PA M A N TA S A N N G L U N G S O D N G M AY N I L A

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

A. Introduction
How we communicate plays an important role in our everyday lives. Since the
dawn of society, mankind has sought to create more efficient and effective ways to share
information. As modern digital communication systems continue to improve, higher-order
modulation schemes became relevant. These are known to provide high data rate transmissions with
high spectral efficiency.

High data rates are essential for demanding applications such a real-time video
streaming. High output is realized through tradeoffs between bandwidth, power, and system
complexity. In telecommunications, modulation is the process of modifying a data source into a
form more suitable for transmission over a medium. Today, there are different types of modulation
techniques. One of the most popular choices for implementation is the Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM).

Much research has done on the comparison of QAM with other modulation
techniques. In most cases, the QAM tends to have better performance overall. For instance, multiple
papers show that QAM has better noise resistance, and is more adaptive for channel change, and
more efficient in bandwidth utilization. On the other hand, another method for modulation technique
is called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM). It is a form of signal modulation where the message
information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation
scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to the sample value
of the message signal.

In this paper, the researchers will focus on the semi-analytical performance

evaluation methodology for a PAM modulation. Here, a QAM scheme is seen as a combination of
PAM.

B. Background of the Study

1
 PA M A N TA S A N N G L U N G S O D N G M AY N I L A

Digital Modulation is the method wherein discrete digital signals or information are
being imprinted upon optical carriers.

Two of the most prominent type of digital modulation are: M-ary Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (M-PAM) and M-ary Quadrature Modulation. M-PAM is a type of modulation wherein
the amplitude of a given signal is being varied. One of the most distinct advantage of Pulse
Amplitude Modulation schemes is its ability to transmit data efficiently in terms of its Signal-to-
Noise ratio and the Bandwidth used. The order of the PAM signifies the number of possible
amplitudes available, which can be seen in the constellations seen in Figure 1. The problem that
arises with PAM is that the size of the constellations for higher Order Modulations would lead to
difficult evaluations for Bit-Error-Probability.

Figure 1.1 M-PAM

On the other hand, M-QAM schemes are combinations of two Pulse Amplitude
Modulations. PAM and QAM schemes are very similar specially in their efficiency in Signal-to
Noise Power ratio and bandwidth usage. Similar problems also arise with higher order modulation
because of the constellation size. Figure 2 shows a basic 16-QAM modulation scheme.

2
 PA M A N TA S A N N G L U N G S O D N G M AY N I L A

Figure 1.2. 16-QAM

C. Statement of the Problem

1. How accurate in the estimation of the Probability Function is the obtained Smoothing
Parameter for both Rule of Thumb Method and Cross Validation in terms of Mean
Integrated Square Error?
2. What is the effect of using an incorrect value of smoothing parameter to the estimation of
the Probability Density Function?
3. What is the error of the designed semi-analytical approach when compared to analytical
or theoretical approach in terms of Symbol Error Probability and Bit Error Probability?
D. Objectives
1. To evaluate the performance of Cross Validation and Rule of Thumb in estimating the
Probability Density Function in terms of their Mean Integrated Square Error.
2. To identify the effect of using incorrect values of smoothing parameter for the estimation
of the Probability Density Function?
3. To compare the designed semi-analytical evaluation and the analytical or theoretical
approach in terms of Symbol Error Probability.

E. Scope and Limitations

The proponents would focus their performance evaluation of Bit-Error-

Probability with modulations schemes such as M-ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation and M-
ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. The proponents would also use Cross Validation and
Rule-of-Thumb for estimation of the Kernel Density Function. The proponents would use

3
 PA M A N TA S A N N G L U N G S O D N G M AY N I L A

values of 2,4,16,256 to validate the designed system. The proponents would also use Signal-
to-Noise ratio of 0dB up to 10dB for their simulations.
Lastly the proponents would use the application MatLab r2016a for
simulation purposes for the SER.

F. Definition of Terms
The following terms used in conducting the research are defined for better
understanding of the readers:
1. Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing
(modulating) the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave). The modulation is
impressed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a precise time.
2. Probability Density Function (PDF) is used to specify the probability of the random
variable falling within a particular range of values, as opposed to taking on any one
value.
3. Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) is a form of signal modulation where the message
information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.
4. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is the combination of amplitude modulation
and phase shift keying. More technically, quadrature amplitude modulation is a system of
modulation in which data is transferred by modulating the amplitude of two separate
carrier waves, mostly sinusoidal, which are out of phase by 90 degrees (sine and cosine).
5. Monte-Carlo simulation method is a computerized mathematical technique that are used
to model the probability of different outcomes in a process that cannot easily be predicted
due to the intervention of random variables.
6. Kernel density estimation (KDE) is a non-parametric way to estimate the probability
density function of a random variable. Kernel density estimators are non-parametric
density estimators that have no fixed structure and depend upon all the data points to
reach an estimate.
7. Cross-validation (CV) is a model validation technique for assessing how the results of
a statistical analysis will generalize to an independent data set. It is mainly used in
settings where the goal is prediction, and one wants to estimate how accurately a
predictive model will perform in practice.
8. Low-density parity-check (LDPC) code is a linear error correcting code, a method of
transmitting a message over a noisy transmission channel.
9. Likelihood ratio expresses how many times more likely the data are under one model
than the other. This likelihood ratio, or equivalently its logarithm, can then be used to

4
 PA M A N TA S A N N G L U N G S O D N G M AY N I L A

compute a p-value, or compared to a critical value to decide whether to reject the null
model in favor of the alternative model.
10. Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel is commonly used to simulate
background noise of the channel under study. It is often used as a channel model in which
the only impairment to communication is a linear addition of wideband or white
noise with a constant spectral density and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude.
11. High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two mobile protocols, High
Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access
(HSUPA), that extends and improves the performance of existing 3G mobile
telecommunication networks using the WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple
Access) protocols.
12. Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for high-speed wireless communication for
mobile phones and data terminals. It increases the capacity and speed using a different
radio interface together with core network improvements.
13. Maximum a-posteriori probability (MAP) estimation is an estimate of an unknown
quantity, that equals the mode of the posterior distribution. The MAP can be used to
obtain a point estimate of an unobserved quantity on the basis of empirical data.