Materials

& Design
Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116
www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Materials selection for sustainable product design: a case study

of wood based furniture eco-design
Mar
a D. Bovea *, Rosario Vidal
Department of Technology, Universitat Jaume I, Av. Sos Baynat, s/n, E-12071 Castell

on, Spain

Received 9 June 2003; accepted 25 September 2003

Abstract

This article presents an analysis of the environmental impact of the materials and processes typically used in the wood based
furniture manufacturing sector. Life cycle assessment methodology was applied to dierent kinds of wood based boards, surface and
edge coverings, and their respective manufacturing processes. For each of these, a life cycle inventory was completed and the en-
vironmental impact generated was analysed by applying the Eco-Indicator99 method.

2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Environmental performance (E); Selection for material properties (H)

1. Introduction manufacturing, distribution, use, recycling, and nal

Knowledge of the environmental impact of the ma-
terials and processes typically used in a specic indus-
trial sector is a key factor in enabling companies to
improve their products from an environmental per-
spective and thus expedite their introduction into the
nascent market for green or ecological products.
In the past, dierent techniques have been applied in
sustainable materials selection. Energy use was one of
the rst quantiable aspects of environmental perfor-
mance by means of the energy content material charts
[1]. The MAC values proposed by the Dutch Labour
Inspection [2] were applied to obtain an overall index
for considering a combination of dierent emissions
to the air and water [3]. However, environmental im-
pact assessment techniques have evolved, being the life
cycle assessment (LCA) methodology [4,5] the most
recognised and accepted at international level. This
technique enables the environmental performance of
materials to be evaluated during their entire life cycle,
encompassing extraction and processing resources,
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-964-728189; fax: +34-964-728106.
E-mail address: bovea@tec.uji.es (M.D. Bovea).
disposal.
Regarding to the wood furniture industry, main ef-
forts have been focused on the study of dierent envi-
ronmental properties of wood based boards and their
various nishes: volatile organic compounds (VOC) in
particleboard with diverse coverings [6,7] or emission
factors for particleboard and medium density breboard
[8,9]. From a life cycle perspective, information sources
were identied for the completion of an LCA of the
wood based board sector in Australia [10].
This article presents the methodology followed for
carrying out an analysis of the impact of a lifecycle in-
ventory of the materials and processes characteristics of
the wood furniture industry. LCA methodology has been
applied to wood based boards (standard particleboard,
low formaldehyde content particleboard and medium
density breboard), to surface and edge coverings (low
density laminates, high density laminates and natural
wood veneers), and to their respective manufacturing
processes (cutting, machining, reveneering and edge
banding for the transformation of the board, and sanding,
priming and nishing in the case of natural veneer cov-
erings). For each of these, a life cycle inventory (LCI) was
completed and the environmental impact generated was
analysed by applying the Eco-Indicator99 method [11].

0261-3069/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2003.09.018
112 M.D. Bovea, R. Vidal / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116
2. Methodology
Fig. 1 presents the stages followed in the carrying out
of the study, which are commented on below.
Once the characteristic materials of the furniture
sector were identied, the following information for each
one was gathered directly from the most representative
manufacturers located in the Valencian Community
(Spain):
Description of the manufacturing process.
The ow of materials in each stage of the process.
Quantities and types of materials needed, the source
of these materials, means of transport used, etc.
Consumption of resources during the manufacturing
process (electricity, gas, fuels, water, etc.).
Quantities of the nished product and co-products
manufactured.
Information gathered on the systems outputs (atmo-
spheric emissions, water euent analysis, classica-
tion and nal destination of solid wastes).
On allocating the information gathered to the func-
tional unit (F.U.) of each of the materials or processes
under study, cause-eect allocation criteria were applied
whenever it was possible. Commercial databases such as
BUWAL250 [12], Idemat96 [13] or IVAM LCA Data
2.0 [14] were employed to complete the information on
the rst phase involved in acquiring certain materials
and on data related to the production of energy and
transport. These data had previously been adapted to
the Spanish situation. Thus for instance, inventory data
on electrical energy corresponds to the primary energy
structure used by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
(ESU-ETHZ) [15] included in certain of the previously
mentioned databases, which was updated and adapted
to the Spanish electricity grid in the combination shown
in Table 1.
Finally, the environmental impact was analysed by
means of the SimaPro 4.0 [17] software. The impact
assessment method applied was the Eco-Indicator99,
based on the damage function approach.
Fig. 1. Methodology followed in the carrying out and analysis of a
lifecycle inventory in the furniture sector.
Table 1
Reference combination of primary energies within the Spanish elec-
tricity grid [16]
Primary energy %
Lignite 13.88
Anthracite/hard coal 23.80
Imported coal 7.45
Fuel oil 9.42
Natural gas 3.25
Nuclear 32.11
Hydro 10.09
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Wood based boards
Three types of wood based boards were analysed:
standard particle and standard breboard (with a resin
formaldehyde content of < 0:1%) and particleboard with
low formaldehyde content (with a resin formalde-
hyde content of < 0:01%). The formaldehyde emis-
sions from the low formaldehyde content boards are
regulated by the standard [18] and are due to the free
formaldehyde contained in the resin [19]. The system
boundary for wood based boards considered is outlined
in Fig. 2.
The boards are chiey made up of particles/bres and
resin, in a proportion of approximately 90% to 10%,
respectively. Emissions to the atmosphere occurring
during the particleboard manufacturing and drying
processes were measured in the production plant itself,
while bibliographical sources were consulted in order
to complete the information on atmospheric emissions
produced during the processes of pressing and cooling
of the boards [8,9]. Water euent emissions result-
ing from board manufacture occur mainly during the
cleaning of the resin and particle/bre bonding ma-
chinery. Solid wastes are mainly made up of steel scrap
and oil waste produced during the machinery mainte-
nance operations, since all the wood waste produced
during the board manufacture is used as a fuel for heat
generation.
The functional unit considered for evaluating the
environmental impact of the three wood based boards
was 1 m2 with a commercial thickness of 30 mm. Table 2
shows the environmental index calculated by applying
the Eco-Indicator99 impact assessment method during
the board production.
The dierence in the impact between particleboard
and breboard is due in the main to two factors, to the
percentage of recycled timber included in their compo-
sition and to the density of the board. The percentage of
recycled wood is 90% in the particleboard and 10% in
the breboard. The dierence in density (650 kg/m3 in
the particleboard and 850 kg/m3 in the breboard) has
 M.D. Bovea, R. Vidal / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116 113

Fig. 2. Diagram of the inventory for the production of particleboard/breboard.

Table 2
Environmental impact produced by dierent wood based boards (Eco-Indicator99 (Pt))
F.U.: 1 m2 0.03 m Raw material acquisition Raw mat Board Waste Total
transport manufacture treatment
Wood Lubricant Glue Additive Catalyst
oil
Standard particleboard 1.32e)1 8.97e)7 2.01e)01 4.58e)3 6.49e)4 7.38e)3 9.51e- 2 4.24e)5 4.41e)1
Low formaldehyde 1.32e)1 8.97e)7 1.37e)1 4.58e)3 6.49e)4 7.38e)3 9.70e)2 4.24e)5 3.79e)1
particleboard
Standard breboard 1.12e)0 2.52e)1 5.99e)3 8.49e)4 3.17e)2 1.67e)1 1.84e)3 1.58e)0

Table 3 The laminates are made of paper and thermosetting

Comparison of energy consumption during the wood based board
manufacture (kW h)
F.U.: 1 m2 0.03 m Board manufacture (kW h)
Standard particleboard 3.68
Low formaldehyde particleboard 3.86
Standard breboard 7.17
consequences for the energy consumption during the
board manufacturing process, as Table 3 shows.
When the environmental impacts of the standard and
low formaldehyde content particleboard are compared,
the partial replacement of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin
with melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resin is the main
cause of the reduction in formaldehyde emissions in low
formaldehyde content boards (0.0081 g/kg in the low
formaldehyde content board compared with 0.243 g/kg
in the standard board). On the other hand, the re-
placement of standard resin with a low formaldehyde
content resin has consequences for the energy con-
sumption needed to manufacture the board, which in-
creases by 510%.
3.2. Surface and edge coverings
The surface and edge coverings used in the furniture
sector can be divided into two distinct groups: (1) high
and low density laminates and (2) natural wood veneers.
resin. The system boundary considered is outlined in
Fig. 3. Depending on the weight of the paper and the
number of sheets, and the type of resin, laminates of high
and low density are obtained. The resin used in low den-
sity laminates is melamine-formaldehyde, whereas for
high density laminates, the same resin is used for the outer
layer and phenol-formaldehyde (PF) for the inner layer.
The most important atmospheric emissions caused by
laminate manufacture are due to heat generation for the
drying and polymerisation of the resin. Water euents
are mainly due to the cleaning of the bonding equip-
ment, and solid waste generated is basically made up of
paper remnants, which may or may not be impregnated
with resin, and the packaging left over from the chem-
ical products used (inks, additives, etc.).
Natural wood veneer comes directly from the tree
trunk which is stripped of its bark and cut to a deter-
mined length. It is then subject to steam treatment which
facilitates its cutting into sheets. These sheets are nally
dried and dimensioned according to the characteristics
of the surface to be covered. The inventory used for the
veneer is an adaptation of information contained in the
IVAM LCA Data 2.0 database, used in the process of
obtaining dry natural veneer, and as such, is not detailed
here.
The functional unit chosen to compare the environ-
mental impact produced by the three types of surface
114 M.D. Bovea, R. Vidal / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116

Fig. 3. Diagram of the inventory for the production of high/low density laminate.

Table 4
Environmental impact produced by dierent board/edge coverings (Eco-Indicator99 (Pt))
F.U.: 1 m2 Raw material acquisition Raw mat Board Waste Total
transport manufacture treatment
Paper Glue/additive Wood
Low density 1.18e)2 3.38e)2 1.88e)3 2.83e)2 5.04e)4 7.62e)2
laminate
High density 4.68e)2 4.95e)2 2.59e)3 1.93e)2 3.33e)4 1.19e)1
laminate
Wood veneer 2.45e)2 9.68e)3 3.81e)3 3.80e)2

and edge coverings was 1 m2 . Table 4 shows the
environmental index calculated by applying the Eco-
Indicator99 impact assessment method during the
board production.
3.3. Board transformation operations
The operations involved in the transformation of the
board can be described as follows (Fig. 4).
The boards are normally delivered in standard sizes
of 3.66 2.05 m2 and they have to be cut to t the nal
product. Once the reveneering and edge banding oper-
ations have been carried out on the dimensioned piece
(where necessary), it is machined for subsequent as-
sembly.
The board, the covering and the glue are all involved
in the process of reveneering the surfaces. The type of
glue applied depends on the covering. In the case of low
density laminate, pre-gluing of the surface is not neces-
sary, as the resin in the covering acts as an adhesive
under pressures of 7080 kg/cm2 and at a temperature of
170180 C. In contrast, if the reveneering involves high
density laminates, quick setting glues are applied with-
out heat (we have considered a polyvinyl acetate type) at
a pressure of 10 kg/cm2 . In the case of natural veneers, a
urea-formaldehyde glue is normally used, at lower tem-
peratures of 6098 C and at a pressure of 5 kg/cm2 .
The process of edge banding of the board edging can
be carried out with either straight or post-formed edg-
ing. In the case of the former, the boards are fed into a
proler which prepares the surface on which the edge
banding is to be applied. Previously heated to liquefying
point, a thermo-fusible glue is applied to this surface,
and the edging is simultaneously fed in and bonds under
pressure to the surface. In the case of the post-formed
edging with high density laminate, the process is similar.

Fig. 4. Unit processes in the operations involved in the transformation of a wood based board.
 M.D. Bovea, R. Vidal / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116 115

Table 5
Environmental impact produced by the unit processes in the transformation of wood based boards (Eco-Indicator99 (Pt))
Cutting Machining Reveneering Edging
Low density High density laminate/ Straight Post-formed
laminate natural veneer banding
F.U. 1 m2 1 m2 1 m2 1 m2 1 linear m 1 linear m
EI99 (Pt) 1.89e)2 1.37e)2 4.18e)2 1.99e)2 3.44e)2 5.14e)2

Once the shape of the edge to be covered has been Table 6

shaped and the board reveneered with high density
laminate (leaving free a covering surface large enough to
cover the edge shape on post-forming); heat is applied
by infra-red rays which, through the action of the glue
and pressure, allow the covering to be moulded to the
shape of the edge.
Table 5 shows the environmental impact index ac-
cording to the Eco-Indicator99 method, produced by
each of the possible unit processes. It must be pointed
out that the impact assessment does not include the
impact of the board, edging or covering, depending on
the process. Thus, only the impact caused by each one of
the unit processes was accounted for.
With regard to the two board reveneering options, it
can be noted that reveneering with melamine paper
causes a greater impact than with the high density
laminate, given that for the melamine resin to set, much
higher temperatures and pressures are required than in
the case of high density laminates, which normally set
without heat treatment. In this latter case, therefore,
emissions are caused solely by the energy consumption
of the press, while in the case of melamine paper, con-
taminants are released into the air, caused mainly by
emissions from the boiler used to reach the high tem-
peratures required for the resin to set.
Concerning to the two options studied for covering
the edge of the board, it can be observed that the post-
formed option has a greater impact than the straight
edge banding. The main reason for this is that the edge
shaping operations are more important in the post-
formed edging, given that the nal shape of the board
edge requires a higher energy consumption than in the
case of the straight edgings, in which only the parallel
edges are squared.
Environmental impact produced by the unit processes in the treatment
of natural veneer covering (Eco-Indicator99 (Pt))
F.U.: 1 m2 Sanding Base Finishing
EI99 (Pt) 1.00e)1 6.73e)2 3.22e)2
3.4. Operations for the treatment of natural veneer
In the case of natural veneer coverings, once the
processes described in Fig. 4 are nished, those outlined
in Fig. 5 must be carried out before the board is nally
assembled.
The following weights were considered for priming
and sanding operations: 160 and 180 g/m2 , respectively.
The average loss incurred by various application systems
was 31.66% [20].
1 m2 of smoothed surface, treated with the base and
nishing coats was considered as the functional unit for
the purposes of this analysis. Table 6 shows the envi-
ronmental impact index calculated for each of the unit
processes.
4. Conclusions
The aim of this paper has been to establish a criteria
for selecting materials with low environmental impact
during the wood based furniture design. The LCA
methodology has been applied to wood based boards,
surface and edge coverings and to their respective
manufacturing processes. After applying the Eco-Indi-
cator99 as impact assessment method, the following
criteria has been obtained:
Regarding to wood based boards, the standard parti-
cleboard has an environmental impact lower than the

Fig. 5. Unit processes in the operations for the treatment of natural veneer covered board.
116 M.D. Bovea, R. Vidal / Materials and Design 25 (2004) 111116
standard breboard (0.441 and 1.580 Pt/F.U., respec-
tively). The particleboard with low content in formal-
dehyde is preferred to the standard one (0.379 and
0.441 Pt/F.U., respectively) due to the partial replace-
ment of UF resin by MF resin. The raw material ac-
quisition stage is the most contributing one to the
total impact (7287% depending on the material).
Additional processes such as cutting and machining
are needed to transform the board for its incorpora-
tion to the nal furniture, increasing the environmen-
tal impact around a 0.033 Pt/m2 .
Regarding to the surface and edge coverings, from the
environmental point of view, the low density laminate
is preferred to the high density laminate (0.076 and
0.119 Pt/m2 , respectively). The raw material acquisi-
tion stage and production stage are the most contrib-
uting stages to the total impact (59.8% and 37.1%,
respectively, for the low density laminate and 81.3%
and 16.3%, respectively, for high density laminate).
From a life cycle perspective, it is important to con-
sider the environmental impact due to the incorpora-
tion of the covering to the board (reveneering and
edging), that is double for the high density laminate
with respect to the low density one (see Table 5).
Taking into account the entire life cycle of the veneer
incorporated to the board, additional processes are
needed to treat the wood veneer surface (sanding,
base and nishing), producing an environmental im-
pact of around a 0.238 Pt/m2 .
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the nancial support
provided by the Spanish Ministry of Education and
Science (TAP 1999/0608), Generalitat Valenciana (GV-
99-65-1-11) and IMPIVA.
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