fo r ling uis tic epo chs ,
mes o f, 88
na .
f
etc , 1 0 2 ; a ter ini tials o f titles o f pu li b
f f
.

Orders , mo nas tic , c apitali

z atio n o f n ames catio ns , 102 ; a ter M S, 1 0 2 ; a ter
o f,
91 rs t element in h phen ated a re i
a y bb v
f bb
.

tio n s , 7 9 ; use o f, a ter a reviatio n s ,

Ordin als , when capitaliz ed , 9 2 .

101 ; at end o f declarati e s en tence , v

Organ iz atio n , in co mpo s itio n , 16 .
1 0 2 ; placed ins ide o f uo tatio n mark s q
Organiz atio n s , capitaliz atio n o f na mes o f, 1 0 2 ; rules f o r us e o f, 1 0 1 3 .

91 .
Perio dicals , titles o f: capitaliz atio n o f,

Over, co mpo unds with, 8 4 .

9 8 ; de n i te a _

rti cle n o t treated as part

.

o f, 9 9 ; to b e i tali ciz ed , 1 2 5
mber o f wo rds in the
.

Page, nu , 190 .

Pers o nicatio ns , c apitaliz atio n o f, 89

f
.

Page pro o s: alteratio ns in , to be n arde d

Philo so phic al s cho o ls , c apitali atio n of
-

agai n s t,
de ned , 1 8 5 ; uty of
n ames o f, 9 0
z

co nnec ti o n with, 1 8 5
.

autho r in
Paleo nto lo gical terms , capitaliz atio n
.

Phrases : ad j ecti a with, val us e o f co m

v b
,
o f,
1 1 1 ; ad er ia l, 1 1 0 ; appo s itio nal, 1 1 0 ;
1 00 ; italiciz ed , when , 1 2 7 .
j
co n un c tio n al, 1 0 8 ; paren thetical, 1 10 ,
Pamphlets titles o f: to be capitaliz ed , 9 8 ; 1 1 7 , 1 20 , 1 2 1 ; read made, 2 3 ; repe y -

to b e italici z ed , 1 2 5 . titio n o f, 4 3 .

Pa er: cho ice o f, le t to pu lis her, 20 3 ; f b Phras in g , parallelis m o f, 43 .

epends on illus trati o n s , 20 3 S ee

Pica, de ned , 1 8 7 , 1 89

.
.

Illus tratio ns
Papers , titles o f: to be capitaliz ed , 9 8
.

f
Pit alls in d ictio n , 44 6 5 .

to be put i n uo tati o n mark s , 1 1 5 q .

.
Planning, 1 4, 1 7 .

Para les b bb
i lical n ames o r titles o f, to be Plates , des cri bd e , 19 3 95 .

c apitaliz ed , 9 0 . y
Pla s, titles o f: capitaliz atio n o f, 9 8; to
Paragraph"the, 20 , co nnectio ns b e be i taliciz e d , 1 2 5 .

tween , 2 0 ; emphas i s in the , 2 1 Plurals : 26 27; f or matio n o f, 1 14 ; of

y
.

Parallelis m o f phras ing, 43 abb viat re

,
io n sin li terar f
re erences ,
.

h w f m d
o or e , 78: o f arti cial n o un
Paren t,

co mpo unds with 8 1 , .
co in ages , ho w o rmed , 1 1 4 f
f b
.

Paren thes es : rack ets ,

dis tinguis hed ro m Po ems : c apitaliz ation o f titles o f,
98;
1 2 0 ; rules fo r us e o f, 1 20 2 1 ; us e o f,
fo r paren thetical claus es , 1 2 1 ; with
when italiciz ed , 1 2 5 ; when in q uo tatio n
mark s

gures o r letters indicating s u di isio n s , b v H
Po in t,

, 115

de
.

ned , 1 8 7 .
1 2 0.

Parenthetical claus es : us e o f co mmas in ,

Po in t s ytm s e ,
) 1
de ned , 1 8 7 .

1 10 ; o f das hes , 1 1 7 ; o f paren thes es , Po li tical : capitaliz atio n o f n ames of

1 21 . alli ances , 9 3 ; o f di i s i o n s , 9 2 , 9 3 ; v .

of
Parks , capitaliz atio n o f n am es o f, 9 5
_

.
o rga ni z ati o ns , 9 1 ; o f parti es , 9 0 .

Participial phras es , us e o f co mma with, Po pe, f o rms in letter to , 147 .

1 10
.

Po pe, when capitaliz ed, 88

mis s io n
.

Participle : o o r retentio n of H
to b e spelled o ut, 7 5

nal e in o rig in al wo rd , 68 , 17 1
Po rt, .

bf
.

co mma us ed
H
F
I)
Po s itio n : e o re o f, in
Particles in rench, German , an d Dutch
o f mo d i ers ,
_

co nnecti o n Wi th, 112; 42

na mes : capi taliz ati o n o f, 8 8 ; ho w
.

in dexed, 1 64 ; redundant, 3 4 . Po sses si v e cas e, ho w f or med , 72, 1 13 .

222 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S
Pos sessives , 2 6 . Qua tity xp i f 7
n , e res s o ns o , 2 .

Po st co mpo unds with, 8 3 . Quan

mp u d with 8
i t.

co o n s , 2 .

Po stscript, to be avo ided , i 3 a 4t (q a t ) d d

o u r o
95; t t b e ne 1 no o e
t at d a abb v at
, ,
.

re e i on, 10 1
co mpo unds with, 8 3
s re i
Pre .

Qua i mp u d with 84
.

bj

Predicate : agree ment o f s u ect and, 2 7 , s . co o n s . .

3 0 ; with the co pula, 3 6 . Qu y i di at d by i t gati po i t

er , n c e n erro on n ,

f
Pre ace, po si tio n o f, 1 5 3 .
3 10 .

Qu ti i di t pu t ati f 4 3

Pre xes , when h phenated , 83 , 84 y .
es o n, n

Qu ti ma k S I t gati p i t
rec , nc u on o 2, 10

Prelimin ar pages , 1 5 2

y .
es on

Qu tati ma k p iti f l with

r . ee n e rro on o n .

o on r s: os on o co on
Prepos itions , 3 9 ,

o f co mma, o f elli s is ,
.

1 05 ; 1 13 ;
p 122;
v
Presiden t o fun i ers it , o rms in letter to , yf of exclam atio n po mt, 1 03 ;
.

of mterro ga
1 47 .

President o f the United States , for ms in

tio n
co lo n
po in t, 1 04 ; o f peri o d,
fo r us e o f, 1 1 4 1 7 ;
1 06; rules

1 0 2 ; o fsemi

letter to , 1 45 .
use o fdo u le and smgle 1 1 6 1 7 b , .

President,

when capitaliz e d , 88 .
Q f
uo tatio n s : ro m dieren t autho rs , o llo w f
ing each o ther, ho w treated , 1 1 4 ; o f
Pries t, f or ms in letter to , 1 48 .

pass ages ro m a f
n autho r in his o wn
Printi ng es ta bli hm
s en ts , terms in use in , wo rds 1 1 4 ; set in reduced t pe, when ,
, y
1 5 1. 1 59

Pro ceedings (o f o f: capi

ta liz ati o n o f, 9 8 ; to be i taliciz ed, 1 2 5 R aces , tri es , and peo ples , b cap italiz atio n
o f names o f, 88
.

Pro no uns : ambiguit o f, 2 7 ; capitaliz a y

R ailro ad an d R ailwa , to be s pelled

.

tion of, in ti tles , 9 8 ; cap italiz atio n o f

refem ng to Dei t , 8 7 ; erro rs in

y
o ut, 7 5
Re
.

co mpo un ds with, 83
it is me In, 2 8 ;
.

to case o f, 2 8 ' .

who and W c m in tercha

d 28 ; Read, when italiciz ed, 1 26 .

than who m, 2 8 ;

an d which, an d R eading , 9
who , "
28 ;

us

a ter 28 ; f vy
.

v
inde ni te, 2 9 R ecepti it , acti e, 8 .

Pro o f : den ed , 1 7o ; ho w to be mar k ed ,
R ecto , de n ed , 1 83 .

revis ed ,
_

177;

pag e-pro o R ead y mad
- e phrases , 23 .

d ed , 1 8 5 ;alterati o ns
t, 1 8 5 ; d ut of author in co nnec
to b e guarded Re b lli
e o n o f ideas, 1 7 .

ti o n with, 1 8 5 as Proo re ading

. f R edun dant particles , 3 9 .

f
.

R e ormer, when capitaliz

f
Proo reading : co py hplder, duties o f, 1 7 6 ;

ed , 92 .

de ned , 1 7 6 ; queries , ho w to be treated , R egiments , capitaliz atio n o fna mes o f, 92

.

1 8 1 ; trans po si tio n , ho w in dicated , 1 7 9 ;

R egions or parts o f the wo rld, capitaliz a
changes, ho w to be made, 1 7 7 7 8 ; ti o n o f names o f,
correcti ons no t o be made on co p ,
t y R elatio ns o f to pics , 1 8 .
94 .

k
1 7 8 ; mar s us ed in , 1 7 9
v v
.

R elati e claus es , excess i e us e o f, 2 9

Pro per name s , c a ita liz atio n o f, 8 7 ; .

v
po ss ess i e o f, ho w o rmed, 7 2 . R eligio us : deno minatio ns , capitaliz atio n
Pro per no uns : capitaliz atio n o f, 87 , 9 4 .
o f names o f, 9 0 ; o fo rgan iz atio ns , 9 1 .

Pro po rtio ns o f to pics , 1 8 R epetitio n o f wo rds o r phras es , 43 .

mma bf
.

R es idence , used
b

co o f, in
Pu lication: de n ed , 200 ; terms o n which
e o re
co nnecti o n Wi th, 1 1 2
a omplis hcd, 201 ; when takes place,
.

gg
1 R es o lutio n s : the wo rds

Wh ereas ,

an d
Publi ati mitted after initials

v
R es o l ed to be ca italiz ed , 9

the
c
used o r ti les
f t
o ns : perio d o
ti tles o f, ca italiz e d,
1 02 ;
wo rd R es o l ed to e italiciz e , v g d 1 28 .

9 8; i tali ciz e 12 5 ; ti tles 0 to be when used with the , 7 6 , 1 48

s pelled o ut, wh en , 7 5 . 49 ; when Wi tho ut, 7 6 .

b
Pu lisher: cho ice o f, in s u mitting manu b v
R e ised pro o , 1 7 7 f .

scri pt, 200 . R evisio n o fwo rk , 2 4 .

Punctuatio n : o f indirect ues tio n , 4 2 , q R o man nu merals , o missio n o fperio d after ,

1 03 ; rules fo r, 10 1 22 -
. t0 2
224 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S
Stereoty es : v
ad antage o f, 19 4; de Titles : ac ademic , a re iated , 89 ; ci il. bb v v
scrib e : 9 4; nu mber o f i mpres si o ns
_

militar y
and religio us , when capi tal
f m
,

ro , : 94 . iz e d, 88 ; to be spelled o ut, when , 7 3 ;

Stub ned, :
e xceptio ns , 76

, de 99 .
.

St ley
M anuscript hints the
T itles (o f ho no r and res pect) : to be
.
S ee , on
capi taliz ed
.

when 8 8 to be s pelled '

prepar o f, etc.
atio n
7 6 ; a bre i ated, when , b v
, .
.

o i t, when , 7 3
i
,

Sub co mpo un ds with, 8 3 .

7
b v
Su di is io ns : letters used to in dicate, to Titles p u licatio n s )
(o f capita liz at o nb . i
o r ca i tali z ing in Eng lis ,
be italiciz ed , 1 2 6 ; o f titlis , to be put o f, 9 8 ; rules f p h
in qu tat o io ns , n 5 F
Latin , re nc h, Itali an, Span ish Sc andi
v h
.

n a ian , German, Danis h, Dutc ,

Su bj ect: cho ice o f, 1 2 : limi tatio n o f, re .

when to be italic iz ed , 1 2 5 ; when to

Su bj ect o f sen tence: co mpo un d , 3 0 ; an d q uo ted , 1 1 4 1 5 ; o f a ddress es , u s : o f
-

predicate, agreemen t o f, 27, agree

30 ; articles , u s ; o f o o s , 1 2 5 ; of chap b k
ment of co pula with, o miss i o n o f, y
.

ters , u s ; o f c cles o f po ems , 1 2 5 ; o f

3 1 ; sham, 3 1 .
divis io n s o f o o s , : 1 5 ; of do cuments , b k
bj
Su uncti v e, the, 3 3 . 1 25 : o f ess a s , : 2 5 ; o f lectures , u s , y
o f news papers , : 2 5 ; o f pamph lets , 1 2 5 ;
Sultan , when capitaliz ed, 8 8
of
.

o f peri o di cals : 2 5 ;
.

o f papers , 1 1 5 ;
Sumi i ariz ing clauses , us e o f das hes in ,
g y
pla s , 1 2 5 ; o f poems , 1 2 5 0 proceed
'

i ngs o i mo ieties
u
_ .

0 seri es , u s ;
Super co mpo unds with, 8 3 . o f tracts , 1 2 5 ; o treatis es , 1 2 5 i .

Superlati es , 3 0 v . T o as ts : capitaliz atio n o f, 9 8; to be

Supra, co mpo unds with, 84

qu t d o e , u s .

T day k
.

to mo rro w,

to nig ht ta

Supreme Being, capitaliz atio n o f no uns o e

hyph
,

j v
ad ec ti es , and pro no uns fo r, 8 7 .
no en , 7 o , 84 .

y b
S m o ls , treatmen t o f: chemical, ro e ; To pics : o rder
relatio ns o f,
o f, 1 7 ;
1 8.
pro po rtio ns o f, 18 ;

metri c, 7 8 meas urement, 7 8 ; what, to '

use i n ta es , : 9 9 bl . T rainin g : .
co n
v ers atio n as , 4 ; special, 3;
un co n s cio us , 2 .

b
T a les : b o x heads , de n ed ,

ho w to
-

T rans itio n in sentence, use o f dash to
r
p pe are f o r prin ter 1 8
9 ; cas tin u
g p i n di cate , rr7
f y b
, , .

19 8; o o tno tes to , 1 9 9 ; s m o ls in , 1 9 9
T ranslatio n , rights o f, 20 2 , 208
.

Technical practices , 1 5 7 T reaties , capitaliz atio n o f names o f, 9 6

.

y
.

ro po int t pe, illustrated , 1 8 9

mpo unds with, 83
-
u
T ri
.

co
f
.

T ens es : use o f, 3 2 ; co ntaminated o rms ,

3 2 ; se uence o f, 3 2 q T ri b es , races , an d peo ples , capitaliz atio n
o f n ames o f, 88
.

b
.

T erms in us e in prin ting es ta lis hmen ts ,

yC
Trin it , hris tian , capitaliz atio n of names
rs r.
o f mem ers o f, 8 7 b

T ext g ure,-


de ned, : 5 2 , 1 8 2 .

n -
po i t typ
n illus trated , r89 e,
.

used with Ho n , R ev

T he, when
7 6 . hi s so
-
. .
, etc .
,
b dy
o o f, explained , : 8 1 ; names o f
eren t siz es o f, a nd illustratio ns , 1 88
'
o

3 2 mo : de ned , r9 5 ; no t to b e treated as 89 .

abbrevmti o n , ro r .
y
T pe setting machines , o i - 9 3
-

f
.

Tho ro ug hares : capitaliz ati o n o f names

o f, 9 5 ; n um ers o f, to b e s pelled o ut, 7 4b y
T pe meas uremen t, ho w to ma k e, 1 89 -
oi .

T yp
meas ure o f rs r
.

e- page , 1 89 - 9 2
Tho us an ds , use o f co mma a ter dig its f T yp e siz es in co mmo n use 1 89
, , .

indicating , : 1 3 , .

Typ
.

T ime, to be s pelled o ut, when , 7 4 .

o graphical prac tices and terms , r8 7
99
T ime with
.

indicatio ns : punctuated
co lo n , 7 4 , m s ; s pelled o ut, when , 7 4 f m o f inde bf
.
u (lo ng ) or nite article e o re,

,

T ip, de ned, : 9 8 S ee Illimtratio ns . .

72 .

T itle, co m a used e o re o f,

m

in co n bf Ultra co mpo unds with, 84 , .

necti o n Wi th, : 1 2 .
Umlaut, indexing o f German names with,
T itle page, what it s ho uld co ntain , 1 5 3
-
. 1 65 S ee In dex . .
 IN DE X 225

Un co mpo unds with, 83 . Vo ca bulary , 22 .

Un co n scio us training, 2 .

Vo n,

ho w to treat, 7 3 , 88 , m 4 .

Under co mpo unds with, 84

United States when spelled o ut, 7 4

.

W ight
e and meas ures , me tric : ho w
s
, .
designated , 7 8 ; to be s pelled o ut when , ,

Upper case, ho w indicated, : 5 7 ; mean .

73

ing an d o rigin o f word, : 5 7 .

When clauses co mma used before : 08
-

v
.
, ,

Us age: 2 2 ; io latio ns of, : 5 .

Wli ereaWc laus es co mma us ed be fo re
-
, ,

s
I c
(
VM 9
: capitaliz ed , 88 ; ho w indexed , co mma us ed bf e o re, r0 8 .

1 04

b
.

Will
and

s hall,
26 .

Ver al n o uns , 85 .

Words nu mber o f, to y
t pe page,
-
190;
Ver b s: capitaliz atio n o f, in titles , 9 8 ;
,

repeti tio n o f,
_

43
v
.

co pulati e, 36 .
W itr
'

ne, 5 ; a cra t an d an art f 3:

Vers io ns o f Bi bl e, abbr viati ns f
e o o r, 77 . and t nk 6 ; cra t c an be learned,
' '

f r;

Vers o , de ned, : 83 .
can be taug t, r .

Vicar general, o rms in letter to ,

-
f : 49 .
Z oo lo gical terms , capitaliz atio n o f, ro e ;

Vice co mpo unds with. 8 2 . itali ciz ed , when , : 27 .