Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Multi-junction IIIV solar cells: current status and

future potential
Masafumi Yamaguchi a,*, Tatsuya Takamoto b, Kenji Araki c,
Nicholas Ekins-Daukes a
a
Toyota Technological Institute, Hisakata, Tempaku, Nagoya 468-8511, Japan
b
Sharp Corporation, Hajikami, Shinjo, Nara 639-2198, Japan
c
Daido Steel Corporation, Daido-cho, Minami, Nagoya 457-8545, Japan

Received 31 March 2004; received in revised form 23 September 2004; accepted 24 September 2004
Available online 30 October 2004

Communicated by: Associate Editor T.M. Razykov

Abstract

Our recent R&D activities of IIIV compound multi-junction (MJ) solar cells are presented. Conversion eciency of
InGaP/InGaAs/Ge has been improved up to 3132% (AM1.5) as a result of technologies development such as double
hetero-wide band-gap tunnel junction, InGaPGe hetero-face structure bottom cell, and precise lattice-matching of
InGaAs middle cell to Ge substrate by adding indium into the conventional GaAs layer. For concentrator applications,
grid structure has been designed in order to reduce the energy loss due to series resistance, and world-record eciency
InGaP/InGaAs/Ge 3-junction concentrator solar cell with an eciency of 37.4% (AM1.5G, 200-suns) has been fabri-
cated. In addition, we have also demonstrated high-eciency and large-area (7000 cm2) concentrator InGaP/InGaAs/
Ge 3-junction solar cell modules of an outdoor eciency of 27% as a result of developing high-eciency InGaP/InG-
aAs/Ge 3-junction cells, low optical loss Fresnel lens and homogenizers, and designing high thermal conductivity
modules.
Future prospects are also presented. We have proposed concentrator IIIV compound MJ solar cells as the 3rd gen-
eration solar cells in addition to 1st generation crystalline Si solar cells and 2nd generation thin-lm solar cells. We are
now developing low-cost and high output power concentrator MJ solar cell modules with an output power of 400 W/m2
for terrestrial applications.

2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar cell; High eciency; Multi-junction; Concentrator

1. Introduction

Multi-junction (Tandem) solar cells have the poten-

tial for achieving high conversion eciencies of over
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 52 809 1875; fax: +81 52 50% and are promising for space and terrestrial applica-
809 1879. tions. Tandem solar cells have been studied since 1960
E-mail address: masafumi@toyoto-ti.ac.jp (M. Yamaguchi). (Wolf, 1960). Fan et al. (1982) encouraged R&D of

0038-092X/$ - see front matter
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2004.09.018
 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885
tandem cells based on their computer analysis. Although
AlGaAs/GaAs tandem cells, including tunnel junctions
and metal interconnectors, were developed in the early
years, a high eciency close to 20% was not obtained
(Hutchby et al., 1985). This is because of diculties in
making high performance and stable tunnel junctions,
and the defects related to the oxygen in the AlGaAs
materials (Ando et al., 1987).
One of the authors has conducted his research on Al-
GaAs/GaAs 2-junction solar cells since 1982. His group
has demonstrated 20.2% eciency (Amano et al., 1987)
by proposing double hetero-structure tunnel junction as
a sub-cell interconnection in 1987 (Yamaguchi et al.,
1987). A double hetero- (DH) structure tunnel junction
was found to be useful for preventing diusion from
the tunnel junction and improving the tunnel junction
performance by the authors (Sugiura et al., 1988).
In Japan, based on such an activity, R&D project for
Super-high Eciency MJ Solar Cells has been con-
ducted under support by NEDO since scal year (FY)
1990 (Yamaguchi and Wakamatsu, 1996) as a long-term
target to the early 21st century, in which challenges and
eorts are made in the development of super-high e-
ciency solar cell technology, aiming at a dramatic in-
crease in conversion eciency of over 40% and
developing innovativel technologies.
An InGaP material for the top cell was proposed by
Olson et al. (1990). As a result of performance improve-
ments in tunnel junction and top cell, over 30% eciency
has been obtained with InGaP/GaAs tandem cells by the
authors (Takamoto et al., 1997a). Recently, InGaP/GaAs
2-junction solar cells have drawn increased attention for
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of a triple-junction cell and approaches for improving eciency of the cell.
79
space applications because of the possibility of high con-
version eciency of over 30%. In fact, the commercial sa-
tellite (HS 601HP) with 2-junction GaInP/GaAs-on Ge
solar arrays was launched in 1997 (Brown et al., 1997).
We have proposed AlInPInGaP double hetero-
(DH) structure top cell, wide-bandgap InGaP DH struc-
ture tunnel junction for sub-cell interconnection, and
lattice-matched InGaAs middle cell. As a result of the
above technology developments, the mechanically
stacked InGaP/GaAs//InGaAs 3-junction cells (1 cm2)
have reached the highest (1-sun world-record) eciency
of 33.3% at 1-sun AM1.5G following joint work by Ja-
pan Energy Co., Sumitomo Electric Co. and Toyota
Tech. Inst. (Takamoto et al., 1997b). Since FY2001, this
R&D project has been shifted to the project for Con-
centrator MJ Solar Cells and Modules.
In this paper, more recent results for high-eciency
IIIV compound multi-junction (MJ) solar cells, con-
centrator MJ solar cells and modules conducted under
the New Sunshine Project in Japan are presented. Future
prospects for super high-eciency and low-cost MJ and
concentrator cells and modules are also presented.
2. Key issues for obtaining high-eciency multi-junction
(MJ) solar cells
Conversion eciency of InGaP/GaAs based MJ solar
cells has been improved by the following technologies. A
schematic illustration of the InGaP/(In)GaAs/Ge triple
junction solar cell and key technologies for improving
conversion eciency is shown in Fig. 1.
80 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885
2.1. Wide band-gap tunnel junction
A wide band-gap tunnel junction which consists of
double hetero-structure p-AlInGaP/p-AlGaAs/n-(Al)In-
GaP/n-AlInGaP increases incident light into the (In)-
GaAs middle cell and produces eective potential
barriers for both minority-carriers generated in the top
and middle cells. The wide band-gap tunnel junction with-
out absorption and recombination losses improves both
Voc and Isc of the cells. It is dicult to obtain high tunnel-
ing peak current with wide gap tunnel junction, so thin-
ning depletion layer width by formation of highly doped
junction is quite necessary. Since impurity diusion oc-
curs during growth of the top cell (Sugiura et al., 1988),
carbon and silicon, which have low diusion coecient,
are used for p-type AlGaAs and n-type (Al)InGaP,
respectively. Furthermore, the double hetero-structure is
supposed to suppress impurity diusion from the highly
doped tunnel junction (Takamoto et al., 1999). The sec-
ond tunnel junction between middle and bottom cells con-
sists of p-InGaP/p-(In)GaAs/n-(In)GaAs/n-InGaP which
have wider band-gap than middle cell materials.
2.2. InGaP/Ge hetero-face structure bottom cell
InGaP/GaAs cell layers are grown on a p-type Ge
substrate. PN junction is formed automatically during
MOCVD growth by diusion of V-group atom from
the rst layer grown on the Ge substrate. So, the mate-
rial of the rst hetero-layer is important for the perfor-
mance of Ge bottom cell. An InGaP layer is thought
to be suitable material for the rst hetero- layer, because
phosphor has lower diusion coecient in Ge than ar-
senic and indium has lower solubility in Ge than gal-
lium. Fig. 2 shows the change in spectral response of
the triple-junction cell by changing the rst hetero-
growth layer on Ge from GaAs to InGaP. Quantum e-
ciency of the Ge bottom cell was improved by the InGaP
Fig. 2. Changes on the spectral response due to the modica-
tion of the 1st hetero-layer from GaAs to InGaP (without ARC
(anti-reection coating)).
hetero-growth layer. In the case of GaAs hetero-growth
layer, junction depth was measured to be around 1 lm.
On the other hand, thickness of n-type layer produced
by phosphor from the InGaP layer was 0.1 lm. An in-
crease in Ge quantum eciency was conrmed to be
due to a reduction in junction depth.
It was found that the absorption edge of the InGaP
top cell shifted to the longer wavelength region, by using
the InGaP rst hetero-layer. Band-gap of the InGaP top
cell reduced from 1.86 to 1.81 eV by changing the het-
ero-growth layer from GaAs to InGaP. The fact that
the band-gap increased with the growth temperature
indicated that this phenomenon was due to the ordering
eect in the InGaP material (Gomyo et al., 1987). Since
the band-gap narrowing of the top cell decreases Voc of
the triple-junction cell, an approach for growth of less-
ordering InGaP should be necessary. As a matter of a
fact, conversion eciency has been improved up to
30% (AM0) by increasing the top cell band-gap up to
1.89 eV (King et al., 2002).
2.3. Precise lattice-matching to Ge substrate
Although 0.08% lattice-mismatch between GaAs and
Ge was thought to be negligibly small, mist-dislocations
were generated in thick GaAs layers and deteriorated cell
performance. By adding about 1% indium into the In-
GaP/GaAs cell layers, all cell layers are lattice-matched
precisely to the Ge substrate. As a result, cross-hatch pat-
tern caused by mist-dislocations due to lattice-mismatch
was disappeared in the surface morphology of the cell
with 1% indium, as shown in Fig. 3. The mist-disloca-
tions were found to inuence not to Isc but to Voc of
the cell. Voc was improved by eliminating mist-disloca-
tions for the cell with 1% indium. In addition, wavelength
of the absorption edge became longer and Isc of both top
and middle cells increased, by adding 1% indium.
2.4. Widening of top cell band-gap by AlInGaP
Now, we are developing AlInGaP top cells in order
to improve Voc of the triple-junction cells. Controlling
the top cell band-gap instead of thinning the top cell
should match current between top and middle cells. In
this case, Voc of the cell can be increased with keeping
the maximum current. An AlInGaP cell with 1.96 eV
band-gap and 2.5 m thickness was found to attain high
Voc of 1.5 V with keeping the same Isc as the conven-
tional InGaP top cells under AM1.5G condition.
The best data of the triple-junction cells in our labo-
ratory are summarized in Table 1. Technologies de-
scribed in the above Sections 2.12.3 were applied to
fabrication of the triple junction cells. Band gap of the
InGaP top cell of about 1.82 eV is still low. By using
AlInGaP top cell with 1.96 eV, higher Voc close to
2.72 V is predicted. Conversion eciencies over 33%
 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885 81

Fig. 3. Surface morphology of InGaAs with various indium composition grown on Ge.

Table 1 and Daido Metal Co. and targeted to concentration

Characteristics and predicted eciencies of the triple-junction application also supported by NEDO. The new target
cells is 40% eciency under 500-sun concentration by the
Voc (mV) Jsc (mA/cm2) FF E. (%) Condition end of March 2006.
InGaP (Eg = 1.82 eV) In order to apply a high eciency multi-junction cell
2567 14.1 0.87 31.5 AM1.5G, 25 C developed for 1-sun condition to a concentrator cell
2568 17.9 0.86 29.2 AMO, 28 C operating under 500-suns condition, reduction in en-
ergy loss due to series resistance is the most important
AlInGaP (Eg = 1.96 eV)
2720 14.1 0.87 33.3 AM1.5G, 25 C
issue. Cell size was determined to be 7 mm 7 mm, con-
2721 17.9 0.86 31 AMO, 28 C sidering the total current ow. Grid electrode pitching,
height and width were designed in order to reduce series
resistance. Fig. 4 shows FF of the cell with various grid
(AM1.5G) and close to 31% (AM0) will be expected for
the (Al)InGaP/InGaAs/Ge triple junction cells.
For the next-generation multi-junction cell, one ap- 0.1 0.9
proach is an optimization of band-gaps for utilizing so-
FF
lar energy with wide energy range above Ge band-gap 0.85
0.08
(Kurtz et al., 1997). A lattice-mismatched AlInGaP
(1.8 eV)/InGaAs (1.2 eV)/Ge (0.65 eV) 3-junction cell
Resistance ()

and a lattice-matched AlGaInP (2.0 eV)/GaAs (1.4 eV)/ 0.06 0.8

GaInNAs (1 eV)/Ge (0.65 eV) 4-junction cell are chal-
FF

lenging structures. Another way is an increase of junc-

0.04 0.75
tions for utilizing high-energy range (Dimroth et al., Rs
2003). Many thin junctions with contiguous band-gaps
can reduce energy loss due to dierence between photon 0.02 0.7
energy and band-gap energy. AlInGaP cells and InG- RL
RE
aAsP cells lattice matched to GaAs provides various
0 0.65
band-gaps and might establish the high eciency cells. 0.083 0.095 0.12 0.135 0.17 0.195 0.245 0.28
Grid Pitch (mm)
3. High-eciency concentrator MJ solar cells Fig. 4. Fill factor (FF) of the concentrator cells with various
grid pitching under 250-suns light. Series resistance (RS), lateral
The previous R&D project for high-eciency MJ so- resistance (RL) and total electrode resistance (RE) are also
lar cells is now taken over by Sharp Co., Daido Steel Co. shown.
82 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885

pitches under 250 suns. Grid electrode with 5 lm height 40

and 5 lm width was made of Ag. Grid pitching inu-
ences lateral resistance between two grids (RL) and total 38

Coneversion Efficiency (%)

electrodes resistance (RE). Series resistance of the cell
(RS), RE and RL are also shown in Fig. 4. RE was mea- 36
sured directly after removing electrode from the cell by
chemical etching. RL was calculated by using sheet resis-
34
tance of window and emitter layers. Based on the data in
Fig. 4, the grid pitching is determined to be 0.12 mm at
32
this time. In order to reduce the series resistance down to
0.01 X and obtain a high FF under 500 suns, grid height
should be increased to be twice. High eciency under 30
<500 suns is thought to be obtained by the optimal grid
design without modication of the cell layer structure 28
1 10 100 1000
such as emitter thickness and tunnel junction thickness Concentration Ratio
from the cell developed for 1-sun condition.
Fig. 5 shows the most recent result for eciency of an Fig. 5. Eciency of an InGaP/InGaAs/Ge concentrator 3-
InGaP/InGaAs/Ge 3-junction concentrator solar cell as junction cell as a function of concentration ratio.
a function of concentration ratio, although the authors
have demonstrated 36.5% 3-junction solar cells previ-
ously (Takamoto et al., 2003). The concentration ratio 4. High-eciency and low-cost concentrator MJ cell
is dened by the increase in Isc, and Isc/Isc(1-sun) ratio. modules
High conversion eciency over 36% is measured under
concentrated light with concentration ratio ranging R&D in Japan on IIIV concentrator cells is now
from 30- to 200-suns of AG1.5G. At a concentration ra- done mainly with 3-junction monolithic module. Besides
tio of 200-suns of AM1.5G, the conversion eciency the cells, extensive studies are done in (1) non-imaging
was measured to be 37.4%. This value is the highest ever Fresnel concentrator, (2) homogenizers, (3) new and
reported for all the solar cells. simple module design (Araki et al., 2003).

Fig. 6. 7000 cm2 and 400 concentrator module with 36 receivers connected in series and dome-shaped Fresnel lens made by injection
mold.
 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885 83

A 400 and 7000 cm2 concentrator module was fab-
ricated with 36 pieces of randomly-selected solar cells
connected in series and the same number of the newly-
developed dome-shape Fresnel lenses as shown in Fig.
6. The module without heat sinks and external cooling
utilities were used.
The eciency in a hot summer day (35 C of ambient
temperature) was 27.0% as shown in Fig. 7 (Araki et al.,
in press). This value was well above on the record e-
ciency of 22.7% (Bett et al., 2003) established by Fraun-
hofer Institute Germany in October 2002 with one-order
less area (768 cm2). This achievement resulted from sev-
eral new technologies:
(1) High-pressure and vacuum-free lamination of the
solar cell that suppress temperature rise to only
8C under 400 geometrical concentration illumina-
tion of sunbeam.
(2) Direct and voids-free soldering technologies of fat
metal ribbon to solar cells that suppresses the hot
spots and resistance by 300 times and give a higher
output current than normal non-concentration
operation.
(3) A new encapsulating polymer that survives exposure
of high concentration UV and heat cycles.
(4) Beam-shaping technology that illuminates the
square aperture of the solar cells from round con-
centration spot.
(5) Homogenizer technologies giving uniform ux and
prevent from conversion loss stemmed from chro-
matic aberrations and surface voltage variation.
(6) Allowing as large as 1.75 mm assemble tolerance.
There is no need of special optical alignment. Even
local mechanical industries can assemble the main
body.
(7) Shaped Fresnel lens designed by non-imaging optics
theory and made by low-cost injection mold that
gives tight variation of optical eciency as narrow
as 0.5%.
The technological roadmap toward 31% ecient
module is shown in Table 2. Since we have identied de-
tailed technological problems and how to solve them, we
expect that the target will be achieved well in advance.
5. Future prospects

1.5 Multi-junction solar cells will be widely used in space

because of their high conversion eciency and better
radiation-resistance. In order to apply super high-e-
Current (A)

Irradiance (DNI): 751 W/m2

ciency cells widely, it is necessary to improve their con-
1.0 version eciency and reduce their cost. Fig. 8 shows
Ambient Temperature: 35.0 C
Wind Velocity: 0.5 m/s theoretical and realistically expected conversion ecien-
Area: 196 cm2 cies of single-junction and multi-junction solar cells in
Isc: 1.533 A
0.5 Voc: 2.955 V
comparison with experimentally realized eciencies
FF: 0.877 (Yamaguchi, 2002). Therefore, concentrator 3-junction
: 27.0 % and 4-junction solar cells have great potential for realiz-
ing super high-eciency of over 40%. As a 3-junction
0.0 combination, InGaP/InGaAs/Ge cell on a Ge substrate
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
will be widely used because this system has been already
Voltage (V)
developed. The 4-junction combination of a top cell
Fig. 7. Outdoor evaluation of IV with a plastic Fresnel lens with Eg = 2.0 eV, a GaAs second-layer cell, a third-layer
(including loss in concentrator optics and temperature rise). cell material with an Eg of 1.05 eV, and a Ge bottom cell

Table 2
Roadmap table of more than 31% eciency module
Technologies (%)
November 2002 August 2003 March 2004 March 2005 March 2006
A Cell eciency at 1-sun 30.1 30.3 32
B Cell eciency concentration 34.4 35.3 37 40
C Lens eciency 72.4 85.4 85.8 91
D Homogenizer eciency 94.4 96.3 97.5 97.5 97.5
E Ohmic loss in circuit 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
F Spectrum mismatching loss 5.3 5.1 3
G Current mismatching loss 3.7 3.7 2 2 2
H Loss by temperature rise 1.2 1.3 1.3 1
I Total eciency 21.7 27.0 29 >29 >31
84
Theory (Conc.)
Projected (Conc.)
Realized (Conc.)
55
50
Conversion efficiency (%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
1 2
Number of junction
Fig. 8. Theoretical and realistically expected conversion e-
ciencies of single-junction and multi-junction solar cells in
comparison with experimentally realized eciencies under 1-
sun and concentration conditions.
is lattice-matched to Ge substrates and has a theoretical
1-sun AM0 eciency of about 42%. This system has
also potential of over 45% under 500-suns AM1.5
condition.
We are now challenging ourselves to develop low-
cost and high output power concentrator MJ solar cell
modules with an output power of 400 W/m2 for terres-
trial applications as shown in Fig. 9.
Concentrator operation of the MJ cells is essential
for their terrestrial applications. Since the concentrator
PV systems have potential of cost reduction, R&D on
concentrator technologies including MJ cells is started
in Japan. Therefore, concentrator MJ and crystalline
Si solar cells are expected to contribute to electricity cost
Fig. 9. Projection of concentrator cell module output in
comparison with output projection of crystalline Si and thin
lm solar cell modules.
M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885
Theory (1-sun) Crystal Si Solar Cells
Projected (1-sun) Thin-Film Solar Cells
Realized (1-sun) Concentrator Solar Cells
100
Electricity Cost (Yen/kWh)
10
3 4
1
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Year
Fig. 10. Scenario of electricity cost reduction by developing
concentrator solar cells.
reduction for widespread PV applications as shown in
Fig. 10 (Yamaguchi, 2002).
6. Summary
Conversion eciency of InGaP/InGaAs/Ge has been
improved up to 3132% (AM1.5) and 2930% (AM0) as
a result of technologies development such as double het-
ero-wide band-gap tunnel junction, InGaPGe hetero-
face structure bottom cell, and precise lattice-matching
of InGaAs middle cell to Ge substrate by adding indium
into the conventional GaAs layer. For concentrator
applications, grid structure has been designed in order
to reduce the energy loss due to series resistance, and
world-record eciency of 37.4% (AM1.5G, 200 suns)
has been demonstrated for InGaP/InGaAs/Ge 3-junc-
tion concentrator solar cells. In addition, we have real-
ized high-eciency and large-area (7000 cm2)
concentrator InGaP/InGaAs/Ge 3-junction solar cell
modules of an outdoor eciency of 27% as a result of
developing high-eciency InGaP/InGaAs/Ge 3-junction
cells, designing grid contact with low series resistance,
developing non-imaging Fresnel lens and 2nd optics
(homogenizers) with low optical loss, and designing
modules with low series resistance and high thermal
conductivity.
Future prospects are also presented. We have pro-
posed concentrator IIIV compound MJ solar cells as
the 3rd generation solar cells in addition to 1st genera-
tion crystalline Si solar cells and 2nd generation thin-
lm solar cells. We are now challenging ourselves to
develop low-cost and high output power concentrator
 M. Yamaguchi et al. / Solar Energy 79 (2005) 7885
MJ solar cell modules with an output power of 400 W/
m2 for terrestrial applications.
Acknowledgments
This work is partially supported by the New Energy
and Industrial Technology Development Organization
as part of the New Sunshine Program under the Minis-
try of Economy, Trade and Industry, Japan. This work
is also partially supported by the Japan Ministry of Edu-
cation, Culture, Sports, Science and technology as a part
of the Private University Academic Frontier Center Pro-
gram Super-High Eciency Photovoltaic Research
Center.
References
Amano, C., Sugiura, H., Yamamoto, A., Yamaguchi, M., 1987.
20.2% Eciency AlGaAs/GaAs tandem solar cells grown by
MBE. Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 1998.
Ando, H., Amano, C., Sugiura, H., Yamaguchi, M., Salates,
A., 1987. Nonradiative eh recombination of mid-gap trap
in AlGaAs by MBE. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 26, L266.
Araki, K., Kondo, M., Uozumi, H., Yamaguchi, M., 2003.
Development of a robust and high eciency concentrator
receiver. In: Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Osaka, Japan. p. 630.
Araki, K., Kondo, M., Uozumi, H., Ekins-Daukes, N.J.,
Yamaguchi, M., in press. M., Packaging IIIV tandem
solar cells for practical terrestrial applications achievable to
28% of module eciency by conventional machine assemble
technology. Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells.
Bett, A.W., Baur, C., Dimroth, F., Lange, G., Meusel, M., van
Riesen, S., Siefer, G., Andreev, V.M., Rumyantsev, V.D.,
Sadchikov, N.A., 2003. FLATCONTM-modules: technol-
ogy and characterisation. In: Proceedings of the 3rd World
Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Osaka,
Japan. p. 634.
Brown, M.R., Goldhammer, L.J., Goodelle, G.S., Lortz, C.U.,
Perron, J.N., Powe, J.S., Schwartz, J.A., Cavicchi, B.T.,
Gillanders, M.S., Krut, D.D., 1997. Characterization testing
of dual GaInP2/GaAs/Ge solar cell assemblies. In: Proceed-
ings of the 26th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
Anaheim, USA. IEEE, New York, p. 805.
Dimroth, F, Baur, C., Meusel, M., van Riesen, S., Bett, A.W.,
2003. 5-Junction IIIV solar cells for space applications. In:
Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Photovoltaic
Energy Conversion, Osaka, Japan. p. 616.
Fan, J.C.C., Tsaur, B-Y., Palm, B.J., 1982. Optimal design of
high-eciency tandem cells. In: Proceedings of the 16th
IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, San Diego,
USA. IEEE, New York, p. 692.
Gomyo, A., Suzuki, T., Kobayashi, K., Kawata, S., Hino, I.,
Yuasa, T., 1987. Evidence for the existence of an order state
in Ga0.5In0.5P grown by metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy
and its relation to band-gap energy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 50,
673.
85
Hutchby, J.A., Markunas, R.J., Bedair, S.M., 1985. A review of
multijunction concentrator solar cells. In: Proceedings of the
18th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Las Vegas,
USA. IEEE, New York, p. 20.
King, R., Fetzer, C., Colter, P., Edmondson, K., Ermer, J.,
Cotal, H., Yoon, H., Stavrides, A., Kinsey, G., Kurzt, D.,
Karam, N., 2002. High-eciency space and terrestrial
multijunction solar cells through bandgap control in cell
structures. In: Proceedings of the 29th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, New Orleans, USA. IEEE, New
York, p. 776.
Kurtz, S.R., Myers, D., Olson, J.M., 1997. Projected perfor-
mance of three- and four-junction devices using GaAs and
GaInP. In: Proceedings of the 26th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Anaheim, USA. IEEE, New York,
p. 875.
Olson, J.M, Kurtz, S.R., Kibbler, K.E., 1990. A 27.3% ecient
Ga0.5In0.5P/GaAs tandem solar cell. Appl. Phys. Lett. 56,
623.
Sugiura, H., Amano, C., Yamamoto, A., Yamaguchi, M., 1988.
Double hetero-structure GaAs tunnel junction for an
AlGaAs/GaAs tandem solar cell. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 27,
269.
Takamoto, T., Ikeda, E., Kurita, H., Ohmori, M., Yamaguchi,
M., 1997a. Two-terminal monolithic In0.5Ga0.5P/GaAs tan-
dem solar cells with a high conversion eciency of over
30%. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 36, 6215.
Takamoto, T., Ikeda, E., Agui, T., Kurita, H., Tanabe, T.,
Tanaka, S., Matsubara, H., Mine, Y., Takagishi, S.,
Yamaguchi, M., 1997b. InGaP/GaAs and InGaAs mechan-
ically-stacked triple-junction solar cells. In: Proceedings of
the 26th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Ana-
heim, USA. IEEE, New York, p. 1031.
Takamoto, T., Yamaguchi, M., Ikeda, E., Agui, T., Kurita, H.,
Al-Jassim, M., 1999. Mechanism of Zn and Si diusion
from a highly doped tunnel junction for InGaP/GaAs
tandem solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 85, 1481.
Takamoto, T., Agui, T., Kamimura, K., Kaneiwa, M., Imaiz-
umi, M., Matsuda, S., Yamaguchi, M., 2003. Multijunction
solar cell technologies-high eciency, radiation resistance,
and concentrator applications. In: Proceedings of the 3rd
World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion,
Osaka, Japan. p. 581.
Wolf, M., 1960. Limitations and possibilities for improvement
of photovoltaic solar energy converters. Proc. Inst. Radio
Engineers 48, 1246.
Yamaguchi, M., 2002. Present status of R&D for super-high-
eciency IIIV compound solar cells in Japan. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 17th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy
Conference, Munich, Germany. WIP, Munich, Germany, p.
2144.
Yamaguchi, M., Wakamatsu, S., 1996. Super-high eciency
solar cell R&D program in Japan. In: Proceedings of the
25th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Washing-
ton DC, USA. IEEE, New York, p. 9.
Yamaguchi, M., Amano, C., Sugiura, H., Yamamoto, A., 1987.
High eciency AlGaAsGaAs tandem solar cell with tunnel
junction. In: Proceedings of the 19th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, New Orleans, USA. IEEE, New
York, p. 1484.