BRE Concrete Fire Engineering Proceedinginternational Conference Held at University of Dundee Scotland UK Jul 2008

CONCRETE FOR FIRE ENGINEERING

Concrete and its constituent parts are available and used globally. It has been, is, and will be
the major construction material for mankind. As a consequence, we all have a responsibility for
concretes effective design, construction and efficient use. Future resources, energy consumption,
performance, durability, environmental and societal impacts as well as economics are matters on
which concretes sustainability will be judged and this issue carries a global conscience.
The Concrete Technology Unit of the University of Dundee organised the three-day International
Congress to address the challenges and opportunities for concrete, under the theme Concrete:
Constructions Sustainable Option, 810 July 2008. The Congress consisted of six individual
conferences:
1. Role for concrete in global development Edited by Ravindra K Dhir, Pal Chana,
2. Precast concrete: towards lean construction
3. Concrete durability: achievement and enhancement
Sinan Caliskan and Rajen Lavingia
Licensed copy from CIS: wchmht, Meinhardt, 30/12/2011, Uncontrolled Copy.
4. Designing concrete for the visual environment

5. Concrete for fire engineering
6. Harnessing fibres for concrete construction.
This volume, Concrete for fire engineering, forms the Proceedings of Conference 5 and deals
with issues such as mechanisms of structural fire behaviour, high performance concretes, design
for extreme events, assessing and rectifying damage and risk analysis.
ALSO AVAILABLE FROM IHS BRE PRESS
Dhir, Chana, Caliskan and Lavingia

FIRE SAFETY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES: Background to BS8110 fire safety
T Lennon
BR468, 44 pages, 2004
CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN FIRE
T Lennon, R Rupasinghe, N Waleed, G Canisius and S Matthews
BR490, 80 pages, 2007
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING: A reference guide
R Chitty and J Fraser-Mitchell
BR459, 112 pages, 2003
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EP 90
EP90 (Vol5) Cover.indd 1 13/06/2008 15:01:11

Concrete for Fire Engineering
Proceedings of the International Conference

held at the University of Dundee, Scotland, UK
on 10 July 2008
Edited by
Ravindra K. Dhir
Director, Concrete Technology Unit
University of Dundee
Pal Chana
Technical Director,
British Cement Association
Sinan Caliskan
Research//Teaching Fellow, Concrete Technology Unit
Rajen Lavingia
Research Assistant, Concrete Technology Unit
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Professor Ravindra K Dhir is founding Director of the Concrete Technology Unit at the University of
Dundee. A renowned practitioner in the field of concrete technology, he is a member of numerous national and
international technical committees and has published extensively on many aspects of concrete technology,
cement science, durability and construction methods.
Professor Pal Chana is Technical Director of the British Cement Association (BCA) with responsibility
for its standards, technical and research activities, and a Visiting Professor at the University of Dundee. He
is chairman of the joint CEMBUREAU/BIBM/ERMCO Task Force 5.2: Fire Safety in Concrete and has
been awarded several honours for his work on advancing knowledge and developing best practice in
cement and concrete construction.
Dr Sinan Caliskan is a former Research/Teaching fellow of the University of Dundee. Having obtained
his MPhil and PhD at Cardiff University his research has covered characteristics of interfacial fracture
between model aggregates and Portland cement mortar. Current research interests include new generation
of cement-based construction materials particularly high performance and self-compacting concrete, use of
new cements, durability and microstructure of concrete and non-destructive testing and image analysis of
engineering materials.
Mr Rajen Lavingia is a Research Assistant in the Concrete Technology Unit at the University of Dundee.
His research interest focuses mainly use of industrial by-products as cement components with a special
interest in the microstructure of paste, mortar and concrete and long-term durability of cement
combinations.
Cover photo: Warehouse with concrete separating walls and floor to resist fire (BDB, Germany)
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EP90
ISBN-13: 978-1-84806-041-8
IHS BRE Press, 2008
[Concrete: constructions sustainable option, Volumes 16, EP92, 978-1-84806-043-2]
The views expressed in the papers in this volume of proceedings are those of the authors. The editors and IHS BRE
Press do not accept any responsibility for the contents of the papers or for any loss or damage which might occur as a
result of following or using data or advice given in the papers.
ii
PREFACE
Concrete and its constituent parts are available and used globally. It has been, is, and will continue to be
the major construction material for mankind. As a consequence, we all have a responsibility for
concrete's effective design, construction and efficient use. Future resources, energy consumption,
performance, durability, environmental and societal impacts as well as economics are all matters on
which concretes sustainability will be judged and this has a global significance. Increasingly, at both
political and practical levels, construction has to address and implement sustainability and towards this
goal, concrete engineering has the capability to drive the agenda.
The Concrete Technology Unit (CTU) of the University of Dundee organised this Congress to address
these challenges, continuing its established series of events, namely, Global Construction: Ultimate
Concrete Opportunities in 2005, Challenges of Concrete Construction in 2002, Creating with Concrete
in 1999, Concrete in the Service of Mankind in 1996, Economic and Durable Concrete Construction
Through Excellence in 1993 and Protection of Concrete in 1990.
The event was organised in collaboration with three of the worlds most recognised institutions: the
Institution of Civil Engineers, UK, the American Concrete Institute and the Japan Society of Civil
Engineers. Under the theme of Concrete: Constructions Sustainable Option, the Congress consisted
of six Events: (i) Role for Concrete in Global Development, (ii) Precast Concrete: Towards Lean
Construction, (iii) Concrete Durability: Achievement and Enhancement, (iv) Designing Concrete for
the Visual Environment, (v) Concrete for Fire Engineering, (vi) Harnessing Fibres for Concrete
Construction. In all, a total of 308 papers were presented from 72 countries.
The Opening Addresses were given by Sir Alan Langlands, Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Dundee, Mr John Letford, Lord Provost, City of Dundee, and senior representatives of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, the Japan Society of Civil Engineers and the American Concrete Institute.
The Event Opening Papers were presented by Dr Andrew Minson, The Concrete Centre, UK, Professor
M Samarai, University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, Mr Martin Clarke, British Precast, UK, Dr
Habib M Zein-Al-Abideen, Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Saudi Arabia, Mr Erik Larsen,
COWI A/S, Denmark, Professor Tom Harrison Quarry Products Association, UK, Professor Carmen
Andrade, Institute of Construction Science, Spain, Ms Linda Patterson, Linda Patterson Design, USA,
Mr Michel Levy, Setec TPI, France and Dr Ellis Gartner, Lafarge Central Research, France. The
Closing Papers for each event were presented by Professor Peter Hewlett, John Doyle Group, UK, Dr
Bernd Hans Wolschner, SW Umwelttechnik, Austria, Dr Oladis Troconis, Zulia University, Venezuela,
Mr Harry Moats, L M Scofield, USA, Dr Lars Bostrom, Swedish National Testing and Research
Institute, Sweden, and Professor Sergio Carmona, University Tecnica Federico Santa Maria, Chile.
The support of 43 International Professional Institutions and over 20 Sponsoring Organisations was a
major contribution to the success of the Congress. An extensive Trade Fair formed an integral part of the
event. The work of the Congress was an immense undertaking and all of those involved are gratefully
acknowledged, in particular, the members of the Organising Committee for managing the event from
start to finish; members of the Scientific and Technical Committees for advising on the selection and
reviewing of papers; the Authors and the Chairmen of Technical Sessions for their invaluable
contributions to the proceedings.
All of the proceedings have been prepared directly from the camera-ready manuscripts submitted by
the authors and editing has been restricted to minor changes, only where it was considered absolutely
necessary.
Dundee Ravindra K Dhir
July 2008 Chairman, Congress Organising Committee
iii
INTRODUCTION
Modern concrete is vastly different from early products, with high strength, fibre reinforced, self
compacting, foamed or sprayed varieties and applications now being dominated by advanced ready-mix
and precast technologies. The construction process and its management are optimised with the aid of
computers. Durability problems are tackled in their complexity, and there are virtually no restrictions
left to limit the architects or engineers imagination. Design now incorporates aspects covering the fire
resistance of structures, with corrective processes introduced, even at the earliest stages of the
manufacturing procedure.
There has also been a tendency for concrete to increasingly take over roles hitherto assigned to other
elements, to promote simplicity and cost effectiveness of construction as a whole. Concrete construction
provides inherent fire resistance to structures and when properly designed and detailed, concrete
construction responds effectively to the requirements of fire safety. The advances in concrete technology
have enabled structures not only to withstand adverse temperature differentials due to fire, but also the
resistance to withstand structural collapse in major fire accidents. This has a positive effect in saving
human lives and avoids enormous financial risks.
Given that current practice has embraced the developing technology, the need for and uptake of new
ideas is central to a successful industry. The contributions in this conference have certainly supported
the aim to produce concrete, which is equally pleasing to the environment and to the people who make
it part of their lives.
The Proceedings Concrete for Fire Engineering dealt with all these subject areas and the issues raised
two clearly defined themes: (i) Design and Performance (ii) Assessing and Rectifying Damage. Each
theme started with a Keynote Paper presented by the foremost exponents in their respective fields. There
were 28 papers presented during the International Conference, which are compiled into these
Proceedings.
Dundee R K Dhir
July 2008 P Chana
S Caliskan
R Lavingia
iv
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Concrete Technology Unit

Professor R K Dhir OBE (Chairman)
Dr M D Newlands (Secretary)
Professor P C Hewlett
John Doyle Group
Professor T A Harrison
Quarry Products Association
Professor P Chana
Professor V K Rigopoulou
National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Dr S Y N Chan
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Dr N Y Ho
L & M Structural Systems, Singapore
Dr K A Paine
University of Bath
Professor S P Singh
NIT Jalandhar, India
Dr M R Jones
Dr M J McCarthy
Dr T D Dyer
Dr J E Halliday
Dr L J Csetenyi
Dr L Zheng
Dr S Kandasami
Mr R Lavingia
Dr S Caliskan
Dr M C Tang
Miss A M D Scott (Congress Assistant)
Mr S R Scott (Unit Assistant)
v
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
Professor Colin G Bailey, Professor of Structural Engineering

University of Manchester, United Kingdom
Professor Perumalsamy Balaguru, Distinguished Professor

Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, United States of America
Professor Dubravka Bjegovic, Professor of Materials Science and Fabrication

University of Zagreb, Croatia
Professor Pal Chana, Technical Director

British Cement Association, United Kingdom
Dr Jean-Marie Chandelle, Chief Executive

CEMBUREAU, Belgium
Dr Frank Dehn, Assistant Professor

Leipzig University, Germany
Professor Jean Pera, Director of Civil Engineering

Institut National des Sciences Appliquees de Lyon, France
Dr Asif S Usmani, Reader in Structural Engineering

University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom
vi
COLLABORATING INSTITUTIONS
Institution of Civil Engineers, UK
American Concrete Institute
Japan Society of Civil Engineers
SPONSORING ORGANISATIONS WITH EXHIBITION

Aalborg Portland, Denmark Grace Construction Products
Aggregate Industries Halcrow
Arcelor Mittal Holcim Ltd
Arup Heidelberg Cement
BASF Construction Chemicals John Doyle Group
British Board of Agrment Lafarge Cement UK
British Cement Association OMYA UK
British Precast Oscrete Construction

Products
Building Research Establishment
PANalytical Ltd
Castle Cement Limited
Propex Concrete Systems
CEMBUREAU
Quantachrome Instruments
CNS Farnell Ltd
Singapore Concrete Institute
Danish Technological Institute
STATS Ltd
Dundee & Angus
Convention Bureau The Concrete Centre
Dundee City Council United Kingdom Quality Ash

Association
Elkem Materials Ltd
Zwick Testing Machines Ltd
Germann Instruments A/S
vii
SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS
American Society of Civil Engineers Construction Institute, USA
Asociacin de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Spain
Asociacin de Ingenieros del Uruguay, Uruguay
Association of Slovak Scientific & Technological Societies, Slovakia
Associazione Italiana di Ingegneria dei Materiali, Italy
Bahrain Society of Engineers, Bahrain
Belgian Concrete Society (BBG), Belgium
Brazilian Concrete Institute (IBRACON), Brazil
Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Canada
China Civil Engineering Society, China
Chinese Institute of Engineers, Taiwan
Concrete Institute of Australia
Concrete Society of Southern Africa
Consiglio Nazionale degli Ingegneri, Italy
Czech Concrete Society, Czech Republic
Danish Concrete Society (DBF), Denmark
European Concrete Societies Network (ECSN)
Federation of Scientific Technical Unions in Bulgaria (FNTS)
German Society for Concrete and Construction Technology
Hong Kong Institution of Engineers

viii
SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS
Hungarian Cement Association (MCS)
Indian Concrete Institute
Institute of Concrete Technology, UK
Institution of Engineers, India
Institution of Engineers (IEB), Bangladesh
Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Institution of Engineers (IESL), Sri Lanka
Institution of Engineers, Tanzania
Institution of Structural Engineers, UK
Instituto Mexicano del Cemento y del Concreto AC, Mexico
Irish Concrete Society, Ireland
Japan Concrete Institute, Japan
Korea Concrete Institute (KCI), South Korea
Netherlands Concrete Society, Netherlands
New Zealand Concrete Society, New Zealand
Nigerian Society of Engineers, Nigeria
Singapore Concrete Institute, Singapore
Slovenian Chamber of Engineers, Slovenia
The Concrete Society, UK
Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers (TCCE), Turkey
Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers, Zimbabwe

ix
x
CONTENTS
Preface iii
Introduction iv
Organising Committee v
Scientific and Technical Committee vi
Collaborating Institutions vii
Sponsoring Organisations With Exhibition vii
Supporting Institutions viii
Opening Paper
1
Concrete Behaviour under Fire in Tunnels: Case Histories
M Levy, J Bernard, P-L Veyron, SETEC Travaux Publics et
Industriels, France
THEME 1: DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE

Keynote Paper
Fire Safety with Concrete 13
P Chana, British Cement Association, UK
Theoretical Assessment of Flexural Strength of Heated Reinforced 27

Concrete Beams
M Potha Raju, M Nalini, K Srinivasa Rao, P V Srinivasa Rao
Deformation and Load Bearing Capacity of RC Flexural Cross-section 35

Subjected to Fire
R Kowalski
Creep of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures 47

A Bali, R Boutemeur, N Oudjit
Finite Element Modelling of Precast Hollow-Core Concrete Floors 55

Under Fire Conditions
J Chang, R P Dhakal, P J Moss, A H Buchanan
Numerical Analysis of Transient Heat Transfer Problems 67

M Demidem
Effect of W/C Ratio on Behaviour of Concrete at High Temperatures 77

D Matesova
Effect of High Temperature on the Lightweight Structural Pumice 89

Aggregate Concrete with Silica Fume
E Sancak, O Simsek
xi
Mechanical and Thermal Properties of NSCs and HPCs Exposed to 103
High Temperature: Cement and Aggregate Roles
P Bamonte, P G Gambarova, S Cangiano
Behaviour of an Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced 115

Concrete at Very High Temperatures
J C Mindeguia, P Pimienta, M Dhiersat, N Afif, A Simon
Fly Ash Concrete at Fire Temperatures 127

A K Chattopadhyay, B Chattopadhyay
Mechanical Properties of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced 139

Concrete at High Temperatures
A de Chefdebien, F Robert
Effect of Polypropylene Fibre Geometry on Explosive Spalling 149

Mitigation in High Strength Concrete under Elevated Temperature
Condition
S L Suhaendi, T Horiguchi, K Shimura
Fire Load in a Concrete Building Design 157

L Razdolsky
Raising the Efficiency of Heat-Resisting Concretes and Masses by 171

Utilisation of Secondary Mineral Resources
M V Lukhanin, S I Pavlenko
A New Design Method for Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs in Fire 181
D Lange, A Usmani, N Cameron, J Torero
THEME 2: ASSESSING AND RECTIFYING DAMAGE

Keynote Paper
Case Studies of Real Fire Assessments in Concrete Buildings 191
B Lane, S Lamont, A Heise, Arup, UK
Preliminary Study on Low Grade Concrete at High Temperatures 205
R Tuladhar, A P Malla
An Analysis of the Compressive Ring in Reinforced Concrete 215

Slabs in Fire
D Fox, A Usmani, D Lange
Residual Strength of Polypropylene Fibre-Reinforced High-Strength 229

Concretes Heated to High Temperatures
A Behnood, M Khanzadi
xii
The Effect of High Temperatures on Toughness and Porosity of 243
Concrete
V Vydra, K Trtik, F Vodak, P Razimova
Problems with Assessing the Degradation of a Reinforced Concrete 255

Hall Affected by Fire
A Dufka, J Bydzovsky, Z Snirch
Heat-Resisting Foam Concrete (HRFC) Based on Aluminium 263

Silicate
V A Beregovoi, A I Eremkin, A M Beregovoi
Utilisation of Alkali-Activated Aluminosilicates asFire Protecting 273

Materials
P Rovnanik, P Bayer, P Rovnanikova
Influence of High Temperature Heating on the Mechanical 283

Properties of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Panel
Y Kitsutaka, H Hiramatsu, M Tamura
The Determination of the Fire Resistance of Prestressed Hollow 291

Core Concrete Slabs
G Wozniak, M Lukomski, A Borowy
Fire Endurance of RC Columns 303

K S Babunarayan, H C Chinnagiri Gowda, K Venkataramana,
S C Yaragal
Closing Paper
Concrete Exposed to Fire 319
L Bostrom, SP Fire Technology, Sweden
Index of Authors 329

Subject Index 331
xiii
xiv
OPENING
PAPER
CONCRETE BEHAVIOUR UNDER FIRE IN TUNNELS:
CASE HISTORIES
M Levy
J Bernard
P-L Veyron
Setec TPI Paris
France
ABSTRACT. Looking at various tunnel damages after fire, we note a different behaviour of
the concrete under fire according to concrete quality and thickness. Mentioning the name of
the tunnel and the year of the fire, we noted a difference between (i) usual concrete large
thickness, Mont Blanc lining (1999), Toulon cut and cover ceiling slab (2000), Frejus lining
(2005), (ii) usual concrete thin thickness, Frejus ventilation ceiling slab (1983 and 2005),
Laboratory tests on samples of 1 m size taken from Frejus ceiling slab with and without an
added fire protection sheet (2001, 2003), (iii) High strength concrete large thickness,
Channel Tunnel (1996), Concrete thickness loss due to spalling is maximum for high quality
concrete and minimum for low quality concrete or thin thickness of concrete structure.
Keywords: Tunnel, Concrete, Fire, Spalling.
Michel Levy, is a Director at Setec TPI Paris and Ecole Polytechnique, Ecole Nationale des
Ponts et Chausses Paris and was involved in tunnel design and construction supervision for
many tunnels and post fire tunnel repairs including the Channel tunnel and Frejus road
tunnel.
Jean Bernard is a Director at Setec TPI Paris and Ecole Polytechnique, Ecole Nationale des
Ponts et Chausses Paris and has been involved in the construction of many tunnels
(Puymorens 4.8 km, Orelle 3.7 km, Chavanne 2 km) and in tunnel fire design.
Pierre-Loc Veyron is Chief Engineer in Setec TPI Paris and Ecole Polytechnique, Ecole
Nationale des Ponts et Chausses Paris and has been involved in tunnel design and
construction (Orelle 3.7 km, Lyon-Turin railway 53 km and 12 km), fire safety improvement
of tunnels and laboratory fire tests.
1
2 Levy, Bernard, Veyron
INTRODUCTION
After the Mont Blanc road tunnel fire in March 1999 (39 fatalities) new tunnel design
procedures were imposed in France (25 August 2000). Structures important for safety must
resist for 2 hours at HCM temperature curve instead of ISO as before (Table 1).
Table 1 ISO and HCM temperature in C
Time in min. 4 6 30 60 90 120 150 180

Temperature ISO C 544 603 842 945 1006 1049 1082 1110
Temperature HCM C 1087 1147 1297 1300 1300 1300 1300 1300
Concrete and steel reinforcement behaviour versus temperature is well known (Table 2).
Table 2 Weakening coefficient of steel and concrete versus temperatures
Temperature C 20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Weakening coefficient of steel 1 0.96 0.92 0.81 0.63 0.44 0.26 0.08
elastic limit
Weakening coefficient of 1 1 0.97 0.91 0.85 0.74 0.6 0.43
concrete strength
However, concrete spalling is not as well known despite its importance for concrete or
reinforced concrete structure stability.
It is therefore interesting to examine the behaviour of concrete structures in actual tunnels

after actual fires despite the fact that the parameters of fire (temperature, timeetc) cannot
be fixed like in laboratory tests. We have noted a different behaviour of concrete according to
3 categories of structures:
usual concrete large thickness (lining)

usual concrete small thickness (slabs)
high strength concrete large thickness (lining)
We had no opportunity to examine high strength concrete small thickness behaviour.
USUAL CONCRETE LARGE THICKNESS
Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire of 1999
Structure type is shown in Figure 1. Vault lining was made of concrete poured in place
using aggregates made with the rock excavated from the tunnel, concrete of poor quality: 25
to 30 MPa (N/mm). Thickness varies from 0.5 m to 1 m. Ventilation ducts are located below
the road slab. Length of the tunnel is 11.6 km.
Concrete Tunnel Fires 3
Figure 1 Mont Blanc tunnel cross section
Type of fire: A HGV (heavy goods vehicle) took fire without external causes; it stopped 7 km
after entering by the French portal. Smoke was pushed towards France by ventilation and,
may be, by natural wind, preventing French fire-fighters to approach the fire. Plenty of
HGVs and LVs (light vehicles) were trapped and burnt on an area 3 km long. The fire could
not be extinguished and lasted around 50 hours until everything in the tunnel had burnt. The
estimated maximum temperature was 1000C. Thirty nine people lost their life.
Concrete behaviour: Concrete lining was almost not damaged; only limited places where
water was dripping through the concrete had spalling; along the junction between lower wall
and vault, traces of excessive compressive stress due to transverse expansion during fire were
slightly visible. Road slab suffered slightly on a length of 100 m only, since temperature was
certainly lower at road level than at vault level above HGVs.
Toulon Cut And Cover. Fire of 2000
Structure: 60 m long and around 9 m wide cut and cover trench covered by a reinforced
concrete slab whose thickness varies from 0.45 m to 0.5 m.
Fire: The only interest of this fire is that it was caused by an HGV carrying petrol and diesel
oil; as this type of HGV is not authorized to go through long tunnels it was an opportunity to
examine a fire approaching HCM temperature curve. The tank of the HGV being higher than
the ceiling level knocked against the ceiling slab. 5 m of petrol and 5 m3 of diesel oil escaped
from the tank and burnt in the middle of the trench (lower point). The fire lasted 2.5 hours;
among them 1 h with high intensity. Fire-fighters could not do anything but cooling with
water from outside.
Concrete behaviour: the attached photo (Fig. 2) shows a limited spalling around 5 cm depth
allowing to uncover the reinforcement of the lower level on a part of its length.
Figure 2 Toulon cut and cover
Walls of Frejus Road Tunnel Lining During the Year 2005 Fire
Structure (Figure 3): length: 12.9 km. Wall thickness: 0.35 m theoretically but actually 0.6 to
0.8 m.
Year 2005 fire: Fire was initiated by HGV n 1 carrying rubber tires toward Italy which burnt
without external causes and stopped at km 5.9 from French portal on the western lane. Traffic
was stopped at both ends. Most of LVs could U turn and escape. Smoke was sucked at a rate
of 200 m3/s in the area of HGV n 1 but due to natural pressure some smoke went towards
Italy. HGVs coming from Italy stopped on the Eastern lane: HGV n 2 at 60 m from n 1,
HGV n 3, 60 m from n 2 and HGV n 4 at 240 m from n 3. All of them took fire. Fire-
fighters coming from the French side succeeded in extinguishing after 2 hours HGVs n1, 2
and 3; they needed another 4 hours to reach and extinguish HGV n 4. The estimated
maximum temperature was 1000 in the area of HGV n 1.
EAST WEST
Figure 3 Frjus cross section

Behaviour of the walls: Spalling of concrete (of good quality 40 MPa) occurred mainly on
the western wall close to HGV n 1 on a length of 30 m. Loss of thickness was 0.15 m in
average with a maximum of 20 cm. The concrete which remained in place did not suffer very
much and only 2 or 3 cm had to be removed by hydrodemolition before repairing.
Conclusion for Usual Concrete Large Thickness
The poorer the concrete the better the behaviour under fire: the poor concrete of Mont Blanc
had little damage; the mean concrete of Toulon had a limited spalling (5 cm); the better
concrete of Frejus lining lost 15 cm of thickness.
USUAL CONCRETE SMALL THICKNESS FREJUS TUNNEL CEILING SLAB
Ceiling structure of Frejus tunnel is described hereafter (Figure 4). The ceiling slab is a
reinforced concrete structure with 8 to 12 mm rebars in both directions in each layer.
Reinforcement cover is 2 cm of concrete. The lateral expansion is free due to support
conditions on the walls, with 1.5 cm polystyrene between slab and lining.
Figure 4 Frjus slab support on the lining
We had the opportunity to examine the behaviour under fire of the ceiling slab through 2
different fires and through 3 fire tests in laboratory with samples taken from the slab whose
surface was around 1 m each.
Year 1983 Fire

Fire: An HGV carrying 20 or 30 tons of plastic bags burnt without external cause. Fire-
fighters from the operating company (SFTRF) coming from the French side arrived 20
minutes after fire started in the HGVs motor and put fire under control with limited means
(three extinctors small truck). After arrival of professional fire-fighters with a powerful pump
from Modane, the fire was completely extinguished 2 hours after its start.
Concrete behaviour: no spalling occurred; sound velocity in the concrete was of 3500 to
4100 m/s on an area 30 m long instead of 4200 m/s in normal areas; compressive strength
was 25 MPa (N/mm) and we believed that it was much lower than the control tests made
during construction (45 MPa on cylinders), but we discovered that the in situ strength was not
more than 30-35 MPa.
Year 2005 Fire
Concrete behaviour: Surprisingly, there was no spalling in the ceiling slab. Sound velocity
became lower than 2500 m/s on a length of 230 m and close to 1000 m/s on a length of 50 m
(Figure 5). Concrete strength was in the range of 10 to 12 MPa (N/mm) in an area 36 m long
but the concrete still had a sufficient shear resistance in order to allow the slab to resist a load
test before restarting operation.
VELOCITY, m/s
DISTANCE, m
Figure 5 Frejus sound velocity in the deck slab
Laboratory Tests in CTICM Oven in Mezires-les-Metz
After receiving on 25 August 2000 new technical instructions from the French government
SITAF and SFTRF (the Italian and French concessionaires of the Frejus road tunnel), wanted
to examine the behaviour of the ceiling under HCM temperature curve for 2 hours and to
study a fire protection solution.
Therefore pieces of ceiling of an area of 1 m were taken in situ. In the CTICM oven,
allowing to test 3 samples at the same time (Fig. 6) we tested at each time, 3 samples of 1 m
area: 1 without fire protection, 2 others with different fire protection sheets, 2 or 3 cm
thickness made of silicates supplied by PROMAT.
Three tests were performed:
2001 test with 3 samples taken from the Italian side (12 cm thickness): 2 hours HCM
temperature.
2002 test with 3 samples taken from the French side (15 cm thickness): 2 hours ISO
temperature.
2006 test with 3 samples taken from the French side: 2 hours HCM temperature.
Figure 6 Frejus ceiling: HCM test in laboratory
Year 2001 test
On the sample without protection almost no spalling was seen (Figure 7); the following
temperatures were measured.
Table 3 Temperature at different levels of the slab
Time in hours 0 0.1 0.5 1 1.5 2

Temp. oven in C 21 1154 1296 1306 1302 1301
Temp. HA12 lower level C 22 95 267 436 543 626
Temp. HA12 upper level C 21 37 102 155 232 315
Temp. upper face of slab C 23 23 64 94 125 194
Figure 7 Frejus: Ceiling slab without fire protection after 2h HCM test
On this sample we could see on the upper face fissures after 5 minutes with water getting out
of the concrete through these fissures. More and more water arrived up to 20 minutes from
the concrete up to the top of the slab. After 25 minutes this water started evaporating and had
disappeared after 36 minutes. On the samples with fire protection sheet, the temperature did
not go above 161 C (HA 12 lower level) and 100 C (upper face of slab).
Other tests
The observations and measures were very similar with samples taken from the French side.
Conclusion on the Behaviour of Usual Concrete in Small Thickness
Concrete spalling is very limited: the concrete of a slab is probably not as dense as for a
wall; it is fissured and the water steamed by the fire can easily escape from the concrete.
In these conditions concrete suffers from heat but not from spalling. Mechanical
properties are damaged, but not sufficiently to destroy the shear resistance of the
concrete. After cooling, reinforcement rebar properties are restored. If reinforcement
temperature can be limited (concrete cover or fire protection sheet) in such a way to avoid
collapse of the slab during fire it may be possible after fire to get a structure resistance
sufficient to restart operations and to make the necessary repairs without interrupting the
traffic.
When performing fire laboratory tests do not forget (as unfortunately we did) to restart
the test on the same sample after cooling. This will allow to answer the question after a
fire: what will happen with the structure if we have another fire at the same place later
on?
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
High strength concrete (strength of 60 to 90 MPa or N/mm) is mainly used to manufacture

the segments for the permanent tunnel lining erected behind a TBM (tunnelling boring
machine). This concrete could be manufactured by incorporating silica fume additive in order
to get a permeability as low as K = 10 -13m/s.
But using a well designed mix without silica fume with very low water content and powerful
vibration could lead to the same type of high strength concrete. This was the case for Channel
tunnel lining.
Channel Tunnel Lining
Structure: Internal diameter of a running tunnel is 7.6 m, segment thickness is 0.40 m. A ring
of 1.6 m length is made of 5 segments and a trapezoidal key. The contact between 2
segments of the same ring is cylindrical. The segments are temporarily bolted during
construction. The reinforcement, temporarily useful in the middle of a segment for resisting
loads during transportation and erection, is mainly necessary in the edges (Figure 8) for
permanent loads, in order to resist concentrated loads close to the contact with the other
segments of the same ring (due to ground and water pressure on the lining); also close to the
contact between 2 rings because this edge receives the concentrated loads from the jacks
pushing the TBM ahead when it excavates the ground.
On the French side the lining was erected inside the tail of the TBM; therefore a space of
0.20 m between the lining and the ground had to be grouted with a cement mix. .
Figure 8 Lower level reinforcement of a segment
Fire: a HGV carried by a wagon of an HGV shuttle took fire just after the shuttle left the
platform on the French side; time was not sufficient to stop the shuttle before entering in the
tunnel. The shuttle was not able to join the UK side because an alarm (which was probably a
false alarm caused by the fire) forced it to stop after 17 km (out of 50).
The HGV drivers accommodated in a wagon just behind the head loco were evacuated to the
service tunnel. The emergency ventilation was pushing the air and smoke towards the back of
the train. Therefore all 9 HGVs carried by wagons located behind the HGV in fire took
themselves fire.
The fire-fighters arrived 15 minutes after shuttle stoppage, but could not do anything in order
to extinguish the fire which lasted around 15 hours until everything in the back part of the
shuttle had burnt down.
The maximum estimated temperature was 1000C; to be noted that HGV wagons have a
metallic upper ceiling but are open on both sides.
Concrete behaviour (Figures 9 and 10): In the area around the HGV in fire a severe spalling
has reduced by an average of 0.20 m (50 %) the lining thickness on a length of 70 m. Locally
the reduction reached 0.40 m (100 %).
On a segment, 2 furrows are dug by the fire where reinforcement density is smaller (due to
temporary bolts). Spalling is less severe where reinforcement density is higher. The pieces of
concrete fallen on the soil have a 3 to 4 mm thickness and a size of 1 or few cm in the other
directions. The analysis performed by Pr Sanderson from Glasgow University (thermo-
luminescence) or CETE of Lille (grindosonic) or LCPC of Paris (cement crystals analysis)
demonstrated that the remaining concrete of the lining has almost retained its initial
mechanical properties with the exception of 2 or 3 cm where the temperature had not been
higher than 400 or 500C. Therefore we could imagine the following process of spalling:
after some minutes the internal side of the segments has reached a temperature of 300 to
500C; under the effect of temperature gradient and steam pressure inside the concrete (due
to the low permeability of concrete which does not allow steam to escape), a concrete layer of
3 or 4 mm thickness is broken down and separated from the rest of the segment.
Where reinforcement density is small, the pieces of broken concrete fall. Where
reinforcement density is larger, the pieces of broken concrete are retained and act as a fire
protection for the remaining concrete.
Figure 9 Channel Tunnel: Lining spalling
When pieces of concrete fall the same process starts again with a new layer of concrete 3 or
4 mm thick. At a rate of 3 mm every 6 minutes for example, the thickness loss will be
3 cm/hour until the fire is finished at this location.
A last recommendation for future fire analysis: despite the owners desire to clean the place
as quickly as possible, we should take samples of material fallen on the soil noting the
location, the level in the heap because there is a lot to learn from these fragments provided we
know where they come from and at which time they fell.
Figure 10 Remaining lining thickness in cm. at 12 hours

Conclusion for High Strength Concrete in Large Thickness
High strength concrete presents a particular weakness in case of fire as far as spalling is
concerned; on the other hand, the remaining concrete suffers little damage. In order to limit
the spalling some solutions are possible:
To place close to the internal side a fine mesh with hole size limited to 5 or 3 cm in order
to retain the first pieces of broken concrete where reinforcement density is not high
enough,
To include polypropylene fibres in the concrete mix; in case of fire the fibres will melt,
leaving channels or ducts for steam to escape,
It is always possible to place a fire protection sheet, but this will make the use of suction
pads difficult for carrying the segments and erecting the lining, during construction.
OVERALL CONCLUSION
Good Behaviour of Concrete Structures
Let us first stress that in all fires we have described, the concrete structures did not collapse
and were never the cause of accidents or fatalities for users or for fire fighters. The fatalities
were caused first by the toxic smokes (with high CO content) which are produced very
quickly after the start of a fire in a tunnel, and secondarily by the heat.
In order to improve people safety in tunnels, there is no need to improve the concrete; it is
much more important to prevent HGV from burning without external causes (accidents
etc), to control the danger coming from what they are carrying and to organise the
operations in such a way that the users are protected from the toxic smokes.
Useful Lessons to Learn from Tunnel Fires
For concrete slabs it may be interesting to avoid collapse in preventing the temperature of the
reinforcement layer close to the fire from becoming too high. A large concrete cover could be
sufficient since spalling in not likely to occur and to decrease cover thickness. An additional
reinforcement layer in the middle of the height may be a good solution to avoid collapse until
temperature of the layer close to the fire has cooled. Otherwise a fire protection sheet is
expensive, but efficient.
For high strength concrete in large thickness which is sensitive to spalling, a mesh near the
face close to the fire could be efficient to limit the loss of thickness. Otherwise the addition of
polypropylene fibres in the mix, although expensive, will limit the loss of thickness of the
concrete.
REFERENCES
MINISTERE DE LEQUIPEMENT ET MINISTERE DE LINTERIEUR (FRANCE):

Circulaire interministrielle du 25 aot 2000 relative la scurit dans les tunnels du rseau
routier national. 49 pages.
DEMORIEUX J-M, LEVY M. : Incendie du tunnel sous la Manche ; diagnostic des

dommages et rparations. Annales du Btiment et des Travaux Publics septembre 1998. p.
43-65.
ULM F-J, ACKER P., LEVY M. : Incendie dans le tunnel sous la Manche. Analyse
mcanique de lcaillage du bton. Revue Franaise de Gnie Civil vol. 2 n 3 mai 1998. p.
315-339.
DARPAS Y., LEVY M. : Scurit des tunnels routiers vis--vis de lincendie : MINES Paris-
ST Etienne-Nancy n 383 Dcembre 1999. p. 17-20.
BOROT G., LARIVE C., FERON C. : Apports des essais incendie pour la dtermination de
la tenue au feu des structures : Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains n 198 ; Nov.-Dc. 2006. p.
365-366.
THEME ONE:
DESIGN AND
PERFORMANCE
Keynote Paper
FIRE SAFETY WITH CONCRETE
P Chana
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT. Fire Safety is an important consideration for society. Concrete as a material is

inherently fire resistant and provides protection for life, property and the environment. This
paper describes how this is achieved through proper design and detailing, and goes on to
consider the important lessons learnt from some key fire case studies including the Windsor
Tower fire in Madrid, the World Trade Centre buildings in New York and tunnel fires in
Europe.
Keywords: Fire Safety, Concrete construction, Case studies.
Dr Pal Chana is Technical Director of the British Cement Association (BCA) in the United
Kingdom, with responsibility for its standards, technical and research activities, and a
Visiting Professor at the University of Dundee. He is chairman of the joint
CEMBUREAU/BIBM/ERMCO Task Force 5.2: Fire Safety in Concrete. He is the author of
numerous papers and publications, and has been awarded several honours and prizes for his
work on advancing knowledge and developing best practice in cement and concrete
construction. Previous appointments include Technical Director at BRE and founder Director
of CRIC, Imperial College, London.
13
14 Chana
INTRODUCTION
Fire Safety is an important consideration for design engineers and regulators. It is also of
direct interest to building users, owners, businesses, residents, insurers, regulators and fire
fighters. Concrete construction provides excellent fire resistance to ensure protection of life,
property and the environment in the event of fire. When properly designed and detailed,
concrete construction responds effectively to the protective aims set out in legislation for
residential buildings, industrial warehouses, tunnels, commercial building, schools, hospitals
and other structures.
This paper considers the basic properties of concrete in fire and gives an overview of the
main design considerations for fire safety. Some important case studies are also presented
with the important lessons learnt from these.
Why Fire Safety?
At the end of 1999, the World Fire Statistics Centre presented to the UN Task Group for
Housing an annual report containing comparison of the cost of fires. The data in Table 1 have
been summarized from the figures published in [1]. Even though the figures clearly do not
come from a common basis and in some cases are incomplete it is possible to deduce the
following informative trends from them:
The total cost of fire damage amounts to 0.2 to 0.3% of the Gross National Product.
The number of people killed every year by fires lies between 10 and 20 persons per
million inhabitants.
It is estimated that fire protection accounts for between 2 and 4% of the construction
costs.
The total cost of fire damage and protective measures is of the order of 0.6% of the gross
national product.
In the United Kingdom alone, there are over 1000 fires in hospitals every year and half of
businesses affected by a fire will be declared insolvent. These trends illustrate the necessity to
provide comprehensive fire protection. Reducing fire deaths and the cost of fire damage
should be declared aims of any social and economic policy relating to buildings. The report
on global fire statistics further recommends that the statistical international collection of data
on the consequences of fire should be continued. The importance of fire safety in Europe has
also been recognized in the European parliament. However, it is assumed that national
regulations will ensure adequate fire safety for people and property. At this moment it should
be noted that new developments in various developed countries seem to be having the
opposite effect through a lowering of the legal fire protection requirements.
CONCRETES PERFORMANCE IN A FIRE
Concrete has a high degree of fire resistance and, in the majority of applications, can be
described as fireproof when properly designed. Concrete is a very effective fire shield. This is
because its mineral constituents have a high heat storage capacity and its porous structure
results in a low rate of thermal conductivity. It is this slow rate of heat transfer that enables
concrete to act as an effective fire shield not only between adjacent spaces, but also to protect
itself from fire damage.
The rate of increase of temperature through the cross section of a concrete element is
relatively slow, and so internal zones do not reach the same high temperatures as a surface
exposed to flames. A standard ISO 834/BS 476 fire test on 160 mm wide x 300 mm deep
concrete beams exposed three sides to fire for one hour. While a temperature of 600C was
reached at 16 mm from the surface, this was halved to just 300C at 42 mm from the surface
a temperature gradient of 300C in just 26 mm of concrete! [15] This shows clearly how
concretes relatively slow rate of increase of temperature ensures that its internal zones
remain well protected. Even after a prolonged period, the internal temperature of concrete
remains relatively low enabling it to retain structural capacity and fire shielding properties as
a separating element.
When concrete is exposed to high temperatures in a fire, a number of physical and chemical
changes take place [2, 3]. These changes are summarised in Figure 1, which relates
temperature levels within the concrete (not the flame temperatures) to changes in its
properties.
Table 1 International statistical data on serious consequences of fires.
COST OF DIRECT CASES OF COSTS OF SHARE OF GNP

AND INDIRECT FIRE DEATH PER FIRE FOR DAMAGES
DAMAGE 100,000 PROTECTION AND
COUNTRY PERCENTAGE OF INHABITANTS MEASURES PROTECTIVE
PER YEAR
GNP * MEASURES
1994 - 1996
% % %
Germany 0,20 0,98
France 0,25 1,16 2,5 0,40
The
0,21 0,68 3,0 0,51
Netherlands
(1988-89)
Belgium 0,40 1,32 0,61
(1989)
Switzerland 0,33 0,55 0,62
Italy 0,29 0,86 4,0 0,63
(1984)
Spain 0,12 0,77
Austria 0,20 0,79
Denmark 0,26 1,82
Norway 0,24 1,45 3,5 0,66
Sweden 0,24 1,32 2,5 0,35
Finland 0,16 2,12
Great Britain 0,16 1,31 2,2 0,32
United States
0,14 1,90 0,48
of America
Canada 0,22 1,42 3,9 0,50
Japan 0,12 1,69 2,5 0,34
* GNP = Gross National Product
16 Chana
Figure 1 Concrete in fire: physical processes.
Spalling
In certain circumstances, concrete will spall when subjected to high temperatures experienced
in a fire. For normal buildings and normal fires (e.g. offices, schools, hospitals, residential),
design codes such as Eurocode 2 [2] and BS 8110 [4] already allow for spalling for these
applications. The fact that concrete does spall in a fire is implicit in design codes, with the
exception of tunnels or hydrocarbon fires. For example, research by Lennon [5] on the
experimental results used as the basis for developing the UK structural concrete design code,
BS 8110 found that these supported the assumed periods of fire resistance and in many cases
were very conservative. Figure 2 shows a comparison between floor slab performance in fire
tests and their assumed performance within BS 8110. Many of the specimens experienced
spalling during the fire tests, so the fact that most slabs exceeded assumed levels of
performance is evidence that spalling is both accounted for in design codes and does not
seriously affect concretes fire resistance in normal fires. For special concrete e.g. High
Strength Concrete and special applications e.g. tunnels, explicit measures need to be taken to
avoid spalling. Guidance on this is given in Eurocode 2 [2] and research publications [3].
FIRE ENDURANCE RESISTANCE, mins
SAMPLE REFERENCE, INCREASING COVER
Figure 2 Comparison between measured (light) and assumed (dark) fire resistance,
based on depth of cover.
Concrete provides effective compartmentation
In Europe, concrete is commonly used to provide stable compartmentation in large industrial

and multi-storey buildings (Figure 3). By dividing these large buildings into compartments,
the risk of total loss in the event of a fire is virtually removed the concrete floors and walls
reduce the fire area both horizontally (through walls) and vertically (through floors).
Concrete thus provides the opportunity to install safe separating structures in an easy and
economic manner; its fire shielding properties are inherent and do not require any additional
fire stopping materials or maintenance.
Figure 3 Precast walls form fire resistance compartmentation for this storage facility
Concrete can be repaired after a fire
One of the major advantages of a concrete structure is that it can usually be repaired after a fire,
thereby minimising disruption and cost. The modest floor loads and relatively low temperatures
experienced in most building fires mean that the loadbearing properties of concrete are largely
retained both during and after a fire. For these reasons often all that is required is a simple clean
up. Speed of repair and rehabilitation is an important factor in minimising any loss of business
after a major fire; it is obviously preferable to demolition and reinstatement.
DESIGN FOR FIRE SAFETY
Proper design and choice of materials are crucial to ensuring fire safety. Previously, fire-
safety requirements were provided solely by national governments, but they are now also
based on European directives, standards and guidelines. There are four principal objectives
that have to be fulfilled when designing a building to be fire safe. Concrete can satisfy all the
objectives of fire safety with ease, economy and with a high degree of reliability. The main
requirements are that the structure should: A) retain loadbearing capacity; B) protect people
from harmful smoke and gasses; C) shield people form heat; and D) facilitate intervention by
firefighters, as shown in Figure 4. Table 2 shows how these requirements can be met using
concrete construction. This is the foundation for design methods for structural elements in
respect of fire safety in the Eurocodes. The following fire protection criteria must be met by
any construction designed to Eurocode 2: Resistance (R), Separation (E) and Isolation (I),
and are explained in Table 3. The designation letters R, E and I are used together with
numbers referring to the resistance in minutes against a standard fire. So, a loadbearing wall
18 Chana
resistant to fire for 90 minutes would be classified as R 90; a loadbearing, separating wall
would be RE 90 and a loadbearing, separating, fire-shielding wall would be REI 90.
Figure 4 Main requirements for Fire Safety
Table 2 Requirements for fire safety and their relation to concrete.
OBJECTIVE REQUIREMENTUIREMENTS USE OF CONCRETE

1. To ensure stability Elements should be made of non- Concrete as a material is inert and
of the loadbearing combustible material and have a non-combustible (class A1); due
construction high fire resistance. to its low thermal conductivity
elements over a most of its strength is retained in a
specified period of typical fire.
time
2. To limit the Fire separating walls should be In addition to the above, adequately
generation and non-combustible and have a high designed connections using
spread of fire and fire resistance. concrete reduce the vulnerability
smoke to fire and make full use of its
structural continuity.
3. To assist the Escape routes should be made of Concrete cores are extremely
evacuation of non-combustible material and robust and can provide very high
occupants and have a high fire resistance, so levels of resistance. Slipforming or
ensure the safety of they can be used without danger jumpforming are particularly
rescue teams for a longer period. effective methods of construction.
4. To facilitate the Loadbearing elements should Loadbearing elements retain their
intervention of have a high fire resistance to integrity for a long time and
rescue parties enable effective firefighting; concrete will not produce any
(firefighters) there should be no burning molten material.
droplets.
Using Eurocode 2
Eurocode 2 Part 12, Structural fire design [2] covers fire safety design using concrete
structures, including coverage of accidental fire exposure, aspects of passive fire protection
and general fire safety, as categorised by the R, E, I criteria explained previously. As shown
in Figure 5, Eurocode 2 enables engineers to dimension a structure and verify its fire
resistance using one of three methods:
1. Determining the minimum cross-sectional values of both dimensions and concrete cover -
in accordance with tables.
2. Dimensioning the elements cross-section, with a simplified method for establishing the
remaining, undamaged cross-section as a function of an ISO temperature curve.
3. Dimensioning with general methods of calculation as a function of temperature stress
and the behaviour of the element under heating.
In addition to the generic clauses on fire design, which are applicable throughout Europe, EU
member states are free to fix values for some important parameters or procedures in their
National Annex Documents (NADS). It is important that designers consult these NADS to
ensure they are following the correct approach for the country in which they are working or
producing a design for. Advisory documents such as Naryanan and Goodchild [6], which
focus on UK design, will act as useful reference works for designers wishing to update or
improve their understanding of Eurocode 2. Denoels [7] comprehensive guide to fire safety
design with concrete in Belgium is also useful and includes extensive coverage of the various
design methods within EC2. Arguably, Eurocode 2 Part 1-2 contains the most advanced
guidelines for fire safety. It represents a significant advance for the prescriptive methods used
in previous design codes.
Concrete and Fire Safety Engineering
Fire safety engineering (FSE) is a relatively new approach for assessing fire protection
measures, based on performance-based methods rather than prescriptive data tables. It has
been used mainly for large, complex structures (such as airports and hospitals) to minimise
requirements for fire protection measures.
There is no single definition for FSE, but ISO defines it as the Application of engineering
methods based on scientific principles to the development or assessment of designs in the
built environment through the analysis of specific fire scenarios or through the quantification
of fire risk for a group of fire scenarios [8].
The design procedure used in fire safety engineering takes into account the following factors
to calculate the design value of the fire load, from which individual structural members can
be assessed and the overall probability of a fire causing structural damage can be established:
The characteristic fire load density per unit of floor area (values for these are given in EC1,
Part 12).
The expected fire load caused by combustion of the contents (combustion factor).
Fire risk due to the size of the compartment (large compartments are given a higher risk
factor).
The likelihood of a fire starting, based on occupants and type of use (use factor).
20 Chana
Table 3 The three main fire protection criteria, adapted from Eurocode 2, Part 1-2.
DESCRIPTION FIRE LIMIT STATE CRITERION

Rsistance (R) Limit of load The loadbearing resistance of the
Also called: The structure should construction must be guaranteed for a
Fire resistance retain its loadbearing specified period of time
Loadbearing capacity The time during which an elements fire
capacity resisting loadbearing capability is
maintained, which is determined by
compressive strength under load
Etanchit (E) Limit of integrity There is no integrity failure, thus
Also called: The structure should preventing the passage of flames and hot
Flame arresting protect people and gases to the unexposed side
Separation, property from harmful The time during which, in addition to fire
Tightness smoke and gases resistance, an elements fire separation
capability is maintained, which is
determined by its connections tightness to
flames and gases
Isolation (I) Limit of insulation There is no insulation failure, thus
Also called: The structure should restricting the rise of temperature on the
Fire shielding shield people and unexposed side
Heat screening property from heat The time during which, in addition to both
fire resistance and fire separation, an
elements fire shielding capability is
maintained, which is defined by a
permissible rise in temperature on the
non-exposed side
Each of the above limit states is expressed in minutes, at intervals as follows: 15, 20, 30,
45, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240, 360.
Standard fire temperature/time

curve (R, E, I)
Member analysis Analysis of part of Global structural analysis

the structure
Tabulated data Simplified General calculation methods

calculation
methods
Figure 5 Design procedure for fire resistance of structures

The calculation method then takes advantage of all active firefighting measures within the
building, which are aggregated, to give the fifth and final factor in the fire load calculation,
which includes:
Automatic fire detection (e.g. heat alarms, smoke alarms, automated transmission of
alarm to fire brigade station)
Automatic fire suppression (e.g. sprinklers/water extinguishing systems, availability of
independent water supply)
Manual fire suppression (e.g. on-site fire brigade, off-site/local fire brigade).
Fire safety engineering in practice
Common rules for fire safety engineering methods do not exist, user-friendly software is still
under development and there are significant variations in approach, experience and levels of
acceptance by authorities. FSE has to be used with care through appropriate experts and
proper evaluation of its assumptions. Serious concerns have been raised about the validity
and accuracy of the probability-based calculations, with critics noting that a faulty FSE
calculation could lead to a catastrophe. Others have voiced fears that inexperienced attempts
to use FSE could lead to misunderstandings in calculations and the wrong results. Large
variability of parameters with the assumptions underpinning the calculations could include,
but are not limited to, the following aspects:
Arson or voluntary/deliberate fires (i.e. caused by criminal intent) these are not really
covered sufficiently. Some building types and locations will naturally be more vulnerable
to crime.
Fire brigade success rates: again, average values are provided, but are clearly not
applicable to all buildings; there will be significant variation in performance.
Human behaviour: assumptions are made on how people will behave in an emergency,
but there is a very high degree of variability here related to crowd behaviour and means of
escape.
Reliability of sprinkler systems: average values are given, but there are many types of
systems to suit all types of buildings.
Some statistics on the observed performance of sprinkler systems indicate poor levels of
reliability. Febelcem [7] and PCI [9] reports findings from the USA, in which the National
Fire Protection Association noted that sprinklers had failed in 20% of hospital/office fires,
17% of hotel fires, 13% of apartment fires and 26% of public building fires, leading to a
national average failure rate of 16% (2001 figures). Figures from Europe cited in the same
publication paint a slightly better picture. Sprinkler success rate analysed by risk class
showed the following:
Offices (light risk) 97.4% success

Business (medium risk) 97.2% success
Timber buildings (high risk) 90.8% success.
22 Chana
CASE STUDIES
Much valuable information can be learnt from actual fires, and three important case studies
are presented in the following.
Case Study 1: The Windsor Tower, Madrid (2005)
This fire during the refurbishment of a major multi-storey office building in Madrids
financial district provides an excellent example of how traditional concrete frames perform
in fire. Built between 1974 and 1978, the Windsor tower consisted of 29 office storeys, five
basement levels and two technical floors above the 3rd and 16th floors. At the time of its
design, sprinklers were not required in Spains building codes, but this was subsequently
amended and hence the tower was being refurbished to bring it into line with current
regulations. The scope of the work included fireproofing all the steel perimeter columns,
adding a new faade, new external escape stairs, alarm and detection upgrades, plus the
addition of two further storeys. At the time of the fire, an international accountancy
company occupied 20 floors of the building and two storeys were given over to a Spanish
law firm.
The shape of the building was essentially rectangular, measuring 40 m x 26 m from the 3rd
floor and above. The structural frame used normal strength concrete in its central core,
columns and waffle slab floors; much of the faade featured concrete perimeter columns, but
the most important feature of the tower was to be its two concrete technical floors. These
two technical or strong floors, each with eight deep concrete beams (measuring 3.75 m in
depth; the floor to ceiling height elsewhere), were designed to act as massive transfer beams,
preventing progressive collapse caused by structural elements falling from above. The fire
broke out late at night, almost two years after the start of the refurbishment; the building was
unoccupied. It started on the 21st floor and spread quickly; fire spread upwards through
openings made during the refurbishment and via the faade (between perimeter columns and
the steel/glass faade), and downwards via burning faade debris entering windows below.
The height, extent and intensity of the blaze meant firefighters could only try to contain it and
protect adjacent properties, so the fire raged for 26 hours, engulfing almost all the floors (see
Figure 6).
When the fire was finally extinguished, the building was burnt out completely above the
upper technical floor, much of the faade was destroyed and there were fears that it would
collapse. However, throughout the fire and until eventual demolition, the structure remained
standing; only the faade and floors above the upper concrete technical floor suffered
collapse (Figure 7). The passive resistance of the concrete columns and core had helped
prevent total collapse, but the role of the two concrete technical floors was critical,
particular the one above the 16th storey, which contained the fire for more than seven hours. It
was only then, after a major collapse, that falling debris caused fire to spread to the floors
below this, which burned, but again damage was limited to the storeys above the lower
technical floor at the 3rd level. This is powerful evidence that strong, concrete floors at
regular intervals can minimise the risk of collapse and prevent the spread of fire. The main
forensic report on the Windsor buildings fire performance was carried out by Spanish
researchers from the Instituto Tcnico de Materiales y Construcciones (Intemac). This
independent investigation focused on the fire resistance and residual bearing capacity of the
structure after the fire [10]. Amongst Intemacs findings, the 2005 report states that:
The Windsor building concrete structure performed extraordinarily well in a severe fire
and clearly much better than would have been expected had the existing legislation for
concrete structures been strictly applied. The need for due fireproofing of the steel
members to guarantee their performance in the event of a fire was reconfirmed. Given the
performance of these members on the storeys that had been fireproofed, it is highly
plausible, although it can obviously not be asserted with absolute certainty, that if the fire
had broken out after the structure on the upper storeys had been fireproofed, they would
not have collapsed and the accident would very likely [have] wreaked substantially less
destruction.
The Spanish research centre Instituto de Ciencias de la Construccin Eduardo Torroja

(IETcc) in collaboration with the Spanish Institute of Cement and its Applications (IECA),
investigated the reinforced concrete structural elements of the Windsor Tower. The research
included a microstructural study on these elements using thermic analysis and an electronic
microscope. It was observed that the temperature reached inside the concrete was 500 C at a
distance of 5 cm from the surface subjected to fire. This result confirms the severity of the
Windsor Tower fire and the good performance of the concrete construction.
Case Study 2, World Trade Centre Building, New York (2001)
Without doubt, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigation
following the World Trade Centre disaster in New York in September 2001 is one of the most
significant and influential reports ever written on safety in buildings [11]. The final set of
reports, totalling 10,000 pages, was published in 2006 following a three-year fire and
building and fire safety investigation into what has been described as the worst building
disaster in history, in which more than 2,800 people died. The majority of these people were
alive at the time the two buildings collapsed. NIST studied the factors leading to the probable
causes for the collapse of the two steel-framed office towers and were able to make some 30
recommendations on codes, standards and practices in the areas of structural design and life
safety. Among its many recommendations, the NIST report calls for:
Increased structural integrity; including prevention of progressive collapse and

adoption of nationally accepted testing standards.
Enhanced fire resistance of structures; the need for timely access and evacuation,
burnout without partial collapse, redundancy in fire protection systems, compartmentation,
and the ability to withstand maximum credible fire scenario without collapse.
New methods for fire resistance design of structures: including the requirement that
uncontrolled building fires should burn out without partial or total collapse.
Improved building evacuation: to maintain integrity and survivability.
Improved active fire protection: alarm, communication and suppression systems.
Improved emergency response technologies and procedures.
Tightening up regulations on sprinklers and escape routes in existing buildings

24 Chana
Figure 6 The fire rages in Figure 7 The faade above the technical
the Windsor Tower, Madrid floor at level 16 was totally destroyed
Dr Shyam Sunder, who led the investigation on behalf of NIST, has acknowledged the
exceptional circumstances which eventually lead to the towers collapse, but explains that the
NIST team were able to make a number of top priority, realistic, appropriate and achievable,
performance-oriented recommendations as a result of the analysis and testing that was carried
out. Concrete is able to meet these recommendations with ease. Further to this, the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) building performance report on the airplane impact to the
Pentagon building, which was attacked at the same time, concluded that the reinforced
concrete structure had been influential in preventing further damage to the building [12]. It
states that the continuity, redundancy and resiliency within the structure contributed to the
buildings performance and recommended that such features be incorporated into buildings
in the future, particularly where risk of progressive collapse is deemed important.
Case Study 3, Improving fire safety in tunnels
Europe is served by over 15,000 kilometres of road and rail tunnels; these are part of its
transport infrastructure and are particularly important in mountainous regions, but increasingly
so in major cities where tunnels can relieve traffic congestion and free up urban spaces. The
problem is that accidents involving vehicles can cause extremely severe fires; tunnel fires tend
to reach very high temperatures due to the burning fuel and vehicles, reportedly up to 1350oC,
but more usually around 10001200oC. Peak temperatures are reached more quickly in tunnels
compared with building fires, mainly because of the hydrocarbons in petrol and diesel fuel, but
also because of the confined spaces. Munich Reinsurance Group (13) reports that fire is 20
times more likely to break out in a road tunnel than in a railway tunnel and these extreme fires
are often fatal; human life expectancy has been estimated at less than two minutes because the
gases produced can be so highly toxic. Furthermore, fires in lengthy tunnels in remote areas can
burn for a very long time: the Mont Blanc tunnel fire in 2001 burned for an astonishing 53
hours. Indeed, major incidents, such as those in the Channel Tunnel (1996), Mont Blanc (1999)
and St Gotthard (2001), have publicised the devastating consequences of tunnel fires and
highlighted the shortcomings of the structural solutions involved. As a result, the regulators
focus has been on improving conditions for evacuation and rescue of people involved in
accidents in road tunnels, with specifiers now concentrating on safety, robustness and stability.
Neither, however, has perhaps paid sufficient attention to the road construction material and its
contribution to the fire load; thus, there is a need to take a more holistic approach to tunnel
design and construction by considering the choice of materials for pavement design (14). In the
case of fire in road tunnels, an incombustible and non-toxic road pavement like concrete
contributes to the safety of both vehicle occupants and rescue teams. Concrete fulfils both these
criteria because it is incombustible (does not burn), does not add to the fire load and does not
emit harmful gases in a fire, no matter how severe. Concrete can be used as a tunnel lining on
its own or with a thermal barrier, but it can also be used for the road pavement. This is
particularly useful because it can replace asphalt. Compared with asphalt, concrete offers the
following benefits:
Improved safety: concrete does not burn and does not give off harmful gases (asphalt
ignites at around 400 to 500oC and within a few minutes emits suffocating, carcinogenic
vapours, smoke, soot and pollutants). In the Mont Blanc fire, 1200 m of the asphalt
pavement burned with a ferocity equivalent to an additional 85 cars being alight (14).
Better durability of the pavement, facilities and structure: concrete does not change
shape as it heats up, whereas asphalt ignites, loses its physical shape and hinders
evacuation and rescue.
Extended maintenance intervals compared with an asphalt pavement
Better lighting; concrete is lighter coloured and therefore brighter, helping visibility in
both normal operating conditions and in emergencies.
In its extensive guidance on reducing risks in tunnels, international re-insurer, Munich Re

[13], states that a carriageway of non-combustible material (e.g. concrete instead of asphalt)
must be considered in road tunnels [Figure 8]. Some regulators have also acknowledged the
fire safety role that concrete can play in tunnels. From 2001, a decree in Austria required that
all new road tunnels longer than one kilometre in length used a concrete pavement. Slovakia
also uses concrete pavements in all new tunnels and concrete is recommended for new
tunnels in Spain [14].
Figure 8 Concrete road surfaces will stand up to the extreme temperatures

encountered in tunnel fires. photo-daylight.com
26 Chana
CONCLUSION
Concretes inherent fire resistance properties deliver protection of life, property and
environment in the case of fire. When property designed and detailed, concrete construction
can respond effectively to all the protective aims set out in European legislation by remaining
safe and robust in most fire situations. Valuable lessons can be learnt from actual fires and
hence, it is important to carry out a detailed technical investigation and share the lessons
learnt after a major fire.
REFERENCES
1. NECK, U (2002). Comprehensive fire protection with precast concrete elements the
future situation in Europe, Proceedings of BIBM 17th International Congress of the
Precast Concrete Industry, Turkish Precast Concrete Association, Ankara, Turkey (CD
only).
2. CEN EN 1991-1-2 Eurocode, Part 1-2 2002 Eurocode 1, Part 1-2 : Actions on structures
General actions Actions on structures exposed to fire. CEN, Brussels, Belgium.
3. KHOURY, G. (2000). Effect of fire on concrete and concrete structures, Proceedings of
Structural Engineering Materials Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 429447.
4. BS 8110, Structural use of concrete, British Standards Institution 1985.
5. LENNON, T (2004). Fire safety of concrete structures: background to BS 8110 fire
design, Building Research Establishment (BRE), Garston, Watford, UK. 41 pp.
6. NARYANAN, N, and GOODCHILD, C H (2006) Concise Eurocode 2, The Concrete
Centre, Camberley, UK. 107 pp.
7. DENOL, JF (2006). Fire safety and concrete structures (French and English),
Febelcem, Brussels, Belgium. 80 pp (Downloadable from www.febelcem.be).
8. ISO/CD 23932. Fire safety engineering General principles. (under development).
9. SZOKE, S S. (2005). Are we protected from fire in buildings? PCI Journal, January
February 2005. PCI, United States.
10. INTEMAC (2005). Fire in the Windsor Building, Madrid. Survey of the fire resistance
and residual bearing capacity of the structure after fire, Notas de informacin Tcnica
(NIT), NIT-2 (05), (Spanish and English). Intemac (Instituto Tcnico de Materiales y
Construcciones), Madrid, Spain. 35 pp.
11. NIST. Federal Building and Fire Safety investigation of the World Trade Centre disaster:
Final report of the National Construction Safety Team on the collapse of the World Trade
Center Tower. NCSTAR 1. http://wtc.nist.gov/
12. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS (2003) The Pentagon building
performance report, ASCE, Washington, USA. 64 pp.
13. MUNICH RE (2003). Risk management for tunnels, Munich Re group, Munich,
Germany. 55 pp.
14. CEMBUREAU (2004). Improving fire safety in tunnels: the concrete pavement solution,
CEMBUREAU, Brussels, Belgium. 8 pp.
15. KORDINA, K and MEYER-OTTENS, C. Beton-Brandschutz Handbuch. Beton-Velag
GmbH, Dusseldorf, Germany, 1981.
THEORETICAL ASSESSMENT OF FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF
HEATED REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
M Potha Raju M Nalini

GITAM
K Srinivasa Rao P V Srinivasa Rao
Andhra University Government Polytechnique
India
ABSTRACT. This paper describes the results of an experimental investigation carried out to
study the variation of compressive strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel with
temperature up to 700C at different locations in an RCC beam exposed to high temperatures.
With the observed residual strengths of concrete and steel, flexural strengths of RCC beams
have been calculated theoretically and compared with those strengths obtained from
experimental results. For this purpose ten beams of same cross section, reinforcement and
concrete cover were cast with thermocouples provided in the beams and for each beam, four
cubes, from the same batch, were cast to study the effect of temperature on compressive
strength of concrete. The temperature distribution across the cross-section of the beam has
been studied. A complete analysis of these experimental test results has been presented.
Keywords: Compressive Strength, Tensile Strength, Flexural Strength, Yield Strength,

Percentage Elongation, Temperature Distribution.
M Potha Raju, is Professor of Civil Engineering, at GITAM, Visakhapatnam, India.
K Srinivasa Rao, is Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam, India.
P V Srinivasa Rao is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Government

Polytechnique, Visakhapatnam, India.
M Nalini, is a PG Student in the Department of Civil Engineering, GITAM, Visakhapatnam,

India.
27
28 Potha Raju et al
INTRODUCTION
Construction materials exposed to fire will experience changes in material properties and, in
some cases, may undergo creep, phase changes, decomposition, dehydration, charring, spalling,
moisture loss and loss of material as a result of an increase in the temperature.
When concrete is exposed to high temperatures, complex physical and chemical

transformations take place, which can result in significant loss in its strength. Sometimes due
to severe temperatures, the reinforcement gets exposed and twisted and the overall stability of
the structure becomes doubtful. Hence it becomes necessary to assess the structural adequacy
of such fire-affected structures considering the residual strength of concrete and reinforcing
bars.
Initially, the heat applied to a concrete beam causes evaporation of free moisture in the
concrete. With a continued exposure to fire, the temperature inside the beam increases and
the strength of concrete decreases. In certain cases, the pressure generated by conversion of
moisture into steam may be too high for the surface layer of concrete to resist, leading to
spalling.
Fire causes structural failure in buildings. Some signs of potential building collapse are
Column buckling, Bulging walls, Dropped arches, Sagging floors, Deflected beams, Displaced
columns and Cracks in walls.
After tackling the fire hazard, the next step is to find suitability of the building for retrofitting
or repair. The main steps involve assessment of fire severity, assessment of damage and
feasibility of repair.
The objective of this study is to generate experimental data for assessing theoretical flexural
strength of heated RCC beams. This experimental data will be useful for validation of
analytical procedures in evaluating the theoretical flexural strength of heated RCC beams. By
assessing the residual flexural strength, appropriate rehabilitation measures may be decided.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Casting of Beams
The RC beams used in the study were 1200 mm long and 112 mm x 240 mm in cross-section.
All these beams were designed as under-reinforced sections conforming to IS 456: 2000[1].
The concrete was made with crushed stone aggregate of 20 mm size. Mix was made with
ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade, sand conforming to grading zone III of IS 383-1970[2]
and coarse aggregate in proportion of 1: 1.296: 3.33 with w/c ratio of 0.48. The concrete was
prepared in a rotary type tilting mixer.
High yield strength deformed bars, of grade Fe 415 conforming to IS 1786:1985[3] were used
as main reinforcement. Each beam was provided with 3 bars of 10 mm diameter as tension
reinforcement. Two bars of the same diameter were provided as hanger bars. Mild steel bars
of Fe 250 grade of 6 mm diameter at 60 mm c/c were used as stirrups. Clear cover provided
for all beams was as 20 mm. Thermocouples were placed at regular intervals along the depth
and length of the beam to assess temperature distribution.
Flexural Strength of Heated Beams 29
Figure 1 Beam cast with inserted Thermocouples
Casting of Cubes
To study the compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperatures, 40 cubes of 100 mm

size were cast. Cube moulds were filled with concrete and vibrated on a table vibrator. These
specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of casting.
Curing of specimens
After demoulding, cube specimens were stored under water at room temperature until tested
at an age of 28 days and beams were cured under damp sacking for 28 days. The beams were
kept in a cool place to avoid any loss of water due to atmosphere. After 28 days of curing, all
the beam specimens and cubes were kept under laboratory air-drying condition until required
for high temperature exposure.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Furnace
The beams were exposed to elevated temperatures using a purpose built electric furnace. The
heating arrangement in the furnace is as per International Standard ISO 834[4] specifications.
The furnace can be separated in two parts. The separated part can be pulled out after
loosening the screws provided for tightening the two parts. It is mounted on wheels at the
bottom and can be moved on rails. It is built with a bed of refractory bricks of 110 mm size,
on which the beam is to be placed.
The unseparated part is the heating chamber measuring 650 mm x 500 mm and 1800 mm long.
The sidewalls and top of the chamber are lined with electrical heating coils embedded in
refractory bricks. Temperature in furnace is controlled by means of a dedicated control panel,
which houses power supply and circuit switches for the furnace. The control panel also has an
oven temperature controller to prevent the damage to the furnace by tripping out, if the furnace
exceeds required temperature. The maximum operating temperature of the furnace is 1000C.
Air vents are also provided in the unseparated part, at the top, to allow vapour to escape from
the heating chamber and to allow thermocouple leads to be connected to a digital thermometer.
30 Potha Raju et al
Heating of specimens and Measurement of inside temperature
Specimens were exposed to temperature up to 700C with increments of 100C for an

exposure period of 3 hours.
Figure 2 Fire testing of beam
Simultaneously cubes were also exposed to same range of temperature for 3 hours in a
Muffle Furnace. After exposing beams to the required temperatures in furnace, temperature
inside the beam was measured through thermocouples using digital thermometer.
TESTING
Testing of Cubes
After heating to required temperature, the cubes were air cooled and tested for compressive
strength. The load was applied continuously at the rate of 140 kg/sq cm/minute in a
compression testing machine according to IS 516-1959[5].
Testing of steel
The steel rods, which were exposed to the temperature, were tested on Universal Testing
Machine for tensile strength and percentage elongation.
Theoretical Flexural strength of Beams

After measuring the temperature distribution across the beam, average temperatures of steel
and concrete inside the beam were calculated. For this calculated average temperature,
residual strengths of steel and concrete were arrived using Figure 3 and Figure 4. Procedure:
The depth of Neutral Axis and Moment of Resistance were obtained by using the following
relationship as given in IS : 456- 2000.
xu 0.87 f yt Ast
= (1)
d 0.36 f ckt bd
xu x
M u = 0.36 f ckt bd 2 1 0.42 u (2)
d d
fckt is the compressive strength of concrete and fyt is the tensile strength of steel for a
particular surface temperature.
As an example for a surface temperature of 100C, average temperature inside the beam was
found to be 45C in concrete and 54.7C in steel.
The value of fckt was found to be 46.1 N/mm2 for a temperature of 45C from Figure 3.
The value of fyt was found to be 443 N/mm2 for a temperature of 54.7C from Figure 4.
The area of steel provided is Ast = 3 x x 102/4 =235.6 mm2
The revised Xu/d calculated from equation 1 for the above residual strengths of concrete and
steel is, Xu/d = (0.87 x 443 x 235.60)/(0.36 x 46.1 x 112 x 225) = 0.217
The revised Moment of Resistance calculated using equation (2) is Mu = 18.56 kN-m
The same procedure was repeated for estimating the residual flexural strength of RC beams at
all other temperatures also.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figure 3 shows the variation of normalized compressive strength of concrete with

temperature. It is observed that at 100C there was a slight decrease in compressive strength
of concrete by 8.4% of unheated concrete. From 100C to 300C the compressive strength
increased to a maximum of 15% of unheated concrete. Beyond 300C, a continuous reduction
in compressive strength was observed and the decrease in compressive strength was as low as
56.3% of unheated concrete at 700C.
1.4
NORMALISED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE ( C)
Figure 3 Variation of Compressive Strength of concrete with Temperature

32 Potha Raju et al
The variation of yield strength and ductility of steel with increase in temperature were shown
in Figure 4 and Figure 5. There was a slight increase in yield strength of steel by 0.68% of
unheated steel at 100C. Later the yield strength remained almost the same up to at 700C.
The percentage elongation of steel at lower temperatures decreased.
1.2
NORMALISED YIELD STRENGTH OF STEEL
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE (C)
Figure 4 Variation of yield strength of steel with temperature
25
PERCENTAGE ELONGATION
20
15
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
TEMPERATURE (C)
Figure 5 Variation of percentage elongation with temperature
Figure 6 shows the temperature distribution across the depth of the beam at three locations
when exposed to different elevated temperatures. Maximum temperature recorded within the
beam was 200C even the beams were exposed to 700C for 3 hrs duration due to low thermal
conductivity of concrete.
800
700 100
TEMPERATURE (C)
200
600
300
500 400
400 500
600
300
700
200
100
0
0 60 120 180 240
DISTANCE FROM SOFFIT OF THE BEAM IN MM
Figure 6 Temperature Distribution inside the Beam
Degradation of flexural strength is not as severe as the degradation of concrete compressive

strength. Degradation of flexural strength is a combination of degradations of strength of
concrete and reinforcement. The difference between experimental and theoretical flexural
strength was low at low temperatures and was considerable at higher temperatures.
28
FLEXURAL STRENGTH (kN-m) .
26
Experimental
24
Theoretical
22
20
18
16
14
12
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE(C)
Figure 7 Variation of flexural strength with temperature
CONCLUSIONS
1. The maximum inside temperature observed was 200C even at a surface temperature of
700C.
2. The temperature was low at mid height of the beam compared to temperature near the
surface.
3. The test results showed an increase in compressive strength of concrete for exposure to
lower temperatures by 15% and decrease by 56.3% at higher temperatures.
4. The yield strength of steel at lower temperatures was almost unaffected.
5. The ductility of steel decreased by 8.95% at lower temperature and increased at higher
temperatures.
6. The theoretical flexural strength was predicted with not much variation.
34 Potha Raju et al
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of
India who have funded this research work. The authors also thank the Management and Dr.
V. V. Kutumbarao, Principal, College of Engineering, GITAM for allowing to conduct
various tests in the Concrete Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, GITAM.
REFERENCES
1. IS 456-2000, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete (fourth
revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
2. IS 383-1970, Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from natural sources for
Concrete (second revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
3. IS 1786-1985, Specifications for High Strength Deformed Steel Bars and Wires for
Concrete Reinforcement (third revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
4. ISO 834, Fire resistance tests - Elements of building construction: General requirements.
5. IS 516-1959, Method of Test for Strength of Concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
6. BRUCE ELLINGWOOD, T. D. LIN, Flexure and shear behaviour of concrete beams
during fire, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol 117, No. 2, February 1991, pp
441-458.
7. POTHA RAJU, M, SHOBHA, M, RAMBABU, K. Flexural strength of fly ash concrete
under elevated temperatures. Magazine of Concrete Research. Vol 56, No. 2, March
2004, pp 83-88.
8. IS 1642-1989. Indian Standard Code of Practice for Fire Safety of Buildings (General):
Details of Construction (first revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
9. KUMAR, A, KUMAR, V. Behavior of RCC beams after exposure to elevated
temperatures. Institution of Engineers Journal, India, Vol 84, November 2003, pp 165-
170.
10. AWADESH KUMAR. Temperature distribution in RC beams during fire. The Indian
Concrete Journal, December 2004.
11. POTHA RAJU, M, JANAKI RAO, A. Effect of temperature on residual compressive
strength of fly ash concrete, Indian Concrete Journal, May 2001, pp 347-352.
12. SONA HARI, A. Residual Flexural strength of heated RC beams. M.E. Thesis submitted
to GITAM, Andhra University.
DEFORMATION AND LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF RC
FLEXURAL CROSS-SECTION SUBJECTED TO FIRE
R Kowalski
Warsaw University of Technology
Poland
ABSTRACT. In Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-2) the 500C isotherm method and the zone
method are recommended for calculating the load bearing capacity of RC flexural members
in fire. These methods use the simplified way for calculating the cross-section load bearing
capacity in room temperature. Eurocode 2 recommendations and some test results obtained
by the author as well as taken from the literature show that steel elongation and concrete
contraction in RC flexural members in fire can be much higher than the same parameters at
room temperature. The author proposes that in some cases of fire, when steel elongation is
much higher than at room temperature and the concrete contraction is relatively low,
calculations should take into account a limited range of the compressed zone of concrete in
the cross-section. On the other hand, in some cases of fire, when steel elongation is relatively
low and concrete contraction is much higher than at room temperature, calculations should
take into account an extended range of the compressed zone of concrete in the cross-section.
Keywords: Concrete, Fire, Cross-section, Calculation, Load bearing capacity.
Robert Kowalski, PhD (Eng) is employed at the Institute of Building Structures at the Civil
Engineering Faculty of Warsaw University of Technology, Poland. He is an expert in
building structures (licensed by the Polish Central Register of Construction Experts). His
interests include designing building and civil engineering structures, particularly designing
and reassessment of reinforced concrete structures as well as fire safety of reinforced
concrete structures.
35
36 Kowalski
INTRODUCTION
Due to recent changes concerning safety of buildings and establishment of legal regulations
and standards (for example [1-4]) it is impossible at present to design building structures
without the consideration of fire safety. In most cases, the required fire resistance of
reinforced concrete structures is achieved by using the tabulated data [4]. These guidelines
provide minimum requirements in terms of cross-section dimensions and distance of the
reinforcement to the surface of the cross-section exposed to fire. Tabulated data are very
convenient in practical use, but sometimes a better accuracy might be required. In this case,
fire is considered as the accidental designing situation and it requires an analysis of ultimate
limit states of the structure. Of course, the best accuracy is achieved with advanced global
analyses [4], where all aspects of fire and all aspects of structures response to fire are taken
into consideration. Unfortunately these analyses require a lot of input data, which might be
difficult to predict precisely in many practical instances. The load induced thermal strain of
concrete [5, 6] is of particular importance here. If this phenomenon is disregarded, the stress
analyses of heated concrete could lead to erroneous results [7]. Moreover, global advanced
analyses of concrete structures are usually time-consuming.
Simplified methods seem to be excellent tools for calculating the load bearing capacity of
concrete structural elements in fire design situations. They are an intermediate solution
between the very simple tabulated data and the advanced global analyses, which are mostly
too sophisticated for practice. The most convenient simplified methods introduced in
Eurocode 2 [4] are the 500C isotherm method and the zone method. It seems that the
Eurocode recommendations regarding these methods should be supplemented with some
additional assumptions, which should take into consideration that in high temperature
conditions the concrete and steel strains are usually much higher than the same parameters at
room temperature.
SIMPLIFIED METHODS RECOMMENDED IN EUROCODE 2 [4]
The 500C isotherm method and the zone method recommended in Eurocode 2 [4] are
appropriate when fire is considered according to a standard curve [3]. Both of these methods
are based on analyses of reduced concrete cross-section of the element.
In the 500C isotherm method [4] the external part of the cross-section, where the
temperature is higher than 500C is neglected. In the internal part of the cross-section, where
the temperature is lower than 500C the degradation of concrete strength due to high
temperature is neglected. In this way in the 500C isotherm method the reduced
cross-section of concrete with the strength identical to the one in room temperature is
considered. The reinforcement bars are accounted for in the calculation irrespective of
whether they are situated inside or outside of the area limited with the isotherm 500C. The
degradation of steel yield strength depends on the temperature of the bars.
In the zone method [4] the rules recommended for the determination of the reduced
concrete cross-section dimensions are a little bit more sophisticated. At first it is necessary to
divide the cross-section into several zones. Then the temperature in the middle of each zone
has to be calculated. According to the coefficients of concrete compressive strength
degradation estimated due to calculated temperatures, the range of the external damage zone
of the concrete cross-section can be calculated. In the reduced cross-section a steady reduced
Flexural Cross-Section in Fire 37
concrete compressive strength is accounted for in the calculation. The degradation of the
concrete strength is taken according to the temperature calculated at the point chosen
arbitrarily within the reduced cross-section. The requirements on how to account for the
reinforcement bars influence are the same as recommended in the 500C isotherm method.
Generally the 500C isotherm method is better when the cross-sections of the structural
elements are relatively large. The zone method is a little bit more time-consuming, but it
gives more accurate results when the cross-sections of the elements are relatively small.
In both methods described above, the same method as used in the room temperature analysis
is recommended for calculating the load bearing capacity of the cross-section reduced due to
high temperature. Figure 1 [4] presents basic assumptions of this method.
Figure 1 Basic assumptions for the calculation of the

cross-section load bearing capacity in a standard fire
In Figure 1, the concrete compressive strength fcd,fi should be taken as fcd,20 (concrete
compressive strength at room temperature) when the 500C isotherm method is used, and
as kc()fcd,20 when the zone method is used. The coefficient kc() describes the degradation
of concrete strength due to high temperature [4]. The steel strength in fire fsd,fi() should be
taken as ks()fsd,20 in both methods. The coefficient ks() describes the steel strength
degradation due to high temperature [4], and fsd,20 is the steel yield strength at room
temperature.
During analyses of concrete structures in fire based on simplified methods described above
many simplifications are allowed. It is necessary to remember that the standard curve [3] is
only a rough approximation of a real fire. Coefficients that describe the heat flow into the
concrete cross-section [3] are simplified. Thermal properties of concrete recommended for
thermal calculation [4] depend on concrete humidity, which is unknown in many practical
instances. Coefficients, which describe concrete and steel strength degradation due to high
temperature are recommended in [4] with many simplified assumptions.
With respect to the above, it could be convenient to simplify also the assumptions given in
Figure 1. It seems that the simplified method of cross-section analysis should be
recommended for cross-section calculation in fire. This means that the coefficient should be
taken as = 0.8 (xeff = 0.8x) and the coefficient should be taken as = 1. Hence, the
equilibrium equations of the cross-section can be written as below:
38 Kowalski
M d , fi As1 k s ( ) f sd , 20 ( d fi 0.5 x eff ) (1)
As1 k s ( ) f sd , 20 = b fi d fi f cd , fi (2)
When the simplified method of the cross-section analysis is used according to Equations
(1 and 2), the range of the compressed zone of concrete has to be limited (xeff xeff,lim). The
value of the xeff,lim can be calculated from the equation:
c
xeff ,lim = 0.8 d fi (3)
c + s
In Equation (3) c stands for the contraction of the external fibre of the compressed zone of
concrete and s for the elongation of reinforcing bars. In the room temperature analysis the
maximal values of the above strains are usually taken as c = 3.5 and s = fsyd / Es 2.2.
According to this assumption the maximal value of the compressed zone of the concrete
cross-section can be estimated as:
x eff ,lim
eff ,lim = = 0.49 0.50 (4)
d
In fire conditions the contraction of concrete or the elongation of reinforcing steel (or both of
them, respectively) are usually much higher then the same parameters at room temperature.
So in the Author's opinion, when the simplified method is used for calculating the load
bearing capacity of the concrete cross-section in fire, the maximal value of the compressed
zone of concrete (eff,lim) should be corrected according to the expected material strains.
CONCRETE AND STEEL STRAINS IN FIRE

ACCORDING TO EUROCODE 2 [4] RECOMMENDATIONS
Concrete
Figure 2 shows the graphs of the stress-strain relationships of concrete under compression at
high temperatures. These graphs were prepared by the Author on the basis of the
mathematical model recommended in Eurocode 2 [4] for concrete with siliceous aggregate.
Looking from the left side of Figure 2, the successive lines refer to the temperatures of 20,
100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700C, respectively. When the temperature of concrete is
higher than 700C, its structure is destroyed almost completely and in this case, from the
practical point of view, concrete behaviour in structural elements becomes less important.
When a fire design situation is considered, in the case of structural elements whose failure is
expected due to the destruction of the compressed zone of concrete, the temperature of concrete
at the ultimate limit state usually ranges between 400 and 600C. In this case the compressed
stress of concrete usually ranges between 40 and 60% of the concrete compressive strength at
room temperature. Consideration of the graphs presented in Figure 2 shows that according to
Eurocode [4] recommendations, actual maximal concrete contractions in the ultimate limit state
should range between 10 and 30.
1.20
1.00
STRESS / f c20
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
STRAIN,
Figure 2 Stress-strain relationships of concrete under compression at high temperatures
Reinforcing steel
Figure 3 shows the graphs of the stress-strain relationships of reinforcing steel at high
temperatures. They were prepared by the Author on the basis of the mathematical model
recommended in Eurocode 2 [4] for hot rolled steel, class N, with the yield strength
500 N/mm2. Looking from the left side of Figure 3, the successive lines refer to the
temperatures 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700C, respectively. Consideration of higher
reinforcement temperature is not important for practice, because in this case the structure
would usually be destroyed already.
600
500
STRESS, N/mm2
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
STRAIN,
Figure 3 Stress-strain relationships of hot rolled reinforcing steel at high temperatures
According to Eurocode 2 [4] recommendations, the maximal reinforcing steel elongation is

limited to the value of 200, but in the case when the steel reaches the yield strength, the
recommended elongation is 20. When a fire design situation is considered, in the case of
structural elements whose failure is expected due to the destruction of the reinforcement,
40 Kowalski
usually the steel temperature (critical temperature) ranges between 450 and 600C. The steel
stress usually ranges in this case between 40 and 60% of the stress caused by the maximal
designed load. Considering the above remarks and considering the graphs shown in Figure 3,
it is possible to assume that according to Eurocode 2 [4] rules the maximal steel elongation in
the ultimate limit state should be not less than 5. The upper limit of the steel elongation
theoretically reaches the value of 200.
CONCRETE AND STEEL STRAINS AT HIGH TEMPERATURE

ACCORDING TO TEST RESULTS
Tests performed by the Author
The Author tested six series of reinforced concrete beams under simultaneous action of high
temperature and constant load [8]. Each series consisted of six specimens. Three of them
were used for the tests at high temperature and three others for pre-tests performed at room
temperature. The beams were 12 cm wide, 14 cm high and 120 cm long. Two types of
concrete: C30/37 and C60/75, with siliceous aggregate and three different reinforcement
ratios were used. The main reinforcement of each beam consisted of two hot rolled bars.
In Table 1 the information about the reinforcement is summarised. The concrete cover of the
main reinforcement bars in each beam was 15 mm.
Before testing at high temperature, the beams were pre-loaded at room temperature. They
were loaded and unloaded seven times to the load level of 54% of their load bearing capacity,
obtained experimentally (pre-tests at room temperature). This process was to simulate the
permanent load action before testing at high temperature.
At the beginning of the hot test, the furnace chamber was heated up to the temperature of
800C. Then it was opened and the beam was put inside as quickly as possible. When the
furnace chamber door was closing, load was applied statically. The whole process of putting
beams into the furnace chamber took about 2 or 3 minutes. During this time the temperature
inside the furnace chamber dropped to about 670C. After the door was closed and the
heating resumed, the temperature inside the chamber increased again to the value of 800C in
the course of about 15 minutes. Then the beams were kept in the furnace chamber under the
simultaneous action of high temperature and constant load up to failure. During the test, the
deflections of the beams and the internal temperature at selected locations of their cross-
sections were measured.
Table 1 Details of reinforcement for the three types of beams tested

TYPE OF BEAM REINFORCING REINFORCEMENT STEEL AVERAGE
BARS RATIO, % YIELD STRENGTH,
N/mm2
L (low reinforcement) 2 6 mm 0.39 674
M (middle reinforcement) 2 10 mm 1.09 583
H (high reinforcement) 2 14 mm 2.17 580
Table 2 Average values of tested beams deflections and estimated strains

TYPE OF AVERAGE BEAM s AVERAGE
ASSUMED RATIO OF
BEAM DEFLECTION, s + c VALUE OF s,
mm
L C30/37 23.2 0.95 22.5
L C60/75 22.9 0.95 22.2
M C30/37 32.1 0.89 29.2
M C60/75 35.0 0.89 31.8
H C30/37 38.6 0.77 30.4
H C60/75 43.5 0.77 34.2
Loading of tested beams (both at room and high temperatures) was realised with two forces,
applied at one third of the span length. The value of the load applied during tests at high
temperature was 54% of the load bearing capacity of beams obtained experimentally at room
temperature (pre-tests). In many practical cases this is the probable value of the load level
that should be considered in the accidental fire design situation [2, 3].
When the temperature of the reinforcement bars of the tested beams exceeded the value of
500C, a very rapid increase of their deflections occurred. It seems expedient to assume that
at the temperature of 500C the beams were just approaching the ultimate limit state.
In column 2 of Table 2, the average values of beam deflections measured at the time when
the reinforcement temperature was 500C are shown.
When the deflection of beam is known, the average values of strains of the external
cross-section fibres can be estimated. For that purpose, one should consider generally known
formulas. The beam deflection is expressed with the following formula:
Ml 2
a = (5)
EJ
The beam axis curvature can be expressed with two formulae:
1 M
= (6)
r EJ
and
1 s + c
= (7)
r d
In Formula (7), s is the average value of reinforcing bar elongation and c is the average
value of the contraction of the external fibre of the compressed zone of concrete.
With the above Formulae (5, 6 and 7), the sum of the average values of concrete and
reinforcement strains can be expressed as follows:
42 Kowalski
d a
s + c = (8)
l2
In column 3 of Table 2, the assumed values of the ratio of s to the sum of s + c are shown.
Column 4 of Table 2 presents the average values of s calculated from Formula (8) on the
basis of the average beam deflection (column 2 of Table 2) and the assumption taken
(column 3 of Table 2).
It stems from the above considerations that just before reaching the ultimate limit state, the
average elongation of reinforcement in beams tested by the Author ranged between 22 and
34.
Test results taken from the literature
The description of tests performed on concrete slabs under simultaneous action of high
temperature and load is shown in paper [9]. The tests involved a total of fourteen slabs 93 cm
wide and 450 cm long in the span. The heights of their cross-section were 15, 18.5 and
25 cm. Some of the slabs were cast of ordinary concrete 30 N/mm2 of average compressive
strength and some of them were cast of lightweight concrete. The slabs were reinforced with
8 mm bars. The steel yield strength was 460 N/mm2. All slabs were heated up on their bottom
side. Some of them were bearing only their own weight and some were additionally loaded
with 1.5 kN/m2 load.
This paper discusses two instances of slabs tested in [9]. They were heated up according to the
standard curve [3]. Their efforts were more or less the same as the effort of beams tested by the
Author. Table 3 shows the most important information about slabs taken into consideration.
Column 5 of Table 3 gives the average elongation values of reinforcement bars. These values
were calculated by the Author based on the measured slab deflections [9] (column 3 of Table 3)
before the slabs reached the ultimate limit states. The method of the calculation was the same as
the one given above in the Authors test description.
Table 3 Main data of slabs with average elongation of reinforcing bars

(s is shown in column 5 of Table), calculated by the Author for slabs tested in [9]
MAIN DATA OF SLABS BAR DEFLECTION, ASSUMED CALCULATED
TEMP., mm s AVERAGE
C s + c s,
No. 2 [9]
Load: self weight + 1.5 kN/m2
Height: 15 cm 390 245 0.95 13.2
Reinforcement: 10 8 mm
Bar effort: s / fy 44%
No. 5 [9]
Load: only self weight
Height: 25 cm 480 145 0.95 14.3
Reinforcement: 6 8 mm
Bar effort: s / fy 48%
Paper [10] shows the description of the test performed on pre-stressed hollow core slabs
under simultaneous actions of high temperature and load. Slabs of 16 cm in cross-section
height and 540 cm in span length were heated according to the standard curve [3]. When the
temperature of the pre-stressing wires reached 450C, the slab deflected approximated 20 cm.
In this case, the average pre-stressing wire elongation, estimated in the same way as the one
described above by the Author, was about 8.
THE RANGE OF THE COMPRESSED ZONE OF CONCRETE IN FIRE
Consideration of Eurocode 2 [4] recommendations and consideration of some test results

showed that in fire design situations of flexural reinforced concrete elements, the strains of
concrete and reinforcing bars can be very high. When the compressed zone of concrete is
exposed to fire, the value of the contraction of the external cross-section fibre may range
between 10 and 30. When the cross-section tensile zone is exposed to fire, the value of the
reinforcing bars elongation may range between 5 and 35.
According to Formulae (3) and (4), the maximal relative range of the compressed zone of
concrete can be calculated as follows:
x eff ,lim c
eff ,lim = = 0.8 (9)
d c + s
Additionally, it is worth noticing that in practice it happens very rarely that both the upper and
the bottom sides of flexural elements are exposed to high temperature. Usually in buildings, the
flexural elements of concrete (slabs or beams) divide the whole building into different fire
compartments. Therefore, in real fire situations, the flexural elements are mostly exposed to
high temperature only at one side; it can be the bottom side or the upper side, respectively. In
these cases only one strain (concrete contraction or reinforcing bars elongation) can be much
higher than the one usually considered in the room temperature analysis. The material strain of
the side of the element which is not exposed to high temperature usually maintains more or less
the same value as the one at room temperature, despite the occurrence of the fire situation.
In Figure 4, the graphs of the maximal relative range of the compressed zone of concrete
calculated according to formula (9) are shown against the material strains. The upper curve
refers to the values appropriate for the exposure of the compressed zone of concrete to fire.
In order to establish the value of this curve, the elongation (s) of reinforcing bars was
assumed to be constant, equal to 2.1. On the horizontal axis the concrete contraction (c) is
placed. Its values were taken in the range between 3.5 and 30. The bottom curve refers
to the values appropriate for the exposure of the tensile zone of the element to fire. In order to
establish the value of this curve, the contraction (c) of concrete was assumed to be constant,
equal to 3.5. On the horizontal axis the elongation (s) of reinforcing bars was placed. Its
values were taken in the range between 2.1 and 35. The middle short line (eff,lim = 0.5)
refers to the room temperature situation. In this case s = 2.1 and c = 3.5 were assumed.
Looking at the graphs presented in Figure 4, one should notice that the maximal relative
range of the compressed zone (eff,lim) of concrete strongly depends on the side of the element
which is exposed to high temperature. When the strains of the materials (concrete contraction
or steel elongation, respectively) are relatively low (lower than about 10-12), the value of
eff,lim varies significantly according to strains values. However, if the strains of the materials
44 Kowalski
are higher than about 10-12, the maximal relative range of the compressed zone (eff,lim) of
concrete maintains more or less a constant value.
Figure 4 The relative range of the compressed zone of concrete in fire analysis
(Description in the text above)
In instances when simplified methods of reinforced concrete element analysis in fire are used
(the 500C isotherm and zone methods), the maximal relative range of the compressed
zone (eff,lim) of concrete should be taken depending on the side of the element which is
exposed to high temperature.
When only the compressed zone of the cross-section of concrete is exposed to fire, the
temperature of concrete in the ultimate limit state must be higher than 500C. In such cases, the
strain of the external fibre of concrete must be higher than 15 (according to [4]
recommendations). Therefore, it seems that the maximal relative range of the compressed zone
of concrete can be adopted as constant, eff,lim = 0.7. This value is much higher than eff,lim = 0.5,
which is usually adopted in the room temperature analysis. Consequently, in fire analysis, when
dimensions of the cross-section are reduced due to high temperature, the increase of the value
of eff,lim in some cases can result in the increase of the calculated cross-section load bearing
capacity.
When only the tensile zone of the cross-section is exposed to fire, the reinforcing steel
elongation depends on the stress induced in the bars and also on their temperature. Therefore,
the maximal relative range of the compressed zone of concrete can range between 0.3 and 0.1.
According to the Author, it seems that in cases when the temperature of bars is relatively low
(lower than about 200C), the maximal relative range of the compressed zone of concrete
should be adopted as eff,lim = 0.3. In cases when the temperature of bars is relatively high
(500C or higher), eff,lim = 0.1 should be calculated with. For intermediate temperatures
(between 200 and 500C), the values of eff,lim can be interpolated. The above values of eff,lim
are much lower than eff,lim = 0.5, which is usually adopted for analysis at room temperature.
Therefore, in fire design situation, especially in cases when the reinforcement ratio is high,
the decrease of eff,lim can result in an additional decrease of the calculated cross-section load
bearing capacity, despite the fact that the yield strength of steel also drops due to the high
temperature.
CONCLUSIONS
When the simplified methods of reinforced concrete element analysis are used for fire
situations (the 500C isotherm method or the zone method), the simplified way of the
cross-section load bearing capacity calculation can give sufficient accuracy.
When the simplified calculation is used, it is necessary to remember that the material strains
in fire are much higher than the same parameters considered in the room temperature
analysis. However, in practical cases of fire, usually only one side of structural flexural
elements is exposed to high temperature: the upper side or the bottom side.
When only the compressed zone of the cross-section of concrete is exposed to high
temperature, only the contraction of concrete is very high. As a result, the maximal relative
range of the compressed zone of concrete can be higher than the same parameter considered
in the room temperature analysis. According to the Author, the maximal relative range of the
compressed zone of concrete should be assumed as constant with the value of eff,lim = 0.7.
When only the tensile zone of the cross-section is exposed to high temperature, only the
elongation of the reinforcing bars is very high. As a result, the maximal relative range of the
compressed zone of concrete can be much lower than the same parameter considered in the
room temperature analysis. According to the Author, the maximal relative range of the
compressed zone of concrete should be adopted as eff,lim = 0.3 when the reinforcement
temperature is 200C or lower and as eff,lim = 0.1 when the reinforcement temperature is
500C or higher. For intermediate temperatures the values of eff,lim can be interpolated.
REFERENCES
1. Interpretative Document (to Council Directive 89/106/EEC), Essential Requirement

No. 2: Safety in Case of Fire.
2. EN 1990:2002: Eurocode: Basis of structural design.
3. EN 1991-1-2:2002: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-2: General actions

Actions on structures exposed to fire.
4. EN 1992-1-2:2004: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1.2: General rules

Structural fire design.
5. KHOURY G A, GRAINGER B N AND SULLIVAN P J E, Transient thermal strain of

concrete: literature review, conditions within specimen and behaviour of individual
constituents, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 37, No. 132, 1985, pp. 131-144.
6. KHOURY G A, GRAINGER B N AND SULLIVAN P J E, Strain of concrete during

first heating to 600C under load, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 37, No. 133,
1985, pp. 195-215.
7. KHOURY G A, MAJORANA C E, PESAVENTO F AND SCHREFLER B A,

Modelling of heated concrete, Magazine of Concrete Research, 2002, Vol. 54, No. 2,
pp. 77-101
46 Kowalski
8. KOWALSKI R, Ultimate limit state of reinforced concrete beams in high temperature,

Technical Report of Grant No. 4 T07E 006 26 (in Polish), Polish Ministry of Science
2006.
9. COOKE G M E, Behaviour of precast concrete floor slabs exposed to standardised fires,

Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 36, 2001, pp. 459-475.
10. UKOMSKI M AND WONIAK G, Load bearing capacity of prestressed hollow core
slabs in fire conditions (In Polish: Nono stropw z pyt kanaowych spronych w
warunkach poarowych), XIX Scientific Conference Concrete and Prefabrication,
Jadwisin, Poland, 2004, Proc. pp. 351-358. Research and Development Centre for
Concrete Industry CEBET, Poland (ISBN83-915162-6-1)
CREEP OF CONCRETE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
A Bali
Ecole Nationale Polytechnique
R Boutemeur
ENP
N Oudjit
University USTHB
Algiers
ABSTRACT. The development of a structural fire model requires knowledge of the

behaviour of structures in fire conditions. The performance of concrete structures exposed to
high temperatures is influenced by the effect of temperature on both basic materials: concrete
and steel. In our present paper only the creep of concrete is dealt with. The time-dependent
deformations of concrete occur under constant stress and temperature. It has been accepted
that creep is thermally activated process. Thus in the study reported in our paper an attempt to
formulate a creep model for concrete has been carried out using the approach involving the
activation energy. Creep tests have been conducted on concrete specimens heated to
stabilized temperature and loaded for five hours under a constant uniaxial stress. The analysis
of the obtained experimental data consists of an evaluation of the time and temperature
dependence of creep of concrete to develop a model.
Keywords: Creep, Temperature, Activation energy, Constant load, Time, Concrete.
A Bali is Professor and head of Materials laboratory at the Ecole Nationale Polytechnique in
Algiers. His particular interests cover behaviour of concrete at elevated temperatures,
durability, waste recycling, and repair of damaged structures
R Boutemeur is a Lecturer and researcher in the ENP, Algiers. His main interests are the
study of RC and masonry structures, waste recycling, and temperature effect of concrete
N Oudjit is a Lecturer and researcher of the University USTHB in Algiers. His research
interests focus on durability, cementitious materials, behaviour of concrete at high
temperatures, HPC, valorisation of industrial wastes.
47
48 Bali, Boutemeur, Oudjit
INTRODUCTION
Creep of concrete is a very important property to study. Among the factors that influences
time-dependent deformation, temperature is the most significant one as reported in the
literature [1]. An approach for modelling creep subjected to elevated temperatures is
presented in this paper in order to predict the concrete behaviour under high temperatures and
an applied load. Data from previous works [2, 3] as shown in Figure 1 has been collected and
analyzed for the purpose of the study.
CREEP STRAIN, str
TIME, min
Figure 1 Creep curves for differents temperatures ( = 0.2)
TIME DEPENDENCE OF CREEP
Creep can be modelled by a widely used expression of the form:
c = F (, T, t) (1)
where c is the creep strain and F a function of stress , temperature T and time t.
To examine the time dependence it can be assumed that:
c = g (, T) f (t) (2)
which indicates that the effect of the variables are separable.
In general a power law is used [4]:
f ( t ) = ( t/t3 ) n (3)
This relation, where t3 = 3 hours is only applied to primary and secondary creep. Therefore on
a given curve (t/t3) n = 1 when t = t3.
Or c = g (, T) = c3 (4)
t = t3
By letting = (t / t3) Equation (2) becomes:
c = c3 . n (5)
From which c / c3 = n (6)
this is independent of the stress and temperature. When taking the logarithm of Equation (6)
the n power can be estimated. The plot of log (c / c3) against log gave a straight line having
a slope of n = 0.56 as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Determination of the power n

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CREEP
It is admitted that creep is thermally activated and can be represented by an Arrhenius

equation as follows:
c = Aexp ( - Q/RT ) sinh (V/RT . ) (7)
Where A is a constant obtained at t = t3

Q is the activation energy (J/mole)
R is the universal gas constant
T is the absolute temperature
is the applied stress (N/mm2)
V is the creep volume
Creep rate increases with temperature probably due to thermally activated processes as
reported in the literature [5].
By letting B = A sinh (V/RT. ) and U = Q/T, Eq. 7 becomes:
c = B exp (-U/T) (8)
Creep rate is examined in the secondary creep region only where c is generally called steady
state creep.
Taking the natural logarithms of Eq. 8:
Ln c = Ln B U/T (9)
The graph of the logarithm of the creep rate against 1/T is illustrated in Figure (3). A straight
line is obtained which indicates that creep is a thermally activated process. The values of Q
and B deduced from the graph of Figure 3 for a stress level = 0.2 are 2167 J/mole and 5.9
str /min respectively.
Figure 3 Creep rate as a function of 1/T
STRESS DEPENDENCE OF CREEP
The value of B is exploited in order to examine the stress dependence of creep.
Let us consider B = Asinh (V/RT. ) (10)
It can be seen that the second term sinh (V/RT. ) of the equation describes the stress
dependence of creep. We can assume that (V/RT) is a constant because a simplification is
made in this study assuming that the creep activation volume is proportional to the product
RT. Therefore Eq.10 becomes:
B = A sinh (c) (11)
Creep can be assumed to be a linear function of the stress; therefore sinh (c) will reduce to
(c). However it seems likely that the non-linearity of creep will depend on the shape of the
stress /strain curve.
When considering the experimental results reported in [1, 2], a slope = 0/(0/E) of 1.16 of
the straight line is obtained when plotting E vs. 0/0.
The value of 1/ = 0.9 allows to assume that creep is linear to applied stress. Equation 10 can
be rewritten as:
B = m (12)
Where m is a constant including A and c is the applied stress

The plot of B against is shown in Figure 4 where a straight line of a slope of m =

1.044.10-6 /min.Nmm-2, is obtained.
B, str/mn
STRESS, N/mm
Figure 4 Plot of B against the applied stess
To reach a complete expression of the creep model, it is necessary to consider some

additional factors when estimating the creep rate. Rearrangement of Eq.2 yields a new
relation of the form:
c = K (t/t3) n (13)
Where: K is the function of the stress and temperature. Since creep rate is measured at
t = t3 = 3 hours, therefore:
c = n K tn-1/tn = nK/ t3 (14)
When comparing equations 7 and 14 it can be seen that the function K can be expressed as
follows:
K = (t3/n) A exp (-Q/RT) sinh (V/RT. ) (15)
This represents the actual creep rate. Thus, the expression of the creep model is obtained by
substituting K in Eq.13 with the linearity of creep accounted for.
c = (t3/n) m exp (-Q/RT) (t/t3) n (16)
Where:
c is the creep strain, n = 0.56, m = 1.044.10-6/ (min.N.mm-2), is the applied stress, t is the
time, t3 = 3 hours and T the absolute temperature.
This relation is used to fit the data from a uniaxial creep test. For comparison purposes some
data obtained using the elaborated creep model are plotted together with selected experimental
results as shown in Figure 5.
CREEP STRAIN, str
TIME, min
Figure 5 Comparison between the measured and calculated creep strains
CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the creep results has shown that creep is linear with the applied stress as
reported par Gross [6]. It is confirmed that creep is a thermally activated process and stress
independent. When examining the results of Figure.5, it can be seen that significant
differences between the calculated and the experimental creep strains appear above 500C.
This is probably due to the phase changes in the quartz of the siliceous aggregate at high
temperatures and which is not accounted for in this model [4].
REFERENCES
1. KANG, S N AND HONG, S G. Behaviour of concrete members at elevated temperatures

considering inelastic deformation. Fire Technology. Vol. 39, No.1, 2003, pp 9-22.
2. BALI, A. The transient behaviour of plain concrete at elevated temperatures. PhD

Thesis, University of Aston, Birmingham, UK, 1984.
3. BALI, A, BOUTEMEUR, R AND PURKISS, J A. Strength of concrete at elevated

temperatures. Proceedings of the International Conference Global Construction, Dundee,
Scotland, UK, 5-7 July 2005, pp 427-434.
4. THELANDERSON, S AND ANDERBERG, Y. Stress and deformation characteristics of

concrete at high temperatures. Experimental investigation and material model. Lund
Institute of Technology, Bulletin 54, 1976.
5. EISENSTADT, M M. Introduction to mechanical properties of materials. Macmillan,

New York, 1971.
6. GROSS, H. Computer aided thermal creep analysis of concrete continua. PhD Thesis,
University of London, 1973.
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE
CONCRETE FLOORS UNDER FIRE CONDITIONS
J Chang
R P Dhakal
P J Moss A H Buchanan
University of Canterbury
New Zealand
ABSTRACT. Precast prestressed hollow-core concrete flooring units are widely used in
reinforced concrete moment-resisting frame buildings in New Zealand, yet their behaviour
under fire has not received much attention. This is because large scale fire tests are difficult
and expensive, leaving computer analysis as the only alternative. However, the currently
available computer analysis methods are neither accurate nor easy to use. This paper
describes a simple yet reliable computational method to be used in design for modelling the
structural behaviour of hollow-core prestressed concrete slabs exposed to fires. The model
has a major limitation of not being able to model shear or tensile failure in the webs of the
hollow-core units, but the simulation outcomes show reasonably good agreement with
experimental fire tests of hollow-core slab units, thereby verifying the reliability of the
model.
Keywords: Fire resistance, Hollow-core, Finite element analysis, Computer model.
Mr J Chang is a PhD Candidate in Fire Engineering at the University of Canterbury.
Dr R Dhakal is a Senior Lecturer in Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
Dr P J Moss is an Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
Prof A H Buchanan is Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury.
55
56 Chang et al
INTRODUCTION
Precast prestressed hollow-core concrete flooring units have been widely used in reinforced
concrete moment-resisting frame buildings in New Zealand in recent years. A hollow-core
flooring system consists of several precast slab units with or without a layer of reinforced
concrete topping. The benefits of using hollow-core floor systems are low onsite labour costs,
low self-weight, consistent quality, and economical use of concrete. Although the seismic
performance of such systems has been extensively investigated, their behaviour under fire has
not received the same level of attention.
The structural behaviour of a hollow-core floor system under fire is complicated.

Furthermore, because fire tests of whole structures or sub-assemblies are not always feasible,
computer analysis becomes the only alternative. There are many existing studies investigating
the structural fire behaviour of this type of building system using different approaches, and
precise computer models have been developed [1]. However, comprehensive finite element
analyses for modelling the structural fire behaviour of hollow-core flooring system are too
complicated to perform within hours. On the other hand, a simplistic analysis is too crude to
capture the thermal expansion across the different flooring units and the development of
tensile membrane action. A compromise has to be made between the level of sophistication in
the modelling and the accuracy of the analytical prediction, hence the model described
in this paper.
BACKGROUND
It is understandable that the behaviour of hollow-core slabs under fire is more complicated
than that of solid slabs. The cores at the centre of the slabs, caused discontinuity in thermal
transfer, but the thermal gradient in the webs still needs to be addressed correctly to
accurately model the temperature induced mechanical strains [2]. The support conditions
have a significant influence on the structural behaviour of floors [3] which has been observed
in hollow-core flooring studies [1,2,4], hence the effect of the support conditions should be
considered. Prestressing greatly influences the predicted overall structural performance [5] of
the hollow-core flooring system, because the hollow-core units have no other reinforcing and
resistance to tensile stresses relies only on the prestressing tendons. In summary, the fire
design of the hollow-core floor system needs to be able to accommodate different support
conditions in different buildings, and designers must recognise that prestressed structural
members demonstrate different behaviour to ordinary reinforced concrete members.
Design methods for fire resistance of hollow-core flooring systems fall into three categories
according to Eurocode 2 [6], which are tabulated data, simple calculation methods and
advanced calculation methods. Tabulated data from Eurocode 2 or the NZ Concrete Structures
Standard NZS3101 [7] are widely adopted in practice as they are easy and quick to use, but
they ignore the influences of the unique thermal gradient of the hollow-core slabs and of the
surrounding structural members. Simple calculation methods are more sophisticated than
tabulated data, but they are not capable of accurately predicting the thermal gradient or
including the effect of support conditions. Because of the rapid developments in advanced
modelling methods, commercial finite element analysis programs can be used to design the
fire resistance of hollow-core flooring systems, based on the fundamental physical behaviour
with due consideration to the effects from the surrounding structure. This fits into the
category of advanced calculation methods.
Finite Element Modelling 57
The proposed model in this research runs under the non-linear FEA program SAFIR [8]. This
program was developed with the intention of analysing the structural behaviour of steel or
composite structures exposed to fire, but it has also been proven capable of accurately
predicting the fire behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs using shell elements [9]. A previous
study showed that SAFIR can successfully predict the structural behaviour of proprietary steel-
concrete composite slabs under fire using a combination of shell and beam elements [10]. The
combination of different element types became the essential idea behind the proposed model
in this study.
MODEL DESCRIPTION
The aim of this model is to simulate the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete frame
buildings with hollow-core floor slabs exposed to fires. Before deciding on the final model,
various combinations of shell and beam elements available in SAFIR were tried [5], such as
using shell elements vertically to simulate the webs or using only beam elements to simulate
the entire hollow-core flooring system. Shell elements in SAFIR require less discretisation
and are suitable for large displacements, but their thermal gradient is one directional and
perpendicular to the element. Beam elements are more complicated and require more
computational effort, but can capture the thermal gradient more accurately and allow for
prestressing. The final proposed model as shown in Figure 1 uses beam grillages for the
hollow-core units, and shell elements to model the reinforced concrete topping slab.
The model uses a grid of orthogonal beam elements to simulate the hollow-core units. The
grillage analogy has been reliably accurate in bridge designs [11]. Grillages by definition
have straight longitudinal and transverse beams rigidly connected together, each beam with
its bending and torsional stiffness, and the deflection and slope are calculated at each
intersecting points [12, 13]. This grillage analogy simplifies the finite element analysis, to
reduce the complexity of the computational problem. The grillage system allows for thermal
expansion in both lateral directions. In the grillage, all degrees of freedom except warping of
the longitudinal and transverse beams are shared at the intersecting points. The longitudinal
and transverse beams of the grillage are discretised into several fibres as shown in Figure 2.
The full-length longitudinal beams are used to address the thermal gradient around the cores
and to include the effect of the prestressing tendons. This prestress is accounted for when the
stress equilibrium in the cross-section is calculated in the first time step. The short transverse
beams of the grillage comprise only the top and bottom flanges and only extend the width of
each hollow-core unit, to account for the thermal expansion or thermal bowing of each unit in
the lateral direction. The effects of restraint to lateral displacements from the surrounding
structure can be included in the model.
The topping is modelled using shell elements which join the grillage system at the
intersecting points and share their degrees of freedom. The shell elements used for the
topping can model the membrane action, as the topping is usually used to provide continuity
between hollow-core units. This arrangement enables explicit representation of the side
supports being provided only for the topping and not for the hollow-core units. Some details
need to be overlooked to reduce the complexity of the model. Shear and anchorage failures or
bond failures are not considered in the model due to the amount of computational effort
needed when simulating the entire structure. Shear and anchorage failures have been
observed in tests but never in real buildings, as the possibility of these failure modes are
reduced with the presence of axial restraints1.
58 Chang et al
The spalling effect is also ignored. Spalling has been observed in some tests [14] and is
known to be affected by the moisture content and the age of the concrete [15]. Nevertheless,
introducing factors such as the age of the concrete and the precise location of spalling is not
realistic. Hertz [16] showed that high strength concrete, which hollow-core units are made of,
has almost the same level of resistance towards spalling as normal concrete, so no special
attention is required. The final reason for ignoring spalling is that currently no computer
models can model spalling on account of the uncertainties and lack of specific experimental
data [17].
Due to the ease of construction of this computer model, it is easy to alter the cross section of
the floor, such as changing the type of hollow-core units, or modifying the topping thickness.
It is also easy to include the structural frames in the model and consider the global behaviour
of the hollow-core flooring system in the whole building. Different connection types can be
included in the 3D model to simulate interaction between the hollow-core flooring systems
and other structural members. Inclusion of different connection types is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 1 Schematic drawing for modelling of hollow-core floor system
Figure 2 Temperature distribution of SP265 Ergon specimen after 2 hours of ISO fire (a)
longitudinal beam (b) transverse beam
Figure 3 Model layout for simulating part of one story of reinforced concrete frame
building with hollow-core flooring system
MODEL VALIDATION
This section of the paper gives comparisons between the simulation results and the test data
carried out by various institutions, as part of the validation of the proposed model.
University of Ghent and Lige
Four tests were carried out in the Universities of Ghent and Lige in 1998 focusing on the
influence of detailing and of restraint conditions on the shear capacity of hollow-core slabs4.
Detailed descriptions of the designs are described in the test report [18]. Each test consisted
of two independent floors each 2.4 m wide (2 to 4 hollow-core units depending on the width
of the units) spanning 3 m, with supports on three beams as shown in Figure 4 (a). The floors
had a line load of 100 kN at the midspan, and were exposed to 2 hours of ISO fire. After the
fire exposure, extra loads were applied to check the remaining load capacity. The parameters
studied in the four tests are shown in Table 1. In the simulation only half of one floor was
modelled, 1.2 m wide with a 3 m span. Symmetrical boundary conditions were applied on
one side as shown in Figure 4 (b) in order to model the whole 2.4 m width. In the simulation
model, the filling of the cores at the ends was included but the peripheral ties and the detailed
anchorage were not.
In the reported test results, the compressive strength of the concrete in the hollow-core units
was around 45 MPa, and the strand strength was 1.85 GPa. Because the values of some
parameters are uncertain, a sensitivity study on these parameters was carried out and the
results are shown in Figure 5. To check if the short transverse beams in the grillage increase
the stiffness of the slab, the transverse beams were removed in one simulation. In this case,
where the slab consists of only two side-by-side units, it is found that the presence of
transverse beams has no influence on the vertical displacement, as shown in Figure 5 (a).
This confirms the idea that the transverse beams should only contribute to the transverse
displacement, or become effective when the slab consists of several more units over the width
or when the support condition at the sides become important.
60 Chang et al
A second sensitivity study was on the level of prestressing, which was unknown from the test
report and assumed to be 75% of the strand strength, following normal practice in New
Zealand. A comparison of the simulated midspan vertical displacement of the Test 1 slab
with pinned connections and with different prestressing levels is shown in Figure 5 (b). The
results indicate that the influence was significant if the prestressing level is very low. The
results also indicate that the fire performance of the hollow-core slab is affected by the level
of prestressing by only a limited amount, as the fire performance with prestressing level of
75% of the strand strength performed almost as well as the system with 80% of the strand
strength. Even if the assumption was a bit different from the actual value, the results would
be similar. The strength of the rebar in the topping was claimed to be 500 MPa, however, no
tests were shown to check the actual strength. Figure 5 (c) shows the effect of having two
different rebar strengths, and the results show that even if this strength was 100 MPa smaller
than the stated value, the difference to the overall performance was negligible. The results
from simulations of Tests 1 and 4 are shown in Figures 6 (a) and (b), with the prestressing
level assumed to be 75% of the strand strength and the rebar strength being 500 MPa. In Test
1, the simulation with no rotational restraints at the supports predicted that the slab had more
than 3 hours of fire resistance, and the fire resistance reduces to 1 hour if there are full
rotational restraints at the supports. However, in the test the support condition has partial
rotational restraint, and the slab withstood 83 minutes of the fire. Figure 6 (a) shows that the
simulation result was not very close to the experimental data from the test report18. The
maximum difference between the maximum deflections from simulation and from the test
data was 10 mm. In the fire test, shear cracking was observed 7 minutes from the start of the
experiment, and vertical cracking was observed at 12 minutes [18] which may explain the
rapid increase in midspan deflection during the early stage of the fire test. Nevertheless, the
results confirmed that the simulation model could not predict the shear displacement or the
resulting failure. In Test 4, the hollow-core unit is changed from SP200 Ergon with circular
voids used in Test 1 to SP265 Ergon with oval shaped voids, the number of voids is changed
from six to five, but the applied load and other mechanical values were the same as in Test 1.
The test result plotted in Figure 6 (b) showed that the slab resisted 2 hours of ISO fire. The
collapse of the test specimen occurred when the fire was stopped after 2 hours and more
loading was added at the midspan to check the capacity. There was no shear failure or
substantial shear displacement during the fire test, so the simulation was able to match the
test data reasonably well up to 2 hours. The maximum difference between the two deflections
was about 5 mm.
Table 1 Studied parameters in 1998 tests at Universities of Ghent and Lige
STUDIED PARAMETERS
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
Hollow-core section SP200 VS20 VS20 SP265

(type) Ergon Echo Echo Ergon
Height of hollow-core 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 265mm

section
Reinforced concrete 50 mm none none 30 mm

topping (1 floor)
Figure 4 (a) Detailing of Test 1 in 1998 at University of Ghent and Liege18; (b) Simulation
model for this case
Figure 5 Simulation results from Test 1 (a) with or without transverse beams (b) different
level of prestressing (c) different rebar strength
Figure 6 Simulation results from (a) Test 1 and (b) Test 4

62 Chang et al
Betonelement-Foreningen
Three fire tests of hollow-core slabs were conducted by Betonelement-Foreningen (BEF) in

2005 [19]. The purpose of these tests was to confirm whether after being exposed to the ISO
fire for 60 minutes, the slabs could sustain at least 65% of the ultimate design shear capacity
in ambient conditions derived from the DS411 Danish Standard [20]; hence the applied shear
force in these tests was higher than expected in a normal fire design. In these tests the fire
temperature followed only 60 minutes of the ISO fire curve, and then the tests continued for a
further 60 to 90 minutes with the constant applied load while cooling.
The tested specimens were 265 mm thick without topping, spanning 3.27 m as shown in
Figure 7. Three load levels, 65%, 75% and 80% of the ultimate shear capacity (91.6 kN/m)
were used in the tests. The dead weight of the hollow-core slabs was 3.65 kN/m2 including
joint castings.
The test results showed that the hollow-core slabs maintain a good resistance to shear stresses
under elevated temperatures. Figure 8 shows that the vertical displacements calculated from
the simulation were close to the test results. The difference between the vertical displacement
at the centre and at the side of the unit in the simulations is almost the same as that from the
tests. The small difference between the predictions and the test data is presumed to be caused
by shear deformation.
In the case with an applied load equal to 80% of the slabs shear capacity, the slab had a shear
failure after 45 minutes exposure to the ISO fire. The model could not foresee the shear
failure and therefore the simulation continued after this time. The large shear force was not
captured in the analysis so the model underestimated the deflection. Nevertheless, such a high
level of shear force is never designed for in normal practice.
Figure 7 (a) Test Layout (b) Dimension of specimen used in the 2005 tests by BEF19
Figure 8 The vertical displacements at midspan (ctre) or at the location of the point load
(qtre) from simulation (sim) and BEF test (test) results in the cases with loading equal to (a)
65% (b) 75% and (c) 80% of the ultimate shear stress under cold condition
Danish Institute of Fire Technology
The last set of data shown here is from the three fire tests carried out by the Danish Institute
of Fire Technology (DIFT) in 1998 on hollow-core slabs [21]. Three different slab sections
were tested, with thicknesses of 185 mm (SP18), 220 mm (SP22) and 270 mm (SP27). The
self-weights were 2.75 kN/m2, 3.10 kN/m2 and 3.55 kN/m2 respectively. The slabs were one
way pin-supported slabs spanning 6.2m with no topping as shown in Figure 9 (a). Four equal
line loads were applied to give a total load of 135 kN, 135 kN and 112 kN correspondingly.
The characteristic concrete strength of the hollow-core units was 2 MPa in tension and
54 MPa in compression. The mechanical properties and prestressing condition of the strands
in each case are shown in Table 2. The grillage system used to model these cases is shown in
Figure 9 (b). The results of the simulation are shown in Figure 10. Despite the differences in
the failure time, the figure shows that the simulation model can successfully predict the
deformation of the slabs. The model predicted a later failure time than the recorded time from
the tests. The predicted failure in all three simulations was caused by yielding of prestressed
strands at midspan. The test specimens had shear and anchorage failure near the supports in
less than 30 minutes of ISO fire exposure. The results here again showed that the simulation
model could not predict the shear failure.
Figure 9 (a) Layout of the DIFT test; (b) SAFIR model for the DIFT test
64 Chang et al
Table 2 Material properties of strands in DIFT 1999 test
SP18 SP22 SP27
Strands per unit 8 of 9.3 mm 8 of 9.3 mm 4 of 12.5 mm 4 of 15.2 mm
Yield strength 1880 N/mm2 1880 N/mm2 1840 N/mm2
Mechanical prestressing 62 kN/strand 62 kN/strand 110 kN/ strand 150 kN/ strand
Modulus of elasticity 198 kN/mm2 198 kN/mm2 198 kN/mm2 198 kN/mm2
Figure 10 Comparison of midspan vertical displacement from simulation (centre, side) with
that from the experiments (centre) with (a) SP18, (b) SP22 and (c) SP27 hollow-core units
CONCLUSIONS
A new modelling scheme is proposed to simulate the behaviour of hollow-core flooring

systems exposed to fire. The scheme uses a grillage system to model the hollow-core unit,
and a layer of shell elements to model the reinforced concrete topping slab. The advantages
of the new scheme are that it recognises the effects of thermal expansion in the transverse
direction, and it also can model membrane action through the topping layer. Membrane
action was not developed in the fire tests described in this paper, because they had no support
along the slab edges.
The new model can predict the fire performance of hollow-core slabs reasonably well, on the
condition that no shear failure or significant shear displacements are present. It is expected
that this model will work better in actual building design than in simulating test results,
because any shear failure or shear displacement is likely to be significantly reduced with the
presence of axial restraints from the supporting structure.
REFERENCES
1. FELLINGER, J H H. Shear and Anchorage Behaviour of Fire Exposed Hollow Core

Slabs. DUP Science, the Netherlands, 2004, 261pp.
2. DOTREPPE, J-C, AND FRANSSEN, J-M. Precast hollow core slabs in fire: numerical
simulations and experimental tests. The Third International Workshop Structures in
Fire. Ottawa, Canada, 2004, paper S5-1
3. BUCHANAN, A H. Structural Design for Fire Safety. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester,
2001, 431pp.
4. DOTREPPE, J-C, AND VAN ACKER, A. Shear resistance of precast prestressed hollow
core slabs under fire conditions. The First FIB Congress. Osaka, Japan, 2002. pp.149-
158
5. CHANG, J. Performance of Concrete Flooring under Fire in Modern Building System.

PhD Thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 2007 (in progress)
6. EC2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. prEN 1992-1-2: General rules-

Structural fire design. CEN, Brussels, 2002, 101pp.
7. NZS 3101, Concrete Structures Standard. NZS3101-1: The Design of Concrete Structures,
SNZ, Wellington, New Zealand, 1995, 256pp.
8. FRANSSEN, J-M, KODUR, V K R AND MASON, J. Users Manual for SAFIR2001

Free: A Computer Program for Analysis of Structures at Elevated Temperature Conditions.
University of Lige, Belgium, 2002, 88pp.
9. LIM, L. Membrane action in fire exposed concrete floor systems. PhD Thesis.
University of Canterbury, NZ, 2003, 318pp.
10. LIM, L, BUCHANAN, A H, AND MOSS, P J. Numerical modelling of two-way

reinforced concrete slabs in fire. Engineering Structures. Vol.26, 2004, pp.1081-1091.
11. HAMBLY, E C. Bridge Deck Behaviour. 2nd Ed., E & FN Spon, London, 1991
12. WEST, R. The Use of a Grillage Analogy for the Analysis of Slab and Pseudo-Slab Bridge
Decks. Research Report No. 21. Cement and Concrete Association. Bristol, England,
1973
13. LIVESLEY, R K. Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis. Pergamon Press, Oxford,

1964
14. LENNON, T. Precast Hollowcore slabs in fire. Structural Engineer. Vol. 81 No. 8, 203,
pp. 30-35
15. CONNOLLY, R. The Spalling of Concrete in Fires, Thesis (PhD), University of Aston,
1995
66 Chang et al
16. HERTZ, K D. Limits of spalling of fire-exposed concrete. Fire Safety Journal. vol. 38,
2003, pp. 103-116.
17. FRANSSEN, J-M. Structures in fire, yesterday, today and tomorrow. The 8th
International Symposium on Fire Safety Science. Beijing, China, 2005, pp.21-35
18. FIB. Rsistance au Cisaillement de Dalles Alvoles Prcontraintes. Studiecommissie

SSTC, University of Lige, Belgium, 1998
19. BETONELEMENT-FORENINGEN. Hollow Core Slabs and Fire Documentation on

Shear Capacity. Birch & Krogboe A/S, Copenhagen. 2005
20. DANISH STANDARDS. Danish Standards: DS 411 Norm for Betonkonstruktioner.

Dansk Standard, charlottenlund, 1999
21. ANDERSEN, N E, AND LAURIDSEN, D H. Danish Institute of Fire Technology

Technical Report X 52650 Part 2 Hollow Core Concrete Slabs. DIFT, Hvidovre, 1999
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS
M Demidem
Ecole Nationale Polytechnique. Algiers
Algeria
ABSTRACT. The finite element method (F.E.M.) is a numerical technique for solving partial
differential equations by first discretizing these equations in their space dimensions and time
to obtain the solution of practical engineering problems. However, a finite element analyst
often encounters problems in particular where the domains of interest are so large or extend to
infinity. In stationary problems, either an appropriate truncation of the domain or the use of
the coupling technique between finite and infinite elements works so much well. However, in
transient problems, the cost of analyses will increase with increasingly larger domains and the
solution of these kind of problems which are governed by the first order time dependent
partial differential equations, go throw within numerical integration schemes. The commonest
involve approximating the derivative by the Euler backward implicit method. The results
obtained shows that the Crank-Nicolson scheme exhibits an oscillatory solution. However,
reduction of stepping quantities produces a suitable answer. Finally, the type of elements used
are respectively the isoparametric four-node finite element (Q4) and the quadratic six-node
infinite element (Q6).
Keywords: Heat transfer, Finite Element, Infinite Element, Finite differences.
Dr M Demidem is a Lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering and Researcher within

the Construction & Environment Laboratory, Ecole Nationale Polytechnique. Algiers. Algeria.
He is an Associate Lecturer in the Ecole des Travaux Publics, Algiers, Algeria. His research
focuses mainly on Finite and Infinite Elements, Structures and Heat Transfer.
67
68 Demidem
INTRODUCTION
Numerical methods as finite element or coupling between finite and infinite element are
usually used with great success to solve structural or non-structural problems; as heat transfer
(for steady state or transient problems). However, for problems in which dimensions are large
or extend to infinity, the analysis by means of the finite element method needs the use of a
large number of finite elements in order to model correctly the far field behaviour. The
solution of such problems can be very tedious if we persist to use finite elements on their
own. That is why, in order to reach an efficient modelling, the hybrid mesh of finite and
infinite elements is necessarily needed. For the transient heat transfer problems, the
integration scheme to be used to solve the partial differential equation which govern the
behaviour, is essentially based on the Euler backward implicit method which guarantee the
unconditional stability of the solution.
HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS
In the study of (2-D) finite element analysis of heat transfer problems, it is instructive to
consider the differential formulation that govern the heat transfer problems [1, 2, 3, 4],
assuming that the material obeys Fouriers Low of heat conduction.
q x = K x ( / x) , q y = K y ( / y ) (1)
If the rate of heat generated per unit volume is QB, then for steady-state flow, the balance or
continuity requirement gives these relations.
q x q y
+ = QB (2)
x y
2 2
Kx( 2
) + K y ( 2 ) = Q B (3)
x y
The solution of this partial differential equation may be written as a matrix form as follows:
[ K ]G{ } + [KM] { / t} = {QB } (4)
THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD FORMULATION
The finite element method is a interesting technique for solving the governing partial
differential equations of equilibrium. It is based on the principle which states that the studied
domain is subdivided into a series of elements, in which the problems unknowns are
substituted by the product of some continuous shape functions and the nodal parameters of
the elements [5,6,7]. The element considered in this study, is the four nodes finite element
Q4.
Transient Heat Transfer Problems 69
Near Field Analysis
The temperature field interpolation can be written as :
{ } = [ N ]{ } (5)
The transformation matrix [ B ] can be written as :

[ B ] T= [ ] (6)
x y
The interpolation functions N i ( , ) are given by :
1 1
N 1 ( , ) = (1 )(1 ) , N 2 ( , ) = (1 )(1 + )
4 4
(7)
1 1
N 3 ( , ) = (1 + )(1 + ) , N 4 ( , ) = (1 + )(1 )
4 4
y 2
3
2 3
1
4 1 4
x
Figure 1 Real finite element Figure 2 Reference element
The numerical calculation of different matrices involved in equation (4) is as follows:
+1 +1 +1 +1
[K ] = [B] [K ][B] J
e T
d d + h [N ] [N ] J d d
T
(8)
1 1 1 1
+1 +1
[KM ] = c [N ] [N ] J d d
T
(9)
1 1
[K ]G = [K e ]
NE
(10)
i =1
70 Demidem
x y

[ J ] = x y
(11)

NN
X = N
i =1
i Xi
NN (12)
Y= N
i =1
i Yi
[N] : Interpolation function

[ K] : Matrix of thermal conductivities
[ B] : Transformation matrix
[Ke] : Element stiffness matrix
[J] : Jacobian operator matrix
[ K] : Global stiffness matrix
[KM] : Mass matrix
h : Convective coefficient
c : Mass density by heat capacity
NE : Number of elements
NN : Number of nodes
The numerical integration of equation (4) with respect to time may be done within many
ways, but the commonest involve approximating the derivative by finite differences, in
particular the implicit scheme [8] where the space step (SS) and the time step (TS) are chosen
with some care.
K {1 + (1 ) 0 } + KM { 1 / t + (1 ) 0 / t} = Q1 + (1 )Q0 (13)
0.5 1
In the case where there are no sources, the equation (13) reduces to:
{KM + tK } 1 = {KM (1 )tK } 0 (14)
FORMULATION OF THE INFINITE ELEMENT
The method of infinite elements is an extension of the finite element method for unbounded
region [9,10,11]. The method consists of transforming an infinite element toward bounded
domain. The interpolation functions are found using Zienkiewicz mapping. The infinite
element considered in this study, is the six nodes infinite element Q6.

3
2 4
3

2
1 5 6
6
Figure 3 Reference element Figure 4 Real infinite element
Analysis of the Far Field
The interpolation of the temperature field is:
NN
= N ii (15)
i =1
The geometric transformation is:
NN
X = M i X$ i
i =1
(16)
NN
Y = M i Yi
i =1
The mapping functions of the Infinite element are:
( 1) ( + 1) (1 + )(1 + ) (17)
M 1x = , M 2x = , M 3x = 0 .5 .... etc
(1 ) (1 ) (1 )
APPLICATIONS
Plate with Boundary conditions of case (a)
In the first application, the plate (16 m x 8 m) has been discretized by 160 quadrilateral finite
elements Q4 in order to reach a good accuracy in the results. The boundary conditions are
those applied on one side of the plate consisting on a concentrated temperature inputs.
However, 3 different models of coupling between finite and infinite elements has been
considered, with the object to ensure the best compromise between the accuracy and the
minimum number of finite elements to be used in the near field: (40, 50 and 60 finite
elements Q4 corresponding to 25%, # 30% and # 40% of the domain).
72 Demidem
Plate with Boundary conditions of case (b)
In this application, the boundary conditions are those applied on two sides of the plate
consisting on a concentrated temperature inputs. The coupling model used correspond to the
model in which # 40% of the domain at least, is discretized by finite elements Q4. The
infinite elements Q6 are used in the remainder of the domain (# 60%).
One side temperature input Two sides temperature input
Figure 5 Case (a) Figure 6 Case (b)
Figure 7 Finite element model Figure 8 Coupling Model (# 40%)
Plates with Boundary conditions of cases (c) and (d)
In these applications, the square plate (4 m x 4 m) in case (c) and the rectangular plate
(8 m x 4 m) in case (d), are constrained along two adjacent sides to a specific boundary
conditions corresponding to the zero temperature. However the initial values of the non zero
degrees of freedom (over the plates surfaces, Figures 9 and 10) are set to 100C.
=0 =0
=0 =0
Figure 9 Case (c) Figure 10 Case (d)

6.00
100.00
MIDPLATE SOLUTION,C
TEMPERATURE,C
80.00
5.00
60.00
FEM ( y = 7.5 m )
4.00 Exact solution
FEM ( y = 4.0 m )
FEM 40.00
3.00
20.00
2.00 0.00
0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00 160.00 0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS LENGTH, m
Figure 11 Convergence of case (a) Figure 12 Variation of the solution
20.00 20.00
FEM ( 25%, y = 4 m) FEM ( 25%, y = 7.5 m)
FEM ( #30%, y = 4 m) FEM ( #30%, y = 7.5 m)

16.00 16.00
FEM ( #40%, y = 4 m) FEM ( #40%, y = 7.5 m)
ERROR,%
ERROR,%
12.00 12.00
8.00 8.00
4.00 4.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
FINITE ELEMENT DOMAIN, m FINITE ELEMENT DOMAIN, m
Figure 13 Convergence of the coupling Figure 14 Convergence of the coupling

model (y = 4.0 m) model (y = 7.5 m)
50.00 100.00
FEM ( y = 4 m )
TEMPERATURE,C
80.00
45.00 Exact solution FEM ( y = 1 m )
FEM
60.00
40.00
MIDPLATE
40.00
35.00
20.00
30.00 0.00
0.00 40.00 80.00 120.00 160.00 0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS LENGTH, m
Figure 15 Convergence of case (b) Figure 16 Variation of the solution

74 Demidem
50.00
TEMPERATURE,C AT X=Y=0
SOLUTION,C AT X=Y=0
80.00 Exact solution

45.00 FEM, =0.5, TS=5
Asymptotic line
FEM, =0.5, TS=1
FEM, =0.5
40.00 40.00
35.00
0.00
30.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS TIME, sec
Figure 17 Convergence of case (c) Figure 18 Time step effect

80.00
60.00
60.00 FEM, =0.5 FEM, =0.5, TS=5
FEM, =0.7 FEM, =0.5, TS=1

40.00
FEM, =0.9
40.00
20.00
20.00
0.00
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
TIME, sec TIME, sec
Figure 19 Variation of solution case (d) Figure 20 Time step effect

TEMPERATURE,C AT CENTRE
60.00 40.00
TEMPERATURE,C AT CENTRE
30.00
FEM, =0.5 MEF, =0.5, TS=5
40.00
FEM, =0.7 MEF, =0.5, TS=1
FEM, =0.9 20.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0.00
-10.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
TIME, sec TIME, sec
Figure 21 Variation of solution case (d) Figure 22 Time step effect

CONCLUSIONS
In this study, some problems related to the heat transfer (steady state and transient problems)
has been examined by using the finite element method and the results obtained are very
conclusive. On the other hand, the coupling technique between finite and infinite elements
has been used with a great success to analyze problems in which dimensions are large or
extend to infinity. Consequently, the number of elements used in this new model and the
number of equations to be solved has been strongly reduced, without giving rise to the
noticeable alteration in the accuracy of the results (40% of the domain considered as a near
field, against about 2% of error).
However, when the asymptotic behaviour of the solution could not be satisfied, the use of the
coupling technique have led to the weak answers. Regarding the transient problems, the
progress of the solution when using Crank Nicolson scheme ( = 0.5) is oscillatory and the
comparison of the results showed a neat disparity with those obtained from the analytical
solution. In order to overcome this numerical difficulty, some judicious discretization effort
has been achieved.
Also, it is worth noting that for the square plate studied, the use of the Crank Nicolson
scheme have led to the oscillatory responses overall the plate, and extend on a wide range of
the time axis. However, for the rectangular plate, the last observation has been noticed only at
the centre of the plate, and the corner oscillatory responses cover just a narrow range (away
from the origin) of the time axis. For f 0.5 , non oscillatory solutions has been obtained but
were inaccurate responses about the true solution. Finally, it is very important to notice that
the suitable solutions to be reached depend no only on the judicious space step, but on the
carefully chosen time step as well (SS = 1 m , TS = 1 sec).
REFERENCES
1. SMITH, G D, Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations. Oxford, 1985.
2. TUMA, J J, Handbook of Numerical Calculations in Engineering. McGraw-Hill, 1989.
3. SCHENCK, J, Heat Transfer Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, Inc, 1959.
4. CRANK, J, Mathematics of diffusion. 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975.
5. ZIENKIEWICZ, O C, The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill, (U.K.), 1989.
6. BATHE, K J, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis. Prentice Hall, 1982.
7. DHATT, G, TOUZOT, G, Une Prsentation de la Mthode des Elments Finis. Ed, 1981
8. MORTON, K W, Stability of Finite Difference Approximations to a Diffusion Convection

Equation, Int, J, Num, Meth, Eng, 12, 1980. pp 899-916.
9. BETTESS, P, Infinite Element. Int, J, Num, Meth, Eng, 11, 1977. pp 53-64.
76 Demidem
10. KUMAR, P, Static Infinite Element Formulation. Journal of Structural Engineering,

Vol. 111, No.11, 1985. pp 2355-2372.
11. ZAHO, C, ZHANG, C, AND ZHANG, G, Simulation of Semi-Infinite Elastic Plane

Foundation Using Infinite Elements. J, Tsinghua Univ. 26, No.3, 1986. pp 51-64
EFFECT OF W/C RATIO ON BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE AT
HIGH TEMPERATURES
D Matesova
Brno University of Technology
Czech Republic
ABSTRACT. Quasibrittle materials like concrete and mortar disintegrate (gradually and/or
explosively) when subjected to high temperatures due to physical and chemical changes. The
mechanisms of the explosive damage are not yet fully understood, and it cannot be exactly
predicted at present. Explosive spalling in cementitious materials is attributed to the pressure
build-up of volatiles in heated material. The dominant parameters that determine the
susceptibility of concrete to explosive spalling are moisture content, strength and moisture
transport properties. This study evaluates the behavior of concretes with various transport
properties and strengths subjected to high temperatures of up to 1000C at a heating rate of
20C/min. The variability of those parameters is supplied here by various water to cement
(w/c) ratios (0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6). Strength and transport properties are quantified here by
compressive strength and porosity, respectively. The temperature rise in concrete specimens
during heating, and their susceptibility to explosive spalling are investigated.
Keywords: Explosive spalling, Porosity, High temperature, Water/cement ratio, Compressive

strength.
Dr D Matesova, Assistant Professor at Institute of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil

Engineering, Brno University of Technology
77
78 Matesova
INTRODUCTION
Quasibrittle materials like concrete and mortar disintegrate due to physical and chemical
changes when subjected to high temperatures. Attention should be focused generally on two
types of concrete deterioration: (1) the gradual degradation of material quantified e.g. by
mechanical/fracture parameters, and/or (2) explosive spalling, a brittle failure that occurs
suddenly and violently. The latter phenomenon may be very dangerous in practical situations
and is not yet exactly predictable.
It is believed that the primary reason for explosive spalling in cementitious materials is the
pressure build-up of volatiles, and that a secondary role is played by the build up of strain
energies caused by thermal stresses [1-3]. The latter is supported by the observation that the
temperature range in which explosive spalling occurs coincides when a high thermal gradient
appears between the surface and the center of a specimen [4]. Many authors [3-6] have
published various temperatures at which explosive spalling occurs. Unfortunately, it is not
always clearly stated where the temperature was measured with respect to damage location.
Published temperatures vary between 125 and 450C. Hertz and Sorensen [7] suggest it
happens near the critical point of water at 374C. The pressure build-up is related to strength,
composition, and more specifically, to the content of vapors that are formed at a specific
temperature on one hand and the pressure relief due to permeability on the other hand. Thus,
the dominant parameters for spalling occurrence are moisture content [2, 7, 8], strength [8],
and the moisture transport properties [6] of the material, and also the stress level in the
concrete specimen/structure [2]. The typical depth of spalling occurrence is about 2 cm [7].
An effective means of preventing explosive spalling is e.g. the addition of polymeric (PP)
fibers [2, 6, 9-13] to the cement matrix as they reduce pore pressure build-up. According to
Kalifa et al. [9], PP fibers are partially absorbed by the cement matrix when melted at a
temperature of around 170C, and leave a pathway for gas. In this way they contribute to the
creation of a more permeable network than the original matrix, which allows the outward
migration of gas and results in the reduction of pore pressures. Other opinions attribute such a
reduction to the formation of a weak and porous interface zone between the fibers and the
matrix that is readily transformed into continuous cracks upon heating [6], or, to the
incompatible movements of the fibers with the matrix that produce microcracks long before
melting [14]. Therefore, the transport properties are substantially increased. Hertz and
Sorensen [7] have developed a method for prediction of the spalling behavior of a specific
concrete with a specific moisture content that takes into account the effect of restrained
thermal expansion. This method has also shown that PP fibers may hinder the explosive
spalling of dense concrete as effectively as if the thermal expansion were restrained.
In this paper, the effect of strength and transport properties on the behavior of concrete
subjected to high temperatures is experimentally investigated; namely, the susceptibility of
concrete specimens to explosive spalling and temperature increase in the specimens during
heating. The strength and transport properties are quantified here by means of compressive
strength and porosity, respectively. Specimens made of four concrete mixes with different
w/c ratios were prepared in order to obtain concretes with different strengths and porosities.
This is followed in the paper with description of the tested materials and performed
experiments; and in the next part the results are reported and discussed.
Concrete at High Temperatures 79
MATERIAL
Four concrete mixes with w/c ratios of 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 were designed. In all cases, the
amount of aggregate was constant and the content of water and plasticizer was adjusted in
order to obtain mixtures with the target w/c ratios and similar consistency (cone slump ~ S2:
50100 mm). As a binder and filler, CEM II B 32.5 R cement (according to the Czech
National Standard SN EN 197-1 [15]) from the town Hranice was used, as well as an
aggregate of two fractions, 0/4 and 4/8 mm, from the Tovaov locality. The superplasticizer
FM 794 was used for w/c = 0.3, and FM 350 for w/c = 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6. The designed
mixtures compositions are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Designed compositions of concrete mixtures
COMPONENT w/c = 0.3 w/c = 0.4 w/c = 0.5 w/c = 0.6

CEM II B 32,5 R [kg/m3] 532 468 414 369.5
Water [kg/m3] 159.6 187.2 207 221.5
Sand DTK 0/4 Tovaov [kg/m3] 1040 1040 1040 1040
Gravel HTK 4/8 Tovaov [kg/m3] 645 645 645 645
Plasticizer [l/m3] 10.714 2.857 1.429 0.714
All produced laboratory specimens were unmolded after 24 hours of setting in the laboratory
(t = 22 2C, RH = 55 5%) and placed in a humid environment in a conditioning chamber
(t = 20 2C, RH = 90 10%). Moisture content in the specimens in the time of testing was
around 3.1, 3.3, 4.0 and 4.6% of weight for w/c ratios 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6, respectively.
EXPERIMENT
In order to evaluate the behavior of concrete specimens under heating the following
specimens were made and experimental procedures carried out:
(1) Temperature Increase In Specimens, and Explosive Spalling:

Prisms of dimensions 80 80 240 mm were equipped with type K (alumel chromel)
thermocouples that were embedded in the center of the specimens immediately after casting.
These specimens, after about 160 days of setting, were heated in a programmable muffle
furnace, which provides heat around the specimen, at the nominal heating rate of 20C/min,
up to 1000C. The thermocouples wires were connected to a data logger that recorded the
temperature at the center of the specimens every 10 seconds during heating. For w/c ratios
0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6, the number of heated specimens was 9, 8, 10 and 6, respectively.
(2) Porosity:
The porous structure was investigated by using the high pressure intrusive mercury
porosimetry method on the concrete specimens when they were 150 days old. Specimens of
the dimensions 20 10 5 mm were cut out from the inner parts of the prisms with the same
dimensions as those used for the heating procedure described above. The Micromeritics
PoreSizer 9310 Porosimeter was employed. In total there were 32 experiments designed to
cover 8 configurations (four duplicates in each configuration). Each configuration is
80 Matesova
represented by a w/c ratio (0.3 to 0.6) and temperature (reference specimens and specimens
preheated to 230C). The reference specimens were dried before testing at 100C. Heating to
230C was carried out at the nominal heating rate of 20C/min, being kept at the maximum
temperature for 60 min. Specimens we slowly cooled to room temperature in the slightly
open furnace before testing. The temperature of 230C is a rough estimate of the temperature
at the location of a fracture at the moment of explosion judged on the basis of the temperature
measured in the centers of the heated prisms (180210C depending on w/c ratio). The
resulting total volumes of pores are presented.
(3) Compressive Strength:

It was measured on unheated cubes (150 mm) after 140 days of setting for three duplicates
per each w/c ratio.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Temperature Increase in Specimens
Temperature increases were recorded in the specimens during heating in the furnace, and the
amount of explosive spalling was quantified. Whether explosive spalling occurred or not, all
the specimens were heated to 1000C.
A comparison of the temperature increases in the centers of specimens with different w/c
ratios is given in Figure 1 together with the temperature in the furnace. The time derivatives
of these curves are plotted against the temperature in Figure 2. These two Figures reflect the
fact that a cement matrix with a higher w/c ratio (0.6 in this case) is a better temperature
barrier than one with a lower w/c ratio (0.3 in this case), due to the higher content of water.
This difference develops mainly from temperature zone A (around 190C) marked in Figures
1 and 2. From zone A up to zone B the temperatures in both specimens grow in parallel. For
an illustration of the temperature rise differences between those two w/c ratios note that the
temperatures of 300, 700 and 900C were reached about 4.6, 6.6 and 8.5 min later in the
specimen with w/c = 0.6 compared to w/c = 0.3.
FURNACE
1000
FURNACE
900
TEMPERATUREC[C]
800
TEMPERATURE,
700 zone B
AND
600
AND
500
SPECIMEN
400
SPECIMEN
zone A
300 furnace
200 specimens:
100 w/c = 0.3
w/c = 0.6
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME, min
TIME [MIN]
Figure 1 Temperature increase in the center of heated beams of 80 80 240 mm and in
the furnace: comparison of w/c ratios 0.3 and 0.6
18
[C/MIN]
16
IN
SPECIMENS C/min
RATE
14
RATE
12
10
TEMPERATURE
THESPECIMENS,
TEMPERATURE
8 zone B
6
4
2
0 zero rate
THE zone A
-2 w/c = 0.3
-4
IN
w/c = 0.6
-6
0 200 400 600 800 1000
SPECIMENTEMPERATURE
SPECIMEN TEMPERATURE,
[ C]C
Figure 2 The temperature rate in the center of heated beams of 80 80 240 mm:
comparison of w/c ratios 0.3 and 0.6
Zones A and B reflect endothermic reactions and/or other processes that slow down
temperature increase in the specimens or even cause cooling as recorded in zone A. Let us
compare Figure 2 with the DTA analysis plotted in Figure 3 for concrete with w/c = 0.3. The
major endothermic peaks here are at 115 and 490C. Both processes are accompanied by a
large degree of mass loss as is evident from the TG and DTG curves plotted in the same
Figure. The peak at the temperature of 115C is due to the process of chemical water release
from C-S-H gel and the peak at 490C is due to calcium hydroxide dissociation. If we
compare the endothermic peaks obtained from DTA with the peaks in Figure 2 for w/c = 0.3,
we can see differences of about 85 and 70C for the first and the second peak, respectively. In
case that peaks from DTA analysis and those in Figure 2 are due to the same processes then
the temperature shifts are probably caused by differences in the experimental procedures.
DTA analysis is performed on a small sample of dried and finely ground concrete contrary to
the concrete body/prism with a content of moisture specified in section Material. Or, the
peaks obtained for heating prisms might be related to some physical processes or structural
effects or a combination of them with endothermic reactions. In this context zone A will be
discussed more later in section Explosive spalling.
[mg]
156
154
DTG
152
step -6.3595 %
-9.8922 mg DTA
150
step -0.4220 %
148 -0.6564 mg
TG step -0.9464 %
-1.4721 mg
146
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 [C]
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 [min]
Figure 3 DTA, TG and DTG analyses of concrete with w/c = 0.3

82 Matesova
Explosive Spalling
Let us move on to the explosive spalling that occurred in some of the specimens during
heating. The summary in Table 2 gives the percentage weights of the spalled parts of the
heated specimens with regard to their total weight after heating to 1000C (all the specimens
regardless of whether the spalling occurred or not were heated up to 1000C). A zero value
indicates that no spalling occurred.
Table 2 Occurrence of explosive spalling quantified by the relative weight of spalled parts
SPECIMEN EXPLOSIVE SPALLING, wt.-%

NO. w/c = 0.3 w/c = 0.4 w/c = 0.5 w/c = 0.6
1 12.61 8.70* 0* 10.44*
2 11.25 0 0* 5.58*
3 12.68 9.16 0* 0*
4 70.96 4.12 0 5.36*
5 7.87 34.18 0 6.07*
6 11.64* 9.06* 0 9.43*
7 6.40 0* 0* -
8 0 36.36* 0 -
9 32.89* - 18.37 -
10 - - 0 -
* the specimen was equipped with thermocouple
The question arises: how to quantify explosive spalling correctly? Three types of
quantification are presented in this study: (i) the relative amount of specimens that spalled
with regard to the total number of specimens heated, and (ii, iii) the averages of the relative
weights of the spalled material with regard to the total weights of the specimens after heating
to 1000C; (ii) all specimens included and (iii) only spalled specimens included. Thus, (ii)
and (iii) are averages calculated from the values given in Table 2. However, the size and
shape of the spalled parts is not taken into account in those quantifications.
The results are plotted in Figure 4. The specimens found to be the most susceptible to
explosive spalling with regard to the total number of spalled specimens (i) are those with w/c
ratios of 0.3 and 0.6. The most resistant from this point of view is w/c ratio 0.5. According to
results (ii) and (iii), the amount of spalled parts decreases with increasing w/c ratio except for
w/c ratio 0.5. There was only one spalled specimen for this w/c ratio so it is not a statistically
significant result in case (iii). If we accept this and ignore w/c = 0.5 for case (iii) where only
spalled specimens are included, we may say that there is a decreasing trend in the relative
weight of spalled parts with increasing w/c ratio.
Schneider et al. [16] explains the mechanism of explosive spalling as being due to the
existence of a fully saturated area that forms under the dry surface zone due to water
evaporation during the heating process. In this fully saturated area, high vapor pressures are
formed which lead to explosive spalling. If we accept this hypothesis, the decreasing trend of
the curve (iii) in Figure 4 with the increasing w/c ratio could be explained by the depth of the
formation of the fully saturated area. This depth may be greater for smaller w/c ratios,
probably due to the faster temperature rate in the specimen and lower permeability compared
to higher w/c ratios. Therefore, the volume of spalled parts may be greater for lower w/c
ratios. Let us also mention the results of Sullivan [14], who found that concrete with w/c
ratio(s) of 0.35 (0.35 and 0.25) appeared to be most susceptible of all reinforced (plain)
concretes to exploding within the range of w/c ratios 0.25, 0.35 and 0.5. The reason was that
the concrete with w/c = 0.35 had the lowest surface permeability.
(i) Relat. amount of spalled specs.

(ii) Spalled parts (all specs.)
(iii) Spalled parts (spalled specs.)
OF SPALLED
100 25
WT., %
PARTS,[WT.-%]
OF
SPECS. [%] %
80 20
SPECS.,
AMOUNT
60 15
SPALLED PARTS
AMOUNT
SPALLED
40 10
SPALLED
RELAT.
RELAT.
20 5
0 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
WATER/CEMENTRATIO
WATER/CEMENT RATIO[-]
Figure 4 Quantification of explosive spalling of
heated specimens (average values) vs. w/c ratio
Figure 5 shows some of the specimens after heating. The most frequent type of damage was
(a) one side damaged; the other modes (b d) two sides, surface and total damage were
rather rare and (e) is the specimen which did not spall. The temperature in the center of the
specimens at the moment of explosion was within the range of 180210C (the higher the w/c
ratio, the lower the temperature at violent failure); therefore the temperature at the location of
fracture was even higher at the moment of explosion. Note that usually only one explosion
occurred for each individual specimen. Rarely, two separate explosions took place for one
specimen, recognized according to the noise in the furnace.
Figure 5 Modes of explosive spalling failure

84 Matesova
Let us return to zone A as marked in Figures 1 and 2 and already discussed above. This
process culminates in the temperature with the lowest temperature rate of zone A (Figure 2).
If we take these peak temperatures (i.e. temperatures of the fastest cooling), sort them
according to w/c ratio and separate the values from spalled and unspalled specimens, the
dependencies plotted in Figure 6 are obtained. In the case of spalled specimens, the average
peak temperatures decrease with increasing w/c ratio. The trend for unspalled ones is not
clear. Of interest is that the peak temperatures for spalled specimens are higher compared to
those for unspalled ones for all studied w/c ratios.
210 spalled - mean

unspalled - mean
[C]C
spalled
TEMPERATURE,
200 unspalled
TEMPERATURE
190
180
170
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

WATER/CEMENT RATIO[-]
WATER/CEMENT RATIO
Figure 6 Temperature of the lowest temperature rate in the temperature zone A vs. w/c ratio,
sorted for spalled and unspalled specimens
Regarding the formation of zone A, the temperature drop in the specimens could also be
related to the presence of high pore pressures and their release due to either microcracking or
abrupt explosion. This could explain why cooling of unspalled specimens occurs at lower
temperatures compared to spalled ones (Figure 6). If a sufficient amount of microcracks are
generated at lower temperatures, the pore pressures are released early enough and this can
prevent explosive spalling. If this does not happen, the pressure release occurs later, in the
form of an abrupt explosion. The cooling phenomenon needs further investigations.
Close ups of zone A (as marked in Figure 1) for all specimens equipped with thermocouples are
plotted in Figure 7. The time interval of 35 to 50 min contains 90 measuring points. All the
specimens in Figure 7 demonstrate a partial temperature decrease except for the spalled
specimens with w/c = 0.4. It is visible that the cooling process moves to lower temperatures
and a later time with increasing w/c ratio. This can be interpreted as meaning that concrete with
a higher w/c ratio serves as a better temperature barrier, as was already mentioned above.
Figure 7 also documents the difference between spalled and unspalled specimens (see w/c = 0.4
and 0.6) as was discussed above (Figure 6).
TEMPERATURE, C
TIME, min TIME, min

Figure 7 Close up of the temperature zone A from Figure 1 for all specimens equipped with
thermocouples
Compressive Strength And Porosity
Strength and moisture transport properties are the dominant properties of concrete that
determine its susceptibility to explosive spalling. Transport properties were quantified in this
study by mercury porosimetry measurements of porous structure. Strength was quantified by
compressive tests on cubes. The application of compressive tests was supported by Sullivans
conclusion [14] that stresses generated during heating which often result in explosive spalling
failure are not necessarily tensile. They may be compressive or a combination of both.
Moreover, the tensile strength of a concrete is usually proportional to its compressive
strength.
Table 3 gives the average values and coefficients of variation (COV) of compressive strength,
fc. The total porosity of reference specimens and specimens after heating to 230C is given in
Figure 8. The results are in the same proportions as those obtained by Lafhaj et al. [17].
Typically, increasing w/c ratio leads to a steep decrease in compressive strength; the difference
between w/c ratios 0.3 and 0.6 is 55%. Simultaneously, the total pore volume increases with
increasing w/c ratio for both unheated specimens and after heating to 230C (a temperature
close to that at which explosive spalling occurs). For unheated specimens the value for w/c = 0.6
is 2.5 times higher compared to w/c = 0.3. The differences between the total pore volumes and
even compressive strengths for w/c ratios 0.5 and 0.6 are not significant; they are within the
frame of standard deviations.
Table 3 Compressive strength: average values and COV
AGE OF w/c = 0.3 w/c = 0.4 w/c = 0.5 w/c = 0.6

SPEC. fc COV fc COV fc COV fc COV
[days] MPa % MPa % MPa % MPa %
28 not measured 27.78 2.99
140 85.75 3.59 64.31 2.44 41.68 7.47 38.85 3.86
86 Matesova
TOTAL INTRUSION VOLUME [cm /g]

0.10
3
0.09
TOTAL INTRUSION
VOLUME, cm/g
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
unheated
0.04 230C
unheated - average
0.03 230C - average
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

WATER/CEMENT
WATER RATIO
/CEMENT RATIO [-]
Figure 8 Total intrusion volume vs. w/c ratio
Explosive Spalling Vs. Compressive Strength And Porosity
There is no direct dependence neither between porosity and explosive spalling nor compressive
strength and explosive spalling in the case of this study. Not any single parameter of a material
but rather the combined effects/proportions of several influence the susceptibility of concrete to
explosive spalling. For a better illustration of the relationship between explosive spalling
occurrence and the combined effect of strength and porosity let us plot the ratio of porosity
(reference specimens) to compressive strength vs. spalling occurrence (see Figure 9).
According to this plot there is a decreasing trend of explosive spalling occurrence with an
increasing porosity to strength ratio for w/c = 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 for types (i) and (ii) of spalling
quantification. In the other words, the total volume of spalled material decreases with
increasing porosity to strength ratio. This trend is not followed by w/c = 0.6.
WATER/CEMENT RATIO
SPALLED PARTS, WT, %
RELAT. AMOUNT OF
SPALLED SPECS., %
RATIO OF POROSITY TO
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Figure 9 Explosive spalling occurrence vs. ratio of porosity to compressive strength
CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of plain concrete specimens with various porosities and strengths represented
by w/c ratios of 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 subjected to high temperatures up to 1000C at a heating
rate of 20C/min was investigated.
(1) Three different types of explosive spalling quantification were applied (Figure 4). If we
consider the number of spalled specimens, the most susceptible to spalling were those
with w/c ratios 0.3, 0.4 and 0.6, with 89, 75 and 83% of spalled specimens. For a w/c ratio
of 0.5 only 10% of specimens spalled. If we consider the weight proportions of the
spalled parts with regard to the total weight, there is a decreasing trend with increasing
w/c ratio except for the w/c ratio of 0.5. It is true for both criteria (ii) and (iii). In other
words, the volume of spalled material increases with decreasing w/c ratio (except with
w/c = 0.5, criterion (ii)).
(2) Four different types of explosive damage were observed for the 8080240 mm concrete
prisms. The most usual was damage to one side; the other types (two sides, surface and
total damage) were rather rare (Figure 5). No relation was observed between type of
damage and w/c ratio.
(3) During the heating of prismatic specimens, a cooling phenomenon was recorded in their
centers. This cooling was initiated when the temperature in the center was between about
180 and 210C. The higher the w/c ratio, the lower the temperature at which cooling
initiation took place. Such cooling might be caused by the release of pore pressures. It is of
interest that for single w/c ratios the temperature of cooling initiation was higher for
specimens that spalled compared to unspalled ones. This could be interpreted as indicating
that when a sufficient amount of microcracks are generated at lower temperatures, pore
pressures are released early enough and this can prevent explosive spalling. If not, the
pressure release occurs later, accompanied by abrupt explosion. The cooling phenomenon
needs further investigations.
(4) Typically, increasing the w/c ratio leads to a steep decrease in compressive strength, and
simultaneously, the total pore volume increases with increasing w/c ratio for both
unheated specimens and after heating to 230C. A decreasing trend of explosive spalling
occurrence was found with increasing proportions of porosity to compressive strength for
w/c ratios 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5. This trend is not followed by w/c ratio 0.6.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This outcome has been achieved with the financial support of the Czech Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports, project no. 1K04 111, Clutch. Dr. Ivailo Terzijski is thanked
for designing the concrete mixtures used in this study and Dr. Patrik Bayer for performing
porosity measurements.
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for conformity assignment. Part 1: Cements for general usage, in Czech).
16. SCHNEIDER, U, HORVATH, H AND DEHN, F. Abplatzverhalten von ultrahochfestem Beton
unter Brandbeanspruchung, Leipzig Annual Civil Engineering Report (LACER), No. 6, 2001.
(Spalling behaviour of ultra high-performance concrete under fire exposure, in German).
17. LAFHAJ, Z, GOUEYGOU, M, DJERBI, A AND KACZMAREK, M. Correlation between
porosity, permeability and ultrasonic parameters of mortar with variable water/cement ratio
and water content. Cement and Concrete Research 36, 2006, pp 625-633.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE ON THE LIGHTWEIGHT
STRUCTURAL PUMICE AGGREGATE CONCRETE
WITH SILICA FUME
E Sancak
Suleyman Demirel University
O imek
Gazi University
Turkey
ABSTRACT. In this study, structural lightweight concrete produced by Pumice and

normal-weight aggregate concrete are investigated in terms of compressive strength and
weight loss of structural Lightweight Concrete with pumice aggregate (LWC) and Normal-
weight aggregate (NWC) after being exposed to high temperatures (20, 100, 400, 800, 1000
degrees C). For this purpose, 12 different types of concrete mixtures were produced. In
producing the NWC and LWC mixtures, a mineral additive, Silica Fume (SF), was used to
replace the Portland cement in the ratios of 0%, 5% and 10% by weight. The remaining six
types of mixtures were obtained by adding Super Plasticizers (SP) to the mixtures with SF in
the ratio of 2% by weight. In conclusion; unit weight of LWC was 23% lower than that of
NWC. The LWC containing 2% SP could retain 38% of the initial compressive strength.
When exposed to the temperatures of 20C, 100C and 400C, NWC performed better than
the LWC. The loss of compressive strengths increased depending on the ratio of using SF at
about 800oC and over.
Keywords: Lightweight concrete, Pumice, High temperature, Silica fume.
Dr E Sancak, is currently working as an assistant of professor in the field of durability

concrete and factors of effect to concrete properties at the University of Suleyman Demirel,
Faculty of Technical Education in Turkey. He received his doctorate degree in construction
education in 2005 from Gazi University, Institute of Science and Technology in Turkey; his
doctoral dissertation deal with some properties of pumice concrete (those properties are
included the corrosion of reinforcement in concrete, high temperature effect, and bond
strength between reinforcement and lightweight concrete).
Dr O imek, is an assistant of professor and vice president of department at Gazi

University, Technical Education Faculty. His research interests include advanced concrete
technologies and other building materials. The author has four books whose names are
Building Materials I- II, Components of Concrete and Concrete Testing Methods, Concrete
and Concrete of Technology.
89
90 Sancak, Simsek
INTRODUCTION
It is a well known fact that coefficient of thermal expansion values of concrete ingredients
(cement paste and aggregates) are different from each other. Therefore, temperature changes
in concrete cause differential volume changes in the ingredients, and these results in cracking
and lower durability. This concept is known as the thermal inconsistency of the ingredients
[1, 2].
Neville (1995) pointed out that at temperatures approximately above 430C, concretes with
siliceous aggregates show significant strength loss when compared to those with light weight
aggregates. At 600C, concrete can loose half of its strength. Above 800C, loss of the bound
water in the hydrates may cause a strength loss of even 80%, which may lead to the failure of
a structure. In this case, the difference between the strength losses in normal weight concretes
(NWC) and light weight concretes (LWC) ceases [3].
In another research (Gul and Bingol 2002), fire resistance of lightweight concretes having
500-1600 kg/m3 unit weight was investigated and it was found that an increase in unit weight
resulted in reductions in the fire resistance of the concretes [4]. Previous studies showed that
increasing moisture content increases the coefficient of thermal conductivity of concretes up
to 100C, but decreases it at higher temperatures [5].
Turker et al. (2001) investigated the micro-structure and strength of the concretes exposed to
fire. In this study, mortars containing ordinary Portland cement and three aggregate types
were subjected to 100, 250, 500, 700 and 850C for four hours. Unlike the mortars with
quartz and limestone, at high temperatures, cracking was observed in the aggregate itself for
the mortars with pumice instead of crack propagation at the interface. Therefore, it was
concluded that the interface was strong when pumice was used [6].
Hammer (1995) compared the data obtained from the high-strength light weight and normal
weight concretes containing 0-5% silica fume (SF) which were exposed to 20, 100, 200, 300
and 450C with the data of the concretes which were not exposed to high temperatures. It was
found that at 450C, NWC containing 0% SF showed the best performance but the behavior
of the others was similar to each other. At 600C, LWC with 5% SF and NWC without SF
were similar to each other and they showed the best performance by a strength loss of 48%
relative to the control concrete exposed to 20C. When the concrete temperatures were 200-
300C, reductions in compressive strength were 25-35% [7].
According to Kong et al. (1983) [8] and Abeles and Bardhan-Roy (1981) [9], concretes
containing light-weight aggregate preserve their strength up to nearly 500oC. It was stated
that the residual strength of LWC after fire decreases linearly from 100% to 40% as a result
of increasing the temperature from 500C to 800C.
Hammer (1995) reported that during the hydrocarbon fires, light weight aggregate concretes
experience greater spalling when compared to normal weight concretes [2]. There are three
main reasons for this when the LWC and NWC are compared [10]:
Permeability and vapor pressure depending on the moisture content,

Moisture in the capillary pores (glogging moisture)
Initial compressive strength of the spalling layer
Lightweight Pumice Aggregate Concrete 91
In this study, the compressive strengths and weight losses of the LWC containing pumice
aggregate, SF and superplasticizer (SP) at high temperatures were investigated in comparison
to NWC.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Materials Used in the Research
NWC were produced with crushed aggregate from Ankara-Elmadag region. Maximum
aggregate size was 16 mm. The density and water absorption capacity of the 0-4 mm
aggregate group were 2570 kg/m3 and 2.73%, respectively. These values were 2700 kg/m3
and 0.55% for 4-16 mm aggregate group [11]. In concrete mix proportioning, aggregates
were composed of 55% sand (0-4 mm) and 45% gravel (4-16 mm).
The light weight aggregate (pumice) in LWC production was obtained from Isparta-Golcuk
in three groups: 0-4, 4-8 and 8-16 mm. The specific gravities of these sizes were 2.09, 1.75
and 1.50, respectively [12]. The pumice aggregate was graded to fit the limitations given in
ASTM C 330 [13].
The cement used was an ordinary portland cement (PC) with a specific gravity of 3.15,
Blaine fineness of 3350 cm2/g, initial setting time of 150 min and final setting time of 196
min. The 7-day and 28-day compressive strengths of PC were 41.3 and 51.2 MPa,
respectively.
SF used in the concrete production was obtained from Antalya Etimine Electro-Ferrochrome
Plant. Chemical compositions of the pumice aggregate, PC and SF are shown in Table 1.
Municipal tap water was used as mixing water. A Type F superplasticizer (SP) conforming to
ASTM C 494 was used to improve the workability.
Table 1 Chemical compositions of the PC, SF and pumice aggregate
COMPOSITION, % PC SF PUMICE
CaO 63,98 0.44 4.60
SiO2 20.64 80.9 59.0
Al2O3 5.06 0.34 16.6
Fe2O3 3.14 0.55 4.80
MgO 1.20 5.23 1.80
SO3 2.38 --- 0.40
K2O 0.8 4.50 5.40
Na2O 0.31 0.35 5.20
Cl 0.035 0.13 ---
Loss on ignition 1.72 2.70 1.60
Insoluble residue 0.46 --- ---
C3S* 52.48
C2S* 19.63
C3A* 8.02
C4AF* 9.15
* Main compounds of the PC were calculated according to Bouges equations
92 Sancak, Simsek
Experimental Details
Concretes were produced with a 75 dm3 capacity mixer. NWC were designed to obtain a C20
strength class with a water-binder ratio (w/b) of 0.53 [11]. Mix proportioning of the LWC
was made according to TS 2511 [12]. Slump was kept constant in the mixes. In naming the
concrete mixes, the type of the concrete (N for NWC and L for LWC) was followed by the
SF incorporation amount (5 for 5% and 10 for 10%) and finally by the SP content (0 for 0%
and 2 for 2%). For example, L-10-2 denotes the LWC with 10% SF and 2% SP. Unit weight
of the concrete was determined according to TS 2941[14].
To determine the effects of high temperatures on concrete properties, prismatic specimens

(100 x 100 x 500 mm) were produced. The specimens were cured in lime saturated water for
28 days [15, 16]. Then, they were stored in the laboratory at 202C and 605% relative
humidity until 90 days. Core specimens with 50 mm diameter and 100 mm length were
drilled from the prismatic specimens and the drilled specimens were exposed to 100C,
400C, 800C and 1000C by using a SFL Advanced High Temperature & Environmental
Systems furnace having a heating capacity of 2000C at a rate of 5C/min. 5 specimens were
used for each temperature and they were allowed to cool to room temperature in a desiccator.
After cooling, tests were performed to determine their mass changes and compressive
strengths.
The data obtained were compared with the results obtained for the control specimens which
were stored at 202C in the laboratory.
To determine the weight changes, the specimens were weighed prior to heating (wi) and after
cooling (ws) with an accuracy of 0.01 g. The changes (W) were expressed as percentages of
the initial weights by using Equation (1).
wi ws
W = 100 (1)
wi
From the data obtained, mass changes of the NWC and LWC were investigated.
Fresh Concrete Properties
Mix proportions and some fresh properties of the NWC are given in Table 2. The slump was
tried to be kept constant at 72 cm. Since use of superplasticizer increased the slump by
approximately 2 cm, water contents of the mixes were reduced accordingly. As seen from the
table, w/c of the NWC was between 0.45 and 0.64.
Mix proportions and some fresh properties of the LWC are shown Table 3. As seen, w/c of
the LWC was between 0.46 and 0.52. The water amount taken into consideration is net
weight of water which is the amount absorbed by the pumice subtracted from the total
amount.
Table 2 Mix proportions (for 1 m3) and some fresh properties of the NWC
AGGREGATE, kg FRESH UNIT

CEMENT WATER SP SF SLUMP
CONCRETE w/c WEIGHT
kg kg 0-4 mm 4-16 mm kg kg cm
kg/m3
N-0-0 386 205 0.53 788 962 --- --- 5.50 2367
N-0-2 386 174 0.45 788 962 7.72 --- 7.70 2385
N-5-0 367 214 0.58 783 957 --- 19.32 10.9 2347
N-5-2 367 164 0.45 788 962 7.72 19.30 9.80 2365
N-10-0 347 224 0.64 782 957 --- 38.67 10.2 2325
N-10-2 348 164 0.47 788 962 7.73 38.62 9.20 2342
Table 3 Mix proportions (for 1 m3) and some fresh properties of the LWC
AGGREGATE, kg FRESH
CEMENT WATER SP SF SLUMP UNIT
CONCRETE w/c
kg kg 0-4 4-8 8-16 kg kg cm WEIGHT
mm mm mm kg/m3
L-0-0 430 199 0.46 730 550 52 --- --- 8.4 1809
L-0-2 430 187 0.43 730 550 52 8.6 --- 6.4 1840
L-5-0 408.5 202 0.49 729 549 52 --- 21.50 7.2 1792
L-5-2 408.5 189 0.46 729 549 52 8.6 21.51 7.1 1811
L-10-0 387 202 0.52 729 549 52 --- 43 6.8 1772
L-10-2 387 188 0.49 730 550 52 8.6 43 6.2 1787
Tables 2 and 3 show that water requirement of both NWC and LWC increased when SF was
used. Very fine spherical SF particles improve the grading of the binder by filling the gaps
between the relatively coarser cement particles and increase the free water amount. Despite
this beneficial effect, the high surface area of SF particles to be wetted causes high water
requirement and lower durability [17]. In these cases, use of SP enabled to reach the desired
slump with much lower water contents, as seen from both Table 2 and Table 3. Unit weights
of both NWC and LWC decreased slightly with the use of admixtures.
Hardened Concrete Properties
Physical properties
Some of the physical properties of the hardened concretes after 28 days are given in Table 4.
The concretes containing SP resulted in higher unit weights when compared to those without
SP. Similar to the results obtained for fresh states, use of SF slightly decreased the unit
weights. Therefore, highest unit weights were obtained for the concretes containing 2% SP
and no SF.
94 Sancak, Simsek
Table 4 Some physical properties of the hardened concretes
UNIT WEIGHT WATER ABSORPTION

CONCRETE
Kg/m3 CAPACITY, %
N-0-0 2297 5.82
N-0-2 2325 5.13
N-5-0 2273 4.63
N-5-2 2302 4.27
N-10-0 2248 5.06
N-10-2 2277 2.84
L-0-0 1678 5.90
L-0-2 1722 5.83
L-5-0 1665 6.42
L-5-2 1711 5.97
L-10-0 1656 8.25
L-10-2 1696 8.11
When absorption capacities are considered, it is seen that use of SP in NWC resulted in lower
values when compared to control mix (N-0-0). On the other hand, for LWC mixes, the
concretes containing SP and SF had generally higher absorption capacities when compared to
control mix. When SF content is kept constant, the absorption capacities of both NWC and
LWC decreased by the use of SP. This can be attributed to the lower w/c when SP was used.
The comparison of the unit weights of NWC and LWC show that even the heaviest LWC
(1722 kg/m3) was 23% lighter than the lightest NWC (2248 kg/m3). The reduction in unit
weight was 33% in a research by Husem (1995) [18].
Weight loss after exposure to high temperatures
The furnace used in this study to determine the properties of the specimens exposed to high
temperatures reached 1000oC in 200 min. The weight losses (in percent) of the NWC and
LWC with increasing temperatures are given in Fig 1a and 1b, respectively.
Highest weight losses were observed in N-10-0 for NWC and in L-5-2 for LWC. Similar to
the results of a research by Akoz et al. (1995) [19] in which mortars with and without SF
were exposed to high temperatures, the concretes containing SF showed higher weight losses
when compared to the control concretes. The comparison of Fig. 1a and 1b reveal that the
weight losses for NWC were higher than LWC. However, the most significant difference
between these figures was their shapes: after 800C, the weight loss of NWC increases with
an increasing rate whereas the weight loss of LWC increases with a decreasing rate. These
results show that the performance of LWC were better than NWC when weight loss is
considered.
20
N-0-0 N-0-2 N-5-0
18
N-5-2 N-10-0 N-10-2
16
14
WEIGHT LOSS, %
12
10
0
20 100 400 800 1000
TEMPERATURE, oC
Figure 1 (a) Weight Losses of NWC
16
L-0-0 L-0-2
14 L-5-0 L-5-2
L-10-0 L-10-2
12
WEIGHT LOSS, %
10
0
20 100 400 800 1000
o
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 1 (b) Weight Losses of LWC

96 Sancak, Simsek
Change in strength after exposure to high temperatures
Strengths of the NWC specimens exposed to high temperatures are given in Table 5. Relative
strengths in percent- at a given temperature with respect to the strengths of the same
concrete at 20C are also included in this table.
Table 5 shows that at all temperatures, relative strengths with respect to 20C were highest in
control concretes. In other words, the strength losses of other concretes were very close or
higher when compared to control concrete. Maximum strength loss at 400C was observed in
N-0-2 specimens and it was 42%. Nevertheless, the compressive strength of this type of
concrete (32.10 MPa) was still higher than that of control mix (29.16 MPa). Similar to the
results obtained for weight losses at 800C and 1000C, relative strengths decreased as the SF
content increased. This behavior was noted also by other researchers [19, 20, 21].
Table 5 Strengths of the NWC specimens
CONCRETE t, C fc, MPa RELATIVE STD. DEV., MPa

STRENGTH, %
20 36.36 100 1.55
100 41.94 115 2.73
N-0-0 400 29.16 80 2.98
800 5.89 16 1.11
1000 1.56 4 0.21
20 55.08 100 3.57
100 52.23 95 2.34
N-0-2 400 32.10 58 2.24
800 6.98 13 0.77
1000 1.58 3 0.08
20 43.31 100 2.53
100 42.55 98 0.56
N-5-0 400 31.54 73 2.93
800 3.82 9 0.60
1000 0.87 2 0.05
20 58.60 100 3.41
100 49.40 84 2.34
N-5-2 400 46.03 79 0.64
800 5.77 7 0.68
1000 2.56 1 0.38
20 30.55 100 1.15
100 27.13 89 2.44
N-10-0 400 20.06 66 1.82
800 0.90 3 0.03
1000 0.00 0 0.00
20 53.38 100 0.88
100 52.00 97 1.20
N-10-2 400 41.99 79 1.66
800 4.03 8 0.65
1000 0.00 0 0.00
In the same way, the compressive strengths at 1000C were lowest again for the concretes
containing highest amount of SF (N-10-0 and N-10-2). In a research by Yuzer et al. (2001),
the strength of the concretes with 10% SF started to decrease beyond 100C and lost 50% of
its initial strength at 600C [20]. The N-10-0 and N-10-2 concretes did not carry any load at
all due to the severe deterioration that they had experienced. Visual inspection of the
specimens showed that there was disintegration of approximately 1 mm thick pieces from the
aggregate surfaces. Especially for 1000C, the mortar phases cracked severely and lost their
binding properties. In some specimens, cracks were observed also in the coarse aggregate-
mortar interface. Moreover, the specimens which were exposed to 1000C could not keep
their cylindrical shapes. These can be seen in Fig 2 a and 2 b.
Figure 2 a The view of samples of Figure 2 b The view of samples of

N-10-0 after exposed 1000C N-10-2 after exposed 1000C
The compressive strengths and relative strengths with respect to 20C for LWC are given in
Table 6. As seen from this table, the concretes (except L-10-0 and L-0-0) were not affected
by the increase of temperature up to 400C. These results were consistent with the findings of
other researchers [8, 9] who found that strength of LWC did not change significantly up to
500C. The strengths of these two concretes decreased considerably (>20%) at 400C.
The L-10-2 coded specimens preserved the strength value, obtained at 20C temperature, up
to 400C, but the same specimens presented almost the lowest value at 800oC temperature
environment. The similar result obtained by Hammer (1995) for the 5% SF added LWC at
600C which has given the best behavior with respect to NWC at 20C [7].
98 Sancak, Simsek
Table 6 Strengths of the LWC specimens
RELATIVE STD. DEV.

CONCRETE t, C fc, MPa
STRENGTH, % MPa
20 18.51 100 1.49
100 18.24 99 0.41
L-0-0 400 14.57 79 1.56
800 5.20 28 0.31
1000 0.00 0 0.00
20 17.41 100 1.41
100 17.53 101 1.20
L-0-2 400 17.07 98 0.08
800 6.62 38 1.18
1000 0.00 0 0.00
20 16.64 100 0.15
100 17.26 104 1.93
L-5-0 400 16.15 97 2.49
800 5.45 33 0.66
1000 0.54 3 0.04
20 22.59 100 1.28
100 18.37 81 1.08
L-5-2 400 19.33 86 1.06
800 4.70 21 0.74
1000 0.56 2 0.04
20 19.41 100 0.57
100 14.52 75 0.73
L-10-0 400 7.52 39 0.17
800 3.03 16 0.20
1000 0.00 0 0.00
20 22.47 100 2.21
100 22.37 100 1.05
L-10-2 400 20.43 91 0.98
800 4.48 20 0.31
1000 0.00 0 0.00
Fig 3a, b and Table 7 were prepared to compare the behaviors of NWC and LWC. Fig 3a and
3b show that both concrete types showed a similar response to the temperature rise. After
making a peak at 100oC, the strengths decreased beyond 100C.
Table 7 Strengths and Relative Strengths at 800C
ADMIXTURES, % fc, MPa RELATIVE STRENGTH, %

SF SA NWC LWC NWC LWC
0 0 5.9 5.2 16 28
5 0 3.82 5.5 9 33
10 0 0.9 3.0 3 16
0 2 7.0 6.6 13 38
5 2 5.8 4.7 7 21
10 2 4.0 4.5 8 20
The rate of decrease was very fast between 400 and 800C for both NWC and LWC. The
lowest strengths were observed in the concretes containing 10% SF and no SP (N-10-0 and
L-10-0). Generally, the compressive strengths and relative strengths at 800oC (Table 7)
decreased with increasing SF content.
60
N-0-0
N-0-2
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH,
50 N-5-0
N-5-2
N-10-0
40 N-10-2
30
MPa
20
10
0
20 100 400 o
800 1000
TEMPERATURE, C
(a)
25
L-0-0 L-0-2
L-5-0 L-5-2
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH,
20 L-10-0 L-10-2
15
MPa
10
0
20 100 400 800 1000
o
TEMPERATURE, C
(b)
Figure 3 Strengths of a) NWC and b) LWC

100 Sancak, Simsek
Although the strengths of NWC at 400C were higher than those of LWC even at 20C, the
strengths of the NWC and LWC containing same amount of SF and SP were comparable to
each other at 800C. However, relative strengths of LWC were higher than NWC for any
combination of the admixtures. In other words, LWC showed less strength losses than NWC.
Strength losses were 62-74% for LWC, and 74-97% for LWC. The higher resistance of the
LWC at 800C can be explained by the lower coefficient of thermal expansion of LWC.
Tables 5 and 6 show that neither of the concretes could have a considerable strength at
1000C.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Use of SF increased the water requirement and decreased unit weight slightly. The
concretes containing higher SF amounts had generally higher weight losses and strength
losses and lower strengths.
2. The behaviors of NWC and LWC were similar to each other when exposed to high
temperatures. However, NWC showed higher strength losses than LWC.
3. Rate of deterioration was higher in NWC when compared to LWC.
4. Neither LWC nor NWC could withstand 1000C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Directorate of Unit of Scientific Research Projects, Gazi
University, for the support given to this study with the project number 07/2002-36.
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MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF NSCs AND
HPCs EXPOSED TO HIGH TEMPERATURE:
CEMENT AND AGGREGATE ROLES
P Bamonte P G Gambarova
Milan University of Technology
S Cangiano
CTG-Italcementi
Italy
ABSTRACT. The recently-expired European Project UPTUN (UPgrading of existing

TUNnels) has given the opportunity to investigate the residual mechanical properties and the
thermal properties of a number of cementitious mixes, characterized by different types of
aggregate and cement. The fifteen mixes investigated in Milan cover both normal-strength
and high-performance concretes (fc = 40-50 and 55-75 MPa), and have 3 types of aggregate
(calcareous, siliceous and basalt) and 3 types of cement (blended cement containing a
calcareous filler, blast-furnace slag cement and portland cement). All tests were performed at
room temperature, in the virgin conditions (T = 20C) or after a thermal cycle (at 200, 400
and 600C). The parameters under study were the cylindrical strength and the stabilized
elastic modulus in compression, the indirect strength in tension (by splitting), and the mass
per unit volume. The thermal diffusivity was worked out from the temperature profiles
measured on cylinders between 20C and 850C. In compression, basalt mixes always have
an edge over both calcareous and siliceous mixes (that are more temperature-sensitive), and
portland cement followed by blended cement is the most efficient, especially in high-
performance mixes. The same applies at least partly to the elastic modulus and to the
tensile strength. The lowest thermal diffusivity between 250C and 550C is exhibited by
basalt concrete, and the highest by siliceous concrete. Since both the mechanical decay and
the diffusivity greatly vary among the different mixes, the design of any given R/C section
should take into account not only the mechanical decay, but also the thermal diffusivity of the
specific concrete to be adopted.
Keywords: Aggregate, Cement, Concrete, High temperature, Residual properties,

Thermal diffusivity.
Dr P Bamonte, Associate Researcher, Department of Structural Engineering, Milan University

of Technology, Milan, Italy.
Dr S Cangiano, Senior Researcher and R/D Manager, CTG-Italcementi, Bergamo, Italy.
Prof P G Gambarova, Department of Structural Engineering, Milan University of Technology,

Milan, Italy.
103
104 Bamonte, Cangiano, Gambarova
INTRODUCTION
Several dramatic fires have occurred in the last ten to fifteen years in railway and road
tunnels, in most cases with heavy human losses, high socio-economical consequences and
serious structural damages [1]. Among the 5 major fires since 1996 in heavily-trafficked
tunnels (English Channel 1996, Mont Blanc and Tauerns 1999, S.Gotthard 2001 and Frejus
2005), the second should be remembered as the most serious in terms of human and
economical losses (close to 40 casualties; close to 350 millions of Euros, for tunnel
rehabilitation and updating, and traffic rerouting, revenue losses included).
As is well known, any temperature-resistant concrete (a) should keep its mechanical properties as
close as possible to the original ones, during and after a fire; and (b) should have adequate
thermal properties, to prevent concrete spalling and to insulate the reinforcement. The low
thermal diffusivity of the concrete is generally sufficient to insulate and protect the reinforcement,
but increasing the diffusivity diminishes the thermal gradients and the risk of spalling [2,3,12],
while decreasing the diffusivity gives the reinforcement more insulation, provided that cover
spalling is prevented, for example by introducing polymeric fibers into the mix.
Within this context, (1) the water content of the mix and of the aggregates, (2) the aggregate-
cement ratio, (3) the type of the aggregates, (4) the stress state during the heating, and (5) the type
of porosity play a major role [4], while other factors, as the cement type and the heating rate
(provided the thermal gradients are < 1C/mm) have minor consequences on concrete mechanical
behavior. However, the cement type has a remarkable influence on the thermal conductivity and
diffusivity of the concrete, and consequently on its insulation properties [4].
With specific reference to the residual properties that are the core of this paper the
overview of previous studies [4-10] shows that basalt aggregate ensure the best residual
compressive strength, while the results regarding calcareous and siliceous aggregates are
rather contradictory.
As for the cement type, blast-furnace slag cement and Portland cement indicate no significant
differences in terms of compressive-strength decay after a thermal cycle, but the strength
recovery a few days after the thermal cycle is higher in the former case.
This concise overview of previous literature allows us to indicate the objectives of the present
study, that investigates the residual behavior and the thermal diffusivity for:
5 mixes (lean and rich mixes);

3 cement types (blended, with blast-furnace slag and Portland);
3 aggregate types (natural round siliceous, crushed calcareous and crushed basalt).
On the whole, 15 concretes were characterized (5 mixes x 3 aggregate types). All mechanical
tests were residual-unstressed (T = 20-600C). The cylindrical compressive strength at 180
days ranged from 41 to 75 MPa, with no silica fume and fibers in the mix design.
MATERIALS
As shown in Table 1, the starting point of this research project was: 5 mixes and 3 types for
the coarse aggregate (the fine aggregate was natural sand).
NSCs and HPCs 105
Table 1 Fundamental data on the mix design; workability class:

siliceous and calcareous concretes S4; basalt concretes S3.
CONCRETE NO./MIX NO.

PROPERTY
94/1 91/2 92/3 93/4 106/5
Aggregate type (da = 20 mm) Natural round siliceous aggregate
II/A-LL II/A-LL III/A I I
Cement type
32.5 R 42.5 R 42.5 N 52.5 R 52.5 R
Cement content, kg/m3 350 380 380 360 450
w/c 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.50 0.35
Superplast. Superflux NF-
0.70% 0.50% 0.33% 0.35% 1.25%
Axim
Mass per unit volume, kg/m3 2373 2348 2363 2388 2393
fc at 180 days, MPa 41.1 41.0 43.3 41.5 64.7
Aggregate type (da = 16 mm) Crushed calcareous aggregate
Cement type
32.5 R 42.5 R 42.5 N 52.5 R 52.5 R
w/c 0.48 0.42 0.42 0.50 0.35
1.00% 1.00% 1.10% 1.04% 2.00%
Axim
fc at 180 days, MPa 44.0 58.8 56.5 68.5 74.6
Aggregate type (da = 16 mm) Crushed basalt aggregate
Cement type
32.5 R 42.5 R 42.5 N 52.5 R 52.5 R
w/c 0.48 0.42 0.42 0.50 0.35
1.43% 1.30% 1.25% 1.30% 2.00%
Axim
fc at 180 days, MPa 47.4 56.5 64.1 66.4 73.6
Mixes 1 and 2: lean mixes with low/medium-fineness blended, rapid-hardening cement

containing a limited amount of calcareous filler (6-20% by clinker mass, organic-carbon
< 0.20%).
Mix 3: lean mix with medium-fineness blast-furnace slag, normal-hardening cement
containing a limited amount of granulated slag in the clinker (33-65% by clinker mass).
Mixes 4 and 5: lean and rich mixes respectively, with high-fineness, rapid-hardening
Portland cement.
Siliceous aggregate: natural, round, river-bed gravel with maximum size da = 20 mm.
Calcareous aggregate: crushed, rather flaky with maximum size da = 16 mm.
Basalt aggregate: crushed, rather flaky with maximum size da = 16 mm.
The superplasticizer was a commercially-available mix of sulfonated polymers, in the form of

a dark brown aqueous solution (solid fraction 40%).
The 15 concretes can be roughly divided into 3 categories: (1) ordinary concretes with fc =
41-47 MPa, Numbers 91-95 and 105; (b) high-performance concretes with fc = 56-66 MPa,
Numbers 96, 97, 106, 108, 109 and 116; and (c) high-strength concretes with fc = 69-75 MPa,
Numbers 98, 110 and 120.
TEST SPECIMENS AND THERMAL CYCLES
Fourteen cylinders were cast for each concrete in plastic pipes ( h = 95 250 mm, total
number 210), were cured at 20C, 92% R.H. for 28 days, and then rested at 20C, 70% R.H.
until the thermal cycles and the tests. All cylinders were cut at their extremities to avoid any
possible lack of homogeneity due to the initial and final phases of concreting (final size
h = 95 230 mm). Then each cylinder was cut into a shorter cylinder and a disk, in order to
have 180 specimens for testing in compression (Figure1a, size h = 95 190 mm) and as
many disks for testing in indirect tension (by splitting, Figure1b, size t = 95 40 mm).
One hundred and eighty specimens were required by the numbers of the concretes (15), of the
reference temperatures (4 levels: 20, 200, 400 and 600C, Figure 2) and of the repetitions (3
specimens to be tested in each sub-case). Fifteen specimens were required for the evaluation
of the thermal diffusivity (each was instrumented with 2 thermocouples, both placed in the
mid-section, one close to the surface and the other along the axis, Figs.1c,d, T = 100-850C).
Finally, fifteen specimens were kept aside for the repetition of any possible unsuccessful test
and for checking the compressive strength in the virgin conditions at the end of the
experimental program (the tests spanned over a 4-month period).
TEST MODES AND INSTRUMENTATION
For each temperature level (20,200, 400 and 600C) and for each concrete (15 concretes), 3
cylinders were tested in compression in a force-controlled mode, by using an hydraulic press
(capacity 1000 kN). The tests were performed 1-2 weeks after the thermal cycle. Before
loading the cylinders up to failure, 2 of them were instrumented with a couple of LVDTs (base-
length T = 50 mm), to measure the shortening as a function of the load and to evaluate the
elastic modulus Ec in accordance with the Italian Norm UNI 6556 (very close to the RILEM
Norm for the stabilized modulus = secant modulus between the onset of unloading and the
onset of reloading in the third cycle, with min = 3.5%fc and max = 40%fc). Only in a few cases
a third value of Ec was needed, since test repeatability was generally very good.
The failure mode in compression consisted mostly of vertical or subvertical cracks (Figure 3b),
or double-cone fracture (Figure 3d), but often the vertical cracks were accompanied by either a
diagonal cracked band (Figure 3c) or wedge-shaped fragments (Figure3a), with no significant
differences in terms of compressive strength.
NSCs and HPCs 107
= 95
Te Ti Te
(a) (c)
h/2
T(r)
h = 190
= 95
h/2 r
t = 40
(b) (d)
T = Te - Ti
R
Figure 1 Specimens: (a) cylinders; (b) disks; (c) instrumented cylinders for the evaluation of
the thermal diffusivity (distance of the thermocouples R = 35 mm); and (d) typical
temperature distribution in the mid-height section.
800
heating rate = 60C/h
TEMPERATURE [C]
cooling rate = 30C/h

600 rest period at Tmax = 2 h
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
TIME [h]
Figure 2 Thermal cycles.
The indirect-tension tests were carried out according to RILEM, by loading each disk in an
hydraulic press (capacity 250 kN). The scatter of the results was larger than in compression,
but still limited.
The mass per unit volume was evaluated after each thermal cycle, on the basis of the mass
and size of each specimen.
As already mentioned, 15 cylinders were slowly heated from 20 to 850C, in order to
evaluate the thermal diffusivity, which is the key parameter in heat transmission by
conduction (D = -1 c-1, where is the thermal conductivity, is the mass per unit volume
and c is the specific heat). Once the differential temperature T (Figure1d) is known at each
temperature level T, it is possible to evaluate the diffusivity D as follows:
D = vhR2/(4 T) [L2/t]
where vh is the mean heating rate of the specimen and R is the distance between the axes of
the outer and inner thermocouples (Figure1c). The former relationship hold (a) after the
initial thermal transient (T > 150C, as a reference), and (b) for long cylinders (h 2), a
constant heating rate, and space-invariant thermal and physical properties inside the
specimen. Note that D is an equivalent diffusivity since the effects of such different
phenomena as phase changes (from water to steam, T = 100-200C), chemical reactions
(from portlandite to quicklime and water, T = 450-500C; from calcium carbonate to
quicklime and carbon dioxide = calcination, T > 700C) and crystalline changes (from to
quartz, T = 550-600C) are lumped together. An electric furnace was used for running all the
thermal processes (Tmax = 1000C; max T/t = 13C/minute). The temperature inside the
chamber and the heating rate were controlled by a PID controller (Proportional-Integral-
Derivative), which was connected to the built-in thermocouple of the furnace. Because of the
very low heating-rate and of the rest at high temperature the temperature distribution was
very uniform (Tsurface-Taxis 5-10C).
Mix 106, T = 20C Mix 106, T = 200C Mix 94, T = 400C Mix 92, T = 600C
Figure 3 Typical failures in compression.
TEST RESULTS AND COMMENTS
The residual mechanical properties of all the concretes examined in this project exhibit a
more or less marked decrease because of the temperature-induced damage (see the reports
[11]). Only in a few cases the compressive and tensile strengths increase (between 20 and
300C), but this occurrence is mostly limited to basalt (and to a lesser extent calcareous)
aggregates and to high-fineness Portland cement (Figure 4b and Figure 4c). As for the elastic
modulus, in no cases the residual values are larger than the original values (Figure 5).
The compressive strength is the parameter least affected by the temperature (fcT/fc20 = 55-
90% at 400C), while the elastic modulus is the most affected (EcT/Ec20= 35-50% at 400C)
and the indirect tensile strength is in between (fctT/fct20= 40-60% at 400C, Figure6a). More
specifically:
For each aggregate type, both in compression (Figure 4) and in tension (see [11], Second
Part), the strength-temperature curves of the highest-grade and lowest-grade concretes
envelope all the other curves, and show that basalt and calcareous concretes are less
affected by the temperature at least up to 400C. In the best concretes (either calcareous
or basalt) the compressive and tensile strengths increase between 20C and 350C up to
+5-6% with respect to virgin conditions. Furthermore, in compression and in the lowest-
grade concretes, the basalt aggregate practically nullifies the effects of the temperature
up to 400C.
NSCs and HPCs 109
90
94 - fc=41 MPa
80 91 - fc=41 MPa
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH fc [MPa]

92 - fc=43 MPa
70 93 - fc=42 MPa
106 - fc=65 MPa
60
106
50
(a) 40 92
93
91
94
30
20
10
Siliceous aggregate
0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
90
95 - fc=44 MPa
80 96 - fc=59 MPa
110
97 - fc=57 MPa
70 98 - fc=69 MPa
98 110 - fc=75 MPa
60
97
50
95 96
(b) 40
30
20
10
Calcareous aggregate
0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
90
105 - fc=47 MPa
80 108 - fc=57 MPa
120 116 - fc=64 MPa

70 109 - fc=66 MPa
116
120 - fc=74 MPa
60
108 109
50
105
(c) 40
30
20
10
Basalt aggregate
0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
Figure 4 Residual compressive strength: (a) siliceous; (b) calcareous;

and (c) basalt aggregates.
1.1
NSC - fc = 41-47 MPa
1.0
20
RELATIVE ELASTIC MODULUS Ec /Ec
0.9
T
0.8
0.7
94
0.6
(a) 0.5
93 105
0.4 94 - Siliceous; II/A-LL 32.5 R; w/c=0.48; fc=41; Ec=33064 MPa
91 - Siliceous; II/A-LL 42.5 R; w/c=0.47; fc=41; Ec=32628 MPa

0.3
92 95
92 - Siliceous; III/A 42.5 N; w/c=0.47; fc=43; Ec=32147 MPa
0.2
93 - Siliceous; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.50; fc=42; Ec=30948 MPa
0.1 95 - Calcareous; II/A-LL 32.5 R; w/c=0.48; fc=44; Ec=40298 MPa
105 - Basalt; II/A-LL 32.5 R; w/c=0.48; fc=47; Ec=28833 MPa

0.0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
1.1
HPC - fc = 57-66 MPa
1.0
20
RELATIVE ELASTIC MODULUS Ec /Ec
0.9
T
106
0.8
108
0.7
116
0.6
97
(b) 0.5
0.4 97 - Calcareous; III/A 42.5 N; w/c=0.42; fc=57; Ec=45104 MPa

96
108 - Basalt; II/A-LL 42.5 R; w/c=0.42; fc=57; Ec=30427 MPa
0.3 109
116 - Basalt; III/A 42.5 N; w/c=0.42; fc=64; Ec=41522 MPa
0.2 106 - Siliceous; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.35; fc=65; Ec=36126 MPa
0.1 96 - Calcareous; II/A-LL 42.5 R; w/c=0.42; fc=59; Ec=45417 MPa
109 - Basalt; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.50; fc=66; Ec=35121 MPa

0.0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
1.1
HSC - fc = 69-75 MPa
1.0
RELATIVE ELASTIC MODULUS EcT/Ec20
0.9
120 110
0.8
0.7
0.6
(c) 0.5
0.4
98 - Calcareous; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.50; fc=69; Ec=43626 MPa
0.3
98
0.2 110 - Calcareous; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.35; fc=75; Ec=46020 MPa
0.1
120 - Basalt; I 52.5 R; w/c=0.35; fc=74; Ec=45216 MPa
0.0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
Figure 5 Residual elastic modulus: (a) NSC; (b) HPC; and (c) HSC.
NSCs and HPCs 111
The elastic moduli are comprised within relatively narrow bands and evolve in pretty
much the same way (Figure 5), whatever the mix or the aggregate might be.
On the whole, in compression siliceous and calcareous concretes lose roughly 2/3 of their
original strength, after being exposed to 600C, while basalt concretes definitely lose less
(roughly 1/2), see Figures 4 and 6c. The situation is worse for the elastic modulus (-70/75%
for basalt and calcareous, and -85% for siliceous concrete), see Figure5, and for the tensile
strength, where the loss after being exposed to 600C is close to 60%, 70% and 85% in
basalt, calcareous and siliceous concretes (Figure 6).
In the range T = 20-600C, NSC and HPC (fc20 = 41-66 MPa) lose little more than 60%,
while the loss is higher for high-strength concretes (close to 70% for fc20 = 69-75 MPa),
with reference to the compressive strength. As for the elastic modulus and tensile
strength, on the whole there are no sizable differences among NSC, HPC and HSC.
Among NSCs and HPCs (fc20 = 41-66 MPa, Figure 4), siliceous and basalt concretes
seem to be the most and the least affected by the temperature, with the calcareous
concretes in an intermediate position, closer to siliceous concretes than to basalt
concretes. The same applies to the elastic modulus (Figure 5), but less clearly, since the
spread of the values is definitely more limited than for the compressive and tensile
strengths.
Among the three HSCs (Figure 4), the single basalt concrete investigated in this
study and the top calcareous concrete have very similar behaviors in compression
(Figures 4b,c and 5c), while the basalt concrete has a better behavior in tension (see [11],
Second Part).
For the same strength in compression at 20C, blast-furnace cement and blended cement
tend to be equally effective with calcareous aggregate; however, with siliceous and
basalt aggregates, blended cement has an edge over blast-furnace cement; the same for
the elastic modulus and for the tensile strength (any aggregate type).
On the whole and with reference to calcareous and basalt aggregates - blended cement
tends to be more effective than Portland cement.
With either calcareous or basalt aggregates and Portland cement, medium water/cement
ratios affects more the compressive and the tensile strengths than low water/cement
ratios (for roughly the same strength at 20C); this is not so clear for the elastic modulus.
In Mixes 1 and 2 (low/medium-fineness blended cement, medium cement content), and 3

(medium-fineness blast-furnace cement, medium cement content), basalt and siliceous
aggregates always lead to the best and to the worst performance respectively (above 300C);
the situation is the same for the elastic modulus in Mixes 1 and 2, but not in Mix 3, where
the moduli are so close that the differences are meaningless.
In Mix 4 (high-fineness Portland cement, medium cement content) the situation is not so
clear, but on the whole basalt aggregate still ensures the best performance.
On the whole, basalt aggregate (closely followed by calcareous aggregate), blended

cement and medium water-cement ratios seem to diminish the dependence of the concrete
on high-temperature.
In all concretes, the higher the concrete strength, the closer the residual compressive
strength to the hot compressive strength (EC-2, see [11], First Part).
With reference to the mass per unit volume (whose plots are not shown in this paper),
siliceous and calcareous aggregates are very close in terms of mass loss after a thermal cycle,
while basalt concretes undergo higher losses, with a descending trend that at 600C is still
sizeable.
As for the thermal properties, and specifically the thermal diffusivity, siliceous and calcareous
concretes tend to have the same diffusivity, while basalt concretes have a definitely lower
diffusivity (-30%). Furthermore, in siliceous and basalt concretes the diffusivity is almost
constant between 200 and 600C (Figure 6b). More specifically:
In all concretes, the larger the water/cement ratio, the greater the diffusivity, more with
Portland cement than with blended cement, with the blast furnace cement in an intermediate
position;
In calcareous and siliceous concretes, Portland cement brings in a greater diffusivity

than blended and blast furnace cements.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Fifteen structural concretes have been investigated in this study, to compare different mix
designs (5), aggregate types (3) and cement types (3) in terms of insulating capabilities and
mechanical properties during and after a fire.
In spite of the dispersion of the results in terms of mechanical decay and mean diffusivity, the
envelope of the relative residual strength in compression versus the mean diffusivity
(Figure6c) shows that basalt concretes tend to have the least mechanical decay and the least
thermal diffusivity, while the opposite is true for both siliceous and calcareous concretes.
Furthermore, from the mechanical point of view, high-performance and high-strength concretes
with any type of aggregate are more temperature-sensitive than normal-strength concretes.
With reference to the mean diffusivity, there is a ratio 3-to-1 among the extreme values,
while after a thermal cycle at 600C the mechanical loss varies between 40 and 80% of the
original compressive strength.
Summing up, when using very homogeneous aggregates of a single type, their effects and
those of the cement type should be taken in due consideration since the initial phase of the
design of heat-sensitive concrete structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was financed by the firm CTG-Italcementi (Bergamo, Italy) within the European
Project UPTUN Cost-Effective, Sustainable and Innovative Upgrading Methods for Fire
Safety in Existing Tunnels. The suggestions by the Co-ordinator of UPTUN Work Package 4 ,
MS Eng. Franco Corsi (ENEA, Rome, Italy) is also gratefully acknowledged.
NSCs and HPCs 113
1.2
20
RELATIVE INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH fct /fct
Relative indirect tensile strength
T
1.0
0.8
0.6
(a)
0.4
siliceous aggregate
0.2 calcareous aggregate
basalt aggregate
0.0
0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE [C]
2.00
1.80 94 - Siliceous; fc=41 MPa
1.60
95 - Calcareous; fc=44 MPa
1.40
DIFFUSIVITY [mm /s]
105 - Basalt; fc=47 MPa

2
1.20
1.00
(b) 0.80
94
Mix 1
95
0.60
0.40
105
0.20
0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
TEMPERATURE [C]
0.60
105
20
/ fc
600
108
0.50
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DECAY fc
increasing
116
heat sensitivity
120
0.40 95
94
106
109 110
91 97
(c) 0.30
92
93
96
0.20 Siliceous-blended Siliceous-blast Siliceous-portland 98
Calcareous-blended Calcareous-blast Calcareous-portland

increasing insulation efficacy
Basalt-blended Basalt-blast Basalt-portland
0.10
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
MEAN DIFFUSIVITY (200-600C) [mm2/s]
Figure 6 (a) Plots of the mean strength in tension; (b); typical diagrams of the thermal
diffusivity; and (c) residual compressive strength versus mean diffusivity.
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BEHAVIOUR OF AN ULTRA-HIGH PERFORMANCE
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
AT VERY HIGH TEMPERATURES
J C Mindeguia P Pimienta
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment
M Dhiersat N Afif A Simon
Eiffage TP
France
ABSTRACT. This paper presents the results of an experimental and numerical study carried
out at high temperatures on an industrial Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete,
the BSI, developed by the firm Eiffage TP. This material reaches a compressive strength of
about 150 MPa thanks to optimized techniques of formulation. Tests of determination of the
thermal properties were carried out at temperatures from 20C to 914C. We present the
procedure of these tests as well as the evolution with the temperature of thermal diffusivity,
thermal conductivity and the estimated specific heat of material. Hot compression tests were
carried out thanks to an original equipment developed at the CSTB. We present the curves of
thermal strain of the material, highlighting the original behaviour of this particular concrete
with the temperature. We present the methods and the results of fire tests carried out on
samples of various geometries. Lastly, we present thermal simulations of a cylinder exposed
to fire. These simulations allow us to discuss about the reliability of the thermal properties.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Temperature, Mechanical

tests, Thermal tests, Fire tests, Numerical simulations.
Jean-Christophe Mindeguia is a PhD student, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment,

France.
Marc Dhiersat is a Civil Engineer, Eiffage TP, France.
Nadir Afif is a Civil Engineer, Eiffage TP, France.
Pierre Pimienta is Vice Division Manager, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment,

France.
Alain Simon is a Project Manager, Eiffage TP, France.
115
116 Mindeguia et al
INTRODUCTION
The recent developments in the field of superplasticizers, the improvement of mixture

methodology and the use of new fillers have led to a spectacular evolution of concrete
performances. As result of this progress, UHPFRC (Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced
Concrete), thanks to its high compressive strength and its ductile behaviour, makes it possible
to change the methods of structures design [1, 2].
On the other hand, high strength concretes seem to have a high susceptibility to thermal
instability with fast rise in temperatures, phenomenon commonly called spalling [3]. To
increase the level of safety for concrete structures in the event of fire, design calculations
have to take the dependence of the thermo-mechanical properties with temperature into
account. Moreover, big scale fire tests are still the most reliable way to predict the risk of
spalling of a concrete.
This paper presents the results of an experimental and numerical study on the temperature-
dependant behaviour of the BSI, an industrial UHPFRC developed by the company
EIFFAGE. A particular formula of this material has been studied, consisting in a hybrid
mixture of steel fibres and organic fibres (polypropylene fibres) [4]. Thermal properties have
been determined on prismatic samples by the hot wire method. We present the temperature-
dependence of the different thermal properties (thermal conductivity (T), thermal diffusivity
a(T) and specific heat C(T)) for temperatures going from 20C to 914C.
Original equipment based on a high-temperature furnace and a system of strain measurement

has been used. It allowed us to carry out uniaxial compressive tests on 104 mm 300 mm
cylindrical samples at temperatures from 20C to 600C [5] and gave us the evolution of the
stress/strain curves, the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity with temperature.
Those results and the experimental settings are presented in the paper [6]. The equipment
made it possible to measure the free thermal strain of the concrete up to a temperature of
600C. By this way, we have observed an unusual thermal dilatation of concrete, i.e. non
monotonic.
Samples of different shapes and dimensions have been exposed to HCM fire test. This type of
thermal scenario, which is representative of a tunnel fire, reaches a temperature of 1300C in
a few minutes. During tests, none of the exposed samples showed spalling and the visual
appearance of the concrete remained the same up to temperature of about 950C. At higher
temperatures, we observed a brown colouration of steel fibres. In the last part, we compare
the temperature profile measurements and numerical simulations carried out with measured
and theoretical thermal properties.
SAMPLES PREPARATION
In order to obtain an Ultra High Performance concrete that is able to resist to severe thermal
solicitations (ISO fires, HC, HCM, RWS) the nominal formula of the BSI was derived by
incorporating polypropylene fibres. A formula called fire was defined for the present study
and its mix proportions are given in Table 1. All the different tests samples and their storage
conditions are summarized in Table 2.
Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete 117
Table 1 Mix proportions of BSI
COUMPOUND kg/m3
CERACEM Premix 2355
Superplasticizer SIKA 44.6
Water 216
Steel fibres 20/0.3 195
Polypropylne fibres 3
Table 2 Characteristics of the tests samples
TESTS SAMPLES
Test Size Number Storage
Thermal properties 165 x 100 x 40mm 2 20C and 50%HR
HCM Fire Test
11 cm x 22 cm 4 Tight envelope, 20C
20C and 50%HR,
11 cm x 22 cm 4
heat treatment
HCM 3 hours
10 x 10 x 10 cm3 6 Tight envelope, 20C
20C and 50%HR,
10 x 10 x 10 cm3 6
heat treatment
30 cm x 42 cm, equipped
HCM 2 hours 1 20C and 50%HR
with thermocouples
The heat treatment referred in Table 2 is divided in three stages: a first stage of rise in
temperature of 20C until 80C at a heating rate of 20C/h, a second stage of maintain at
80C during 48h and finally a natural cooling until 20C. During these three stages the
samples are maintained in a wet envelope in order to avoid their natural desiccation with
20C. At the end of cooling the samples are stored again at 20C and 50%HR. The pre-
heating aims to accelerate the maturation of the concrete. Fire tests on the dried and wet
samples allow us to study the fire behaviour of concrete structure in different conditions of
humidity.
The 300 x 420 mm cylinder, equipped with thermocouples, was exposed to 2 hours HCM
fire. The thermocouples were located at middle height of the test-tube, being distributed
every 2 cm along 4 radius of the cylinder (Figure 1).
118 Mindeguia et al
2 cm
Thermocouple
Figure 1 Description of the 300 x 420 mm cylinder,
with the implantation of the thermocouples
EXPERIMENTAL SETTINGS
Thermal Properties
The procedure of these tests are inspired from the norm NF EN 993-15 Methods of dense
shaped refractory products Part 15: Determination of thermal conductivity by the hot-wire
(parallel) method [7].
The hot-wire method is a method of dynamic measurement based on the determination of the
rise in the temperature according to time in a given point and a specified distance of a linear
thermal source placed between two prismatic samples of 165 x 100 x 40 mm.
The samples are heated in a furnace (Figure 2) and are maintained at this temperature. A later
local heating is provided by a linear electric conductor (the hot wire) embedded in the
sample. This conductor transports an electrical current of stable known power in the time and
over the entire length of the sample. A thermocouple is placed at a specified distance of the
hot wire, the branches of the thermocouple being parallel with the wire.
Thermocouples
Hot wire 165 x 100 x 40 mm

samples
Figure 2 Hot thermal tests apparatus

Thermal conductivity (T) and thermal diffusivity a(T) are assessed by inverse methods from
the expression of the heating production by the hot wire and from the heat transport equation
in the sample. As we can determine the density of the concrete before and after the different
test, we can estimate the specific heat C(T) thanks to the equation (1).

a= (1)
.C
Thermal properties have been assessed at the following temperatures: 23C, 150C, 302C,
451C, 602C and 914C. At the time of the tests, the samples were 49 days old.
HCM Fire Test
We tested the fire behaviour of samples of various dimensions in a gas-burners furnace of the
CSTB. This furnace, of dimensions 3 x 4 x 2 m, makes it possible to reproduce the HCM
curve of rise in temperature. This thermal scenario, fixed by the equation (2), reaches the
temperature of 1000C in only 2 minutes (Figure 3).
T = 1280.(1 0,325e(0,167t ) 0,675e(2,5t ) ) + 20 (2)

T: temperature in C.
t: time in min.
1400
1200
TEMPERATURE, C
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 60 120 180
TIME, min
Figure 3 HCM curve and global view of the gas-burners furnace
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Density
On figure 4, we present the evolution of the densities versus the temperature. The density at
20C was given by measuring the mass of 11 x 22 cm samples. The same samples were
weighed after HCM test to determine their density at 1300C. The evolution of the density
with temperature was determined only from the mass evolution with temperature. Based on
the results presented in Figure 6, volume changes with temperature are neglected.
120 Mindeguia et al
Intermediate points were determined from the hot compression tests. The density at 20C is
relatively high. This material has a very compact matrix and thus has a high density. Between
90C and 450C, the loss of density is approximately 8% because of the important water
departure in this range of temperature. Between 600C and 1300C, the density decreases
only of 1% because practically all the water of material has already evaporated. The
evolution of the relative density with the temperature is relatively close to that defined by
Eurocode 2 [8] (Figure 4).
2800 102
2765
2758 99.8
2750 100 BSI
RELATIVE DENSITY, %
2744 99.2
98 Eurocode 2
DENSITY, kg/m
2700
96
2650
2610 94 94.4
2600
2558 92 92.5 90.9
2544 92.0
2550 90
2512
2500 88
2450 86
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
TEMPERATURE, C TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 4 On the left, evolution of the densities versus temperature.

On the right, evolution of the relative densities versus temperature
Thermal Properties
We present on Figure 5 the results of the thermal properties tests. The results are presented in
the form of curve of evolution with the temperature. On each figure, we present the values
defined by the Eurocode 2 and the by the French Technique Document DTU 92-701 [9]. We
precise that in this paper, we have chosen to compare the different results with the lower limit
of thermal conductivity given by Eurocode 2 (French recommendation). The specific heat
was given thanks to the values of density determined with the fire and mechanical tests. The
value at 914C was calculated by linearly extrapolating the values between 600C and
1300C. According to the results of Figure 5, we can note that the material has a thermal
conductivity 2 times higher than the values defined by the normative documents. Two
reasons can explain this: the presence of steel fibres in this concrete (the thermal conductivity
of steel is approximately 50 times higher than that of a traditional concrete) and the strong
compactness of material. The evolution of the thermal conductivity of material with the
temperature seems to follow the same law as the evolution of the normative documents. The
specific heat of material is comparable with the values defined by the normative documents.
However, the evolution with temperature of this estimated specific heat does not present any
peak that could correspond to physical transformations during transient heating. We will
discuss these points in the last paragraph of this paper.
Thermal Strain
Several mechanical tests have been carried out. They are presented in paper [6]. We present
here the thermal strain tests results (Figure 6).We also present the comparison of the mean
thermal strain curve with the values given in the normative documents: Eurocode 2 and DTU.
We observe an original thermal behaviour. Indeed, the material first of all expands in a
relatively linear way until 190C. Beyond this temperature, the material behaviour brutally
changes and the concrete shrinks until 600C with however a second expansion around
400C. This behaviour is in good accordance with thermal strain defined by the standards
until the temperature of 190C. Beyond this temperature, the measured thermal strain is
strongly less important than standard values. This behaviour could be explained by the high
cement paste volume of the BSI.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, W/mK
3.5 2500 BSI

BSI DTU
3
SPECIFIC HEAT, J/kg.K

DTU 2000 EC2 "0%"
2.5 EC2 "1,5%"
EC2
2 1500 EC2 "3%"
1.5 1000
1
500
0.5
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
16 BSI
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY,.10 m/s
DTU
EC2 "0%"
-7
12 EC2 "1,5%"
EC2 "3%"
8
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 5 Evolution of the thermal properties according to temperature
1800 10000
BSI
THERMAL STRAIN, m/m
1600
m/m
[m/m]
DTU
8000
1400 EC2_Siliceous aggregates
STRAIN,
1200 EC2_Limestone aggregates

THERMAL STRAIN
6000
1000
800 4000
THERMAL
600
400 2000
200 T [C]
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600
Figure 6 On the left, thermal strain during the heating phase of the hot compression tests.
On the right, comparison of the mean curve with the normative documents curves
122 Mindeguia et al
HCM Fire Tests
On Figure 7, we present the visual aspect of one of the samples tested with HCM180 fire.
Visual observations of the samples after HCM180 tests bring the following remarks:
all the samples surfaces present a very marked brown colouration. This colouration
appears at a temperature near 950C,
none of the samples that were pre-heated in oven for accelerated maturation showed any
effect of spalling,
some local fractures appear on certain 28 days samples which were stored in water,
a great majority of steel fibres disappeared from the surface of the samples leaving only
the print of their volume.
Figure 7 On the left, global view of a sample after HCM test.

On the right, view of half of a vertically sawn sample
To try to understand the origin of the surface colouration, which closely looks like corrosion,
a cylinder was sawn vertically (Figure 8). We could observe that this colouration appears
only at the sample surface, then that the steel fibres had disappeared on a depth from
approximately 20 mm. This behaviour has been already noted by [10]. Moreover, we
observed that on this same layer the concrete had a similar porous morphology as a volcanic
rock. Beyond this superficial layer, the concrete keeps a dense structure and fibres are always
present.
All the samples were weighed before and after the fire test. This reveals that on average, an
11 x 22 mm cylinder with accelerated maturation looses 9.10% of its mass during HCM180
fire. After the period of maturation, this cylinder had already lost 0.45% of its mass. Those
stored in water lost on average 10.7% of their mass after HCM180 test.
Figure 9 presents the thermal field measured in the cylinder during the HCM fire. We present
the furnace temperature (THCM) and the temperature at different depths of the heated surface
(8, 22, 42, 60, 80 and 147 mm).
1600
1400 THCM
1200 T8
TEMPERATURE, C
1000
T22
800
T42
T60
600
T80
400
T147
200
TIME, min
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Figure 8 View of half of a Figure 9 Evolution of measured temperatures at

vertically sawn sample. different depths of the cylinder.
NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Thanks to the thermal property tests, we carried out thermal simulations of the sample
equipped with thermocouples during the HCM fire test. Simulations were carried out by
using the FEM code CASTEM [11]. In order to reduce the calculations time, only a fourth of
the cylinder section was modelled (Figure 10). As thermal limit condition, we chose to
impose to a 284 mm diameter cylinder the temperature measured at 8 mm during the HCM
fire test. It avoids us to make the difficult choice of the thermal exchange coefficients of
convection and radiation. We applied the thermal conductivity assessed with the hot wire test
(Figure 7). Regarding the specific heat, we used different laws of evolution with temperature
(Figure 11).
Figure 10 Fourth of the cylinder section modelled.
Firstly, we used the estimated specific heat (Figure 5). Figure 12 shows that this choice of
specific heat leads to a too high thermal diffusivity and thus simulated temperatures are too
elevated. In order to reduce the thermal diffusivity (almost by the half), we applied a constant
value of specific heat with temperature, C = 2000 J.kg-1.K-1. Figure 13 shows that thanks to
this choice, simulations are quite close to the experimental results. On the other hand, the fact
of assuming this specific heat has no physical reasons.
124 Mindeguia et al
SPECIFIC HEAT, J.kg-1k-1 5000 1600
4500 Measured values 1400 THCM
TEMPERATURE, C
4000 C_100%
1200 T8
3500 C_65%
1000
T22
3000 C_20%
T42
2500 800
2000 T60
600
1500 T80
400
1000 T147
200
500
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TEMPERATURE, C TIME, min
Figure 11 Different evolution laws with Figure 12 Comparison of experimental results

temperature of specific heat. and simulated temperatures with Measured
values presented in Figure 8.
So we tried to apply a law of specific heat with temperature that could take implicitly into
account the different physico-chemical process that take place into concrete during heating
and particularly into the cement paste. Indeed, during heating, important chemical
transformations occur, all of them involving endothermic reactions [12]. These reactions are
mainly free water evaporation and CSH and portlandite dehydration. These reactions could
be very significant into the BSI because this concrete has an important cement paste
volume compared with ordinary concretes. Being inspired by Harmathy works [13], we chose
to apply three estimated specific heat (Figure 11).
These evolution laws with temperature are composed by peaks which correspond to the main
chemical transformations that take place into the cement paste. The first estimated specific
heat (C_100%) is representative of a pure cement paste. The second one (C_65%) takes into
account the cement paste volume fraction of the BSI (Table 1) according to a simple
mixture law [13]. The peaks of the third estimated specific heat (C_20%) have been chosen
smaller in order to take into account the fact that this material has a lower water/cement ratio
and a lower hydration degree than ordinary concretes.
Figure 13 shows that all the simulated temperatures determined with these estimated values
of specific heat are slightly more elevated than the experimental ones. We note also that
higher are the peaks of estimated specific heat, more reliable are the simulation values. That
means that in reality this concrete consumes more energy during heating than the energy
determined with the estimated specific heats. In others words, the estimated specific heats do
not take into account all the transformation that take place in the BSI. However, these
estimated specific heats do not take into account the aggregates contribution. Indeed, bauxite
aggregates could contribute to endothermic reactions.
For example, bauxite dehydration occurs around 500C. Moreover, the high quantity of silica
fume in this concrete could lead to a transformation of Portlandite in CSH hydrates. That
could involve a higher first specific heat peak (100C-300C, related to water evaporation
and CSH dehydration) and a lower second peak (400C-600C, related to the Portlandite
dehydration).
1400 Experience 1400 Experience
Simulation_C=2000 J / kg.K Simulation_Estimated values

1200 T8 1200 T8
TEMPERATURE, C
TEMPERATURE, C
T22
T22
1000 1000 C_100%
T42
T42
800 800
T60
T60
600 600 T80
T80
400 400 T147
T147
200 200
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TIME, min
TIME, min
1400 Experience 1400 Experience

Simulation_Estimated values Simulation_Estimated values
T8 T8
TEMPERATURE, C
1200 1200
TEMPERATURE, C
T22 T22
1000 C_65% 1000 C_20%
T42 T42
800 800
T60 T60
600 600
T80
T80
T147 T147
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
TIME, min
TIME, min
Figure 13 Comparison of experimental results and simulated temperatures with estimated values
presented in Figure 8.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study allowed us to determine several characteristics of concrete BSI at high
temperature and to check its stability under HCM fire. This UHPFRC is a material with
strong compactness and thus presents a high density at 20C. The loss of density with
temperature, because of the departure of the water, is comparable with the values defined by
the standards. Concerning thermal properties, the particularity of this material is to have a
very high thermal conductivity because of its strong compactness and of the presence of steel
fibres. Its experimentally determined specific heat and its evolution with the temperature are
very close to those defined by the standards. However, these thermal properties have been
discussed in the last part of the paper. Contrary to traditional concretes, the free thermal strain
of this material is non monotonous and presents sudden changes of behaviour according to
the temperature. This phenomenon, still not explained today, should be analysed more
deeply. This property could be favourable to the integrity of a structure subjected to fire.
Indeed, the zone exposed to the fire will induce smaller strains to the rest of the structure.
Several samples of various geometries were exposed to HCM180 fire. No spalling was
observed on the pre-heated samples. Some samples stored in water presented some local
fractures. For temperatures higher than 950C, we observed on the samples surface a very
marked brown colouration. Thermal simulations have been carried out. They have been
compared with temperatures measured into one of the cylinder exposed to the HCM fire.
Simulations taking into account the specific heat determined with the experimental hot-wire
126 Mindeguia et al
test results lead to overestimated temperatures. This is explained by the fact that during the
hot-wire test, concrete sample is in a quasi thermo-hydral steady state. Then, this type of test
does not allow taking into account in the right way the important chemical transformations
that occur into concrete during heating. These transformations strongly influence the thermal
diffusion as they involve endothermic reactions. New simulations carried out with estimated
specific heats inspired from the literature were then carried out. These specific heats are
estimated by theoretically considering the water evaporation and the dehydration of CSH and
Portlandite. The estimated specific heats we applied, lead to too high thermal diffusivity and
then simulated temperatures are too high compared with the experimental results. That could
mean that others physico-chemical phenomena take place in this special concrete and could
been taken into account in the choice of thermal properties. Thermal simulations could then
be improved by studying the mineralogy of this material and by carrying out thermal analysis
like calorimetry and/or Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA).
REFERENCES
1. THIBAUX T., HAJAR Z., SIMON A., CHANUT S. Construction of an ultra high performance
fiber reinforced concrete shell for the tollgate of Millau viaduct. 6th RILEM symposium on fibre
reinforced concrete, BEFIB 2004. Varenna, Italy. September 2004.
2. HAJAR Z., SIMON A., LECOINTRE D., PETITJEAN J. Design and construction of the first
ultra high performance concrete road bridges. International symposium on ultra high
performance concrete. Kassel, Germany. September 2004.
3. KHOURY G.A. Spalling, Course on Effect of Heat on Concrete. International Centre for
Mechanical Sciences (CISM). Udine, Italy. 9-13 June 2003.
4. GENES P., ALEXANDRE F., NOVARIN M., SIMON A. Restructuration dun immeuble
parisien. Revue TRAVAUX n813, France. Novembre 2004.
5. HAGER I., PIMIENTA P. Transient thermal strains of High Performance Concretes. Key note
for Concreep7, International conference on creep, shrinkage and durability of concrete and
concrete structures. Nantes, France. 12-14 September 2005.
6. MINDEGUIA J.C., DHIERSAT M., SIMON A., PIMIENTA P. Behaviour of the UHPFRC
BSI at high temperatures. International workshop Structures In Fire SIF'06. Aveiro, Portugal.
10-12 May 2006.
7. NF EN 993-15 Methods of dense shaped refractory products Part 15: Determination of thermal
conductivity by the hot-wire (parallel) method. September 1998.
8. EN 1992-1-2 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part1-2: General rules Structural fire
design. December 2004.
9. NF P 92-701 Mthode de prvision par le calcul du comportement au feu des structures en
bton. December 1993.
10. GUERRINI G.L., GAMBAROVA P.G., ROSATI G. (2004) Microstructure of High-Strength
Concrete Subjected to High Temperature. Proceedings of the Workshop Fire Design of Concrete
Structures: What now? What next?, Milan, Itlay.
11. Code de calcul par lments finis CASTEM. Commissariat l'Energie Atomique CEA
DEN/DM2S/SEMT.
12. BAZANT Z.P., KAPLAN M.F. (1996) Concrete at high Temperatures. Pearson Education,
Essex, England.
13. HARMATHY T.Z. (1993) Fire Safety Design & Concrete. Longman Scientific & Technical,
Essex, England.
FLY ASH CONCRETE AT FIRE TEMPERATURES
A K Chattopadhyay
Kalna Polytechnic
B Chattopadhyay
Jadavpur University
India
ABSTRACT. Sustainable development, being perhaps one of the most significant gifts of 20th
Century to human kind, points out the increasing use of industrial wastes like fly ash in
concrete replacing cement partially. Fly ash not only enhances properties of concrete but also it
protects the environment and natural resources for a better future. Accidental fire is very
common in concrete structures. Many research works have been done on ordinary concrete at
high temperatures. Some researchers from India as well as from all over the world worked to
see the behaviour of fly ash concrete in fire conditions, number of research works being a few.
With this background, experimental programmes were scheduled in the present study to see the
behaviour of fly ash concrete in practical fire conditions. In the present study, a newer approach
of mix design of concrete was adopted where the weight of fly ash added was twice that of
cement replaced, without addition of any chemical admixture. Specimens were placed in
furnace at prefixed temperatures of 300C, 500C and 700C sustained for 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours.
Heated samples were quenched with water sprinkles followed by air cooling and then tested for
compressive strength. It was found that fly ash concrete underwent less deterioration than
ordinary concrete at sustained high temperatures. Thermal spalling appeared, during the process
of heating, a major concern for this concrete samples. To solve this, polyester fibres were
introduced in fly ash concrete, which remarkably reduced the risk of spalling.
Keywords: Sustainability, Fly ash, Concrete, Fire, Temperature, Residual Compressive

Strength, Spalling.
Achintya Kr Chattopadhyay, Lecturer in Civil Engineering, Kalna Polytechnic, West

Bengal, India. Joined teaching in 1997 after working several years in different consultancy
organisations since graduation in 1990 from B.E. College, Shibpore. Works include seismic
analysis of Kaiga and Narora Atomic Power Projects, design of R.C framed and steel-framed
industrial as well as residential buildings, rehabilitation of damaged structures of importance
etc. Completed Master of Civil Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata.
Dr Bishnupada Chattopadhyay, senior Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur

University, Kolkata. Obtained his doctoral degree in Civil Engineering from Polytechnic of
Central London, UK after obtaining the degree of Master of Civil Engineering from Jadavpur
University. Besides teaching, for more than 35 years, engaged in different prestigious projects as
a structural consultant.
127
128 Chattopadhyay, Chattopadhyay
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is, as defined by WCED [1], development that meets the needs of present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainability in construction may be achieved by using less virgin material and less energy,
causing less pollution and creating less waste without compromising the quality and benefits
of construction projects. Addition of fly ash in concrete is one such way of attaining
sustainability. Concrete is an environmentally friendly material, but the main constituent of it
i.e., Portland cement is environmentally unfriendly material. The production of Portland
cement puts about a ton of carbon dioxide (CO2), a primary greenhouse gas, into the
atmosphere for every ton of cement produced roughly half a ton from the fuel used to cook
the raw limestone, and half a ton from the calcinations of the limestone. Worldwide, the
production of Portland cement alone accounts for about 6-8% of human-generated CO2. More
constructions with concrete using lesser amount of Portland cement will give us the
opportunity to slow the very alarming trend toward global warming.
Thermal Power Stations burn coal and generate huge fly ash as a waste material. Fly ash in
the ground can pollute groundwater with heavy metals, while fly ash in the air constitutes
particulate pollution that is a health hazard to everyone nearby. Fly ash trace metals and
particulates cast into concrete, by contrast, are bound forever in a way that cannot hurt
anyone. There are many practical reasons to add some (if not a lot of) fly ash to concrete
not just in addition to Portland cement, but in replacement of it. Fly ash has several
performance-enhancing effects on workability, pumpability, strength, shrinkage, and
permeability. Moreover using fly ash is beneficial from environmental and societal point of
considerations. Most of the fly ash produced today is currently being either land filled or
simply flying freely out the smokestack of the coal-fired power plant from which it comes.
Radically increasing the use of fly ash in concrete whether blended at the ready-mix plant,
or premixed and bagged at cement plants is but one component of the broader effort to
make concrete a more environmentally friendly building material without sacrificing quality
or affordability. Use of fly ash in structural concrete will not only reduce the land
requirement for its disposal, it will reduce the uses of cement thereby reducing the fuel
consumption and CO2 emission at the same time during manufacture of cement. If all the fly
ash generated each year were used in producing concrete, the reduction of carbon-di-oxide
(CO2) released from cement production would be equivalent to eliminating 25% of the
worlds vehicles. Moreover, by reducing consumption of OPC, the rate of depletion of
mineral resources (natural resources) required for production of cement can be reduced. Thus
it will save the environment in more than one ways.
The advantages of addition of fly ash in concrete has been proved unambiguously and
performances of fly ash concrete at normal environmental exposures are well experimented.
Its performances in extreme exposures need detail study to justify its expanding usage. Fire is
such an extreme condition. Fire has been both friend and foe to mankind. Confined and
controlled, it warms dwellings, powers machinery, and makes production of new materials
possible. When it escapes controlled confines, fire destroys lives, property, and businesses.
Examples of the destructive potential of uncontrolled fire range from historic fires which
virtually destroyed great cities such as Rome (66 A.D.), London (1666 A.D.), and Chicago
(1871 A.D.), to more recent urban-wildland interface fires in Southern California (1982
A.D.). Events such as these have prompted people to review causes, evaluate means of
minimizing reoccurrence, and institute provisions for fire protection. Though there is an
increasing reliance on automatic detectors and sprinklers to assure life-safety against fire,
Fly Ash Concrete 129
there always exists a need of constructing structures with a material that will give a fair
degree of fire resistance from the point of view of the safety of inhabitants as well as the
reuse of the structure with minimum repair and maintenance. A perusal of the existing
literatures reflects the fact that although many important aspects of thermal behaviour of
ordinary concrete have received attention and due importance but the study of fly ash
concrete under high temperatures is far from complete.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
K.W. Nasser and H.M. Marzouk [2] at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada conducted
series of tests on mass concrete containing fly ash exposed to high temperatures. It was
observed from their test results that in the temperature range of 121 to 149C, the strength of
fly ash concrete is greater than at 21.4C, but strength decreased beyond 177C. G G Carette,
K E Painter and V M Malhotra [3] of CANMET concluded after their experimentations that
the incorporation of fly ash and slag in concrete did not improve the mechanical properties of
concrete after exposure to sustained high temperatures regardless of the exposure temperature
and water to cement or cementitious materials ratio. Xu, Yong, Poon and Anson [4] of Hong
Kong Polytechnic University tested on concretes made with pulverized fly ash (PFA)
replacements of 0, 25% and 55% subjected to high temperatures ranging from 250C to
800C for duration of 1 hour. They obtained higher residual compressive strengths (hot state)
than original unheated value for all concrete specimens exposed to 250C. When maximum
exposure temperature was raised to 450C, the strength reductions were as little as 415%.
After exposure to a higher temperature of 650C, however, only about half of the original
strengths could be obtained. The compressive strength of concrete deteriorated even more
when the exposure temperature was raised to 800C, and the residual strengths were only
about 20% to 30% of the values obtained from unheated specimens. M. Potha Raju and A.
Janaki Rao [5] of GITAM Engg College, India experimented on fly ash concrete cubes of 150
mm size of grades M28, M33 and M35 with 10%, 20% and 30% replacement of cement by
weight with Class F fly ash. They studied the compressive strength of fly ash concretes at hot
state for temperatures of 100C, 200C and 250C each for 1, 2 and 3 hours durations of
exposure at peak temperatures. They concluded that the performance of fly ash concrete was
better than ordinary concrete at elevated temperatures. S K Sekar and P Devadas Monoharan
[6] tested concrete of grades M20 and M40 with cement replacement of 10%, 20%, 30% and
40% by fly ash. Specimens were heated to 200C and 400C for an exposure time of 3 hours
duration. The values of residual compressive strengths were higher at the elevated
temperatures than the unheated specimens. The specimen heated to 200C for 3 hours showed
an increase of residual compressive strength of concrete to 26% at 40% fly ash for M20
concrete without superplasticisers. When concrete specimens were exposed to 400C, it was
observed that there was a maximum increase in compressive strength of 43% at 30% fly ash
content for M20 concrete mixes without superplasticisers.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
To determine the effect on compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperatures, cube

specimens of 100 x 100 x 100 mm were prepared in standard moulds as per IS: 10086-1982
[7] and cured for 28 days. Unsealed and unstressed cube specimens were heated at 300C,
500C, and 700C temperatures for 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours of heating durations in each case. To
simulate the practical fire situations, high rate of heating (8C/min) was adopted. Samples
heated at the prefixed temperatures for specific durations were tested for compressive
strength as per IS: 516-1959 [8] after cooling by water followed by cooling in air. The
heating and cooling scheme is shown in Figure 1.
Peak temperature Cooled by water
Temperature Cooled in air
Duration
Figure 1 Schematic representation of heating and cooling pattern
MATERIALS
Cement: Ordinary Portland cement (43 grade) conforming to IS: 8112-1989 [9] was used.
Properties of cement are detailed in Table 1.
Fly ash: Siliceous Pulverised Fuel Ash as per IS: 3812 (Part I and II)2003 [10, 11]
equivalent to Low-lime Class F (ASTM) fly ash, obtained from Kolaghat Thermal Power
Station, West Bengal, India having a specific gravity of 2.15 was used. Chemical
composition and grain size distribution of fly ash are shown in Table 2 and Table 3
respectively.
Sand: Locally available pit sand, having specific gravity 2.65, fineness modulus 2.57 falling
in Zone II as per IS: 383- 1970 [12] was taken.
Coarse aggregate: Locally available crushed basalt aggregate of size 20 mm and down,
having specific gravity 2.85 was used.
Water: Clear and Potable Laboratory tap water was used for making concrete and curing.
Fibres: Polyester fibres of length 12 mm, aspect ratio 140, tensile Strength 6000 kg/cm2,
melting Point 250C was taken.
Table 1 Physical and chemical properties of cement

ON IGNITION
AUTOCLAVE
TOTAL LOSS
ANHYDRIDE
SOUNDNESS
IRON RATIO
CHLORIDES
MAGNESIA
LIME SAT.
SULFURIC
ALUMINA
GRAVITY
SPECIFIC
RESIDUE
FACTOR
TOTAL
INSOL.
0.88 1.65 1.72% 1.83% 1.86% 1.85% 0.006% 0.08% 3.15
Table 2 Chemical composition of fly ash
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 P2O5 LOI
56.01 29.8 3.58 1.75 2.36 0.3 0.73 0.61 Nil 0.44 4.02
Table 3 Grain Size Analysis of Fly ash
BELOW 30
ABOVE 300
399 & 210
210 & 150

BETWEEN
BETWEEN
BETWEEN
BETWEEN
BETWEEN
BETWEEN
BETWEEN
150 & 90
90 & 75
75 & 53
53 & 45
45 & 30
SIEVE
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVES
SIEVE
0.17 0.49 0.90 2.86 2.81 1.63 1.49 0.87 88.78
MIX PROPORTIONING
Mix proportioning of concrete without fly ash was done according to IS: 10262-1982[13] for
a characteristic strength of 25 N/mm2. The mix was designated as M25-0.42-00. Fly ash
concrete mixes were designed replacing 20%, 25% and 30% of cement by weight. In all the
fly ash concrete mixes, weight of fly ash added was twice that of cement replaced to have a
comparable 28-days strength to a concrete without fly ash. Mixes were so designated to
indicate the grade of concrete started with the letter M, water to cement/cementitious
materials ratio and percentage of cement replaced. While designing, 80% of total fly ash
added was considered as cementitious materials along with cement. Remaining 20% was
assumed to be inert in the mix and considered as fine aggregates. Necessary reductions in
sand content in the mix were done accordingly. No chemical admixture was added in any
case. Six different mixes of fly ash concrete was designed. In the first three cases, 20%, 25%
and 30% cement was replaced. Water-cementitious ratio of these concrete mixes was kept
same as the water-cement ratio (0.42) obtained for plain concrete without fly ash. These
mixes were designated as M25-0.42-20 M25-0.42-25 and M25-0.42-30 respectively. The mix
proportions in the fourth and fifth mixes were kept same as obtained for M25-0.42-25 with
only difference in water-cementitious material ratio, taking it to be 0.45 for the fourth mix
and 0.49 for the fifth mix. These mixes were designated as M25-0.45-25 and M25-0.49-25. In
the sixth mix, fibres were added to the mix M25-0.49-25, mix proportion along with water to
cementitious material ratio was kept same as that of the fifth one. This mix was designated as
F25-0.49-25.
Table 4 Summary of mix proportions
MATERIALS CEMENT FLY SAND COARSE WATER FIBRES

kg/m ASH kg/m AGGRE- li/m gm/m
CONCRETE kg/m GATE
TYPES kg/m
Concrete without fly
ash 456.14 0 535.55 1258.33 191.58 0
(M-25-0-00)
M25-0.42-20 364.912 182.46 439.06 1137.27 214.57 0

Concrete with
M25-0.42-25 342.10 228.07 414.93 1107.03 220.31 0

fly ash
M25-0.42-30 319.30 273.68 390.81 1076.77 226.06 0

M25-0.45-25 319.30 273.68 390.81 1076.77 236.05 0
M25-0.49-30 319.30 273.68 390.81 1076.77 257.03 0
F25-0.49-25 319.30 273.68 390.81 1076.77 257.03 1423.15
The dosage of fibres taken was 120 g per 50 kg of total powder i.e., arithmetical sum of
weight of cement and that of fly ash. A summary of different mixes taken is given in Table 4.
Designing concrete this way not only reduces the cement consumption; it allows reduction of
sand and coarse aggregates also. Reductions of cement, sand and coarse aggregates become
20%, 18% and 10% respectively in mix M25-0.42-20; while the reductions become 25%,
23% and 12% in mix M25-0.42-25 and those for mix M25-0.42-30 become 30%, 27% and
15% respectively.
Physical Properties: The physical properties of studied concrete types are shown in Table 5.
It can be observed that addition of fly ash to a certain quantity increases workability of
concrete as is seen in case of M25-0.42-20 and M25-0.42-25, which is similar to earlier
findings in case of equal substitution of fly ash with cement. Further addition though
decreases workability, it still remains workable.
Table 5 Physical properties of different types of studied concrete
MIX SLUMP C.F DENSITY WATER ABSORPTION (%)

mm kg/m After 2 hours After 24 hours
of immersion of immersion
M25-0.42-00 70 0.86 2545.63 2.34 2.68
M25-0.42-20 75 0.89 2436.42 1.36 1.77
M25-0.42-25 130 0.93 2386.15 1.47 1.79
M25-0.42-30 90 0.91 2299.77 2.67 3.02
* Results are averages of 3 test results in each case
The density of fly ash concrete decreases due to relatively heavier materials like cement, sand
and coarse aggregates being partially replaced by fly ash a material having much lower
specific gravity. Water absorptions of fly ash concrete mixes are within permissible limit and
quite low in mixes having 20% and 25% cement replacements.
Mechanical Properties: The mechanical properties of different types of studied concrete at

laboratory temperature are shown in Table 6. All the mixes have crossed the 28-days target
mean strength (33.75 N/mm2) used in mix design. It is also evident that the concrete with
25% replacement of cement gives the maximum strength. Addition of fibres has marginally
increased the strength of concrete.
Effect of Heating on Compressive Strength of Fly ash Concrete: Results of residual

compressive strength of concrete mixes designated as M25-0.42-20, M25-0.42-25 and M25-
0.42-30 after heating and cooling are given in Table 7. Changes in compressive strengths of
concrete heated to different temperatures and for different durations with changes of
percentage of cement replaced are plotted in Figure 2. Results with zero fly ash have been
taken from results of Panja and Chattopadhyay [13] for comparison, where experimentations
were made on concrete without fly ash with same materials and in same environmental
conditions.
It is observed that reductions in strength in concrete with 20% cement replacement are the
least amongst the three mixes tested. It retains about 82%, 78% and 45% of its strength
respectively after sustaining temperatures of 300C, 500C and 700C for 8 hours; which is
about 71%, 62% and 33% for concrete with 25% cement replacement and about 61%, 53%
and 26% for concrete with 30% cement replacement. It is found that residual compressive
strength increases in concrete samples than their unheated strength, where 20% cement is
replaced with fly ash, when heated up to 500C for 2 hours duration. It may be due to
increased rate of hydration during rapid drying of concrete. It is found that at temperature
300C sustained for longer durations, there is not much improvement in residual strength
compared to no-fly-ash-concrete but at higher temperatures, increase in residual strength has
been remarkable. In general, concrete strength deteriorates, irrespective of level of cement
replacement with fly ash, at increasing temperatures beyond 300C. Strength also reduces
when concrete is sustained for higher durations at the same temperature.
Table 6 Mechanical properties of different concrete studied after 28-days of curing
M25-
M25- M25- M25- M25- M25- F25-
MIX 0.49-
0.42-00 0.42-20 0.42-25 0.42-30 0.45-25 0.49-25
25
AVERAGE*
COMPRESSIVE
58.67 37.00 43.00 38.00 55.70 35.10 46.20
STRENGTH
N/mm2
* Average of 3 three test results
It may be due to formation of microcracks which are propagated as samples are cooled by
water after exposure to high temperatures, though the deterioration is much less in
comparison to that of ordinary concrete containing no fly ash. This may be explained as the
lesser susceptibility of cracking of fly ash concrete than ordinary concrete as fly ash concrete,
after hydration, produce lesser Ca(OH)2. Presence of high strength tobermorite, as mentioned
by Nasser et al [2], in secondary hydration of fly ash concrete may also be responsible for
lesser strength reduction at high temperatures. The strength reduction is rapid between 500C
to 700C temperature, indicating decomposition of tobermorite gel (C-S-H gel) and
tobermorite between these two temperatures. Comparison with published works reveals that
deteriorations of strength of fly ash concrete samples tested in this case are less than those
works, which indicates that twice substitution of fly ash for cement replaced are better than
equal substitution, when the performance of concrete at high temperature is considered.
Residual strength of mix M25-0.45-25 and mix M25-0.49-25 could not be determined as all
samples spalled during testing (mentioned later).
Effect on mix containing fibres (mix F25-0.49-25): Results of residual compressive

strength of concrete mix designated as F25-0.49-25 after heating and cooling are given in
Table 8. Comparison with results of M25-0.42-25 i.e., same mix without fibres, reveals that
inclusion of fibres into fly ash concrete does not improve its residual compressive strength
when heated at temperatures up to 700C, though addition of these fibres has come out to be a
solution against thermal spalling (mentioned later).
Table 7 Compressive Strength of samples of concrete at different heating temperature and

different duration of heating (results are averages of 3 test cubes)
RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

HEATING
TESTING EXPRESSED AS PERCENT TO THAT OF
DURATIONS,
TEMPERATURES UNHEATED CONCRETE OF SAME MIX
HOURS
M25-0.42-20 M25-0.42-25 M25-0.42-30
2 108.1 100.6 96.8
4 89.3 75.4 73.3
300C
6 85.6 73.1 67.4
8 82.05 71.4 61.5
2 106.3 97.7 78.9
4 88.3 71.1 63.9
500C
6 81.1 68.3 58.7
8 78.4 61.6 52.9
2 64.4 55.8 49.2
4 52.55 46.9 43.1
700C
6 50.78 39.0 38.8
8 45.24 32.8 26.3
Thermal Spalling of Concrete: The term spalling has particular significance in fire
resistance of concrete containing fly ash. Fly ash concrete has a dense microstructure than
ordinary concrete as fly ash contains particles smaller than cement particles to a considerable
quantity. It has already been reported by Hertz [14] that dense concrete are more susceptible
to spalling under high temperatures. Present study also agrees with his opinion. Spalling was
observed in all three mixes viz., M25-0.42-20, M25-0.42-25 and M25-0.42-30. It was also
observed that spalling rate was more in concrete having 25% cement replacement (i.e., Mix
M25-0.42-25) than concrete having 20% cement replacement (i.e., Mix M25-0.42-20). Rate
of spalling in mix with 25% cement replacement and mix with 30% cement replacement was
almost similar. Trials were made to see the effect of increasing water to cementitious
materials ratio on spalling. Concrete designated as M25-0.45-25 and M25-0.49-25 were
placed in furnace where temperature was set to 700C. In both the cases, samples spalled
explosively much before reaching the set temperature and in one case, explosion was so
severe that muffle inside the furnace collapsed. It was observed that most of the spalling
occurred in the temperature range of 390C to 420C. It was also noted that spalling occurred
irrespective of the moisture content and age of concrete as spalling of samples occurred in
some six-month old concrete. The reason for this may be attributed to the combined effect of
movement of pore water and high thermal gradient. Introduction of fly ash in concrete
reduces pores within concrete and hence the movement of pore water under high temperature
becomes restricted. Secondly, when concrete is heated, a thermal gradient is developed as
concrete is a bad conductor of heat. This gradient becomes more in fly ash concrete as fly ash
has lesser thermal conductivity. In order to reduce the risk of spalling, polypropylene fibres
were introduced in mix F25-0.49-25. Samples were placed in temperatures of 300C, 500C
and 700C for 2, 4 and 6 hours. No sample spalled during heating at any temperature in any
heating duration. This observation tallies with that of Hertz [14]. It seems that his argument
for this phenomenon holds good. He commented that the tensile strength was reduced by
introduction of pores with melted fibres and the reduced tensile strength might allow
formation of thermal cracks in the depth of cross-section unloading the thermal compressive
stresses necessary for spalling at the surface layer.
CONCLUSIONS
It may be concluded from the present study that

i. Proper mix designing can make fly ash concrete a useful structural concrete rather than
being only mass concrete. Incorporation of 2 kgs of fly ash in concrete for each kg of cement
replaced can give comparable early strength properties, without addition of any chemical
admixture, as that of ordinary concrete and this mix design will produce qualitatively better
concrete over the earlier attempts where fly ash added equaled the amount of cement
replaced. Incorporation of fly ash this way in concrete also improves its workability The
resulting fly ash concrete will possess lesser weight than that of comparable ordinary
concrete, thus will reduce the dead load of the structure.
ii. In general, compressive strength reduces at increasing temperatures beyond 300C and also
when the duration of exposure in high temperature is increased for all the mixes with greater
residual value, than unheated specimen, at temperatures of 300C and 500C when duration of
exposure is as low as 2 hours. In all the mixes tested, residual strengths at higher temperatures
are higher than that of ordinary concrete. It appears that use of properly designed fly ash
concrete in structures could be more advantageous than ordinary concrete when the structure is
susceptible to temperature rise.
iii. In spite of improvement on mechanical properties, thermal spalling appears to be a source
of concern for fly ash concrete at high temperatures which may restrict its use in structures
that have chances to experience temperature rise in its life period.
iv. Introduction of polyester fibres in fly ash concrete may eliminate or at least reduce
effectively the risk of spalling and hence fibre-reinforced fly ash concrete seems to be a good
solution for structures that may undergo temperature rise.
v. A steel building requires steel which uses huge energy for its production (almost 7 times
compared to cement), generates large wastes from ore-mining, processing, transport and
smelting and again consumes much energy for its recycling. A wood structure uses the wood
derived by deforestation devastating ecology, which can no more be encouraged. Concrete
remains the only alternative for sustainable construction. Concrete constructions will be more
sustainable for better building, if the consumption of Portland cement is reduced by using
supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash and wastes are reused, as addition of fly
ash in concrete in a properly designed fashion has proved itself to be one of the best
alternatives for mainstreaming environment in construction sector, besides making concrete
better in every sense.
120 120
110 110
100 100
90 90
RELATIVE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (%)

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CEMENT REPLACEMENT (%) WITH FLY ASH
CEMENT REPLACEMENT (%) WITH FLY ASH
(A) 2 HOURS HEATING (B) 4 HOURS HEATING
120 120
110 110
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
300C
30 30
500C
20 700C 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CEMENT REPLACEMENT (%) WITH FLY ASH CEMENT REPLACEMENT (%) WITH FLY ASH
(C) 6 HOURS HEATING (D) 8 HOURS HEATING
Figure 2 Variation of compressive strength of concrete, versus varying cement replacement,

heated to 300C, 500C and 700C sustained for (A) 2 hours (B) 4 hours (C) 6 hours and
(D) 8 hours
Table 8 Compressive Strength Ratios of samples of concrete F25-0.49-25 at different

heating temperature and different duration of heating
TESTING
300C 500C 700C
TEMP
HEATING
DURATIONS 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
(HOURS)
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH 0.98 0.95 0.84 0.82 0.59 0.54 0.60 0.43 0.29
RATIO
The results of tests on mix F25-0.49-25 have been shown graphically in Figure 3.
100
80
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH RATIO (%)
60
40
300C
500C
700C
20
0
2 3 4 5 6
DURATION IN HOURS
Figure 3 Residual compressive strength of concrete F25-0.49-25 after heating to different

heating temperatures expressed in percentage of unheated concrete strength
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Support from the Director of Technical Education and Training, West Bengal, the Secretary,
TET, W.B. and All India Council of Technical Education is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. WCED, 1987. OUR COMMON FUTURE: REPORT OF THE WORLD COMMISSION

ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT. The Brundtland Report. Oxford,
OUP, p.8.
2. NASSER, K. W. AND MARZOUK, H M. Properties of mass concrete containing fly ash

at high temperatures; ACI (Mat) journal 76(4)-1979 pp 537-550
3. CARETTE, G G, PAINTER, K E AND MALHOTRA, V M. Sustained high temperature

effect on concrete made with normal Portland cement, normal Portland cement and slag
or normal Portland cement and fly ash. Concrete International: Design and Construction,
4(7), July, 1982; 41-51.
4. XU, Y, WONG, Y L, POON, C S AND ANSON, M. Impact of high temperatures of PFA

concrete; Cement and Concrete Research 31(2001) pp 1065-1073
5. RAJU, M P AND RAO, A J. Effect of temperature on residual compressive strength of

fly ash concrete; The Indian Concrete Journal, May 2001 pp 347-352
6. SEKAR, S K AND MANOHARAN, P D. Strength characteristics of fly ash concrete

subjected to sustained elevated temperatures; Journal of Indian Concrete Institute,
January-March 2005 pp 31-38
7. IS:10086-1982 (reaffirmed 1999), Specification for Moulds for Use in Tests of Cement
and Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
8. IS: 516 1959 (reaffirmed 1999), Method of test for strength of concrete, BIS, New
Delhi.
9. IS: 8112 1989, Specification for 43 grade ordinary Portland cement, BIS, New Delhi.
10. IS 3812 (Part I): 2003 Pulverised Fuel Ash Specification; Part I for use as pozzolana
in Cement, Cement mortar and Concrete, BIS, New Delhi.
11. IS 3812 (Part II): 2003 Pulverised Fuel Ash Specification; Part II for use as admixture
in Cement mortar and Concrete, BIS, New Delhi.
12. IS: 383 1970, Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for
Concrete, BIS, New Delhi.
13. PANJA, T AND CHATTOPADHYAY, B. M C E Thesis titled Behaviour of Concrete at

Elevated Temperatures, Jadavpur University, May, 2006.
14. HERTZ K D. Limits of Spalling of fire-exposed concrete; Fire Safety Journal, 38 (2003)
pp 103 116.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ULTRA HIGH
PERFORMANCE FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
A de Chefdebien
F Robert
Study and Research Centre for the French Concrete Industry
France
ABSTRACT. High strength concretes subjected to high temperatures have been investigated
over the past decades. Some differences with ordinary concrete have been identified, like
additional loss of strength under moderate temperatures and possible spalling with fire
exposure. One of the appropriate ways to prevent this phenomenon is to incorporate polymer
fibres in the mix. During this study, in the aim of developing thin prestressed pretensioned
concrete products, extensive testing has been performed on different types of Ultra High
Performance Concrete with strengths ranging from 150 to 200 MPa reinforced with steel
fibres and incorporating polypropylene fibres in the mixes. Investigations included spalling
tests (ISO 834 fire curve) on thin concrete elements and prestressed pretensioned beams and
compressive and direct tensile characterisation with temperatures between 20C and 750C.
Residual compressive and flexural tests have also been performed on specimen cut from
elements subjected to the ISO 834 fire curve. The behaviour of the Ultra High Performance
Concrete formulae tested here differs from that of ordinary and high strength concrete
especially in compression at high temperatures (no strength reduction until 600C and
possible strength recovery after cooling). Tensile properties are also different with a constant
loss of approximately 50% from 150C to 750C, but a loss of ductility observed above
150C. These specific properties allow the development of new concept designs for thin
hollow columns or compressed members.
Keywords: Fibre reinforced concrete, High temperature, High strength concretes, Steel
fibres, Polypropylene fibres, Prestressed, Pretensioned, Spalling tests, Mechanical tests, Fire.
Andr de Chefdebien, Graduate Engineer of ENSAM (Ecole Nationale Suprieure des Arts
et Mtiers), MSc of Civil Engineering of ENS Cachan, Head of the Construction Products
Division at the CERIB (Study and Research Centre for the French Concrete Industry).
Member of the fdration internationale du bton, Commission Prefabrication (C6) and
Commission Safety Performance Concepts (C2). General Secretary of AFPS (French
Association for Earthquake Engineering).
Fabienne Robert, Graduate Civil Engineer of INSA (Institut National des Sciences
Appliques), MSc of Civil Engineering of ENS Cachan and currently preparing a thesis on
fire behaviour of concrete. Head of the Fire Section at the CERIB. Member of the fdration
internationale du bton Fire Design of concrete structures (4.3).
139
140 de Chefdebien, Robert
INTRODUCTION
Satisfactory performances of concrete constructions in the event of fire are well known; and
fundamental strength studies of reinforced concrete subjected to high temperatures date back
to the late sixties [1]. With the extensive use of high strength concrete, the question of
concrete spalling arose particularly with very high rate fires like hydrocarbon fires in tunnels.
Recent design standards like Eurocode 2 [2] give additional data on the behaviour of these
concretes and recommendations to prevent or limit spalling. For the new generation of ultra
high strength concrete made with very small or no aggregates, investigations are needed in
order to identify the different aspects of the behaviour in a fire situation. Some pioneering
studies have been undertaken and show that thermal properties can differ significantly from
those of ordinary or high strength concrete [1]; moreover, it seems that mechanical properties
at high temperatures differ from one mix to another [1, 2, 5]. In the study supporting this
paper, different aspects of the behaviour of ultra high performance concrete in fire within the
range of 150 MPa to 200 MPa have been studied.
CONCRETE MIX AND MAIN PROPERTIES
Two UHPC mixes have been elaborated both containing 13 mm long steel fibres made from
high carbon steel wires subjected to a high strain hardening ratio leading to a tensile yielding
stress of 2000 MPa (DRAMIX OL 13/16 from Bekaert). The main difference between
UHPC1 and UHPC2 is the use of small basaltic aggregates in UHPC1 while UHPC2 contains
only silica sand. In order to prevent explosive spalling during fire exposure, polypropylene
fibres have been added to the original mix.
Main characteristics and properties are indicated in Table 1. Mechanical characterisation

consists of compressive and flexural tests performed at 3 days and at 28 days of hardening on
4 4 4 cm and 4 4 16 cm samples, respectively.
Table 1 Mix characteristics and concrete properties

UHPC1 UHPC2
Concrete mix
Aggregates Basalt 4/6 mm + sand Sand
Steel fibre L = 13 mm, 160 m, Bekaert 79 kg/m3 133 kg/m3
Polypropylene fibre L = 12 mm, 18 m 3 kg/m3 3 kg/m3
Mechanical properties, MPa
Compressive strength 3 days (mean) 125 133
Compressive strength 28 days (mean) 170 200
Flexural strength 3 days (mean) 15 27
Flexural strength 28 days (mean) 24 35
According to normal procedures and RILEM recommendations [6] all of the specimens for
the different tests presented here have been cured for 7 days in a wet atmosphere and then
kept at 20C in a 50% relative humidity atmosphere for 90 days.
FRC at High Temperatures 141
SPALLING TESTS
In order to test the spalling behaviour with exposure to high temperatures, thin walled U
specimen have been cast in steel moulds and tested during 90 min. with the ISO 834 curve.
The wall thickness of the elements was 40 mm, a steel mesh of 6 mm high bond bar was
positioned in the middle. Figure 1 shows the geometry of the specimens. Only the upper face
was exposed to fire during the test.
Figure 1 Spalling test specimens
A preliminary test was performed on elements without polypropylene fibres; and even after
90 days drying, explosive spalling occurred. The test was terminated after 20 min when the
upper slab burst (Figure 2). All other tests were carried out on specimens with polypropylene
fibres. The exposure time for all tests was 90 min.
As it can be seen from Figure 3, integrity of the slab was conserved and no spalling occurred.
It can be concluded that the polypropylene fibres chosen for these concrete mixes were
sufficient to completely protect the elements. Special attention should be paid to the small
diameter of the fibres (18 m) leading to a high cumulative fibre length in the mix (with
3 kg/m3, the average cumulative fibre length is around 13 km/dm3) and to the relative high
fibre length over max. aggregate size ratio (equal to 2 for UHPC 1), in accordance with the
percolation theory [4].
After natural cooling in the furnace, 4 4 16 cm specimens were cut off the slabs of the U
elements in order to perform compressive and flexural tests. Results are reported in the
sections on compression and tensile testing below. Additional tests on small prestressed
pretensioned beam elements made with UHPC 1 were carried out using the same protocol; no
spalling occurred during these tests either (Figure 4).
Figure 2 Spalling test without PP fibres Figure 3 Spalling test with PP fibres
Figure 4 Test on prestressed pretensioned elements
COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE STRENGTH TESTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
Test procedures and equipment
All the tests were carried out according to RILEM recommendations [6-8] except for loading
which was controlled by the displacement of the press plate. For compression tests, the
specimens were cylinders of 100 mm in diameter and 300 mm in height; a load of 20% of the
mean strength at 20C was applied during the heating phase. For modulus measurement a
special apparatus was developed based on the deflexion of two pairs of needles positioned on
the 90 mm central part of the specimen (see Figure 5).
For tensile tests, diabolo specimen were designed (see Figure 6), tensile stress was applied by
means of threaded bars placed during casting. Total length of the specimen was 610 mm for a
cylindrical central part of 120 mm with a diameter of 80 mm. During heating, a load of
0.2 MPa was applied.
Figure 5 Apparatus for compression tests Figure 6 Apparatus for tensile tests
Compression results
The following figures represent the results obtained in compression expressed as absolute and
standardized strength (i.e. the results were divided by the results at 20C). Tests were carried
out at temperatures of 20C, 150C, 450C, 600C and 750C. It can be observed that the
strength decrease was very limited or nil until a temperature of 600C was reached; then, at
750C the strength fell to only 20% of the strength at 20C.
For the UHPC 2, a slight strength increase should be noted until at least 450C. All tests were
reproduced two or three times and the vertical bars in Figure 7 show the very obviously
limited scatter obtained.
The results obtained are much more favourable than the usual strength decrease coefficients
used for normal and especially for high performance concrete [2] (see Figure 8). These
results are in accordance with those obtained on some kinds of UHPC [1], and could be
explained by additional hydration of clinker with temperature rise in a very dense matrix
owing to hydrothermal confinement, clinker composition should also be an important
parameter.
Moduli of elasticity were calculated from strain measurement under stresses equal to 10%
and 40% of the strength at high temperatures. Three loading cycles were carried out between
5 kN and 30% of the strength at high temperatures before strain measurements so that results
corresponded to the instantaneous modulus at high temperatures. As for compressive
strength, the modulus decrease with temperature was less than the values given by the codes
[2].
200
180
160
STRENGTH, MPa
140
120
100
80
60
40 UHPC I with polypropylene fibres
UHPC II with polypropylene fibres
20 UHPC I
UHPC II
0
0 75 150 225 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 825
TEMPERATURE C
Figure 7 Compression results at high temperatures
1.2
1.1
1.0
Rc0C / Rc20C
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 UHPC I with polypropylene fibres
0.2 UHPC II with polypropylene fibres
DTU BHP
0.1 EC2 classe 3 - C90 MPa
0.0
0 75 150 225 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 825
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 8 Standardized compressive strength versus temperature
60
55
ELASTICITY MODUMUS, GPa
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15 UHPC I with polypropylene fibres
10 UHPC II with polypropylene fibres
UHPC I
5 UHPC II
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 9 Elasticity modulus

Direct tensile tests
The behaviour of concrete under tensile stress at high temperatures has been seldom studied
up to now in comparison with compression; design code recommendations are based on
limited available data. Some of them base their rules on the reduction factors for
compression, others prescribe simple strong linear reductions with temperature [2]. Results
obtained in this study seem to exhibit a more complex behaviour (see Figure 10 and
Figure 11), although an important strength loss can be observed as soon as 150C is reached.
This loss seems to remain constant for higher temperatures, up to 750C. For UHPC 2 a
strength increase under tensile stress was detected around 450C, probably due to a hydration
process already mentioned for compression tests.
One of the essential properties of UHPC reinforced with steel fibres is the ductile behaviour
obtained in flexure and under direct tension. This phenomenon is the result of the adequate
combination of brittle materials: the UHPC matrix and the high carbon, strain hardened
thin steel fibres. After crack formation, the fibres slide in the concrete matrix under a constant
tensile force in the composite material.
10
BUHP 1 fibres PP
9 BUHP 2 fibres PP
8 BUHP 1
BUHP 2
STRENGTH, MPa
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 10 Direct tensile strength results at high temperatures
1.1
STRENGTH () / STRENGTH (20C)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 UHPC 1 PP fibres
0.3 UHPC 2 PP fibres
UHPC 1
0.2 EC2-1.2 & DTU
0.1 UHPC 2
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 11 Standardized tensile strength versus temperature

Figure 12 shows the displacement recorded between the ends of the specimens for the
different testing temperatures on UHPC 2. The ductile behaviour described above can be
observed at ambient temperature and at 150C, it disappears for the higher temperature tests
(450C and 750C).
45
40
TENSILE FORCE, kN
35
30
BUHP 2 PP 20C
25 BUHP 2 PP 150C
BUHP 2 PP 450C
20 BUHP 2 PP 750C
15
10
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
DISPLACEMENT, mm
Figure 12 Force displacement records for the direct tensile tests
Two hypotheses can be put forward: the temperature rise can strongly affect the bond forces
along the fibres and thus the crack formation is followed by a fibre sliding and strength
decrease, or the fibre yield strength decreases more than the bond strength with temperature
thus the crack formation is followed by a fibre failure.
Further investigations are needed to conclude in that matter, mainly some information on the
tensile behaviour between 150C and 450C as well as data on the behaviour of fibres with
temperature. In any case, this phenomenon should be addressed regarding the safety when
tensile strength of UHPC is involved alone (without contribution of reinforcement).
Comparison with cold tests on 4 4 16 cm cut specimens
As mentioned above, 4 4 16 cm specimens were cut, after natural cooling, in the thin
walled elements used for spalling tests. Figure 13 shows the temperature measurements of the
non-exposed face of the elements. It can be deducted that the mean temperature reached
during the test was around 950C.
The residual strength obtained from these specimens is plotted in Figure 14 as well as the
ratio with test results obtained on cast unexposed specimens. For the compression tests, both
UHPC elements exhibited a residual strength of about 40% of the 20C strength, this result
seemed to be higher than what could be expected from measurements at high temperatures
(i.e. around 20% of the strength at 750C).
1000
900
TEMPERATURE, C
800
700
600
500
400
300 Reference curve
Temperatures 15cm from edge
200 Temperatures 15cm from edge
100 Temperatures in the middle
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
TIME, minutes
Figure 13 Temperature measurements of the unexposed surface of thin walled U elements
225
MECHANICAL STENGTH, MPa
200
179 188
175
150
0.4 0.4
125
100
88
75 71
50 40
25 20 0.1
6 0.3 7
0
UHPC 1 UHPC 2 UHPC 1 UHPC 2
FLEXURE, COMPRESSION,
4 cm 4 cm 16 cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm
Figure 14 Residual and normal temperature strength measurements.
All test specimens shown were prepared with PP fibres.
It can be noted that a recovery of strength occurred: additional tests should be performed to
confirm these findings. On the other hand, the residual results in flexure were less than the
direct tensile test results (30% and 10% for UHPC 1 and 2, respectively, compared to
approximately 45% measured at 750C). These results should be compared to the steel
behaviour of the fibres.
CONCLUSIONS
The results presented here are part of a study aiming to investigate the possibilities of UHPC
for making thin walled prestressed elements. Due to the dense and tight matrix of these
concretes, the utilisation of polypropylene fibres to prevent explosive spalling for elements
possibly subjected to fire is unavoidable: A quantity of 3 kg of very small diameter
polypropylene fibres per cubic meter gives very good spalling prevention results.
The strength evolution under high temperatures is very different from that of ordinary and
high performance concrete. The good performance obtained in compression as well as in
tensile tests allows a possible consideration for use in thin structural elements where high fire
rating is needed. Nevertheless, it seems that the ductility in tension vanishes at high
temperature: additional tests should be performed to understand the phenomena involved; the
consequences for members where concrete resists alone in tension should be addressed. This
study shows encouraging results and confirms that specific data are needed for this kind of
concrete.
REFERENCES
1. NF P92-701 DTU-FB mthode de prvision par le calcul du comportement au feu des

structures en bton, 1993.
2. EN 1992-1-2: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1.2: General rules

Structural fire design, 2004.
3. BELOUL M, CHANVILLARD G AND CASANOVA P, Fire Resistance of Ductal Ultra

High Performance Concrete, fib Congress Osaka, 2002, pp. 421-430.
4. BENTZ D P, Fibers, Percolation, and Spalling of High-Performance Concrete, A.C.I.

Material Journal, Vol. 97, No. 3, 2000, pp. 351-359.
5. MINDEGUIA J C, DHIERSAT M, SIMON A AND PIMIENTA P, Behaviour of the

UHPFRC BSI at high temperatures, SIF 06, 2006, pp. 683-695.
6. RILEM Draft recommendation, Committee TC 129 Test methods for Mechanical

Properties of Concrete at High Temperatures, Part 3: Compressive Strength Materials and
structures, Vol. 28, 1995, pp. 410-414.
7. RILEM Draft recommendation, Committee TC 129 Test methods for Mechanical

Properties of Concrete at High Temperatures, Part 3: Tensile Strength Materials and
structures, Vol. 33, 2000, pp. 219-223.
8. RILEM TC 129 MHT Test methods for Mechanical Properties of Concrete at High
Temperatures, Modulus of elasticity for service and accident conditions, Materials and
structure, Vol. 37, 2004, pp. 139-144.
EFFECT OF POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE GEOMETRY ON
EXPLOSIVE SPALLING MITIGATION IN HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE UNDER ELEVATED TEMPERATURE CONDITION
S L Suhaendi
T Horiguchi
K Shimura
Hokkaido University
Japan
ABSTRACT. One effective alternative in preventing explosive spalling a catastrophic

failure mechanism inconsistently observed when high strength concrete was exposed to high
temperature condition was to add short organic fibres (usually polypropylene) into a high
strength concrete mixture. Mitigation of explosive spalling was achieved through melting of
the fibre constituent at its fusion point (160-170C), creating percolated networks thus
reducing pore pressure inside the concrete matrix. Whilst inclusion of more polypropylene
fibres (Vf) would likely ensure explosive spalling mitigation, properties of concrete surviving
the heat exposition would be significantly degraded as the consequence of more additional
pores generated. For this reason, the addition of polypropylene fibres into high strength
concrete mixtures was limited to 0.1% volume fraction in the experimental study. As the
current study focuses on the thermo-hydral process that might cause explosive spalling,
investigation on the build-up of pore pressure and pressure gradient inside the concrete
specimen was conducted on plain high strength concrete and high strength concrete
reinforced with polypropylene fibres. Two types of polypropylene fibre that differed in
effective diameter (df1 = 310 m and df2 = 18 m) were examined in this study. This paper
presents the effectiveness of certain polypropylene fibre geometries in mitigating explosive
spalling in high strength concrete exposed to elevated temperature based on the
thermo-hydral process taking place inside the concrete matrix.
Keywords: Polypropylene fibre, High strength concrete, Explosive spalling, Thermo-hydral,

Fibre geometry.
S L Suhaendi, MSc MEng, is currently a PhD student at the Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Japan. He received his MSc in 2002 from the National University of Singapore and MEng in
2004 from the Hokkaido University. His current research interests deal with fire resistance of
fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete.
Dr T Horiguchi, is an Associate Professor in the department of Socio-Environmental
Engineering at the Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan. He received his Dr. Eng. in 1990
from the Hokkaido University. His research interests include durability of high-performance
concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete, lunar (space) concrete, concrete recycling, wear
mechanisms of concrete, and fire resistance of fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete.
Dr K Shimura, is a Research Associate in the department of Socio-Environmental
Engineering at the Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
149
150 Suhaendi, Horiguchi, Shimura
INTRODUCTION
Despite of its superior performance, high strength concrete (HSC) was reported to be
susceptible to high temperature conditions. Besides suffering higher loss of residual
mechanical properties compared to normal strength concrete, HSC was also reported to
undergo explosive spalling which was marked by a very large release of energy. In the case
of reinforced concrete, spalling of concrete cover would directly expose reinforcing bars to
high temperature, accelerating the reduction rate of the structures load bearing capacity. In
the end, this would jeopardize the integrity of the structure which might harm occupants of
the structure.
Denser hardened cement paste (hcp) of HSC, which was preferable at normal temperature,
was believed to play an important role causing explosive spalling. As water would start to
vaporize during heating, denser hcp of HSC prevented the vapour to escape quickly due to its
low permeability. The build-up of pore pressure advanced and when this pressure exceeded
the tensile strength of HSC, this would cause concrete to spall in an explosive manner.
Nevertheless, the possibility of occurrence of explosive spalling would also depend on some
other factors which include concrete moisture content, aggregate type, heating rate, maximum
heating temperature, and loading condition.
One alternative way to prevent explosive spalling was by the inclusion of short organic fibres
into the HSC mixture. Mitigation of explosive spalling was achieved through the melting of
fibres thus providing passages for water vapour to accumulate at lower pressure. In
Bilodeau et al, addition of about 0.2% by volume of polypropylene fibres was reported to be
quite effective in improving the fire resistance of high performance concrete [1]. In fact,
inclusion of more polypropylene fibres into HSC mixture would guarantee the reduction in
pore pressure during its exposition to high temperature [2].
Unfortunately, the generation of pores that was beneficial during mitigation of explosive
spalling would adversely affect the properties of HSC in the aftermath of the heat exposition
[3]. In relation to this consequence, the addition of organic fibres should be limited to avoid
significant degradation of properties. From a previous experimental study, the addition of
0.1% of polypropylene fibres was found to be sufficient to mitigate explosive spalling. It was
also found that the geometry of polypropylene fibres affected the behaviour of HSC when
exposed to elevated temperature conditions [4]. The present experimental study was one part
of an integral study that tries to optimize the effect of polypropylene fibres in improving the
fire resistance efficiency of HSC. Investigation on the thermo-hydral process taking place
inside the HSC at an elevated temperature was carried out to understand the effect of
polypropylene fibre geometry in mitigating explosive spalling.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Materials and Mix Proportions
Specimens were made using ordinary Portland cement (JIS R 5210), crushed limestone
(density of 2.65 kg/m3) with 13 mm nominal maximum size, and river sand (density of
2.7 kg/m3) with a fineness modulus of 2.9. All series had the same water to cement ratio
(W/C = 0.3), sand to aggregate ratio (s/a = 50%), and water content of 170 kg/m3. Chemical
admixtures, including superplasticizer (SP), air entraining (AE) agent, and bubble cutter (BC)
Explosive Spalling Mitigation 151
agent, were utilized to obtain the targeted workability (slump of 15025 mm) and air content
(51%) of fresh concrete. The short fibres used in this experimental study consisted of two
types of polypropylene fibre as shown in Table 2. By focusing on the effect of fibre
geometry, the addition of these fibres into concrete mixture was limited to 0.1% of concrete
volume. The mixture proportions of all series cast are shown in Table 3.
All specimens were 175 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height. Some gauges that were
designed to transfer the pore pressure to the pressure transducers were fixed prior to casting.
These gauges were identical with the ones used in Kalifa et al. [2]. In the present experiment,
thermocouples were attached to the side of the gauges rather than being inserted inside them.
The gauges and thermocouples were placed at certain depths (D): 10, 30, and 50 mm from the
heated surface. Specimens were cured under lime saturated water until the designated testing
time.
Table 1 Polypropylene characteristics

Density, kg/m3 0.9
Melting temperature, C 160
Temperature at vaporization, C 341
Burning temperature, C 460
Table 2 Polypropylene fibre geometry

I.D. LENGTH, mm DENIER, D deff, m l/deff SHAPE
A 600 310 19 Mesh
6
B 2.2 18 333 Fibrillated
Table 3 Mixture proportions, kg/m3

AGGREGATE
SERIES WATER CEMENT FIBRE SP BC AE
fine coarse
Plain 0 4.53 0 0.068
PP-A 170 567 795 780 5.67 0 0.034
0.9
PP-B 6.80 0.006 0.034
Experimental Procedures
The set up of experimental tests is shown in Figure 1. Specimens were wrapped with ceramic
fibre to ensure quasi-unidirectional thermal load upon them. One additional thermocouple
was also installed on the specimens heated surface to monitor the build-up of temperature.
Generation of heat was supplied by a computer-controlled heating device. The heating pattern
was identically set conforming to the one in Suhaendi et al. [4]. The maximum temperature
was set at 600C due to the fact that explosive spalling took place near this particular
temperature in the previous experimental study. Pore pressure (P), mass (M), and temperature
(T) changes were measured at all times during the experiment.
Figure 1 Experimental test set-up
Properties of the Specimens
Significant difference in the properties of concrete specimens was not observed among the
series, as shown in Table 4. An increase in the compressive strength of 20% (to plain series)
was noticed on fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete with finer fibres (PP-B). This result
might be caused by the lower air content during mixing or the efficiency of this particular
type of fibre in bridging cracks upon the loading test.
Table 4 Fresh and hardened properties of concrete specimens

SERIES FRESH PROPERTIES HARDENED PROPERTIES
Slump, mm Air content, % , kg/m3 fc, MPa E, GPa
Plain 210 5.1 2.35 85.7 41.4
PP-A 175 4.6 2.40 95.4 40.7
PP-B 190 3.7 2.40 103.8 40.4
Pressure, Temperature, and Mass
Figure 2 shows the mass loss of concrete specimens with respect to heating time. In the first
25 minutes, a relatively common slope could be observed for most of the series (although
there is a deviation on PP-A which will be explained later). During this period, the
evaporation rate was very small as heat could only affect moisture near the surface of the
concrete specimen. In the next 25 to 210 minutes, moisture evaporated quickly thus
generating a steeper slope at this particular stage. After 210 minutes, the evaporation rate was
represented by a mild slope since most of the moisture had left the concrete specimen. The
total mass loss for the plain, PP-A and PP-B series was found to be 7.0, 9.05, and 7.16%,
respectively. Although there were no significant differences in the total mass loss between
plain and PP-B, the measurement of pore pressure on these two series showed clearly the
effect of polypropylene fibres inside the HSC mixture.
2 Plain PP-A PP-B

PP-A
0 Plain
PP-B
MASS LOSS, %
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
Figure 2 Mass loss of concrete specimen with respect to heating time
Figure 3 shows the build-up of pore pressure and temperature with respect to the heating
time. The maximum pore pressures of 3.82 and 3.66 MPa were observed on plain and PP-A,
respectively. Whilst the former was generated at a depth of 30 mm, the latter was generated at
a depth of 50 mm. This result showed that PP-A was not quite effective in reducing the
build-up of pore pressure inside the HSC.
Two visible fissures (25 and 45 mm in length) with an opening of nearly 1 mm were also
noticed on the surface of PP-A after heating, as shown in Figure 5. These fissures were
believed to be the cause of a sudden loss of pressure which was represented by a Dirac-like
peak at a depth of 10 mm. Supporting explanation might be given by means of Figure 4,
showing the pressure and temperature derivatives with respect to the heating time. On the
graph representing PP-A, higher disturbance in the temperature derivative can be observed at
the heating time that coinciding with the sudden loss of pressure. This phenomenon was
believed to occur as the temperature was about to equilibrate when the cracks were formed on
the surface of PP-A. The facts mentioned above might also explain for the deviation on the
initial slope of mass loss. In addition, these fissures on the surface of PP-A might let more
moisture to be evaporated resulting in a higher total mass loss.
As for PP-B, the maximum pore pressure was found to be 1.04 MPa at a depth of 50 mm.
This result confirms the effectiveness of PP-B in reducing pore pressure thus mitigating the
explosive spalling on HSC under elevated temperature conditions.
5 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 500
10 mm - T 30 mm - T 50 mm - T
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
4 400
TEMPERATURE, C
3 300
2 200
1 100
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
5 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 500
10 mm - T 30 mm - T 50 mm - T
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
4 400
TEMPERATURE, C
3 300
2 200
1 100
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
5 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 500
10 mm - T 30 mm - T 50 mm - T
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
4 400
TEMPERATURE, C
3 300
2 200
1 100
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
Figure 3 Build-up of pore pressure and temperature with respect to heating time
(Plain, PP-A, and PP-B, respectively)
10 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 30
10 mm - dT 30 mm - dT 50 mm - dT
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
8 15
dT/dt, C/minute
6 0
4 -15
2 -30
0 -45
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
10 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 30
10 mm - dT/dt 30 mm - dT/dt 50 mm - dT/dt
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
8 15
dT/dt, C/minute
6 0
4 -15
2 -30
0 -45
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
10 10 mm - P 30 mm - P 50 mm - P 30
10 mm - dT/dt 30 mm - dT/dt 50 mm - dT/dt
PORE PRESSURE, MPa
8 15
dT/dt, C/minute
6 0
4 -15
2 -30
0 -45
0 50 100 150 200 250
TIME, minute
Figure 4 Pressure and temperature derivative with respect to heating time

(Plain, PP-A, and PP-B, respectively)
Figure 5 Fissures on PP-A specimens after heating
CONCLUSIONS
The effect of polypropylene fibre geometry on HSC behaviour under elevated temperature
was confirmed through the measurement of pore pressure (P), temperature (T), and mass (M).
The addition of 0.1% by volume of fine polypropylene fibres (df = 18 m) was found to be
effective in reducing pore pressure, by a mechanism that mitigated explosive spalling of HSC
under elevated temperature conditions.
REFERENCES
1. BILODEAU A, MALHOTRA V M AND HOFF C, Hydrocarbon fire resistance of high

strength normal weight and lightweight concretes incorporating polypropylene fibres,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on High-Performance and Reactive Powder
Concretes, 1998, pp. 271-296.
2. KALIFA P, CHN G AND GALL C, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with

polypropylene fibres From spalling to microstructure, Cement and Concrete Research,
Vol. 31, 2001, pp. 1487-1499.
3. SUHAENDI S L AND HORIGUCHI T, Effect of short fibres on residual permeability and

mechanical properties of hybrid fibre-reinforced high-strength concrete after heat
exposition, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 36, 2006, pp. 1672-1678.
4. SUHAENDI S L, SUDO M AND HORIGUCHI T, Optimization of polypropylene fibres

for high strength concrete under high temperature condition, Proceedings of the 10th East
Asia Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction, Vol. 6, 2006,
pp. 467-472.
FIRE LOAD IN A CONCRETE BUILDING DESIGN
L Razdolsky
LR Structural Engineering
USA
ABSTRACT. The interaction between structural and fire protection design is highly
desirable in a building design as a whole. The fire load is quite different from any other well
known loads such as dead and live load, wind and seismic loads etc. The main difference
from structural design load point of view is that the fire load could be unpredictable, while it
is acting on structural system: it could grow from a small localized application to a very large
one, and a very large fire could be stopped at any moment. The load-time relationship is also
very complex: from an impact application at the very beginning to a quasi-static application
with some fluctuations. The stiffness of the structure is also temperature dependable. This
paper describes the concept of structural building design to resist the thermal load from
abnormal fire. The results are presented in a simple analytical form with four examples.
Keywords: Thermal load, Structural design, Reinforced concrete, Creep deformations.
Lev Razdolsky, Ph.D, P.E., S.E. is a structural engineer and is President of LR Structural
Engineering, Chicago, IL., USA. Previously, he was the Chief Structural Engineer at Department
of Buildings, City of Chicago (1987-2004).
157
158 Razdolsky
INTRODUCTION
The prime goal of this study is to examine the effect of abnormal fire on structural design and
total or partial collapse of a high-rise reinforced concrete building. The abnormal fire has six
major characteristics from structural design loads point of view. First, the incident flux is
very high (when the fire reaches its peak heat release rate); therefore the dynamic impact on
the structural system should be taken into consideration (for example, in Fires after
Earthquakes, when the reinforced concrete structure has fully developed cracks).
Second, the fire could be localized and act on individual structural members, as well as a
fully-developed fire, that acts on the major part of the whole structural system.
From structural design load point of view it means, that the thermal load is a function of
coordinates and time. Third, the duration of such fire could be much longer than prescriptive
recommendations given by the standard fire test, and the question is how to extrapolate the
standard data in this case in order to prevent the progressive collapse of the whole
reinforced concrete high-rise building structure. Forth, much more elevated temperatures in
this case causes the rapid decrease in concrete and steel strength, stiffness of structural
elements and the system as a whole, which in turns requires consideration of large
deformations with the catenarys action of structural members in case of progressive collapse
prevention structural calculations.
Fifth, the existing fire test facilities have some size limitations ( 3.7 x 2.7m ), therefore the
extrapolation of fire tests results of structural elements (beams, slabs etc. ) on the real-world
high-rise building elements and systems raises a potential concern. One must comply with
numerical and physical modeling requirements. This in turns would lead to inclusion and
investigation of some non-dimensional parameters to account for gravity loads, convection
process, hydrodynamics of the burning process, venting of deflagrations etc. Sixth, in a high-
rise building the incident flux on the structural elements or major portions of the whole
structural system is expected to fluctuate with the time causing the dynamic stresses on top of
static stresses created by temperature load application.
The Fire Dynamics Simulator from the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) is an example of such model. In order to achieve all this goals the general theory of
creep deformations has been employed, since it allows a structural engineer to analyze the
structural problem from the very beginning of a fire development to the very end. Obviously,
in todays computer-oriented world most of these problems should solved by using very
sophisticated and complex structural engineering software.
However, there is a need for approximate methods of structural analysis and design. Fire load
is quite different from any well known loads, such as dead and live load, wind and seismic
load etc. Approximate structural analysis in case of thermal load are very useful in weeding
out the less important parameters required for structural design and, on the other hand, they
are very helpful in establishing the group of parameters that are critical for structural analysis
and design. Normally, the results of any approximate structural analysis are presented in a
compact analytical form that can be used later on in establishing a set of goals or rules, i.e.
codes or standards. The final results of this study are presented in such simple form, and four
practical examples are provided.
Fire Load Design 159
In case of fully developed fire according to [1] the heat transmission (heat produced by
combustion) is a stationary process, and the fire will be controlled either by the surface area
of the materials that can participate in the burning or by the rate of air supply through the
openings.. In structural engineering practice, the temperature load normally is applied as a
static load, since the temperature changes slowly, and that corresponds to a static load
application case.
However, the latest investigations and tests provided by [2] had proven that in some
abnormal fires the Heat Release Rate is not constant and therefore has a dynamic effect on
structural systems (for example, when the thermal insulation is dislodged or the fire has
contact with the bare structural steel system). In this case the inertia force (induced by the
temperature impact) could develop substantial additional stresses even in a statically
determinate system.
Obviously, in the case of a statically indeterminate system the temperature load combination
can become a critical one. Therefore, the dynamic effect from the abnormal fire is very
important in the case of a high-rise building design.
The type of fire that may occur is defined by the amount of combustible materials and the
size and locations of the windows in the building (the fire resistance requirements are
normally based on a so-called ventilation-controlled fire).The temperature-time curves that
are adopted by the ASTM E119 Standard and ASTM E 1529 Standard for the reinforced
concrete exposed to petroleum spill fires [3] should have a dynamic effect on a structural
system. It is shown below that the dynamic effect on a structural systems is much more
important in case of Fast Fire (the Fire Growth Rate classification is given in Fig.A-2 from
[4]), then in case of Slow Fire.
On the other hand, the slow Growth Rate of a fire creates creep deformations in a
reinforced concrete structural system due the decrease of a modulus of elasticity with the
time. The wide disparity in time scales presents a big software challenge in order to avoid
unacceptably long computation times for structural analyses.
The approximate methods of analyses that are used in this study obviously are not a
substitution for a very complex computer computations, however it provides a very important
information about areas of concerns in dynamic analysis of structural elements and systems
(such as reinforced concrete beam-column connections, catenarys action, inelastic deformations
etc.), and it represents a good quality and quantity control for more complex computer
analysis.
Any structural system in this study will be substituted by One Degree of Freedom (ODOF)
for dynamic analysis. The temperature load in case of fire is presented by non-dimensional
approximation of the curve from the ASTM E 119 Standard [3]. The Examples 1, 2, 3 and 4
will illustrate the practical results and areas of concern for more detailed computer
computations.
Code requirements regarding fire induced Progressive Collapse Prevention..
Building Codes do not account for abnormal loads such as extremely extensive fire,
explosion or combination of both. However, after the terrorist attacks in New York; bombing
of the Murray Federal Building in Oklahoma City; uncontrolled fire at One Meridian Plaza in
160 Razdolsky
Philadelphia; Broadgate Phase 8, UK explosion at Roman Point, UK etc. attention has been
given to the ability of the structure (as a whole) to prevent the total collapse of the buildings.
There are number of publications [5] analyzing different Building Codes requirements to
safeguard against progressive collapse. For example, an amendment to the British Building
Regulations of 1970, later developing into BS Cp 110-1972, has a mandatory requirement to
design a building (five stories and higher) for the combined load and imposed explosion
pressure of 5 psi ( 720 psf ) in any directions.
Similarly the U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) has published in its 2000
guidelines for progressive collapse analysis and design of new federal office buildings, as
well as major rehabilitations of existing federal buildings. All major U.S. Standard Buildings
Codes, such as UBC, BOCA etc. have a requirement to design the structure for explosion
load of 100 psf . The Canadian Standard CSA-A23.3-94 and ACI 318-02 also recognize structural
integrity as a separate limit state. The Standard has provisions for reinforced concrete
structures designed under vehicle impact or chemical explosion loads. There are two primary
means to address global stability of a compromised high-rise building structure: direct design
and indirect design approaches.
The indirect design provides general statements to enhance structural system as a whole by
increasing robustness, ductility etc. without specific consideration of abnormal loads and
events [6]. The direct design approach considers abnormal design loading combination and
develops structural system sufficient to arrest a progressive collapse. Structural analysis in
this case are sophisticated, complex and costly [7].
However they are very sensitive to small changes in assumptions. The analysis in this case
requires the use of a specific loading combination, 2.0x (DL+.25 LL), which is then
compared to the un-factored structural capacity. The dynamic load factor 2.0 is based on the
impact action due to sudden removal of the column in the direct design method, and it could
be less for the reinforced concrete structure. In our case the dynamic load factor Kd is based
on dynamic effect from abnormal fire load, which in real world situation is a function the
heat release rate, oscillation of the maximum temperature during the relatively constant
duration period of fire, and possible sudden decay due to many mitigating factors.
The design stage (or checking stresses and deformations ) has also a coefficient n, that
reflects the reduction of stiffness of the structural system due to the elevated temperature and
the duration of an abnormal fire action. This coefficient is derived from the general creep
theory application, and it allows calculating the long-term stiffness of the reinforced
concrete structure.
Temperature Load
The simple ODOF system can represent any element of a building structure: beam, truss,
girder etc. The mass motion (in case of temperature load combination) has two components:
due to temperature itself, and dynamic effect created by the acceleration (second derivation)
of temperature-time relationship and mass. The corresponding differential equation is:
&& &&
y d + 2 y d = (1)
t
Where: yd - displacement due to inertial force action; t - displacement due to temperature

action; -natural frequency of a given structural system (beam, girder, truss etc.); m total
&& :
mass. To solve equation (1) lets assume that T(t) = m t
1 t
m 0
y d = A sin t + Bcos t + T(u)sin (t u)du (2)
Where: arbitrary constants A and B could be obtained from the initial conditions:
y t =0 = 0 & y& t =0 = 0 . If the explosion load is presented by the pressure function P (t) [8], then
t
the integral in Eq. (2) should be changed to: [T(u) + P(t)]sin (t u)du . It is important to
0
underline, that the total displacement of a given mass m is:
y tot. = y d + t (3)
Where: t is the displacement of a given structural system at a point, where the mass m is
located, and the temperature load is applied statically. Obviously, for a piece of steel with the
ends free to move: t = (T To )L , where: - coefficient of thermal expansion for steel; T-
To increase in temperature; L length. For fire resistance evaluation based on ASTM E119
Standard requirements any building assemblies, such as beam, column, wall etc., are exposed
to heating in a furnace, following a specified temperature-time curve [4], therefore the
function T (t) in Eq. (2) is given. The curve T (t) is presented in this study by three different
approximations in order to illustrate the corresponding dynamic effects on structural systems.
Here they are:
Case A.
Simple by-linear graph (see Figure 1) illustrates the temperature impact load on structural
system (when t1 0 ). It also proves that the maximum dynamic coefficient is equal 2 with
respect to deflections, but it could be more than 2 with respect to interior forces (moments,
shears etc.
Figure 1 Temperature-time curve

162 Razdolsky
Solving Eq. (1) using non-dimensional variables = t and y=yd/L, we find:
sin( 1 / 2)
y tot = Tmax [1 ] (4)
( 1 / 2)
Where: > 1 & 1 = t1
From Eq. (4) we have that the maximum dynamic coefficient Kd = 2. The dynamic forces and
stresses in a structural element are a function of dynamic displacement only. Axial force in
this case is:
EF T
N= y d = m EF sin (5)
L 1
Where: E modulus of elasticity; F cross-sectional area.
Case B
The specified Temperature-time curve in this case is [4] (see Figure 2): T = Tm [1 exp( at)]
1
0.993
f ( t) 0.5
0 0
0 500 1000
0 t 1 10
3
Figure 2 Temperature-time curve
Solving Eq. (2) with non-dimensional variables from Eq. (4), we find:
k2
y tot = Tm [1 (cos( ) + exp( k))] (6)
1 + k2
Where: k = a / ; = arctan(k) & t = .
Parameter k represents an average rate of temperature increase and is based on Fire

Growth Rate classification from [4]. For Fast Fire k = 1; for Medium Fire k = .5; for Slow
Fire k = .25. Structural analyses in this case have proven that the slow growth has no
dynamic effect; medium growth has moderate dynamic effect, and fast growth has a
dynamic effect very close to impact dynamic load.
Case C
The real temperature-time curve has some fluctuations of maximum temperature due to the
hydrodynamic effect of fire propagation [9]. It will be assumed here that these fluctuations
are small ( 10o C ), but they appear with the frequency very close to the natural frequency of
the structural system ( = .95 ) (see Figure 3): T = Tm [1 + sin ]
Figure 3 Fluctuation of Tmax
Solving Eq. (1) with damping parameter similar to case B, we have:
Tm
y= exp( / )[sin( ) sin ] (7)
1 ( / )2 ( / )2
Where: k = / ; = t .
Equation (7) describes a beating process [10] in this case with the period t o = 2 /( ) . If
= 44rad / sec (See Example 2), the dynamic coefficient is Kid = 17 and to = 3.13 sec
(see Figure 4).
Figure 4 Beating vibrations

164 Razdolsky
Mechanical creep theory
The term creep of reinforced concrete is applied to the phenomenon in which, at temperatures
beyond a certain limit, the reinforced concrete subjected to a load undergoes deformation
with time. In our case the creep phenomenon should be taken into account, when the steel
reinforcement is at temperatures above 400 degrees C. Slow deformations for a prolonged
period are cumulative and lead either to inadmissible changes in dimensions of a structural
member or to its failure. The general mechanical theory of creep [11] gives the functional
relations between three variables: stress, strain and time. The simplest model that will be used
in our study is:
E & = & + A (8)
The most general type is described by integral equation:

t
E (t) = (t) + 0 (t)K(t )d (9)
Where: K(t ) - is the kernel of integral equation (2).
The use of creep theory in our case will be limited to two major objectives: 1) to extrapolate
the experimental data regarding stiffness of a structural member beyond the testing time
(abnormal fire could last much longer than prescribed testing time); 2) provide approximate
rate of structural element stiffness decrease as function of temperature only. Since creep
theory is a very complex one, all intermediate mathematical operations are not presented in
this study, and the final results are provided. The following Example 1 illustrates the
application of general creep theory in case of abnormal thermal load acting on a structural
system.
Example 1
Data: Absolutely rigid reinforced concrete beam A-B-C is supported by two steel hangers DB
& EC(see Fig. 5). The abnormal fire is effecting the steel hanger EC only. Force P is
applied at point C. Both hangers have the same cross sectional area. H is the height and a
= b. After 4 hours of fire the modulus of elasticity of the hanger EC is equal to ..25E,
therefore: Eec = .25Edb.
Find distribution of interior forces Nec & Ndb at this moment, redistribution of forces at any
given moment after four hours of fire duration ( assume, that the fire continuous with
constant temperature T = 1000 F ), and distribution of forces at t . The structural system
is statically indeterminate system. By separating the structure at point B, the two free body
diagrams are obtained and the unknown force: X1 = Ndb.
Solution: The corresponding equations (force method) are:
& 1 + & 1p = 0
11X1 + 1p = 0 or 11X (10)
In order to calculate parameters 11 ; 1p & & 1p , lets use the creep deformation equation (10).
After all mathematical simplifications, the following differential equation will be obtained:
& 1 + .5X1 = A P
X (11)
with initial condition: X1(0) = P. The solution of equation (11) is:
D E
A B C
a b P
Figure 5 Rigid concrete beam and steel hangers
X1 = N bd = P[ e xp( .5At) 2] (12)

and N e c = P .5X1 = .5P e xp( .5At) (13)
Finally, the answers are: 1) at the initial moment (four hours after the fire started) Nbd = P and
Nec = .5P; 2) at any given time after initial moment the forces are defined by (5) and (6), and
3) Nbd = 2P and Nec = 0, when t . It is interesting to underline, that the same results
could be obtained by using the general type (9), because the kernel of integral equation in this
case is equal A. The long term stiffness is defined from linear creep theory as:
H= E (14)

1 + K( )d
0
From (14), the long term stiffness for member EC is zero, since the kernel is constant, and
therefore the force Nec = 0. The real fast growth rate fires have a high degree of thermal
inertia and gradients coupled with exposure conditions that change rapidly during the whole
duration of fire. In this case the mechanical properties of the reinforced concrete (modulus of
elasticity) are a function of temperature, and the general equation (2) has an expression:
t
(t)E( ) = (t) + ( )K(t , )d (15)

0
166 Razdolsky
If fluctuations of the temperature load is described by a harmonic function (see case C

above), than non-dimensional analysis of equation (15) will give the following approximate
formula for the rate of decrease in modulus of elasticity E:
n = E 0 = Tme Tm [ Tme T0 1] (16)

E T Tm T0 (Tme Tm ) 2 ( T)2
Where: Eo original modulus of elasticity; ET modulus of elasticity at the elevated

temperature; Tme melting point of steel reinforcement; To original room temperature; Tm
average maximum stationary temperature of an abnormal fire; T - variation from the
average maximum stationary temperature. Formula (16) has a good correlation with Figure
5.2 from [3].
EXAMPLES
Example 2
Data: Continuous reinforced concrete beam, restrained against longitudinal expansion. End
span Ln = 30, Data is taken from CRSI Handbook, [12]: Service load: D.L. = 87 psf; 25%
L.L. = 43 psf. Spacing - 14-0. Total service load: 1.8 klf; total ultimate load 6.4 klf.
Concrete: 4ksi. Steel fy = 60ksi. Section: w = 16; h = 30. Reinforcement: top 4_#11; bottom
4_# 10 with #5 @13 o.c. ties. Modulus of elasticity E = 3600ksi. Maximum temperature: Tm
= 1000oF. Case A. Natural frequency = 30.9 rad./sec. to = .203 sec.
= Tm = .0055 L = 1.98" . The beam will buckle downwards and the deformed length is
(using non-linear deformations) Ltot. = 361.98 with max. Rise f = 18.9. The horizontal
reaction (catenarys action from service load): P = M / L 2 or P = 64.4 k. (see Figure 6).
The bottom of the beam is the only fire-exposed side. Additional bending moment due to the
differential temperature between top and bottom of the beam is (unexposed side has a normal
room temperature):
M o = E I (Tb Tt ) / h (17)
Figure 6 Horizontal Reaction
The differential equation in this case is
EI (y) +Py = -Mo (18)
And boundary conditions are: y (0) = y (L) = 0. The solution of (18) with (19) is:
EI (Tb Tt )
y= [ c os kx + sin kx (1 c os kL) 1] (20)
hk 2 sin kL
Where: k2 = P/EI.
Lets calculate deflection y at x = L/2: y = .75.

Additional moment: M = Py = 48.3ft k . Dynamic coefficient (Case A): Kd = 2.0,
therefore: H d = 128.8k. & M d = 96.6' k . Total moment and shear: M = 299.1ft-k and
V = 272 + 128.82 = 131.6k . Total dynamic coefficient: Kdm = 1.48 and Kdv = 4.87 > 2.
Now, lets calculate the fire endurance rating time. Try t = 3.5 hours. The kernel of integral
equation (2) is as follows: K( ) = e x p ( b ) . Other kernels type for different materials is
given in [11]. Calculate the reduction coefficient n based on equation (14) for any given
time:
t
n = E = 1 + K( )d (21)
0
H
Where: H - modulus of elasticity at a given time t. Calculate n as follows, if b = .333: n =

2.07. Therefore, the yielding stress of the steel reinforcement is as follows: Fy = 60/2.07 =
29ksi. Compare this result with Fig. 2.9 from [ACI 216.1-97]: n = 52% or Fy = 31.2ksi. Now,
lets calculate the compression concrete block a: a = 5.08(29)/.85(4)16 = 2.7, and nominal
bending moment: M = [5.08(29) (28-2.7/2)] = 3925k-in. = 327ft-k > 299ft-k. O.K. Lets check
shear reinforcement. Total Shear V = [272+128.82]..5 = 131.6 k. Concrete shear Vc = 56.7k.,
and Vs = 74.9k. Calculate the spacing of shear reinforcement required as follows: s =
.62(29)28/74.9 = 6.72 (use 14_#5 ties @ s = 6.5 at each end of the beam and #5 @ 13o.c.
in the middle). Provided originally #5 @13o.c. ties throughout the beam are not sufficient
(the beam is restrained at both ends). Finally, check fire endurance of the beam, when
duration of fire is much longer than 3.5 hours, i.e. t >> 3.5 (catenarys action or progressive
collapse arrest). Formula (21) in this case is as follows:

n = 1 + e x p ( . 3 3 3)d = 4 (22)
0
Therefore, Fy = 60/4 = 15ksi and maximum catenarys force T = 5.08(15) = 75k. > 64.4k. O.K.
Conclusion: shear stresses are critical!
Example 3
Data: Simply supported reinforced concrete transfer girder, restrained at both ends, span
L = 20. Fire exposure on three sides, therefore additional bending moment accrues due to
restrained ends only. Cross-section: w = 24; h = 48. Main reinforcement: 10_#9 (bottom).
Concentrated force (service load) at midspan P = 200k.; Tm = 1000oF. Case B. Natural
frequency = 44rad. / sec. & t o = .143sec. Ltot. = 240.936 with max. rise f = 9.29. H =
566k.Additional moment: M = Hf = 438ft k . Dynamic coefficient (Case B Fast Fire): Kd
= 1.9, therefore: Hd = 1075k. and M d = 832.2ft k .Original moment and shear: M = 1000ft-k
and V = 100k. Total moment and shear: M = 1,832.2ft-k and V = 1080k. Total dynamic
168 Razdolsky
coefficient: Kdm = 1.83. Check structural fire endurance of this girder. Try t = 3.5 hours. The
reduction coefficient n is the same as in example 2: n = 2.07 and Fy = 29ksi. Calculate
compression block a; a = 10(29)/.85(4)24 = 3.55. Nominal moment: M = 1020ft-k <<
1832ft-k-N.G. Try t = 2.0 hours. Calculate reduction coefficient n from (14): n = 1.486 and
Fy = 40.38ksi. Nominal bending moment: M = 1397.3 < 1832.2-N.G. Provide additional
4_#9bars. Recalculate a and M: a = 6.93 and M = 1909.6ft-k > 1832.2ft-k O.K. Finally,
check fire endurance of the girder, when fire duration is much longer than 2 hours.
Coefficient n and yielding stress Fy are the same (see example 2), therefore the maximum
catenarys force T = 15(14) = 210k. < 566k. N.G. Progressive collapse requirement is not
satisfied in this case.
Conclusion: for 2H rating 4 additional bars ( 4_#9) is required.
Example 4
Concrete frame: L = 20; H = 10; P = 200k. Tm = 1000oF. Case B. Beam: 24 x 48;

Col.24 x 24. (See Fig.7).
Figure 7 Transfer girder-frame.
The girder from Example #3 is supported now by two columns, therefore it is partially
restrained at both ends (due to bending of columns). The simple computer analysis provides
the following results:
1. From force P = 200k. Moment at midspan M = 875.68k; deflection at the same point:
11 = .024 ' .
2. From temperature T = 1000oF (beam only): M = 273k and deflection t = .0067 '
(downwards).
3. Dynamic moment from unit displacement (Kd = 1.9): Md = (1.9)875.68(.0067)/ (.024) =
464.5k.
4. Total moment: Mtot.= 875.68+273+464.5 = 1613.2k.
5. Total effect from the fire (temperature): K = 1613.2/875.68 = 1.84
The dynamic coefficient and total bending moment is reduced in this example (compare with
example #3), because the girder is partially restrained. Similar calculations are provided for
the negative moment at the face of the column:
1. From force P = 200k. Msup = 124.32k

2. From temperature load (the same): M = 273k.

3. Dynamic moment: Md = (1.9)124.32(.004)/ (.024) = 39.37k. 4. Total moment: Mtot =
124.32+273+39.37 = 436.7k 5.Dynamic coefficient Kd = 3.5 Check structural fire
endurance of this frame. Try t = 2.0 hours. Reduction coefficient n (see example 3): n
= 1.486 and Fy = 40.38ksi. Nominal bending moment: M = 1397.3 < 1613.2-N.G. Provide
additional 2_#9 bars. Recalculate a and M: a = 5.94 and M = 1657ft-k > 1613.2ft-k
O.K. Finally, check fire endurance of the frame, when fire duration is longer than 2
hours. Coefficient n and yielding stress Fy are the same (see example 3), therefore the
maximum catenarys force T = 15(12) = 180k. Catenarys tension force from service
load: T = 875.68/20[(2)(.0055)].5 = 417.5k. > 180k. N.G. Progressive collapse
requirement is not satisfied in this case.
Conclusion: The dynamic coefficient is a function of coordinate and the temperature-time

curve.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Dynamic effect on structural systems is very important in case of abnormal fast

growth rate fires.
2. Simple formulas are provided to account for the thermal load in the reinforced concrete
design and the catenarys beam action.
3. Dynamic coefficient from the temperature load application could be more than 2, if the
system is a statically indeterminate, and it is a function of coordinates, relative stiffness
and the temperature-time curve.
4. This study is limited to one-degree-of-freedom (ODOF) system, since the main goal was
to analyze the specificity of thermal load. (For example, static and dynamic components
of deformation from temperature load application).
5. Creep deformations of structural systems under thermal load are included in this study,
but all intermediate mathematical simplifications are not presented because of the
articles size limitations.
REFERENCES
1. LIE, T.T., Structural Fire Protection: Manual of Practice. No. 78, A SCE, New York,
N.Y., 1992,USA
2. NIST REPORT of WTC, October 2005, Final Report. New York, N.Y., USA
3. ASTM E119, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA,
USA.
4. FEMA Report on the World Trade Center, May 2002, Appendix A, New York,
N.Y.USA
5. DUSENBERRY, D O, Review of Existing Guidelines and Provisions Related to

Progressive Collapse. Progressive Collapse Workshop, Arlington, MA, USA, 2004.
6. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE, ACI 318-02.

170 Razdolsky
7. KRANTHAMMER, T, HALL, R L, WOODSON, S C, BAYLOT, J T, HAYES, J R,

AND SHON, Y. Development of Progressive Collapse Analysis Procedure and
Conditions Assessment for Structures. Progressive Collapse Workshop, Arlington, MA,
USA, 2002.
8. RAZDOLSKY, L., 2005, Local Explosions in a High-Rise Building, Proceedings of

the 2005 Structural Congress, New York, N.Y., USA.
9. MAGNUSSON, S.E., THELANDERSSON, S. 1970. Temperature-Time Curves of

Complete Process of Fire Development in Enclosed Spaces,1970, Acts Polytechnica
Scandinavia.
10. 10.TIMOSHENKO, S., YOUNG, D.H., Vibration Problems in Engineering. Van

Nostrand, Co., Inc., 1955 New York, Toronto, London.
11. RABOTNOV, Y N. Some Problems of the Theory of Creep. National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), 1953, Washington, USA.
12. CONCRETE REINFORCING STEEL INSTITUTE, CRSI Handbook, 1984, USA.

RAISING THE EFFICIENCY OF HEAT-RESISTING
CONCRETES AND MASSES BY UTILIZATION OF SECONDARY
MINERAL RESOURCES
M V Lukhanin
S I Pavlenko
Siberian State University of Industry
Russia
ABSTRACT. The paper presents the results of theoretical and experimental studies on re-
placement of natural resources by secondary mineral resources (industrial by-products) used
as aggregates, fillers and binders in the production of heat-resisting concretes and masses
with the mechanochemical treatment of the components. The composition and technology for
a fine concrete from the wastes of the Antonovsky quartzite mine have been developed with a
binder from a silica fume treated by alkalis. Mixture proportions of the concrete developed
were as follows: 100% quartzite sand, 4 to 6% ferrochrome slag (above 100%), 10% (above
100%) technical water glass (TWG). The concrete with a new binder (TWG) performed bet-
ter than that based on high alumina cement. The compositions of fireproof packing masses
for lining the blast-furnace chutes with the aggregates from the wastes of the abrasion works
(high alumina product HAP) as replacement for the expensive fused corundum and with a
binder from refractory clay of stripping rocks from the Izykh coal cut as replacement for car-
cinogenic resins and phosphates have been developed. Mullite and mullite-silicon carbide
with the compressive and bending strengths of 300 and 43 MPa, respectively, have been syn-
thesized. Their fire resistance was above 2000oC.
Keywords: Effectiveness, HAP, Heat-resisting concrete, Mullite, Mullite-silicon carbide,

SMR, Synthesis, TWG.
Dr M V Lukhanin carries out research at SSUI, Novokuznetsk, RUSSIA.
Dr S I Pavlenko is a Professor and Head of Department of Civil Engineering, SSUI, Novo-

kuznetsk, RUSSIA.
171
172 Lukhanin, Pavlenko
INTRODUCTION
As the natural resources deplete and the cost of energy resources in the country drastically
increases, the production of heat-resisting concretes and articles from traditional technologies
becomes unprofitable. At the same time, there are huge supplies of secondary mineral re-
sources (wastes from mining, concentration, steel industries etc) which contain necessary
minerals for creating heat-resisting concretes and masses not worse than those made from
natural resources.
However, the local materials and industrial wastes as a rule do not meet the requirements for
use in concretes. Concretes on the basis of these raw materials are non-effective due to their
higher binder demand and the problems associated with their mixture proportioning and pre-
dicting their properties.
The solution of the problem of raising the efficiency of fire-resisting concretes and masses
lies in the wide utilization of secondary mineral resources (SMR) for aggregates, fillers and
binders with the use of mechanochemical treatment of the components.
The work has been carried out as the part of a long-term plan of the Ministry of education and
science of the Russian Federation on Development of theoretical grounds for mechano-
chemical synthesis of new heat-resisting composite structural materials from secondary min-
eral resources (the fundamental development). The registration number of the research is
1.5.04.
THE OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
The objective of the research was to find the ways of creating efficient heat-resisting con-
cretes and masses on the base of the SMR. The problems to be solved were as follows:
To substantiate the feasibility of creating the high-performance heat-resisting con-

cretes and masses from the SMR;
To study the chemical and mineralogical compositions, physical properties and the
structure of the SMR for creating the heat-resisting concretes and masses.
To develop the methods of the SMR preparation for their practical use in the heat-
resisting concretes technology;
To establish the correlation between the structure and properties of the heat-resisting
concretes on the SMR base and the main factors;
To develop recommendations for the production of fireproof concretes on the base of
the SMR and carry out the field tests.
At present, the worldwide output volume of the fireproof products is 22 to 25 million tonnes
generally in the form of pressed calcined articles (up to 70%). Besides, the bulk of them is
produced from expensive scarce natural resources (magnesite, dolomite, refractory clays,
quartzites, natural corundums, kaolin, mullite, periclase, graphite and others) and the artificial
materials created by energy-intensive technologies used as a binder (cements including alu-
mina and magnesia ones, water glass, carcinogenic phosphates, fluorides, pitch, resins),
hardeners (silicofluorine sodium, phosphates), as aggregates (caked or electrofused refracto-
ries etc).
Heat-resisting Concretes 173
In our country, at the territory from the Urals to the Far East, the manufacture of refractories
and fireproof concretes for lining high-temperature units practically does not exist and their
delivery raises the cost of the products (coke, cast-iron, metal sections, aluminium and others)
20%. The fireproof masses used contain carcinogenic substances such as coal resins, pitch,
coke, fluorides, phosphoric and sulphurous combinations which ruinously affect the human
organism.
Technogenic deposits which had emerged over the past decades are the result of the intensive
development of mining and processing industries. The technogenic deposits are the accumu-
lation of mineral substances on the Earth surface or in mine workings in the form of by-
products from mining, concentration, steel and other industries suitable to their amount and
quality for industrial utilization which becomes possible with the development of the tech-
nology for their processing and the change in the economic situation.
The characteristic features of the technogenic deposits are as follows: 1) their location in in-
dustrial regions (exploitation is easy); 2) the deposits are on the surface and the material in
them is mainly in a crushed state; 3) the number of the artificial mineral forms in technogenic
deposits exceeds 30,000 which is much greater than the number of the known natural minerals
(about 3300).
Russia is practically the only country in the world which provides itself with almost all kinds
of mineral resources. However, here too there is a tendency towards their exhaustion, in par-
ticular in the traditional centers of mining and metals processing (the Urals and Kuzbass).
CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH
Utilization of secondary mineral resources requires a special evaluation of the land-fill sites.
The methods of investigation into the technogenic deposits differ from the study of the natu-
ral objects. This is attributable to a compact location of the technogenic deposits immediately
in a zone of industrial enterprises on the one hand, and to the necessity of studying a charac-
teristically wide range of mineral compositions on the other hand.
Complex investigations should include several successive stages, the first and the most im-
portant of which is the evaluation work. It consists of testing the material of slopes and sur-
face of the dumps, as well as of the core of the column drilling wells. At the second stage, the
analytic and mineralogical investigations are carried out with the purpose of the study of the
technogenic deposit composition. Lately, for this purpose the nuclear-physical methods of the
analysis are being increasingly used which may be applied to the substances of any aggregate
state (solid, liquid, gaseous) and which are the most effective for determining the heavy and
radioactive metals.
The third stage is accomplished by the processing of the information obtained, drawing up of
geological maps and maps of cuts, evaluation of the useful components concentration and the
prognostic evaluation of the reserves. To present the data on the technogenic deposits for
their subsequent treatment, the data base of the technogenic deposits of the Urals is being
formed. Similar work is being planned to be done in Kuzbass as well.
The following materials were investigated in the paper: wastes from the Kuznetsk ferroalloy
plant (silica fume) producing quartzite of the Antonovsky mine, by-products of the Yurga
abrasion works (high alumina products HAP), of silicon carbide production of the Volzhsky
plant, fireclay powder from the breakage of fireclay brick of the KSC company, fireproof
clay of the stripping rocks from the Izykh coal cut, as well as the wastes from the Teisky
dressing combine (serpentine-containing raw materials), the Yermakov ferroalloy plant (Ka-
zakhstan), the Chelyabinsk electrometallurgical combine (ferrochrome self-destructing slag).
Raising the efficiency of refractory concretes is associated with the complex use of the sec-
ond mineral materials as aggregates, fillers and binders. The following methods are to be
used for processing of the secondary mineral resources: grinding and out washing, previous
thermal treatment, mechanochemical activation.
It has been found that the degree of dispersity of the components (up to nanostructures) and
the mechanochemical activation of the components blends in high-speed mills lead to the in-
crease in their chemical activity due to the increase in the fineness of grinding and homoge-
neity as well as to the surface structure change resulting in the reaction of interaction between
free radicals or calcium hydroxides and silicon oxides, ferric oxides, aluminum oxides large
amounts of which secondary mineral resources contain.
Having undergone the preparation the secondary mineral resources can be used for the manu-
facture of the following materials:
Binders on the base of the silica fume wastes from the Kuznetsk ferroalloy plant;
Fine silica concretes and masses for lining thermal units from the by-products of the
Antonovsky mine (as a binder);
Fire-resisting concretes with the aggregate from the carbonaceous ferrochrome slags;
Fireproof masses for lining blast-furnace chutes composed of the by-products from
the Yurga abrasion works, refractory clay from the stripping rocks of the Izykh cut
and the wastes of the silicon carbide production;
Fire-resisting concretes from the serpentine-containing raw materials of the Teisky
mine.
As the fire resistance and fire-proofness of the above mentioned materials are different, for
convenience we use the term heat-resisting concrete formulated in the Polytechnic dictionary
i.e. concrete capable to retain the necessary physico-mechanical properties being subjected to
a long-term influence of high temperatures.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT AND DISCUSSION
To confirm the correctness of the theoretical principles developed, the laboratory, experimen-
tal and field investigations have been made.
First, in conjunction with the UralNIIStromproject and the WSSC companies the compo-
sition and technology of the fine concrete from the wastes of the Antonovsky quartzite mine
with the silica fume treated by alkali used as a binder have been developed [2]. The concrete
had the following mixture proportions: 100% sand, 4 to 6% (above 100%) ferrochrome slag,
10% (above 100%) technical water glass (TWG). Concrete was used at the WSSC com-
pany in the manufacture of fireproof blocks for lining the walls of soaking pits of rolling
mills.
The investigations showed that during the concrete performance the ferrochrome slag inter-
acted with technical water glass forming a strong stonelike body. The thermogram of the slag
at 125oC revealed a small exothermal effect. With further heating to 900oC no effects were
observed on the thermogram.
On the thermogram for a binder from the technical water glass and ferrochrome slag the en-
dothermal effect was absent at the maximum 200oC which is attributable to the dehydration
of the binder. At 680oC, the exothermal effect appeared perhaps due to the sodium formation.
The analysis of the data shows that characteristics of concretes with a new binder are not in-
ferior and in some positions (the compressive strength at 1200oC) even surpass those of the
concretes with high alumina cement (HAC) (Table 1).
Table 1 Properties of fireproof concretes
COMPOSITIONS
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETES
No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4
Volume mass (T/m3) after:
drying at t = 110oC 2.38 2.60 2.60 2.65
calcinations at t = 1200oC 2.42 2.46 2.51 2.50
The ultimate compressive strength (MPa) after:
drying at t = 110oC to a constant weight 42.0 40.0 24.0 32.0
calcinations at t = 1200oC 20.1 22.4 28.3 26.9
Heat resistance (water heat changes) 18 20 18 16
Thermal shrinkage at t = 1200oC +0.24 +0.22 +0.26 +0.10
The temperature of the deformation at the load-
ing of 0,2 MPa
Beginning 1250 1240 1260 1300
40 % compression 1300 1280 1300 1420
Fire resistance, oC 1460 1340 1470 -
-6 -6 -6
Coefficient of thermal expansion (7.2)10 (7.3)10 (8.0)10 -
The ultimate temperature at the unilateral heat-
ing, oC 1300 1250 1300 1350
Notes: the compositions 1 and 2 with the HAC binder, classes AC-75 and 70, respectively;
compositions 3 and 4 with the TWG + ferrochrome slag binder.
At the second stage, under a contact to the KSC company the investigation and field test
have been carried out on the replacement of packing masses for lining the blast-furnace
chutes operating in the severe conditions and incorporating the expensive fused electrocorun-
dum and carcinogenic components (pitch, resins, phosphoric and fluoric combinations) as
binders. The fireproof mass with aggregates from the wastes of the Yurga abrasion works
(HAP) as replacement for the expensive fused electrocorundum in the amount of 20 to 50%
by total weight and 30% wastes from the silicon carbide production with 15 to 20% refrac-
tory clay used as a binder exhibited high fire resistance (up to 1800oC), heat resistance (up to
46 heat changes at 800oC), slag and cast-iron resistance (impregnation with cast-iron is absent
and the impregnation with slag is 0.2 to 2 mm). The shrinkage was 0.2%. As compared with
the concrete containing pure fused electrocorundum, the above mass has a lower compressive
strength at high temperatures (by 20 to 30%), nevertheless, it is high enough (up to 50 MPa)
and meets technical specifications, while the cost of the fireproof mass made of the by-
products is considerably reduced. The optimal mixture proportions of the concrete masses
were as follows: 1) 35 % HAP, 20 % fireclay powder, 15 % refractory clay from stripping
rocks, 30 % wastes of the silicon carbide production; 2) 48% HAP, 20% refractory clay, 32%
wastes of the silicon carbide production. The compositions were tested at the main chute of
the blast-furnace of the KSC company. Their service life increased by a factor of 4 to 5
(20 days vs 45 days).
The experimental investigations on the development of fireproof concretes with the aggregate
from serpentine-containing rocks have also been made. To determine the effect of the kind of
thermal treatment of the aggregate on the concrete properties, series of specimens with the
natural aggregate calcined at the optimal temperature of 700oC have been cast. The mixture
proportions of the concretes are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Mixture proportions of fireproof concretes
CONTENTS, %
COMPONENTS
1 2 3 4 5
Aggregate (520 mm) 36.6 36.4 38.0 37.8 38.0
Size fraction (05 mm) 40.3 40.3 41.5 41.9 41.6
Fine-ground fireclay admixture 23.1 - 20.5 - -
Fine-ground wastes of the asbestos dressing
calcined at 1000oC - 23.3 - 20.2 20.4
Water glass with the density of 1,36 g/cm3
13.0 13.0 14.3 13.6 14.0
(above 100%)
Silicofluoric solidium (above 100%) 2,0 2.0 - - -
Ferrochrome slag, ChEMC (above 100%) - - 5.5 5.4 -
Taking into consideration the fact that one of the most important characteristics of a fireproof
concrete used both in the calculations of the speed of heating the lining and in the bearing
capacity of the structural elements is the character of the speed change during the heating
process, the investigations have been carried out in order to determine the correlation be-
tween the ultimate compressive strength of the compositions of concretes developed and the
temperature of heating in cooled and heated states. The data are given in Figure 1.
COMPRESSION STRENGTH, MPa
40 1
35 3
30 2
25 4
20
5
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE, 0C
Figure 1 The changes in the compressive strength of the calcined heat-resisting

concretes in a cooled state
Compositions 1 to 5 from the table 2 are described by the following equations:
1 R = 31+0.027T-0.00004T2;
2 R = 21+0.03T-0.00003T2;
3 R = 27.5+0.023T-0.00002T2;
4 R = 18.8+0.022T-0.00002T2;
5 R = 13.12+0.018T-0.00002T2.
The result of the research show that the compositions 3 and 4 with the aggregates from the
serpentine containing raw materials (both natural and secondary resources), the TWG as a
binder and ferrochrome slag as a hardener containing no carcinogenic silicofluoric sodium
have high characteristics and meet the requirements of the objective (to create the heat-
resisting concretes mainly from secondary mineral resources containing no carcinogenic
components). One of the most common minerals in a composition of the heat-resisting con-
cretes and masses is mullite (alumosilicate concretes, ceramic and porcelain masses). Mullite
(3Al2O32SiO2) is a promising material for modern technologies of concretes and masses. It is
the only combination in the Al2O3-SiO2 system having a rather high temperature of melting is
characterized with rather low heat conductivity, low coefficient of linear expansion, high ten-
sile strength; it sustains the heat shock loads and is stable to the impact of the fused metals
[3]. It has a chain structure composed of octahedrons AlO6 and tetrahedrons AlO4 and SiO4.
This structure pertains to the rhombic syngony with the lattice parameters: a = 0.755; b =
0.769; c = 0.288 nm [4]. It rarely occurs in nature and is produced by synthesis from natural
resources.
There are several methods of the mullite synthesis: crystallization from the melt, high-
temperature agglomeration of pure oxides, high-temperature annealing of kaolin and others
[5]. But all of them are rather complicated and labor consuming and require natural resources.
One of the new trends we have taken is the application of the mechanical activation of the
components (or their blends) which is called high-energy grinding and the use in the synthe-
sis of the SMR only.
The materials used for the mullite synthesis were the fireproof clay from stripping rocks of
the Izykh coal cut (Khakassiya) mainly in the form of kaolin (kaolinite mineral) with a small
admixture of quartz and the HAP (used for chute masses). For the mechanical activation, the
initial products were mixed in a stecheometric proportion corresponding to the following re-
action equation:
Al2O3 . 2SiO2 . H2O + 2Al2O3 = 3Al2O3 . 2SiO2 + H2O
and were treated in superfast planetary mills of three types [6]. The best results were obtained
by the activation at the semiindustrial continuous mill at which the experiment was contin-
ued. Figure 2 shows the diffractograms of the annealed mixtures treated in a continuous mill
(1 initial mixture, 2, 3 mechanically activated by two passes at 1200 and 1400oC for 2 h).
The temperature increased by 200oC and the time of annealing is reduced by 1 h. As can be
observed from the data given in the diffractogram (Figure 2), at 1400oC the free silicon oxide
vanishes and the aluminum oxide (corundum) is reduced to a minimum. They are combined
into mullite and the aluminum monosilicate (Al2SiO5) which results in the increase in com-
pressive strength, fire resistance and durability. On the basis of the synthesized mullite, the
fireproof material mullite silicon carbide has been obtained consisting of refractory clay
and the HAP with the addition of the waste from the silicon carbide manufacture (SiC) of the
Volzhsky abrasion works (25 to 50%). After the activation, the specimens were pressed into
plates 4.1x1.5x0.5 cm in size, annealed at various temperatures and analyzed at the x-ray dif-
fractometer DPOH-3M (Figure 3).
1 mixture of the initial composition; 2 annealed at 1200oC for 2 h;

3 at 1400oC for 2 h
Figure 2 Diffractogram of the mixtures activated in a continuous mill
Figure 3 Diffractogram of the synthesized mullite-silicon carbide

(mullite + 25% SiC, t = 1400oC)
Then the flexural and compressive strengths were determined using the standard methods.
The data are given in Table 3.
Table 3 The flexural and compressive strength of mullite and mullite-carbide specimens
BENDING STRENGTH, COMPRESSIVE

COMPONENTS
MPa STRENGTH, MPa
Mullite 18.4 99.0
Mullite + 25 % SiC 43.0 311
Mullite + 50 % SiC 26.0 184
As a result, the new synthesized fireproof material incorporating 25% wastes from the silicon
carbide production has been obtained. Its fire resistance exceeds 2000oC and it is designated
as a super fireproof grade.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The feasibility of raising the efficiency of heat-resisting fine cementless silicon concretes
and masses from the wastes of the slime quartzites (as aggregates), technical water glass
obtained by dissolving silica fume with alkali (as a binder), ferrochrome self-destructing
slag (as a hardener) subjected to a mechanochemical activation and providing stable new
formations has been substantiated.
2. The technologies for producing the heat-resisting concretes and masses including the
processes of mechanochemical activation and treatment of the secondary mineral re-
sources have been developed.
3. By using the methods of electron microscopy, x-ray structural and diffractometric analy-
ses the main components providing fire resistance, heat resistance and cast-iron resistance
of materials of the combinations, namely, silicon (SiO2, SiC, Si3N4), aluminum (Al2O3),
calcium and magnesium (CaO, MgO), iron and chrome (Fe2O3, Cr2O3) have been deter-
mined.
4. The composition of the fireproof mass incorporating the wastes from the abrasion, cal-
cium carbide productions as an aggregate and the refractory clay as a binder has substan-
tiated; the compositions providing the fire-proofness up to 1800oC, heat resistance up to
46 heat changes at 800oC with the setting of 0.2 % have been determined.
5. Mullite of the spinel structure has been produced at 1100oC vs 1400oC due to the mech-
anochemical activation providing the interaction between the components which causes
the transition of some portion of cations Al3+ from the octahedron to tetrahedron and pen-
tahedron positions.
6. To organize the technologies, to predict the properties and to control the quality of the
materials, the correlation between fire resistance, compressive strength, setting, heat resis-
tance, slag- and cast-iron-proofness of concretes and masses on the base of the secondary
mineral resources and the structure characteristics, mechanochemical activation parame-
ters has been determined.
7. The mathematical models and algorithms for creating concretes and masses and predict-
ing their properties depending on the mineral composition of secondary mineral resources
have been obtained.
8. The monograph entitled The conception of creating new composite fireproof concretes
and masses from secondary mineral resources using the mechanochemistry has been
published [7].
REFERENCES
1. REFRACTORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION. Edited by Ya Inamura. Translated from

Japanese by A A Tikhonov, Edited by A G Yudin, M.: Metallurgy, 1984, 448 pp.
2. THE PERSPECTIVES IN THE PRODUCTION OF REFRACTORY CONCRETES

BASED ON MINERAL RAW MATERIALS OF KUZBASS. Yu N Pronyakin, B A Kus-
tov, A A Permyakov, S I Pavlenko, A Yu Pronyakin, A Ya Avtsinov, I V Rekhtin, Pro-
ceedings of the conference Ferrous metallurgy of Kuzbass: the ways of overcoming the
crisis. 27.05.1998. Novokuznetsk: The SSUI publishing house, 1998. pp 4346.
3. SCHINEIDER H. Mullite and mullite ceramics, H Schineider, R Okada, J Pask. Chiches-

ter: John Wiley and Sons, 1994, 251 pp.
4. BERRY L. Mineralogy, Second Edition, L Berry, B Mason, R Dietrich. San Francisco:

W.N. Freeman and Company, 1983, 386 pp.
5. STUDY OF SOLID PHASE TRANSFORMATION DURING MECHANOCHEMICAL

AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF ALUMO-SILICATE USING THERMAL ANALY-
SIS. L Kevtsov, O Krivoruchko, B Zolotovsky, R Buyanov. Thermochem. Acta. 1985. v.
93. pp 513515.
6. LUKHANIN M V. The role of mechanical activation of the mixture for producing from
the secondary mineral resources the ceramics on the base of mullite and silicon carbide /
M V Lukhanin, S I Pavlenko, Ye G Avakumov. Izvestiya Vuzov. Ferrous metallurgy.
2004. No 8. pp 6062.
7. LUKHANIN M V. The conception for creating new composite fireproof concretes and
masses from secondary mineral resources using mechanochemistry. M V Lukhanin, S I
Pavlenko, Ye G Avakumov. M.: ACB publishing house, 2004, 192 pp.
A NEW DESIGN METHOD FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
FLOOR SLABS IN FIRE
D Lange
A S Usmani
N Cameron J Torero
University of Edinburgh
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT. Previous research has shown that floor systems are the most important
members in a structure to help maintain its stability during and after fires by employing
membrane mechanisms which are more readily available because of the imposed thermal
strains. This paper offers a design methodology for fire resistance demonstrated for
reinforced and composite concrete beams and slabs by building on previous work undertaken
to assess the load carrying capacity of these members by catenary and membrane action.
Analytical methods for slabs in fire were developed based upon the detailed understanding
achieved at the University of Edinburgh during the analysis of the Cardington fire tests and
used no empirical factors or correlations in the derivations. This work however was restricted
to assessing the limit capacity of relatively thin composite floors found in steel frame
structures dominated by membrane resistance. This has been extended to thicker slabs where
deflections may be small and flexure remains the dominant mechanism. The method will be
presented in a framework which offers an initial step towards a performance based design
methodology. It provides a means of assessing the limits of applicability of the main load
carrying actions and provides guidelines as to when fire resistant design should rely entirely
on membrane action, on bending or on some combination of the two.
Keywords: Fire, Floor slabs, Tensile membrane action, Compressive action, Thermal effects.
David Lange MEng is a PhD Student, University of Edinburgh.
Dr Asif S Usmani, is a Lecturer, University of Edinburgh.
Dr Neil Cameron, works for SKM Anthony Hunts, Edinburgh.
Professor Jose Torero, is a Professor at the University of Edinburgh.
181
182 Lange et al
INTRODUCTION
The steps in the analysis of structures subject to accidental actions [1] are as follows for a
simple design framework:
1. The hazards must be identified and modelled

2. The consequence of these actions on the structure should be assessed.
These consequences are then assessed with reference to some limit state or in reference to
some performance criteria which is defined at the projects outset.
There have been a number of methods proposed for the determination of ultimate capacities
of floor slabs in fire. For example, a membrane action enhanced yield line analysis, as
proposed by Bailey [2] for composite floor slabs in fire; or the energy method proposed by
Cameron and Usmani [3, 4]. Both of these methods deal with composite concrete floor
systems, normally subjected to large deflections in fire, although they are fundamentally
different in their approaches.
Baileys method assumes the slab to be simply supported, arguing that the reinforcement over
the supports ruptures given the localisation of strains due to the cracking of the concrete over
the supports. It is a compressive membrane enhancement of a previously developed method
for calculating the capacity of floor slabs at ambient loading. It does not take account of the
actual observed deflected shape of the floor slab and instead chooses to fit a solution around a
common yield line formation.
Cameron, however, observed that in the Cardington tests continuity was maintained at the
supports and so in his method the slab is assumed restrained against lateral movement, but
free to rotate. His method has been developed for the sole purpose of assessing the limit load
of a floor slab in fire and takes account of the actual observed deflected shape of the slab.
The assumption that membrane capacity is the final load carrying action in fire relies upon
there being sufficiently large displacements to allow for the development of this mechanism.
These large displacements are, however, not necessarily present for every conceivable
combination of slab geometry and fire loading. Slabs with low span/depth ratios are far less
likely to experience large enough displacements to allow membrane capacity to take place
than slabs with high span/depth ratios. Despite this, neither of the methods described above
give any limits of applicability for the lower limit of deflection at which they become of use
to the designer, and so if these methods are to be adopted, provisions must be made for
catenary action regardless of the structures ability to adopt it. This can lead to expensive fire
proofing and unnecessary reserves of strength in structures rationalised by a poor fire safety
engineering solution. This paper aims to clarify the boundary between the applicability of
ambient and high temperature design of floor slabs to avoid such unnecessary overlap in
design criteria and provide a more rational basis for the selection of the mechanism.
TENSILE MEMBRANE CAPACITY
The analytical method employed for determining the tensile membrane capacity of a slab
subjected to heating has three stages. Its derivation is outside the scope of this paper,
although it is explained in more detail in [3].
Floor Slab Fire Design 183
1. Calculation of the temperature distribution through the depth of the member

2. Calculation of the deflected shape of the member, based upon the gross cross-sectional
area, and the thermal stresses and strains in the rebars associated with this deflected shape
and temperature distribution
3. Calculation of the limiting deflection and the internal and external work done to move
from the thermal deflection to the limiting deflection, based on the reinforcement only.
The 1st step above, calculating the temperature distribution through the slab, can be carried
out using many different methods, required as output is only the equivalent temperature
distribution as an idealised uniform mean temperature, T, and an idealised temperature
Gradient, T,y, as defined in [5]. Here, it is calculated using a 1-Dimensional Finite Element
Mesh for heat transfer.
Thermal loading is presented in two components, both related to the temperature distribution:
as a thermal force caused by the thermal expansion of the slab being heated acting against
lateral restraint; and as a thermal moment caused by the temperature gradient present in the
section.
Because the deflected profile of any slab is a function of this thermal loading, which in turn is
a function of the slab depth and the thermal gradient in the section, the tensile membrane
capacity for two slabs of different depths will vary for any given fire.
An example of this method applied to floor slabs is shown in Figure 1, for a series of slabs of
7.5 m span thicknesses varying from 100 to 200 mm with an As = 283 mm2/m exposed on the
underside to a British standard fire [6]. It is clear from the Figure that the final tensile
membrane capacity of slabs varies with the slabs depth, while the initial capacity calculated
using this method is dependant more upon span. This reflects the fact that the deflected shape
of a slab exposed to fire is dependant upon the depth of the slab and the reinforcement is
forced to follow this deflected shape regardless of its own thermal strain.
0.017
0.016
MEMBRANE CAPACITY, N/mm2
100 mm
0.015
120 mm
0.014 140 mm
160 mm
0.013
180 mm
200 mm
0.012
0.011
0.010
0.009
0.008
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
D = Wo/H
Figure 1 Membrane capacity of a series of 7.5 m square slabs

exposed to a British standard fire. As = 283 mm2/m
184 Lange et al
FLEXURAL CAPACITY
During heating, there are three effects which alter the flexural capacity of a section which
should be taken into account. Firstly, there is material degradation associated with the
elevated temperature. Secondly, thermal loading induced by the difference in temperatures
between the heated and unheated surfaces. This temperature difference is idealised, as above,
by a uniform increase in temperature and a thermal gradient, leading to a thermal force and a
thermal moment, respectively. Thirdly, the deflection of the section reduces the ultimate
moment capacity by reducing the area of concrete available for compression by moving the
neutral axis towards the upper surface, countering the effects of the axial force.
The effect of each of these factors on the ultimate moment of resistance a section of the slab
can be determined by looking in turn at each of their effects on the ultimate moment.
Ultimate Moment of Resistance
The material models used in analysis should be non-linear and temperature dependant.
The second factor, the thermal loading, changes the stress distribution in the cross section
under bending by increasing the area of the section under compression, Figure 2.
Cross Thermal
Bending Total Strain
Section Strain
+ =
Figure 2 Effect of thermally induced forces on the neutral axis

for bending in a rectangular cross-section
The position of this lower neutral axis can be determined by calculating the area of the cross
section under compression at the full plastic load, Figure 3.
b fcu
h FC
d NT
a/2
Figure 3 Forces acting on member cross section during heating

at the plastic moment, not including the thermal moment
NT
a= (1)
f cu
Lowering the neutral axis of the section due to the thermal force in the section poses a
problem in some cases, where the equivalent thermal gradient is such that the steel is not in
tension. Where a sufficiently low gradient is present for a slow burning fire, the expansion of
the concrete may be such that the entire section is in compression under pure bending. This is
unrealistic in most cases as the thermal deflection of the section will move the plane of zero
strain up towards the upper face of the slab again.
Assuming that the slab is simply supported along all four sides, i.e. free to rotate, but
restrained against lateral displacement, and that sections remain plane and that the regions
separated by yield lines remain rigid, the failure mode for yield line analysis is not possible
for non-zero vertical displacement because the cut plane along the yield line, Figure 4,
undergoes some horizontal displacement at yield [7]. In the example shown, the boundary
conditions force the neutral axis to coincide with the restrained plane.
Figure 4 The level of zero strain lies along the same plane as the axis of rotation
In this case the level of the neutral axis has risen, in order to remain in plane with the axis of
rotation. The lever arm between the level of reinforcement and the neutral axis is now given
by [7]:
h = w (2)
assuming that the axis of rotation coincides with the position of the steel reinforcement.
Applying these effects to the simplified stress block of BS8110 we can determine the new
ultimate moment of resistance.
0.0035 0.45fcu
k2x
x
k1fcu
Figure 5 BS8110 stress block
Where, after BS8110:

As f s
x= (3)
k1 f cu b
Including the effects of thermal deflection on the section and of the thermal force as well,
Equation (3) becomes:
A f NT
xT = s s h + (4)
k1 f cu b 2k1 f cu b
186 Lange et al
Because of the axial force in the section caused by the increased temperature, the steel yields
at relatively low concrete strain, i.e. fs = y and the neutral axis is pushed up as s increases,
increasing the ultimate moment of the section, it is clear that an increase in the deflection of
the slab, w = h will increase the lever arm and therefore the ultimate moment of resistance as
the lever arm zh, the effective depth of the section. When z > h, Mu = 0. The ultimate
moment of resistance of the section is obtained by taking moments about the centroid of the
concrete stress block and is given by Equation (5).
As y NT
M u = As y h k2 h + (5)
k1 f cu b 2k1 f cu b
From Equation (5), it is clear that when 1 the ultimate moment of the section, Mu0. In
the section subjected to axial force this has the effect of increasing the ultimate moment of
resistance until the lever arm is such that it extends to the upper surface of the slab.
Except for where the section is exposed to an exceptionally long cool fire the h term is likely
to be the overriding term since it is likely to be very much larger than the increase in the area
under compression due to axial force.
30000
30000
25000
25000
ULTIMATE MOMENT, N/mm2
200
200mm
mm
20000
20000
180 mm
180 mm
15000
15000
160160mm
mm
10000
10000
140140mm
mm
5000
5000 120 mm
120 mm
100 mm
100 mm
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
D =Wo/ H
D = Wo/H
Figure 6 Ultimate Moment of Resistance of a series of sections, of varying depths, exposed

to a British standard fire, assuming the section to be under-reinforced. As = 283 mm2/m
Effect of heating on yield line capacity
Simple yield line theory gives a very simple method for determining the upper limit of the
capacity of reinforced concrete floor slabs by comparing the external and the internal work
done by the load on a slab at failure. It assumes that slabs fail along yield lines, where the
regions bounded by the yield lines remain rigid.
The external work and the internal work are given by, respectively:
ext = q v , and (6)

n
int = li M ii (7)
i =1
Clearly, when the slab is exposed to some initial curvature such as that caused by heating
which affects the ultimate moment of the section, the moment in Equation (7) is a function of
the distance, along the yield line. However rather than going through the complicated process
of calculating the internal energy dissipated along the yield line a conservative approach
would be to use the ultimate moment of resistance of the middle of the slab.
The bending capacity along the edge strips of a slab will be increased from large compressive
forces. At the mid-span, however, where deflections are large this enhancement will not
appear. Looking again at the typical yield pattern for a square slab, and considering the yield
pattern as the deflection increases, it is possible to divide the slab into two regions: I where
the deflection of yield lines is low enough that yield line theory still applies, and II where the
deflection is large enough that yield line theory no longer applies. The area of region II
increases with the deflection (Figure 7), decreasing the length of the yield lines and lowering
the capacity as calculated by the yield line method. At low deflections in the slab, a simple
yield envelope will form, and at high deflections widespread concrete tensile cracking will
occur as the concrete strain exceeds the tensile capacity across the slabs upper surface.
Figure 7 The length of the yield lines decreases as the slab deflection increases
beyond a certain ratio of the slab effective depth
Considering a concrete floor slab and comparing the yield line capacity with the membrane
capacity, we can see that as the region of higher displacement, region II in Figure 7, grows in
area the membrane capacity begins to take over from the flexural capacity as the primary load
carrying action of the slab. It is also clear from above that the capacity calculated from yield
line theory is proportional to the depth of the slab and the final membrane capacity is
inversely proportional to the slab depth.
PROPOSED DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Based on the relation between flexural capacity and slab depth, and membrane capacity and
thermal deflection, it is apparent that the depth and initial deflection of a beam or slab should
be considered before a load carrying mechanism is selected as the dominant mechanism
under fire. For very high deflections, or thin members, the membrane capacity is clearly
dominant over the flexural capacity, whereas for very low deflections and thick members the
188 Lange et al
flexural capacity is dominant. There is some overlap where the two mechanisms act together,
where the steel is under large thermal strain due to the temperature but where the concrete is
not cracked through its depth due to the deflection and still has some compressive capacity.
This gives three design options for reinforced concrete slabs as shown in Table 1, and in the
schematic of Figure 8, where the boundary between the three regions changes as fire
progresses.
CAPACITY
A B C
DEPTH / SPAN
Figure 8 The three regions for final load carrying mechanism
Table 1 Design options and their load carrying mechanisms

REGION DOMINANT MECHANISM
A Flexure only
B Flexure and Membrane
C Membrane only
Relating this to the slab shown in Figure 7, region A in the schematic corresponds to the slabs
deflection being sufficiently low that the whole slabs capacity can be calculated using yield
line theory. Region B corresponds to the deflection being sufficiently large that the capacity
given by yield line theory begins to reduce due to the unavailability of a growing portion of
the centre of the slab, and region C corresponds with a sufficiently large area of the slab
having deflected so that the tensile membrane capacity alone is the dominant load carrying
mechanism.
Example
As an example of this method in use, we can look at a series of floor slabs exposed on their
lower face to a British standard fire of duration 5400 seconds. Each slab has an A142 mesh
positioned 50 mm from the heated surface. The results are shown collected together in Figure 9.
Since the membrane capacity is relatively constant for different depths of slab and varies
much more with the span of the slab, the results are shown as trend lines to illustrate a larger
range of span depth ratios. Underneath the trend lines of Figure 9 the variation in capacity
with span/depth can be seen to be a lot more irregular because it is an amalgamation of
results from slabs of vastly different span. The three design regions are, however, very clear
in the results shown where tensile membrane capacity becomes the dominant action at a
span/depth ratio of between 45 and 50. The region of applicability of yield line theory can be
seen to decrease - from a span/depth ratio of 45 to just over 20 - as the temperature, and the
deflection, increase.
Region A Region B Region C
0.1
Yield
Yield Line
Line
CAPACITY, N/mm2
Membrane
0.01 Capacity
0.001
Increasing Temperature
0.0001
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPAN / DEPTH RATIO
Figure 9 Tensile Membrane and yield line capacities of reinforced concrete floor slabs of
varying depths and spans with an A142 reinforcing mesh placed 50 mm from the lower
surface which is exposed to a British standard fire. The trend of each capacity is shown at
1350 second intervals and the three regions are clearly defined as well as the reduction in the
applicability of yield line theory to slabs in fire.
CONCLUSIONS
In a reinforced concrete frame, as opposed to a composite frame, the span/depth ratio is the
same in fire as it is at ambient. A significant amount of the load is still carried by bending
within the slab at larger deflections, which is enhanced by the presence of a compressive ring
at the slabs edge strips which grows increasingly smaller as the fire develops and deflection
increases until large enough deflections are present so as they are no longer able to carry the
load by bending alone.
A simple method has been presented which allows for the easy determination of ultimate load
carrying capacity given a design fire, which in this case has been a British standard fire,
although a parametric fire curve or a design fire based on information about the structure
being built and its proposed usage could equally be used.
REFERENCES
1. FABER, KUBLER, FONTANA AND KNOBLOCH, Failure Consequences and reliability

acceptance criteria for exceptional building structures, in Institute of Structural
Engineering, Swiss Federal institute of Technology.
190 Lange et al
2. BAILEY C G, Membrane action of unrestrained lightly reinforced concrete slabs at large

displacements, Engineering Structures, Vol. 23, 2001, pp. 470-483.
3. CAMERON N AND USMANI A S, A new design method to determine the membrane

capacity of laterally restrained composite floor slabs in fire, Part 1: Theory and method,
The Structural Engineer, Vol. 83, 2005, pp. 28-33.
4. CAMERON N AND USMANI A S, A new design method to determine the membrane

capacity of laterally restrained composite floor slabs in fire, Part 2: Validation, The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 83, 2005, pp. 34-39.
5. USMANI A S, ROTTER J M, LAMONT S, SANAD A M AND GILLIE M, Fundamental

principles of structural behaviour under thermal effects, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 36, 2001,
pp. 721-744.
6. BS 476, Fire tests on building materials and structures.
7. SAVE M A AND MASSONET C E, Plastic Analysis and Design of Plates, Shells and
Disks, 1972, North Holland Publishing Company.
NOTATION
As area of steel
a drop in neutral axis
b breadth of section
d depth of section
h depth to steel in section
Fc compressive force in concrete
fyc compressive yield stress of concrete
k1, k2 factors describing concrete stress block
l length of yield line
MU NT ultimate moment of resistance in section thermal force
q load
v volume described by deflected shape
w deflection
x depth to neutral axis in section
xT depth to neutral axis in heated section
z lever arm of steel in section
ratio of deflection, w, to depth of section, h
int internal work done
ext external work done
angle of rotation about yield line
THEME TWO:
ASSESSING AND
RECTIFYING DAMAGE
Keynote Paper
CASE STUDIES OF REAL FIRE ASSESSMENTS

IN CONCRETE BUILDINGS
B Lane
S Lamont
A Heise
Arup
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT. This paper will describe real fire investigations in concrete buildings and the
lessons learnt. It will provide a brief summary of the traditional fire investigation tools
available to assess residual structural strength and options for repair. The limitations of these
tools for assessing and rectifying damage will be discussed. The application of fire
engineering tools will then be illustrated along with their limitations for example the inability
to predict the extent and rate of spalling of concrete in a fire. The tools used in the design
office to calculate fire resistance can be very useful in a fire investigation to estimate the peak
temperature and duration of heating that a structural frame has been exposed to. These can be
used in parallel with traditional fire investigation techniques which look at visual evidence at
the fire scene and destructive/non-destructive testing of samples of fire affected concrete and
steel reinforcement. Examples of using design tools to predict real fires and post-fire strength
of structures will be presented.
Keywords: Fire, Concrete, Structural Performance, Investigation.
Dr B Lane, is an Associate Director within the Arup Fire group in London. She is currently a
senior member of the Arup Fire Management Team and is also the Leader of the Structural
Fire Group at Arup.
Dr A Heise, is a senior engineer of structural fire group. He is developing integrated fire

strategies for buildings, covering all aspects of fire safety. This includes all related issues to
compartmentation, analysis and response of structural elements to fire, external fire spread,
code interpretation and negotiations with local authorities to gain approval for designs and
strategies.
Dr S Lamont, is the senior finite element analyst for the structural fire group, developing
integrated fire strategies for buildings, covering all aspects of fire safety, including
negotiations with local authorities to gain approval for designs and strategies.
191
192 Lane, Lamont, Heise
INTRODUCTION
There have been significant, fully developed fires in concrete frame (ordinary reinforced and
pre-stressed) buildings in recent years [1,2]. The frames have performed reasonably well in
that they have not collapsed but some have seen significant damage and have not been
repaired. The reasons for repairing or not repairing a building after a fire are sometimes
related to the amount of damage sustained (i.e. it is not cost effective because there is too
much structural damage) but are often related to other concerns such as the age of the
building and whole life costs, the financial cost of repair versus rebuilding, available access
to the site, cost of replacing other services (mechanical and electrical) etc. It is also difficult
for an engineer to say with certainty whether a structural member is significantly weakened
because the internal forces that the member has been exposed to are complex, non-linear and
difficult to predict therefore repairs may be very conservative.
METHOD TO ASSESS FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
To assess structural damage, and feasibility of repair in a concrete structure, post fire, the
following four steps are generally followed:
1) Assessment of the fire severity

2) Assessment of the structural damage
3) Feasibility of repair study
4) Choice of repair techniques
Assessment of Fire Severity
Video-footage gives an indication of affected areas, flame projections and flame heights. A
good assessment of temperatures reached within the fire-affected areas can be obtained from
a debris study. Table 1 is a summary of the available information in the Concrete Society
Technical Report 33 [3] and gives an overview of temperature indicators in a typical
building. In addition, predictive fire engineering tools, such as empirical equations or
computer modelling used in design, can be used to assess the fire severity in the building,
based on the fire load in the building, ventilation conditions, compartment size and shape and
properties of wall linings.
Assessment of Structural Damage
Recognised post fire test methods for fire damaged concrete structures include visual
inspection for damage and material colour change, core tests, hammer tests, ultrasonic pulse
velocity test, Petrographic Analysis and tensile strength tests of reinforcement. For general
information on testing refer to Technical Report 33 [3].
Real Fire Assessments 193
Feasibility of Repair
The feasibility of repair is not only determined by the structural damage because it is often
less than 1/6th of the total direct loss after fire [4].
The total feasibility of repair is dependent on parameters such as the extent of local and
global damage to the building, direct losses such as faade or Mechanical and Electrical
(M&E) installations also indirect losses to business for example relocation of people,
interruption of trade.
Repair Techniques for Concrete Structures
After the feasibility of repair has been investigated, various techniques are available to restore
fire-damaged concrete structures. Including hand applied mortar, concrete cast in formwork
or pneumatically applied concrete (gunite).
Table 1 Temperature Indicators [3]
TYPICAL EXAMPLES CONDITIONS APPROXIMATE

TEMPERATURE, C
Polystyrene Thin wall food containers Collapse 120
Cellulose Wood, paper, cotton Darkens 200-300
Lead Plumbing Melts, sharp 300-350
edges rounded
Aluminium Fixtures, Castings Softens 400
Melts 650
Glass Glazing, Bottles Softens 200-300
Flowing easily 850
Brass Locks, Taps Melts 800-1000
Copper Wiring Melts 1100
CASE STUDY 1 - HIGH RISE BUILDING FIRE
A fire occurred at a high rise building in the UK in July 2003 (Figure 1). The building was 12
storeys in height with 2 basement levels and contained office accommodation. The upper
floors comprised a rectangular block of 51 m long by 15 m wide. The fire started on the 7th
floor and spread to the floors above. Levels 8, 9 and 10 became fully involved in the fire and
significant damage occurred to Level 11.
Minimal fire damage occurred to Level 12. The parts of the building investigated (floors 7-12)
comprised in-situ concrete columns, twin central longitudinal beams and transverse beams.
The High rise Building was constructed in the 1960s and contained High Alumina Cement
(HAC).
Figure 1 High Rise Office Building after fire on 29th July 2003: [2].
Assessment of fire severity
From the fire report, video footage and interviews it was clear that the fire started on the 7th
floor at the south east side of the building as indicated in Figure 2.
~15m
~50m
Figure 2 7th Floor Ignition Location and Area of Greatest Fire Severity
The building was fitted with a fire detection system and auto-dialler to the fire brigade which
activated at 20:44. Ten minutes later the fire began to flash over on the 7th floor, resulting in
the failure of all windows over a five-minute period. The wind was blowing from the
southwest to the northeast and therefore little flame projection was seen on the southern side
of the building. The wind was creating an external low pressure area on the northern side of
the building and flame projection and flame spread via the windows was observed on that
side, see pictures in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
Figure 3 Flame projection on the 7th floor Figure 4 Fire spread from the 7th floor
on the north side of the building. [2] upwards on the north side of the building.
Flashover of the 8th floor and then the 9th floor appeared to occur 60 minutes and 75 minutes
after flash-over on the 7th floor respectively. A good assessment of maximum temperatures
reached within the fire-affected areas in the building was obtained from a debris study using
various temperature indicators.
The best indicators of temperature found in the building site were aluminium mullions, glazing,
copper cables and brass screws. Levels 7, 8 and 9 experienced similar fire temperatures with
the most severe damage occurring towards the northwest corner of each floor. In this
location, shards of glass remained in the window frame. Some of these shards had melted and
were forming drips indicating a temperature in excess of 850C. Areas where the glass had
significantly softened but had not dripped were also identified. This indicated that the
temperature was very close to 850C. The window frames were constructed of steel and the
mullions holding the glass panes in place were aluminium. All the aluminium present on the
7th floors in the locations where the windows had broken had melted, indicating a temperature
in excess of 650C throughout the compartment.
The site contained many small round electrical junction boxes attached to the slab. These
junction boxes were constructed of steel with a steel cap. The steel cap was in turn held on by
two brass screws. The caps to all the junction boxes in the high temperature areas had fallen
off indicating the melting of the brass screws. Brass melts between 800 and 1000C, which
again gave a good indication that temperatures were over 800C. An estimate of the fire time
temperature curve was calculated from an estimate of the heat-release, the known gas
temperatures at flashover, the known gas temperatures during the fully developed phase of
the fire and the area of window openings providing ventilation to the fire. From observations
of photos and interviews after the fire, it was concluded that at the time the fire started,
approximately 1/3 of the windows were open. Flashover is usually considered to occur when
the upper layer temperature is in the range of 500C to 600C.
Based on the above information and using Equation 1 the rate of heat release of the pre-
flashover fire was calculated to be approximately 42.5 MW [5]:
1

3
Q2
T = 6.85 Equation 1 [5]
Ao H o hk AT

Where
T = Change in temperature (55020 = 530 K)
Q = Total heat release rate of the fire (kW)

Ao = Area of open windows (90 m2)
Ho = Height of windows (1.5 m)
hk = Conduction Coefficient for plasterboard (0.024 kW/(m2K))
AT = Total internal surface area of the enclosure (1475 m2)
From the rate of heat release, the fire growth time tg was calculated to be approximately 140
seconds using Equation 2 [5]:
Q = 1000(t / t g ) 2 Equation 2 [5]
Where
Q = Total heat release rate of the fire (42500 kW)

t = Time from ignition (900 s)
tg = Characteristic growth time (s)
This fire growth is faster than would be assumed in design and in part explains the severe
spalling of the concrete structure.
In the debris study, it was concluded that maximum fire temperatures in the building post-
flashover were 900C. After flashover the majority of windows can be assumed to be broken
and the ventilation area increased to 198 m2. Using Equation 1 to repeat the calculation for
the post-flashover phase and then combining the pre and post flashover temperature-time data
the predicted temperature time curve for the 7th floor in the building is indicated in Figure 5.
900
800
TEMPERATURE, oC
700
600
Window breakage at flashover resulting in
500
increased
Real ventilation
Fire in Telstar Building
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
TIME, minutes
Figure 5 Temperature time curve in the building.

A study was prepared to assess the temperature distribution and local hot spots in the building
to determine where the concrete structure would be most affected. This was achieved using
the computer fluid dynamics software FDS [7].
For the model, similar assumptions were made to those used for calculations of the fire
growth rate. These assumptions included a compartment floor area of 1475 m2 with some
windows open at the beginning of the fire with a window height of 1.5 m (see Figure 6-
Figure 8). The model assumed that a small fire of approximately 200 kW started at the
southeast side of the building. As the fire-developed, windows along the floor were broken
when local temperatures exceeded a predetermined level and eventually fire spread to the
above floors.
Figure 6 Fire Spread on fire floor. Figure 7 Temperature distribution.
Figure 8 Initial study to assess fire spread from the 7th floor to floors above.
The high rise was constructed in the 1960s. The parts of the building investigated (floors 7-12)
comprised in-situ concrete columns, twin central longitudinal beams and transverse beams.
The main structural elements are indicated in Figure 9. The columns and beams are made
from Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete using flint gravel coarse aggregate. The
main floor areas comprise prestressed I-section beams made from high alumina cement
(HAC) concrete also using flint gravel coarse aggregate. The HAC beams support an in-situ
OPC concrete topping slab about 75 mm thick.
Perimeter Beams Perimeter Columns

@~2.5m
Spine beams along OPC Concrete slab on

Central Columns
central columns top of I-section beams
@7.6m
HAC-I-section beams
spanning between spine and
perimeter beams at 0.520m
Figure 9 Floor layout of typical office floor, indicating location of main structural elements
Extensive research has been carried out on the performance of OPC concrete in fire. Concrete
of this type usually loses strength when heated to temperatures above 300C with substantial
loss above 550C. At temperatures above 300 C this type of concrete usually changes colour
to pink. When heated further, the colour profile changes again at around 500C-600C to a
grey-buff colour. These colour changes are a result of iron slats on the aggregate particles.
The colour change in fire affected concrete gives an initial guidance about area involved in
the fire and the extent of concrete damaged. However, because of the colour change at higher
temperatures, is not always conclusive.
Testing of in-situ concrete was generally by the extraction of 25 mm diameter core samples
of typically 50-75 mm depth. The cores were examined for evidence of colour change.
Typically, there appeared to be different degrees of damage within a single element but the
maximum extent of the damage could be seen. Unlike OPC concrete, there was very little
research or reported cases of fire damage to HAC concrete. The limited guidance indicates
that HAC performs better in fires, but this is not robustly substantiated. The damage to the
HAC concrete was therefore assessed by testing samples of the structure using petrographic
analysis in a laboratory. The testing showed that stability of the concrete structure was
maintained and identified the maximum extent of damaged concrete for repair. Spalling
exposed the embedded prestressing wires (Figure 10) of the HAC-Transverse beams. The
columns at Level 7 and the corners of the spine beams (Figure 11) also experienced
significant spalling.
The damage to the structure was also estimated by using fire engineering tools to calculate
the temperature distribution within the cross section, i.e. assuming the concrete will maintain
its original strength for temperatures below 350oC and maintain sufficient strength for
stability up to temperatures of 550oC. In order to assess the temperature distribution in the
concrete structure, a heat transfer study was carried out. The results of the post fire heat
transfer calculations were used to limit the costs associated with drilling concrete cores by
estimating the required depths of samples to be taken.
Figure 10 Spalling of HAC I section beams Figure 11 Spalling of spine beams

showing the embedded prestressed wires
An overview of the results of the heat transfer analyses on the internal concrete columns in
the building are presented, based on the average fire temperatures predicted to have occurred
and for the amount of spalling observed. For the assessment of heat transfer, including
spalling, it was assumed that spalling occurred at the beginning of the fire. This is an
estimation of the real heating affect but the only simple method of modelling the effect of
spalling on the temperature of structures.
Figure 12 gives an example of the heat transfer analysis of a concrete section with 40 mm of
the cover spalled off. The heat transfer analysis showed that the temperatures of the concrete
columns on the fire-affected floors exceed 550C to a depth of 25 mm or more particularly at
corners. In areas where 40 mm of concrete has spalled these temperatures occur up to a depth
of 65 mm inside the original columns section. The results from petrographic testing
confirmed the suitability of the heat transfer study to assess the required depth of the cores.
40 mm of spalled
material missing
Figure 12 Temperature distribution in a column section (315 mm x 760 mm) exposed to the
predicted fire after 2 hours. 40 mm of the concrete cover is assumed to have spalled off.
Feasibility of Repair and Choice of Repair Techniques
The assessed depth that the concrete was damaged was used to evaluate the required effort to
repair the structure. Different techniques to repair were available:
Hand Applied Mortar:

Restoration of cover Cosmetic purposes
Concrete cast in formwork
Pneumatically applied concrete (gunite)
Selective replacement of members
An overview of direct damage to the building and an estimated percentage of total direct
costs are given in Table 2.
From the cost assessment it was concluded that damage to the building services, contractor
costs, damage to the faade and architectural fit out are the important drivers that determine
the total direct costs of the fire. Damage to the concrete structure was approximately 5% of
the total direct damage.
Table 2 Direct costs high rise building fire
% OF TOTAL
DIRECT DAMAGE
Damage to the faade of the building 15-20
Architectural Fit out such as ceilings, floors: 15-20
Services, ductwork, electrical, heating 20-25
Lifts 10
Contractor Cost: Cleaning, Asbestos, Preliminaries, such as
20
crane, scaffolding, security, storage, temporary offices
Structural damage 5
Conclusions Case Study I
It was concluded that the concrete structure retained its structural stability for the
duration of the fire on 29 July 2003, despite severe spalling and a severe fire on
multiple floors simultaneously.
The combination of information obtained from the fire brigade report, video footage,
debris study and the use of various fire engineering tools resulted in a good
understanding of the fire severity and temperature development in the building.
From the post fire structural assessment of the building it was concluded that the
concrete structure retained its structural stability for the duration of the fire despite
severe spalling and a severe fire on multiple floors simultaneously.
The structural damage could have been repaired.

CASE STUDY II: WEST ONE SHEFFIELD
The West One project is located in the centre of Sheffield. The development consists of three
independent blocks of residential accommodation above a podium level and a continuous
semi-basement car park. At approximately 4.00am on Monday 5 May 2003 a fire was
discovered in the basement car park of the new development, when construction work was
still in progress. The fire was located in a compound in the basement and burnt large
quantities of construction material, including stored cables. The South Yorkshire Fire &
Rescue service was called to the scene and the fire was extinguished by approximately
8.00am.
In this case study, Arup were called to site at 10.30am to carry out an initial inspection of the
structure. Arup involvement was to assess and record the extent of the damage to the
structure, to determine the scope of further investigation, to make preliminary assessments of
the potential remedial repair work or reconstruction work and to assess whether the
remaining construction work could continue.
The structural form of the buildings is a steel braced frame superstructure with composite
metal deck slabs above a concrete podium slab. The podium slab is generally a solid 300 mm
thick flat slab supported on concrete columns with pad foundations. In a few locations, the
superstructure columns are not coincident with the basement columns and therefore transfer
beams have been incorporated into the flat slab. There are three such transfer systems in the
affected area. There are concrete shear walls beneath the braced bays of the steel frame to
provide the overall stability system for the building. The C40 concrete mix design used OPC,
blast furnace slag cement, limestone aggregate and quartzite sand.
Assessment of Fire Severity
From observations of heat damage to pieces of steel and copper after the fire, it was
concluded that temperatures at the seat of the fire were between 760C and 1093C.
An initial inspection was carried out within a few hours of the fire being extinguished with
the primary purpose being to assess the immediate stability of the local structure near the seat
of the fire and the overall stability of the building. From site observations it was clear that the
heat affected the concrete structure in the vicinity of the fire only. An assessment of the
damage was made using the damage classification in Technical Report 33 [3].
The principal fire damage to the structure was concentrated on the podium slab and transfer
beams. The overall stability of any of the three residential tower blocks was not
compromised, despite extensive spalling of the podium slab in the car park below the
development. During the investigation, the surface of the concrete in the affected areas had
been hit assessed using the Schmitt hammer test to identify any hollow areas of concrete. The
hollow sounding areas were assumed to be fire damaged and 25 mm diameter concrete cores
were taken to assess the damage to the concrete in more detail. Only a few of the cores taken
from the fire affected slab soffit displayed a clear colour change and from the variety in
results it proved difficult to determine the extent and the depth of global structural damage
caused by the fire.
Therefore, further petrographic inspection, under microscope of a small number of 75 mm

concrete cores, were required. The microscopic inspections of these cores revealed a small
number of micro-cracks but no other fire related damage. The petrographic analysis therefore
did not confirm the exact depth of heat infiltration and the extent of global structural damage,
although the indications from micro-cracking were that any fire related structural damage is
modest.
As the fire was located in an M&E compound, surface contamination of the concrete or steel
from the combustion residues of PVC and other plastics used in cable sheathing or similar
was expected (Figure 14). The test results indicated that within the first 5mm of the exposed
concrete, elevated levels of chloride were present. It was necessary to remove this to prevent
risk of long term deterioration of the embedded reinforcement. In areas which suffered the
greatest damage, the reinforcement was deformed and draping down from the slab soffit
(Figure 13). In these areas reinforcement was directly exposed to high temperatures.
The tests showed that the reduction in tensile strength was not as great as expected. About
half of the samples displayed stresses conforming with BS 4449, i.e. above 460 N/mm. The
other halves of the samples were approximately 10 % below this limit. However, there was
one sample that had a very low tensile strength of 353 N/mm.
Irrespective of the residual tensile strength of these bars, it was necessary to re-bend the bars
to place them back in the slab zone. With high yield deformed bars, this is not generally
acceptable and therefore, it was necessary to cut out this steel reinforcement and fix in new
bars.
Figure 13 Damage to the concrete Figure 14 Example of fire load in

podium slab storage compound
Feasibility of Repair and Repair Techniques
Most fire damaged concrete elements in the podium structure were suitable for repair. Due to
ongoing construction work, repair of the fire damaged concrete was recommended rather than
rebuilding. Demolition and rebuild of the fire affected slab was considered unacceptable, due
to the impact on ongoing construction works not associated with the fire. Results from core
and petrographic testing were inconclusive.
Therefore the works progressed using the basic engineering judgements, whereby all cracked,
loose or otherwise visually impaired or hollow sounding concrete was removed. To limit the
risk that damaged concrete would be left in place, a further thickness of 25 mm of apparently
unaffected sound concrete was also removed.
During repair work on the fire damaged columns, some of the buildings transfer beams were
propped to limit the risk of damage to the superstructure above during the repair work. The
preparation of the elements for repair involved the removal of the loose, damaged and spalled
concrete. All steel reinforcement, which had been exposed directly to the fire, was contaminated
by chloride ions from the combustion products from the fire. Therefore, reinforcement was
cleaned with high pressure water jetting in order to also remove chlorides before any repair.
Flowable concrete in formwork was used to repair damaged columns.
Conclusions Case Study II
The following conclusions can be drawn form the structural assessment of the West One fire:
The principal fire damage to the structure was concentrated on the podium slab and
transfer beams. The overall stability of any of the three residential tower blocks was
not compromised, despite extensive spalling of the podium slab in the car park below
the development.
It was possible to reinstate the fire-damaged structure using the gunite method of
spraying on concrete with additional mesh reinforcement for the beams and slabs or
with flowable concrete for the reinstatement of the columns.
The chloride ion contamination was high in the outer 5mm of the concrete, but the
affected concrete was all removed in the repair work.
Chlorine contamination on the affected concrete and reinforcement was removed

using hydro cleaning and hydro demolition techniques.
The tensile strength testing of the reinforcement in the damaged areas show that this
residual strength was generally acceptable or only marginally below the design
strength.
CONCLUSIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1. Both case studies have indicated that it is normally possible to reinstate fire damaged
concrete structures. However, whether this is desirable is subject to the total cost of
the reinstatement and the lifecycle of the building.
2. Fire can cause significant direct and indirect loss, but generally less than 1/6th of the
total direct losses will be due to structural damage [4].
3. Fire engineering tools can be used to investigate, assess and assist in reinstating fire
damaged concrete structures.
4. From the post fire structural assessments presented in the report it can be concluded
that the concrete structures retained their structural stability for the duration of a real
building fire, despite severe spalling and a severe fire on multiple floors
simultaneously.
5. We thank the Concrete Centre [8], which has supported Arup in collating the material
and presenting this study.
REFERENCES
1. Madrid Torre Windsor Fire, Madrid February 12th 2005, www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/

project/research/structures/strucfire/CaseStudy/HistoricFires/BuildingFires/default.htm
2. BBC News pictures, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/photo_gallery/3109691.stm,

2003
3. THE CONCRETE SOCIETY, Technical Report No. 33, Assessment and repair of fire-
damaged concrete structures, Slough, 1990.
4. THE CONCRETE SOCIETY and INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS,

Fire resistance of concrete structures, August 1975.
5. KARLSSON B and QUINTIERE J G, Enclosure Fire Dynamics, 2000.
6. CIBSE TM19, Relationships for Smoke Control Calculations, 1995.
7. Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model

developed by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the USA,
www.nist.gov.
8. ARUP FIRE, The Response of Concrete in Fire, UK Case Studies: Post Fire Analysis, a
report for the Concrete Centre, 2005.
PRELIMINARY STUDY ON LOW GRADE CONCRETE
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
R Tuladhar
Tribhuvan University
A P Malla
Wonaw and Associates
Nepal
ABSTRACT. In Nepal, urban areas are using mostly concrete construction. A few research
work is being carried out about concrete as structural material as the part of graduate
research. Nepalese concrete design codes; NBC 107: 1994; NBC 110: 1994 etc. are being
implemented, which heavily relies on Indian Standard codes. In this context the authors
would like to start a research work from basic study about the response of typical concrete in
urban areas of Nepal to fire. The concrete under study is typical concrete with typical
aggregates and cement in use in the urban areas of Nepal. In this study the influence of
temperatures on the compressive and bond strength of the concrete was investigated. The
limited test parameters involved in this research were the exposure time (30, 90 and 180
minutes), temperature (100, 200 and 300C) and the depth of embedment (30 and 60 mm) of
the reinforcing steel into the concrete. In Nepal, it is usual practice to use cement sand plaster
on the concrete surface. Additionally, the effect of cement sand plaster on the compressive
strength was studied. Test results indicated an increase in compressive strength for the 28
days concrete. A noticeable loss of bond strength of the concrete was also observed. Results
of the compressive strength of the concrete with cement sand plaster suggested an apparent
decrease. The results of this experiment gave us direction for further study of response of
concrete to fire.
Keywords: Nepal, Concrete, High temperature, Moderate exposure.
Dr R Tuladhar is Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering,

Tribhuvan University.
Mr A P Malla is Structural Engineer at the Wonaw and Associates.
205
206 Tuladhar, Malla
INTRODUCTION
The urban areas of Nepal are extensively using concrete structures. A few years back,
concrete design codes were implemented of its own (NBC 110: 1994, NBC 107: 1994 etc) [1, 2].
They heavily rely on the corresponding Indian Standard (IS) codes [3, 4]. The cover to
reinforcement bars in reinforced concrete structural elements is provided considering critical
fire loading. Most of the time, due to workmanship problem at the construction site, the rebar
is seen provided with insufficient cover. Though it increases slightly the moment capacity, it
is vulnerable to fire and decrease in bond strength can be anticipated. Furthermore, there is no
practice in Nepal to assess and quantify the fire damage to the concrete structural elements.
Figure 1 shows an unserviceable public building that was damaged by fire. The concrete
being used in Nepal are mostly of lower grade normal concrete (20 to 25 MPa characteristic
compressive strength). How does it perform under fire? Is it serviceable after exposure to
fire? A very few research work is being carried out about the concrete as structural material
as the need of the country. In this context, the authors would like to start the study about the
response of fire to concrete.
Concrete Beam damaged by fire. Beams and slab damaged by fire.
Beam and slab damaged by fire. Concrete ceiling damaged by fire.
Figure 1 An unserviceable public office building damaged by fire (Nawalparashi, Nepal)
The method of testing, rate of heating, duration of heating, size and shape of test specimen,
loading condition etc have significant effect on the strength of concrete subjected to fire [5].
Moreover, type and size of aggregates, cement content etc also affect the performance of
concrete at elevated temperatures. Aggregates used in Nepal are mostly siliceous sandstones.
It is said that they are more vulnerable to fire than other types of aggregates [6]. The
Low Grade Concrete 207
consideration of effect of fire to concrete structures is completely ignored in Nepal. The fire
can deteriorate the bond of concrete (compressive strength) as well as that of concrete-rebar
(bond strength). This is the very basic study on the effect of exposed fire to the concrete
compressive strength and concrete-rebar bond strength. The concrete is typical representing
local practice. The ingredients of the concrete are the most commonly used materials in the
urban areas of Nepal. It is also the practice in Nepal to provide cement-sand plaster as the
surface finishes to the concrete structures. In this study an attempt has been made to find out
the effect of non-structural cement-sand plaster to the compressive strength of concrete.
EXPERIMENT DETAILS
A total of 200 concrete specimens consisting of 100 mm cubes were prepared for this study.
Three different types of experimental investigation were carried out. They were categorized
into four groups.
Group I had 50 specimens and tested for evaluation of compressive strength of concrete.
Group II had 50 specimens and tested for evaluation of compressive strength of concrete with
cement sand plaster. Group III had 50 specimens and tested for evaluation of concrete-rebar
bond strength with 60 mm embedment length. Group IV had 50 specimens and tested for
evaluation of concrete-rebar bond strength with 30 mm embedment length. The details of all
the experimental specimens of different groups are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Details of experiments (Number of experimental specimens)
100C 200C 300C

GROUP ROOM
(TESTED) TEMP.
30 90 180 30 90 180 30 90 180
I (without
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Plaster)
II (with
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Plaster)
III (60mm
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Embedment)
IV (30mm
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Embedment)
Concrete Constituents
The cement confirms to IS 1489 [7] for Portland Pozzolana Cement and was manufactured
under brand name Buland. No test on cement was conducted. The natural sandstone coarse
aggregate with maximum nominal size of 20 mm were used. It was obtained from one of the
widely used source, Lele a place in Kathmandu. Aggregates were used without washing
208 Tuladhar, Malla
which is widely practiced in local construction. No test on the physical and chemical
properties of the aggregates was conducted. The natural sand passing through No. 20 IS sieve
was used as fine aggregates. It was obtained from one of the widely used source, Belkhu a
place in Kathmandu. The fine aggregates too were used without washing. No test on the
physical and chemical properties of the fine aggregates was conducted. Tap water in the
laboratory was used. The steel rebar used was 8 mm diameter cold twisted deformed bars
with minimum guaranteed yield strength of 415 MPa. It was manufactured by local
manufacturer Himal Iron. It was mildly cleaned with sandpaper to ensure no rust over the
bonding surfaces.
Test Parameters
The concrete mix was designed with a target characteristic compressive strength of 20 MPa.
The mix proportioning is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Mix Proportioning for all concrete specimens
CONCRETE INGREDIENTS CONSTITUENTS, kg/m3
Cement 382
Sand 573
Coarse Aggregate 1221
Water 162
Exposure temperature and time
Exposure temperature and exposure time were the two main test variables. For the specimens
of each group three different exposure temperatures 100C, 200C and 300C and three
different exposure times 30 minutes, 90 minutes and 180 minutes were considered in this
study as also indicated in Table 1.
Cooling method
The specimens of all the four groups were allowed to cool in air for 24 hours at room
temperature before testing.
Testing
All the test cube specimens were cast in steel moulds in two layers. Each layer was
compacted on a vibrating table. After 24 hours, they were taken out from the mould and
placed in a water curing tank. The water in the curing tank had average temperature of 22C
measured at the day time. Before exposure to heat, the specimens either in compression or
bond, were allowed to dry completely at room temperature for 24 hours. They were then
placed in oven for the required heat exposure time.
The oven shown in Figure 2 was used for this study. While heating precautions were taken so
that a minimum gap (about 10 mm) was maintained between the multiple specimens for air
circulation. The temperature in the oven was also checked by thermometer in addition to its
own indicator. The specimens were then cooled in air for 24 hours at room temperature
before testing.
Thermometer
Figure 2 Oven and the specimens with air gap
The compression testing of cube specimens were carried out in compression testing machine
(Figure 3) at loading rate of 150 KN/minute. The concrete-rebar bond testing of cube
specimens were carried out in UTM machine (Figure 3). For testing the specimens of Groups
III and IV, simple arrangement was made for pull out test as shown in Figure 3 (Bond Test).
In the cases of Group III and IV, failure happened by pull out of the embedded rebar.
In the case of Group II specimens, cement sand plaster of 10 mm thickness was applied over
all the six faces of the cube. The cubes were plastered with 1:6 cement sand plaster. The
plastering was done after 7 days of curing of the cube. After plastering, there was a break of 1
day. It was then cured for the remaining 21 days before testing. The Group I and Group II
specimens were tested at the age of 28 days and the Group III and Group IV specimens were
tested at the age of 45 days. Out of five specimens for each investigation sub-groups, the two
extreme values were neglected and an average of the remaining three test values were taken
to study the result in later section.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
All the specimens for the test range of temperature and exposure time showed no visible
cracks. Group I specimens showed a gradual increase in the compressive strength of concrete
with increasing exposure time and temperature as shown in Figure 4. Even at 300C
temperature exposure for 180 minutes, decrease in the compressive strength of concrete was
not detected.
210 Tuladhar, Malla
According to Abrams [8], there is increase in strength of concrete made of siliceous

aggregates up to 600F (572C) and there is sharp decline afterward. According to Zoldner
[6], the compressive strength of concrete made of sandstone aggregates increases only up to
around 200C.
Bond Test
Compression Test
Figure 3 The compression test and the concrete-rebar bond test
Group II specimens showed an increase in compressive strength of concrete with increasing

exposure time and temperature as shown in Figure 5. However, when compared to Group I
specimens (the mean compressive strength values at room temperature for Group I and Group
II are shown in Figures 4 and 5), the compressive strength of concrete was found reduced in
case of Group II for all the specimens. The authors felt it rather strange and designed a
confirmatory test of the similar design of the specimens of Group II. The authors thought the
reason for decrease in compressive strength was due to stress concentration.
The Group II specimens with 10 mm thick cement sand plaster, on loading, first get crushed.
This was indicated by instantaneous drop in loads as indicated by the loading machine dial
gauge. The sand particles are thought to be effective in transferring the load from the plaster
to the concrete cube, then after. Due to point load transfer, the concrete fails in compression
at much lower applied load. The failure compressive stress was not changed but it attains at
relatively lower applied load from machine due to localized stress transfer from the sand
particles. The authors; therefore, devised a simple compression test to verify the logic. Fifteen
cube specimen samples were prepared exactly the same way as Group I specimens from the
same one batch of concrete. The five specimens were tested exactly the same way as Group I.
Next five specimens were tested with 10 mm thick cement-sand plaster plates (Figure 6)
placed on either side of compression faces resembling Group II compression testing condition.
Another five specimens were tested without cement sand plaster like in Group I but with 114
steel ball bearings of 5 mm diameter placed on either side of the compression faces as shown
in Figure 6. Again the similar results were obtained as in the differences in compressive
strength results of Group I and Group II. The compressive strength results of Group II were
found very close to that obtained from specimens tested with ball bearings.
125
NORMALIZED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, %
120
EXPOSURE TIME
115 30 minutes
90 minutes
180 minutes
110
105
100
95 Mean Value = 19.5 MPa
90
0 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 4 Compressive cube strength of concrete - Group I
125
NORMALIZED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, %
120
EXPOSURE TIME
115 30 minutes
90 minutes
180 minutes
110
105
100
95
Mean Value = 11.0 MPa
90
0 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 5 Compressive cube strength of concrete - Group II

212 Tuladhar, Malla
Compression Test with steel ball bearings Compression Test with cement sand plates
Figure 6 Compression test with steel ball bearings and cement sand plates
105
NORMALIZED BOND STRENGTH, %
100
L
95
90
EXPOSURE TIME
30 minutes
85
90 minutes
180 minutes
80
0 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 7 Bond strength of concrete - Group III
All the specimens of Group III and Group IV showed failure by pull out of the embedded
rebar. Group III specimens showed gradual loss of bond strength with increasing temperature
and exposure time as shown in Figure 7. The rate of decrease in bond strength seemed greater
at higher temperature and higher exposure time. The bond strength was taken as the
maximum load on the bar indicated by the loading machine divided by the rebar surface area.
Group IV specimens showed similar result as Group III specimens. The result of Group IV
specimens are shown in Figure 8. Load for the bond strength was larger in Group III
specimens due to larger bond length. But, the average bond stress was nearly the same for
both cases for any particular temperature and exposure time case. The average bond stress in
both the Groups for no temperature exposure condition was found about 9 MPa which is 4.7
times higher than that permitted as design bond strength of concrete in clause 26.2.1.1 of IS
456 [4]. Even the most degraded average bond stress in both the Groups for maximum
exposure temperature and time was found to be about 4 times higher than that permitted in
the design code [4].
105
100
NORMALIZED BOND STRENGTH, %
95
90
EXPOSURE TIME
30 minutes
85
90 minutes
180 minutes
80
0 100 200 300
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 8 Bond strength of concrete - Group IV
CONCLUSIONS
1. The compressive strength of concrete, heated to temperature range of 100 to 300C and
temperature exposure time range of 30 minutes to 180 minutes, showed increasing
tendency with increasing temperature and exposure time. The degrading strength of
concrete could probably be detected at greater temperatures and/or greater exposure time
than that of this experimental study.
2. The compressive strength of concrete, with 10 mm thick cement sand plaster; and heated
to temperature range of 100 to 300C and temperature exposure time range of 30 minutes
to 180 minutes, showed increasing tendency with increasing temperature and exposure
time. There is apparent decrease in strength of concrete tested with cement sand plaster
surfaces.
3. The average bond strength of concrete and rebar showed decreasing tendency with
increasing temperature and exposure time. The average bond stress of concrete and rebar
were found not different for 60 mm and 30 mm embedment length. The average bond
stress of concrete and rebar were found about 4 times higher than the design bond
strength in IS 456, even at the extreme temperature and exposure time considered in this
study.
214 Tuladhar, Malla
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Prof. P. N. Maskey and Prof. M. P. Aryal, I.o.E.,
T.U., Nepal and Prof. T. K. Dutta, IIT Delhi, India for their comments, suggestions and
encouragement for this research endeavour.
REFERENCES
1. GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL, MINISTRY OF PHYSICAL PLANNING AND

WORKS, DEPARTMENT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION, Nepal National Building Code NBC:110 Plain And Reinforced
Concrete 1994.
2. GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL, MINISTRY OF PHYSICAL PLANNING AND

WORKS, DEPARTMENT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION, Nepal National Building Code NBC:107 Provisional
Recommendation on Fire Safety 1994.
3. BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, IS 1641: 1988, IS 1642: 1989, IS 1643: 1988, IS

1644: 1988 Fire Safety of Building.
4. BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, IS 456: 2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete

Code of Practice, Fourth Reprint October 2001.
5. NEVILLE, A M. Properties of Concrete, Longman, London, 1995.
6. ZOLDNERS, N. G., Effect of high temperature on concrete incorporating different

aggregate, Proceedings, ASTM, Vol. 60, 1960, pp. 1087 1108.
7. BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, IS 1489 Specification for Portland Pozzolana

Cement.
8. ABRAMS M. S., Compressive Strength of Concrete at temperature to 166oF, Temperature

and Concrete SP 25, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1971, pp. 33-58.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE COMPRESSIVE RING IN
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS IN FIRE
D Fox
A Usmani
D Lange
University of Edinburgh
United Kingdom
ABSTRACT. University of Edinburgh researchers have been among the leaders in

modelling whole structures in fire and producing a great deal of new understanding on the
integrated structural response to fire. This work began with a 4 year modelling project soon
after the Cardington fire tests in 1996 and has continued ever since. The work at Edinburgh
and that of other researchers in the field has been unanimous in the opinion that reinforced
concrete floor slabs are the key members in maintaining structural stability and integrity
when the structure is subjected to fire. Fire induced geometrical changes produce large
deflections in the slab and even if there is significant loss of strength, the change of shape of
the slab allows stability to be maintained by the slab acting as a tensile membrane. This of
course depends upon the amount and arrangement of reinforcement and the end restraint
conditions of the slab. If the slab is continuous over the supports and the continuity of
reinforcement over the support can also be assumed then the anchoring of the tensile
membrane action is not in doubt. There is however a mechanism by which even simply
supported slabs can produce a degree of tensile membrane action. In this case although there
are no lateral (or in-plane) reactions available at the supports, there is a self-equilibrating
mechanism that occurs in the form of a compressive ring between the central and perimeter
regions of the slab which provides restraint to the membrane tensions (rather like the rigid
ring surrounding a trampoline). Some authors have used this to develop design methods for
slabs in fire, however there has been no attempt to really understand the nature of this
mechanism and to properly quantify it. This paper will attempt to examine a compressive
ring in a completely unrestrained slab.
Keywords: Concrete slabs in fire, Membrane interactions in slabs, Slab boundary conditions,
Finite element modelling of fire.
D Fox is a researcher at the University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
Dr Asif S Usmani, is a Lecturer, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
David Lange MEng is a PhD Student, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
215
216 Fox, Usmani, Lange
INTRODUCTION
The importance of fire resistant design applied to multi-storey buildings has been emphasised
greatly since the Broadgate Phase 8 fire of 1990, where a partially completed structure with
ineffective fire suppression measures survived a severe 4.5 hour fire with no collapse. This
event is seen as a turning point in fire engineering as it exposed several inadequacies in the
prescriptive and somewhat unscientific methods of fire safety design at that point. It
prompted the Building Research Establishment (BRE) to construct and test an eight-storey
framed building at their facility at Cardington, in an effort to better understand the various
interacting phenomena in a typical steel framed high-rise fire. The results of the Cardington
tests have been extensively analysed by Edinburgh University and other institutions.
Numerical models have been produced which predict the behaviour of such systems in fire
and agree closely with the Cardington results [1]. What has been made clear is the complexity
of the various interactions, with material and geometric non-linearity in highly redundant
structures exaggerated due to fire effects. This poses a challenge to fire safety engineers, as
real behaviour further distances itself from the idealised behaviour that the fire safety ratings
are based on. Fire resistance ratings for buildings are attributed based on the performance of
isolated members in furnace tests. This is a significant factor in the discrepancy between
design behaviour and real behaviour, and there are many others. Another is that the
performance of the modern composite steel-concrete floor slabs used in the Broadgate Phase
8 and many other modern high-rises is relatively poorly understood. For years now it has
been recognised that the response of steel framed composite buildings in fire is mostly
dependent on the performance of the concrete slabs in bracing the heated structure.
Analysis programs produced in the wake of this research include the FEAST suite (1999),
created at the University of Edinburgh [2], and VULCAN (1995), created at the University of
Sheffield [3]. Results from the Cardington tests and the extensive numerical modelling of
steel-framed structures in fire have underlined the importance of membrane interactions
within the floor slabs.
It is noted that the ability of concrete floor bays to exist at high deflections and still function
structurally adds to a buildings inherent fire resistance. Slabs achieve this through a
combination of compressive and tensile membrane action which adds to their design ultimate
load capacity as predicted from linear analysis methods. The ability of the bays to experience
beneficial membrane actions depends on the provision of fire resistance to the secondary
beams [4].
The aim of this research is to investigate the behaviour of reinforced concrete floor slabs
subjected to thermal loads using the finite element method. The propagation of compressive
and tensile membrane forces in-plane with the slab and their contribution to the overall
behaviour will be examined.
A variety of slabs with differing depths and restraint conditions will be modelled. A case of
particular interest is that of a completely unrestrained slab, resting upon edge beams. A
degree of edge restraint has been considered necessary to provide the required stress
distribution for beneficial membrane load-carrying mechanisms. This work will attempt to
demonstrate such a load-resisting mechanism occurring in a slab with no edge restraint.
Compressive Ring Analysis 217
BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH
Tensile and compressive membrane stresses in concrete slabs constitute a large part of the total
member behaviour but their influence has been to a large extent ignored in general design
procedures. The mechanisms involved are complex due to the large number of variables
involved and the non-linearity inherent in their propagation. Compressive membrane action
adds to the slab strength obtained from yield line analysis. Also, tensile membrane action is a
load-carrying mechanism only observed at large slab displacements which are outside
practicable serviceability limits. These phenomena have undergone intensive study since the
Cardington tests, in both analysing the results from the experiment (especially the corner test)
and the subsequent numerical modelling investigations.
General
Interest in the tensile and compressive membrane phenomena has increased due to results from
the Cardington tests indicating that they may play an active role in the building design process.
While large displacements are unacceptable while the building is in service, during an extreme
event such as a fire when occupants are likely to have evacuated the priority is on avoiding
ultimate collapse. Large displacements are inconsequential at this point, and it is now
recognised that slab performance and tensile membrane action in particular plays a major role
in redistributing building loads to form sustainable load paths. [5, 6], Related to this issue is the
integrity of the buildings compartmentation as described earlier. A small local breach may
alter the course of the initial fire and have the potential to cause greater damage. Either way, a
greater understanding of membrane interactions at ambient or elevated temperatures is
recommended in order to deal discuss these issues with authority. Another example is in
economy of fire protection. Reinforced or composite slabs undergoing large membrane stresses
are able to maintain the stability of fire-weakened steel frame structures. Recent work has
suggested that this ability nullifies the contribution of secondary beams to global stability and
renders them unnecessary at elevated temperatures [7]. Essentially, the effect is that secondary
beams need not be fire-protected to any extent. This obviously will create large savings in cost
where such protection was previously deemed necessary and will be an attractive alternative to
contractors. Still, more knowledge of the governing physics is recommended before there are
any changes in policy regarding slab construction.
Compressive membrane action
Compressive membrane action is very dependent on the extent of lateral restraint to the slab.
When a slab has a load incident on it, the interior part will sag. Assuming full restraint, the areas
closer to the edges will hog, while sections directly adjacent to the boundaries will experience no
change in shape. At small deflections, slab continuity presents an incompatibility between the
exterior and interior parts. The centre tries to expand, but is in a sense tied to the edges.
Therefore a ring of tensile stress materialises around the extreme perimeter, while the interior
experiences compression. These membrane forces hold each other in equilibrium and form a
stable mechanism. This holds because, even though the compressive forces are usually in excess
of the tension, the boundaries provide some of the tensile force. The bending strength of a
concrete slab can depend greatly upon the axial load (membrane force). There exists an apex
corresponding to the maximum theoretical bending strength, which requires a certain value of
axial force to be reached. If this is done, both the axial force capacity and bending capacity are
reached simultaneously in a balanced failure. This strengthening effect is considerable in deep
and stocky slabs with small amounts of reinforcement (under-reinforced, the norm in building
design). The exact extent is difficult to determine, but generally in practice slabs can exceed their
yield line ultimate load.
Tensile membrane action
Tensile membrane action is a load-carrying mechanism which occurs at high deflections. There
has to be significant deflection from the horizontal for the effect to materialise; when in-plane
forces become inclined, their vertical components can carry a small amount of incident load.
This is known as catenery action: a simple analogy is a heavy chain hanging due to its own
weight, where tensile forces balance the transverse load. Usually in this situation, a compressive
stress ring develops around the slab central area to support the interior tension. This is similar
to the description of a tensile ring supporting the compression in compressive membrane
action, but that only happens at low deflections. The strength enhancement effect of tensile
membrane action is not large (at ambient conditions), but it does generally allow for the slab to
ultimately yield with the rupture of internal reinforcement. It is extensively documented that by
exploiting the additional load-carrying mechanism of membrane action, slabs can be subjected
to loads much higher than those predicted by the well-established yield line analysis methods
[8, 9]. The combined effects of compressive and tensile membrane action lead to a load-
deflection diagram for concrete slabs similar to that in Figure 1.
Tensile membrane action,

Compressive membrane
terminated by reinforcement
action
rupture
APPLIED LOAD
Yield line collapse load
SLAB CENTRAL DEFLECTION
Figure 1 General Load-central deflection curve of concrete slab
This curve demonstrates the higher deflections that are possible to be maintained using
membrane interactions, and the non-linearity is apparent. However, it also shows that for
practical serviceability-based design, traditional yield-line analysis methods are definitely
applicable.
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
All of the structural analyses involved in this research were performed using the finite
element analysis suite ABAQUS. In order to provide a simple introduction to the nature of in-
plane membrane forces, a simple model of a monolithic circular concrete slab was created.
It was analysed using two different boundary conditions; in one case the outside edge
experienced full restraint against movement, in the other the edge was simply supported at
the bottom.
Axis-symmetric model of circular concrete slab
The circular slab model was created using rectangular axis-symmetric CAX4R elements. This
approach allows the stresses in both in-plane directions to be clearly interpreted using the
ABAQUS CAE visual interface. The slab diameter was 3 m and the depth was 100 mm.
Ambient pressure loading was applied to the top of the slab in steps of 25 kPa to a final load
of 200 kPa.
Fully restrained case
In this case, the outside edge of the slab was fully built-in which prevents any kind of
translation or rotational movement and supports a bending moment. In-plane with the cross-
section, during the initial loading stages the slab exhibited a stress distribution typical of
beam bending. At the support tensile stresses occurred near the top face and compressive
stresses occurred towards the bottom. As expected, this situation reversed moving closer to
the slab centre, in accordance with sagging and hogging bending stress patterns. But the
transverse stresses are of greater interest. Initially the transverse stresses towards the top of
the slab increases in compression and increases in tension towards the bottom, very similar to
the in-plane stresses. This is logical considering the axis-symmetric disc shape. The
behaviour is different near the supports, due to the restraint conditions. Once the slab reaches
a deflection of 46 mm, corresponding to a load of 0.125 kPa, the central compressive stress
begins to decrease. Tensile stresses increase vertically through the section and the centre of
the slab acts as a tensile net, supported by the reinforcement. The transverse compressive
stress is now isolated to a region roughly one-third of the span from the edge restraint. This
represents the propagation of the compressive ring as predicted by the theory in Section 2.
This mechanism is clearly visible below in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Cross-section of fully restrained axis-symmetric slab
The tensile nature of the middle section of the slab is also evident in Figure 2. In this situation
ultimate failure depends upon the tensile yield strength of the reinforcement.
Simply supported case
For this model a pinned restraint was applied to the bottom edge of the slab. Therefore the
edge was allowed to rotate and there was no area of hogging bending. This had a great effect
on the observed deflections, as it weakened the structure against incident loads. Again, as the
loading increases, transverse compression at the top of the section increases until it can no
longer be sustained. The compressive stress moves back toward the edge of the slab as
tension takes over the slab centre. There are two main differences between this result and the
outcome of the fully restrained condition; firstly, tension occurs in the highest sections of the
slab at much lower loads. Also, transverse compression occurs closer to the slab edge. This is
an expected result of there being no hogging bending regime anywhere in this case. Figure 3
shows the compressive ring effect occurring in the simply supported slab.
Figure 3 Cross-section of simply supported axis-symmetric slab
While the configuration above does not show a strictly unrestrained slab, it is not of great
consequence to these preliminary investigations as no thermal load has been applied.
Therefore there is no need to specifically allow thermal expansion. The deflected shape
observed is very similar to what would be found if it were completely unrestrained. The most
important aspect of this is the ability of the slab to experience positive rotations (sagging)
right up to the slab boundary. The propagation of membrane stresses in concrete slabs is
dependent on the types of deflection available, as a result of the boundary condition.
Brief conclusions
From this brief series of analyses the following predictions may be deduced:
Fully restrained slabs under ambient loading experience both tensile and compressive
membrane action.
Unrestrained slabs proceed directly to the compressive membrane mechanism: there is
no tension developed at the boundary and internal compressive stress recedes faster
under loading.
Compressive membrane stresses appear to be confined to the upper parts of the slab
section. This could prove beneficial in fire situations where a significant thermal
gradient creates a cool upper face and a hot lower face.
ANALYSIS OUTLINE
This research involved the modelling of reinforced concrete slabs in fire. To do this, various
ABAQUS analyses were conducted using a 100 mm slab with the underside exposed to a 1
hour British Standard design fire. The time-temperature curve for this fire obeys the equation
T = To + 345log(0.133t + 1). The software used to relate this temperature curve to a thermal
distribution throughout the slab was the University of Edinburghs in-house program
Slabcap0.
Introduction to Slabcap0
Predominantly Slabcap0 is used to find the limit capacity of RC slabs in fire but part of its
function is deducing through-slab temperatures for a range of parameters such as type of
concrete, slab depth and fire specification. A normal weight concrete slab 100 mm thick
subjected on its underside to a 1-hour British Standard design fire was analysed. The through-
slab temperature distributions produced are given in Figure 4.
600
5mm
500
15mm
25mm
Temperatre (C)
400
35mm
45mm
300
55mm
65mm
200
75mm
85mm
100
95mm
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Time (s)
Figure 4 Temperature Curves at Slab Sections 100 mm Slab 1 Hour Fire Duration
This data was used in the direct specification of slab section temperatures during the
ABAQUS slab analysis.
ABAQUS Analyses
The numerical simulation package ABAQUS was used to compare via simulation the
behaviour of fully restrained and fully unrestrained R.C. concrete slabs exposed to the same
fire conditions. To do this a square slab of 6 m edge and 100 mm depth was modelled.
Generic concrete material properties and temperature relationships were used. Reinforcement
consisted of two 200 mm centre steel meshes, one placed 20 mm from the base with 12 mm
diameter bars, the other 20 mm from the top with 6mm bars. This detail was chosen to
provide reasonable deflections compatible with effective membrane stresses.
An ambient pressure load of 5 kPa was applied to the top face before attributing the
temperature distributions from the fire. This allowed the slabs mechanical response to be
observed and compared to the behaviour in fire. In the first instance the edges were restrained
and in the second, an edge beam was modelled to provide support only against a downward
vertical deflection. A differentiation must be made between the terms unrestrained and
simply supported: a simply supported slab would require the edges to be pinned, allowing
local rotations at the edges but not translations. This case would provide restraint against
thermal expansion and would anchor the edges of the slab in three directions. It is obvious
that in a fully unrestrained case, with the slab resting on edge beams and free to slide, the
edges of the slab overlapping the edge beams would theoretically curl up due to
compatibility with the slab, as it is entirely in sagging bending. This is despite the overall
pressure load acting down on these regions. In this case the overlap is equal to the slab depth,
which is 100 mm. The slabs were modelled using a 10 x 10 mesh of CPS4R shell elements.
In order to save processing time and provide economy of data, only quarter-slab models were
used with appropriate boundary conditions used to provide structural symmetry in two axes.
Figure 5 shows the two different meshes: the left model represents the fully restrained case
(boundary specification not visible) while the right model clearly shows the edge beam part
used to provide support. In each model the top right node (numbered 121) represents the
centre of the 6 m slab. The edge beam was modelled as rigid by giving it unrealistically stiff
material properties. The interaction property between the slab and beam was designated as
frictionless. This was acceptable as the situation being modelled is theoretical.
Figure 5 ABAQUS meshes for slab analyses
Output was requested for 9 section depths throughout the slab. These were the bottom face,
12.5 mm, 25 mm, 37.5 mm, 50 mm, 62.5 mm, 75 mm, 87.5 mm and the top face. With this
data it is possible to see, despite using shell elements, the through-depth in-plane stress
response of the slabs. This provides useful information on the location of any compressive
ring effect and its propagation throughout the slab with increasing deflection.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Analysis of restrained slab
The first case to be modelled was the fully restrained slab in fire. The stresses observed in the
early stages of the fire validate the claims made in Section 2 concerning tensile membrane
theory. The deflections are very low (less than 25 mm) and stress states consistent with
tensile membrane action are visible. The centre experiences compression while low tensile
stresses form a ring around the sagging region. The graph of central deflection of the slab
versus time is shown in Figure 6:
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-50
Deflection (mm)
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Time (s)
Figure 6 Central deflection against time for restrained slab
Central deflection slowly increases from the ambient loading value of 5.9 mm to a very
obvious point of snapping-through at around 1450 s. This corresponds with a sharp increase
in the in-plane compressions at a position roughly 900 mm-1500 mm from the slab edge.
As the deflection increases and the temperatures in the slab rise, the initial stress state
changes to that shown in Figure 7. Here there is a very obvious ring of compressive stress
surrounding the area of highest deflection.
This is predicted by the tensile membrane theory. Small tensile stresses are evident in the
centre, where a tensile net mechanism has been developed. Figure 8 shows the variation in
compressive stress from the middle of one edge to the slab centre at different depths, for the
end of the heating regime (t = 3601 s).
Figure 7 Representation of compressive ring top face of 100 mm slab, t = 5041 s
5.00E+00
Minimun in-plane stress (MPa)
0.00E+00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
-5.00E+00 100
87.5
-1.00E+01 75
62.5
-1.50E+01 50
-2.00E+01
-2.50E+01
Distance from edge of slab (mm)
Figure 8 Through-depth stress profiles from slab edge to slab centre
Figure 8 shows that generally the highest membrane compressions occur towards the top of
the slab. The figures in the legend correspond to positions throughout the slab depth,
measured from the bottom. It shows that the tensile action in the slab centre has not yet
propagated to the top surface, as the line representing this section terminates below 0
(compressive stresses being negative, tensile positive). The locations of the peaks in
compression correspond to the location of the compressive ring relative to the slab edge in
Figure 7. Therefore it is shown that the compressive effect declines through depth, as was
predicted in Section 3. The reversal in deflection evident in Figure 6 corresponds to the effect
of the cooling phase of the heating regime, which is an area where more study is needed to
fully comprehend. The complex mechanisms of thermal shrinkage coupled with non-
constant, post-cracking material properties means that this poses a particular challenge to
techniques of numerical simulation. Nevertheless, it has been shown that deflections will
increase with an increase in temperature, but only very slowly once the tensile membrane
action occurs. This result is delivered by the decreasing gradient of the temperature-
deflection graph in Figure 6.
Analysis of fully unrestrained slab
It was found that upon simulating the 100 mm thick unrestrained slab, deflections increased
with temperature as was expected but the stress state which developed was not fully
consistent with membrane theory. As expected, there was no regime of tensile membrane
action, as the lack of lateral restraint meant that no tensile forces could be supported at the
boundary. However, the compressive stresses generated lay parallel to the classical yield lines
predicted by Johanssens yield line theory. It was decided to increase the slab section to
200 mm as a less slender slab would be less likely to deform in the folding manner observed.
This was deemed acceptable as the objective was to examine for beneficial membrane
tensions supported by a compressive ring in an unrestrained slab, irrespective of depth. The
time-deflection chart of the 200 mm analysis is shown in Figure 9.
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-20
-40
Deflection (mm)
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
Time (s)
Figure 9 Deflection history of 200mm unrestrained slab
Figure 9 shows that around t = 2880 there is a decrease in deflection rate. In the early stages
of the fire, compressive membrane stresses increase towards the centre, as was shown in the
unrestrained case of Section 3. Again, a very obvious point of snapping-through is reached
and the compression at the centre decreases till tensile membrane action appears. Importantly,
compression is shown to increase around the perimeter of the slab. Figure 10 represents the
stresses in the top face at t = 4321 s and clearly shows this effect:
Figure 10 describes the tensile membrane stress state responsible for the decrease in deflection
rate between t = 2880 s and t = 4321 s. Note how the corner of the slab has deflected upwards,
indicating that the model has adopted a sensible deformed shape. Figure 11 shows the through-
depth in-plane stress variation at t = 3601.
Figure 10 Stress state in 200 mm unrestrained slab at t = 4321 s
2
Minimum in-plane stress (MPa)
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
-2 200
175
-4 150
125
-6 100
-8
-10
-12
Distnce from edge of slab (mm)
Figure 11 Through depth stress profiles from edge to slab centre
Figure 11 describes the high compressions at the perimeter of the slab, but these are only
evident in the upper portions. Here the compressive ring is confined to an area at the edge
within the upper quarter (50 mm) of the slab. Again, it is expected that this holds due the
upper areas of the slab retaining much of their ambient strength, as temperatures in these
regions do not increase greatly due to concretes low conductivity.
However, this phenomenon is of course dependent on the duration and severity of the fire.
The line representing the 87.5 mm section is characteristic of tensile membrane theory, in that
there is an obvious change from compression at the edge to a tensile net evident in the slab
centre.
CONCLUSIONS
An investigation into the membrane stresses in a reinforced concrete slabs subjected to fire
has been presented. Computational finite element software was used to simulate the slab
mechanisms and retrieve data. Two computer programs were used in the analysis procedure:
firstly, the slab depth and fire specification were inputted to the one-dimensional heat transfer
code Slabcap0. This gave as output the temperature distributions in the slab at certain points
in time throughout the fire. This information was then used as input to an ABAQUS analysis
which produced the deflection and stress histories. The slab boundary conditions were varied
in the analysis. The aim was to observe how boundary restraint affected the propagation of
load-carrying mechanisms due to membrane interactions. Observing deflected slab profiles
and the associated in-plane stress distributions formed the basis of the research. The analysis
carried out in this report has led to the following conclusions:
Where full restraint is supplied, the ABAQUS simulation of a basic 100mm slab
exposed to a one hour fire gives results which closely resemble the theoretical stress
resultants required to bring about compressive membrane action at low deflections
and tensile membrane action at high deflections.
For a fully restrained slab in fire, the initial deflection rate is low as tensile membrane
action keeps the slab stiff at low deflections. After a period of time, however,
snapping through is observed and the slab quickly deforms to its next stable state.
This is usually where the top of the slab is resisting the load in tension with the
formation of a compressive ring around the sagging region to support the mechanism.
Increasing the depth of a concrete section massively enhances its ability to resist fire-
induced deflections.
Tensile membrane action is observed in a fully unrestrained slab resting on edge

beams. The slab has to be thicker than a fully restrained slab for the same geometry
for the in-plane stresses at high deflections to have an effect on the slab strength.
REFERENCES
1. GILLIE, M., USMANI, A.S., ROTTER, J.M. (2001) A structural analysis of the first
Cardington test, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 57 (2001) pp. 581-601
2. GILLIE, M (1999) Development of generalised stress-strain relationships for the

concrete slab in shell models, PIT project research report SS1.
3. BAILEY, C.G., WHITE, D.S., MOORE, D.B. (1999) The tensile membrane action of
unrestrained composite slabs simulated under fire conditions, Engineering Structures 22
(2000) pp. 1583-1595
4. HUANG, Z., BURGESS, I.W., PLANK, R.J. (2002) Fire resistance of composite floors
subject to compartment fires, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60 (2004) pp.
339-360
5. ALLAM, A., BURGESS, I.W., PLANK, RJ. [1] (Year unknown) Simple investigations
of tensile membrane action in composite slabs in fire, University of Sheffield, UK
6. HUANG, Z., BURGESS, I.W., PLANK, R.J. (2003) The influence of tensile membrane
action in concrete slabs on the behavior of composite steel-framed buildings in fire,
University of Sheffield, U.K.
7. BAILEY, C.G. (2001) Steel structures supporting composite floor slabs: design for fire.
BRE Centre for Structural Engineering, Digest 462
8. GILLIE, M., USMANI,A.S., ROTTER, J.M. (2002) Bending and membrane action in
concrete slabs, Fire and Materials 28 (2004) pp. 139-157
9. NEWMAN, G.M., ROBINSON, J.T., BAILEY, C.G. (2000) Fire safe design: A new
approach to multi-storey steel-framed buildings. Steel Construction Institute publication
P288
RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF POLYPROPYLENE FIBRE-
REINFORCED HIGH-STRENGTH CONCRETES HEATED TO
HIGH TEMPERATURES
A Behnood
M Khanzadi
Iran University of Science and Technology
Iran
ABSTRACT. Test results are presented from an experimental study in which the effect of
high temperatures on the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and ultrasonic pulse
velocity measurements of high-strength concretes containing polypropylene fibers varied from
0 to 3 kg/m was investigated. No significant differences were observed in the compressive
strength of all four concretes at 20 and 100C, whereas the splitting tensile strength increased
on average 7.9% and 16.8% at 20 and 100C, respectively, by adding of polypropylene fibers.
In general, test results showed higher values of relative residual compressive and splitting
tensile strengths for concretes containing polypropylene fibers after exposure to elevated
temperatures. The splitting tensile strength was more sensitive to high temperatures than the
compressive strength. Furthermore, the presence of polypropylene fiber was more effective for
compressive strength than splitting tensile strength above 200C. It was also resulted that the
ultrasonic pulse velocity test is not a reliable and precise method to determine the residual
strength of concretes after exposure to high temperatures. However, it may be used to evaluate
the general quality of heated concretes without polypropylene fibers.
Keywords: Compressive strength, Elevated temperature, High-strength concrete, Splitting

tensile strength, Ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Ali Behnood is a member of ACI Committees 363 (High-strength concrete), 228

(Nondestructive testing of concrete), and 237 (Self-consolidating concrete) as well as RILEM
TCT-181. His research interests include behavior of high-performance concrete, nondestructive
testing, fiber-reinforced cement-based materials, and recycling by-products.
M Khanzadi is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Iran

University of Science and Technology and head of Cement Research Center. He is a member
of ACI Committee 237 (Self-consolidating concrete). His research interests include high-
performance concrete, rheology of cement-based materials, and self-consolidating concrete.
229
230 Behnood, Khanzadi
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, high-strength concrete (HSC) can be produced by the most concrete plants and
extensively used throughout the world. HSC exhibits significantly higher mechanical
strengths as well as superior performances under severe conditions in comparison with the
normal-strength concrete (NSC). With the increasing use of HSC, the risk of subjecting it to
elevated temperatures in the forms of accidental fires or continuous high temperatures also
increases. The behavior of NSC under elevated temperatures has been clearly understood
based on the results of the numerous research works started since the 1920s [1-3].
In recent years, many research projects were carried out to determine the thermal behavioral
differences between HSC and NSC [4-13]. As a result, the rate of strength loss and the
occurrence of explosive spalling are identified as two main differences between HSC and
NSC after exposure to elevated temperatures. In terms of the rate of strength loss, in spite of
the conflicting data, there is a general agreement between the researchers on the relative
residual strength above 400C. In terms of the spalling, different temperatures and failure
mechanisms (thermomechanical process [14,15], thermohydral process [9-11], and a
combination of them [16]) were reported as the critical temperatures and main causes for
spalling of HSC, respectively.
However, the use of polypropylene (PP) fiber was recommended by all of the researchers to
reduce and to eliminate the explosive spalling in HSC under elevated temperatures. From the
industrial point of view, a dosage of 2 kg/m, a fiber length between 10 and 20 mm, and a
fiber diameter of 50-200 m are generally adopted rules for preventing current HSCs from
spalling [21]. Polypropylene fibers are produced from homopolymer polypropylene resin [17].
PP fibers significantly decrease the plastic shrinkage cracking as well as drying shrinkage
cracking [18,19]. Furthermore, PP fibers improve the ductility, toughness, and impact
resistance of concretes. With regard to these advantages of the presence of PP fibers, they are
successfully used for overlays and pavements, slabs, floor systems, crack barrier, precast pile
shells, and shotcrete for tunnel linings, canals, and reservoirs [20].
As mentioned earlier, several researchers have reported the preventing effect of PP fibers
against spalling under elevated temperatures. Kalifa et al. [21] showed the good efficiency of
PP fibers regarding spalling even at dosages as low as 0.9 kg/m. However, different
researchers have inconsistently reported the relative residual strength of HSC containing PP
fibers after exposure to high temperatures. Poon et al. [22] reported that the relative residual
compressive strength of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concretes slightly increased by adding
0.22% (by volume) of PP fibers after exposure to 600C, whereas the relative compressive
strengths of OPC and PP fiber concretes were approximately the same at 800C. They also
observed significant reductions in the relative compressive strength of concretes containing
10% silica fume (SF) by the presence of 0.22% PP fibers (by volume) after heating to 600 and
800C, which were approximately 9% and 30% , respectively.
Chan et al. [23] reported that the relative residual compressive strengths of concretes
containing 10% SF were decreased around 6.1% by adding 1.82 kg/m of PP fibers after
subjecting to 800C. Chen and Liu [24] reported that the relative residual compressive
strength of concretes with and without PP fibers were the same at 200C, whereas the relative
strength losses of concretes containing 0.6% PP fibers (by volume) were approximately 8%,
24%, and 20% lower than those of concretes without PP fibers after heating to 400, 600, and
Polypropylene Fibre-Reinforced Concrete 231
800C, respectively. Hoff et al. [5] reported that the relative compressive strengths of
limestone coarse aggregate concretes were increased about 18.9% and 12.7% at 100C and
200C, respectively, by adding 1.5 kg/m of PP fibers, whereas the relative compressive
strengths of PP fiber concretes were significantly lower than those of non-fiber concretes at
300C and 500C.
Furthermore, the relative residual compressive strengths of concretes with and without fibers
were approximately the same above 700C. As seen, there is significant variability in the
residual compressive strength of PP fiber concretes in the published literature. Furthermore,
little information was reported on the residual splitting tensile strength of concretes containing
different levels of PP fibers in the literature. There is, therefore, a need to pursue the efforts to
understand the residual compressive and splitting tensile strengths of HSC containing PP fibers
after exposure to elevated temperatures. Furthermore, the velocities of ultrasonic pulses
transmitted through the different concrete specimens were measured to examine the accuracy of
the ultrasonic pulse velocity test as a non-destructive method for concretes containing PP fibers
subjected to high temperatures.
With regard to the conflicting data reported about the behavior of high-strength concrete after
heating to high temperatures, continued research is clearly needed. Therefore, this paper as a
part of extensive research provides a comparative study on the compressive strength, splitting
tensile strength, and ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements for high-strength concretes made
with four different dosages of polypropylene fibers ranged from 0 to 3 kg/m after exposure
to elevated temperatures up to 600C.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Materials and Mixture Proportioning
Commercially available polypropylene fibrillated fibers, 12 mm in length were used at

dosages of 1, 2, and 3 kg/m. Typical properties of PP fiber are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of polypropylene fibers
PROPERTY VALUE
Specific gravity, g/cm 0.90-0.91
Tensile strength, MPa 300-690
Elastic modulus, GPa 3.5-4.8
Elongation at yield, % 15
Water absorption Nil
Thermal conductivity Low
Range of melting temperature, C 160-175
Temperature at evaporation [21], C 341
Burning temperature [21], C 460
The fine aggregate was river sand with water absorption of 0.8% and specific gravity of 2.70.
Limestone coarse aggregate with a nominal maximum size (NMSA) of 12.5 mm was used in
this study. The coarse aggregate met the grading requirements of ASTM C 33 for 12.5 to 4.75
mm size aggregates; its water absorption was 0.6% and its specific gravity was 2.65. Type
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) meeting the requirements of ASTM C 150 was used in the
preparation of the concrete specimens. A high-quality commercial silica fume (SF) was used
for preparing the SF concretes.
A commercially available modified polycarboxylate ether high-range water-reducing

admixture (HRWRA) with 44% solid particles was used to prepare the concretes. Tab. 2
shows the concrete mixture proportions and fresh properties. The water to cementitious
materials ratio (w/cm) was constant for all of the mixtures to compare the effect of PP fibers
on the properties of concretes, which was 0.30. The 10% of cement was replaced by silica
fume (SF) for all of the mixtures.
Experimental Procedure
The specimens were cast in the cylindrical molds of 102 mm diameter and a height of 204 mm
in two layers; each layer being consolidated using a vibrating table. Mixing was according to
ASTM C 192. Coarse aggregate was first added to the mixer, followed by approximately one-
third of mixing water, and then the mixer was started.
Fine aggregate, cement, SF, and the remaining water were added to the running mixer in a
gradual manner. Fibers were then added gradually to the running mixer. The addition of PP
fibers usually takes about 2-min. The mixing time for mixtures without fibers continued for
3-min. After 3-min as the rest time, the final mixing takes 2-min. Fresh mixes were tested for
workability by slump in accordance with ASTM C 143 and the unit weight and air content
were measured according to ASTM C 138.
Following casting, concrete specimens were covered with wet burlap and polyethylene sheets
and kept in the laboratory at room temperature for 24 hours. After demolding, specimens
were placed in a saturated limewater bath until the time of testing. Curing was done
according to ASTM C 511. Special care was taken not to dry out the specimens prior to
testing.
The compressive strength tests were carried out according to ASTM C 39, the splitting tensile
strength tests were done in accordance with ASTM C 496, and the ultrasonic pulse velocity
values were measured according to ASTM C 597. The specimens from each mix were placed
in an oven and heated from room temperature (20C) to 100, 200, and 300C at an average
rate of 3C/min. Heating the specimens to 600C was done by an electrically heated furnace
with the same heating rate.
The remaining time at the target temperature was approximately 3 hours, then the furnace
was turned off and specimens were cooled to room temperature. During the heating period,
water vapor was allowed to escape freely.
Table 2 Concrete mix proportions and fresh properties
MIX
CONSTITUENT
NF WF-1 WF-2 WF-3
Cement, kg/m 450 450 450 450

Silica fume, kg/m 50 50 50 50
Polypropylene fiber, kg/m 0 1 2 3
Water, kg/m 149 149 149 149
Fine aggregate, kg/m 615 615 615 615
Coarse aggregate, kg/m 1168 1168 1168 1168

w/cm 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
HRWRA, L/m 3.7 3.9 5.1 5.8
Slump, mm 100 90 110 100
Unit weight, kg/m 2412 2416 2421 2420
Residual Compressive Strength
The results of the residual compressive strength of the concretes are presented in Table 3. The
relative residual compressive strengths of all four concretes are shown in Figure 1. As seen,
no significant increases were observed in the room-temperature compressive strength of
concretes by adding PP fibers. Banthia and Sheng [25] reported that the interfacial bond
between PP fibers and cement paste is weak due to their smooth fiber surface. They also
observed no strength enhancement with PP fibers even at a volume fraction of 5%. However,
polypropylene is chemically inert and hydrophobic, thus eliminating the potential for
chemical bonding. Consequently, the fibrillation has a considerable effect on the bonding
[20]. Bentur et al.[26] suggested that the interfacial adhesion and mechanical anchoring are
two main factors affected the fiber-matrix interaction. Furthermore, the compressive strengths
of WF-3 concretes were slightly decreased. This may be attributed to the formation of
multifilament structure due to the insufficient dispersing of this amount of PP fibers in the
mixture [27].
After heating to 100C, the compressive strengths of all the concretes were significantly
decreased. The NF and WF-2 concretes showed the lowest and greatest relative residual
compressive strengths at 100C, which were 84.1 and 85.5% of the room-temperature values,
respectively.
As shown in Figure 1, the relative residual compressive strengths of concretes with and
without PP fibers were approximately the same after exposure to 100C. This was consistent
with the conclusion of another research reported that the addition of fibers poorly influences
the initial structure of the porous network regarding permeability [21]. The improvement in
the residual compressive strength of all four concretes at 200C when compared to 100C is
attributed to the increase in surface forces between gel particles (Van der Waals) due to the
removal of moisture content [28]. The strength recovery of concretes containing PP fibers
was different from those of concretes without fibers. In other word, the NF and WF-2
concretes showed the lowest and the greatest improvements at 200C when compared to
100C, respectively.
This is attributed to the amount of water vapor that escapes freely through the pathways
formed by the melting of PP fibers between 170 and 175C. Kalifa et al. [21] showed that the
permeability of concrete contained 10% SF and 0.9 kg/m of PP fiber was close to that of
OPC concrete at 200C. They also suggested that the cement matrix is able to absorb the
melted PP, despite the large size of the molecules compared to diameter of paste pores.
Table 3 Compressive strength of concretes at different temperatures
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, MPa

MIX Temperature, C
20 100 200 300 600
NF 84.2 (100%) 70.8 (84.1%) 71.7 (85.2%) 57.9 (68.7%) 22.6 (26.8%)
WF-1 85.3 (100%) 72.2 (84.6%) 74.2 (87.0%) 60.5 (70.9%) 25.2 (29.5%)
WF-2 86.1 (100%) 73.6 (85.5%) 76.8 (89.2%) 62.9 (73.1%) 26.7 (31.0%)
WF-3 82.6 (100%) 70.4 (85.2%) 72.6 (87.9%) 59.3 (71.8%) 23.3 (28.2%)
( ) The value in each parenthesis is the ratio of the strength at a desired temperature to
original value.
100
strength (%)
90 NF
WF-1
RELATIVE COMPRESSIVE
80
70 WF-2
STRENGTH, %
60 WF-3
Relative compressive
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 200 300 600
Temperature ( C
TEMPERATURE, OC)
Figure 1 Relative residual compressive strength of concretes after heating

After subjecting to 300C, the relative residual compressive strengths of the NF, WF-1, WF-
2, and WF-3 concretes were 68.7, 70.9, 73.1, and 71.8%, respectively. The significant
reductions at 300C are attributed to the dense microstructures of these concretes that cause
high pore vapor pressure. The formation of high vapor pressure can extend the inter-
connected network of microcracks and change them into macrocracks and consequently, the
strength drops sharply.
Furthermore, the aggregates expand and cement paste contracts during heating. This different
thermal behavior of components can affect the residual compressive strength of concrete by
the formation of stress concentration in concrete. As seen in Table 1, the residual
compressive strengths of the WF-1, WF-2, and WF-3 concretes were higher than those of the
NF concretes at 300C.
It has been well known that the pore vapor pressure depends on the porosity of concrete.
Since the PP fibers melt before reaching to 300C, the porosity of the concrete is increased
and more escape routes were added to reduce the water vapor pressure. Furthermore, the
disappearance of PP fibers may reduce the results of thermal incompatibility between
aggregates and cement paste due to the providing more free space and doing as a thermal
shock absorber. After exposure to 600C, the relative residual compressive strengths dropped
very sharply for all concretes. There is a general agreement between researchers on the point
of decomposition of calcium hydroxide in the range of 450 to 550C. The lime and water
vapor generated by the decomposition of calcium hydroxide during heating in this range of
temperatures. In terms of water vapor pressure, as indicated previously, the behavior of fiber
concretes were better than that of the NF concretes. In terms of lime, some post-cooling
behavioral changes were reported in the forms of strength gain and loss in concretes [12,13].
The strength gain may be attributed to the rehydration of the gel, the hydration of unhydrated
cement grains, and the carbonation of calcium oxide. The strength loss generally is attributed
to rehydration of lime accompanied by a 44% increase in volume [30]. Furthermore, PP
fibers turn into vapor at 341C [21]. The decomposition products of PP fibers have been
reported to be a variety of hydrocarbons, with the major components being propylene,
pentene, and heptene. In general, it can be concluded that the presence of PP fibers at
different dosages can not affect the relative residual compressive strength at 100, 200, and
300C, whereas they considerably increase the residual compressive strength of concretes
after exposure to 600C. Furthermore, 2 kg/m of PP fibers can be identified as an optimum
amount of PP fibers in concretes due to its superior performance during heating.
Residual Splitting Tensile Strength
The results of the splitting tensile strength of concretes at different temperatures are presented
in Table 4. The relative residual splitting tensile strengths of concretes are shown in Figure 2.
It can be seen from Table 4 that the room-temperature splitting tensile strengths of the NF
concretes increased by adding 1, 2, and 3 kg/m of PP fibers in the mixtures, respectively.
Shah [31] clarified the effect of fibers on the behavior of concrete during cracking. The
referenced study indicated that the presence of fibers introduces additional closing pressure
during the crack growth. This results in an increased resistance to crack growth for the
mixture.
Table 4 Splitting tensile strength of concretes at different temperatures
SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH, MPa

MIX
20C 100C 200C 300C 600C
NF 6.57 (100%) 5.39 (82.1%) 5.44 (82.8%) 4.32 (65.8%) 1.48 (22.5%)
WF-1 7.12 (100%) 6.29 (88.4%) 6.14 (86.2%) 4.85 (68.1%) 1.62 (22.8%)
WF-2 7.29 (100%) 6.61 (90.7%) 6.48 (88.9%) 5.09 (69.8%) 1.60 (21.9%)
WF-3 6.86 (100%) 5.98 (87.2%) 5.86 (85.4%) 4.62 (67.4%) 1.36 (19.8%)
( ) The value in each parenthesis is the ratio of the strength at a desired temperature
to original value.
Thus, the greater stresses will be required in the matrix before critical crack propagation
occurs. After heating to 100C, the splitting tensile strength losses of the NF, WF-1, WF-2,
and WF-3 concretes were about 18, 11.6, 9.3, and 12.8% of room-temperature values. This
means that the relative splitting tensile strengths of concretes containing 1, 2, and 3 kg/m of
PP fibers were 7.7, 10.5, and 6.2% higher than those of concretes without PP fibers. These
thermal behavioral differences between concretes with and without fibers at 100C are
attributed to the presence of PP fibers due to their long-term resistance to 100C.
Consequently, they prevent the crack propagation and the localization of microcracks into
macrocracks, whereas the NF concretes might experience the reducing cohesive forces
between internal layers and gel surface energy as well as the microcracks growth. As seen,
the relative residual splitting tensile strengths of the NF, WF-1, WF-2, and WF-3 concretes
were 92.8, 86.2, 88.9, and 85.4% of room temperature values, whereas these values were
82.1, 88.4, 90.7, and 87.2% after heating to 100C, respectively. It means that the relative
residual splitting tensile strengths of concretes were approximately constant after exposure to
100 and 200C. It can be seen from Figure 2 that the relative splitting tensile strengths of
concretes contained 1, 2, and 3 kg/m of PP fibers were higher than those of the NF
concretes. At 300C, the residual splitting tensile strengths of the WF-1, WF-2, and WF-3
concretes were 12, 18, and 7% higher than that of the NF concretes. Furthermore, the
splitting tensile strength losses of concretes containing PP fibers were lower than that of the
NF concretes. This is due to the presence of pathways that generated by the melting of PP
fibers for the exit of the water vapor and consequently, reducing of internal vapor pressure
during heating.
The relative splitting tensile strengths at 600C were 22.5, 22.8, 21.9, and 19.8% of room
temperature strengths for NF, WF-1, WF-2, and WF-3 concretes, respectively. As discussed
earlier, the severe strength losses for all concretes are due to the physically and chemically
deteriorations in concretes. No significant differences were observed in the relative splitting
tensile strengths of concretes with and without fibers after exposure to 600C. The reductions
in the splitting tensile strengths of fiber concretes at 600C when compared to 300C were
slightly lower than those of the plain concretes. This may be attributed to the coarsening
effect of high temperature on the pore size distribution reported in several researches
[23,32,33] as well as the higher porosity of fiber concretes at this temperature. With regard to
the splitting tensile strength of concretes containing different levels of PP fibers, it can be
concluded that the adding of 2 kg/m PP fibers can show better tensile behavior under
elevated temperatures.
100
tensile strength (%)

90 NF
RELATIVE SPLITTING TENSILE

80 WF-1
70 WF-2
STRENGTH, %
60 WF-3
50
40
Relative splitting
30
20
10
0
100 200 300 600
Temperature ( C
TEMPERATURE, OC )
Figure 2 Relative residual splitting tensile strength of concretes after heating
The ratios of the residual splitting tensile strength to compressive strength at different
temperatures for all of the concretes are presented in Table 5. As seen, the ratios of the
residual splitting tensile strength to compressive strength were generally decreased with
increasing of temperatures.
Table 5 Ratio of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength at different temperatures
SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH /COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, %

MIX
20C 100C 200C 300C 600C
NF 7.80 7.61 7.59 7.46 6.55
WF-1 8.35 8.71 8.28 8.02 6.43
WF-2 8.47 8.98 8.44 8.09 5.99
WF-3 8.31 8.40 8.07 7.79 5.84
However, the initiation and growth of every new crack will reduce the available load-carrying
area and this reduction causes an increase in the stresses at critical crack tips [34].
Furthermore, the cracks tend to close up under compressive loads, whereas they tend to open
under tensile loads. Consequently, the effect of crack coalescence is more considerable in the
splitting tensile strength than the compressive strength.
10
strength (%)
20 100 200 300 600 C
9
TENSILE/COMPRESSIVE
8
STRENGTH RATIO, %
7
6
Tensile/compressive
5
4
3
2
1
0
NF WF-1 WF-2 WF-3
CONCRETE
ConcretesMIX
Figure 3 Ratio of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength at different temperatures
On other hand, the increasing temperature significantly affects the crack propagation and the
localization of microcracks into macrocracks formed by the high water vapor pressure,
decomposition of the hydration products, and thermal behavioral incompatibility between
aggregates and the cement paste. It can be concluded that the splitting tensile strength of
concrete was more sensitive to higher temperatures than compressive strength even for fiber
concrete. It seems that the behaviors of fiber concretes at 100C were the exceptions for
previous conclusion. This is attributed to the greater compressive strength losses than
splitting tensile strength losses at 100C when compared to 20C due to the more effective
role of the PP fibers on the splitting tensile strength than compressive strength when the
fibers are used in the system. It can be seen from Figure 3 that the ratios of the residual
splitting tensile strength to compressive strength were increased by adding of PP fibers at 20,
100, 200, and 300C. It means that the more sensitivities of the splitting tensile strength than
compressive strength to high temperatures were generally decreased by adding of PP fibers.
In general, it can be concluded that the adding of 2 kg/m PP fibers can promote the residual
mechanical properties of HSC during heating. The lower and higher dosages of fibers
generally showed the worse performance due to more deteriorations and higher volumes of
voids, respectively.
Table 6 Ultrasonic pulse velocity values of concretes at different temperatures
PULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY, m/s

MIX
20C 100C 200C 300C 600C
NF 4890 (100%) 4500 (92.0%) 4080 (83.4%) 3040 (62.1%) 1290 (26.4%)
WF-1 4870 (100%) 4420 (90.8%) 3930 (80.7%) 2940 (60.4%) 1310 (26.9%)
WF-2 4820 (100%) 4340 (90.0%) 3790 (78.6%) 2760 (57.3%) 1270 (26.4%)
WF-3 4800 (100%) 4240 (88.3%) 3610 (75.2%) 2680 (55.8%) 1220 (25.4%)
( ) The value in each parenthesis is the ratio of the strength at a desired temperature
to original value.
(%)
100
90 NF
UPV measurements
80 WF-1
MEASUREMENTS, %
70 WF-2
RELATIVE UPV
60 WF-3
50
40
30
20
Relative
10
0
100 200 300 600
Temperature ( OC)
TEMPERATURE, C
Figure 4 Relative UPV measurements after heating
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Measurements
The results of the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurements are presented in Table 6.
The relative residual UPV values of concretes are shown in Figure 4. After heating to target
temperatures, the relative residual UPV measurements of all concretes were significantly
decreased in comparison with the initial values. As seen, no significant differences were
observed in the UPV values at 20, 100, and 200C. After heating to 300C, the relative
residual UPV values of concretes containing PP fibers were lower than those of the NF
concretes, whereas the strengths values of fiber concretes were higher than those of the NF
concretes. These inverse behaviors of concretes containing PP fibers are attributed to the
greater volume of voids that created by melting of PP fibers and higher amount of water
vapor that could escape through the structure of fiber concrete. On other hand, the velocity of
ultrasonic pulse is depended on the density and physical properties of material that the waves
travel through it. It can be seen from Figure 4 that the relative UPV values of concretes were
the same after heating to 600C.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the experimental investigation reported in this paper, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
1. In spite of the similar compressive strength of all four concretes at room temperature, the
residual compressive strengths of concretes containing PP fibers were higher than those
of concretes without fibers after exposure to 600C. The residual compressive strengths
of concretes increased about 12% and 18% by adding of 1 and 2 kg/m PP fibers at 600C.
2. After heating to 100C, the splitting tensile strength losses of concretes containing 1, 2,
and 3 kg/m of PP fibers were approximately 7.7, 10.5, and 6.2% higher than those of
non-fiber concretes, whereas no significant differences were observed in the relative
residual compressive strength of all four concretes at 100C.
3. The splitting tensile strength was more sensitive to high temperatures than the compressive
strength. Furthermore, the presence of PP fibers was more effective for compressive
strength than splitting tensile strength above 200C.
4. Based on the test results, it can be concluded that the adding of 2 kg/m PP fibers can
promote the residual mechanical properties of HSC during heating. The lower and higher
dosages of fibers generally showed the worse performance due to more deteriorations and
higher volumes of voids, respectively.
5. In general, the ultrasonic pulse velocity test method maybe used to evaluate the residual
quality and relative strength of heated concretes.
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THE EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURES ON TOUGHNESS
AND POROSITY OF CONCRETE
V Vydra
K Trtik
F Vodak P Razimova
Czech Technical University
Czech Republic
ABSTRACT. Mechanical properties as well as microstructure of concrete is significantly

influenced by heating. In this paper, unsealed samples of ordinary Portland cement concrete
were subjected to elevated temperatures up to 900C. Major mechanical properties (strength,
modulus of elasticity) were determined. Complete load-displacement curves were measured
and fracture toughness of concrete was evaluated by means of several parameters including
specific fracture energy, true specific fracture energy, effective critical stress intensity factor,
energy release rate, softening index and coefficient. Softening index and softening coefficient
were classified as the most suitable parameters for fracture toughness evaluation. Analysis of
porous structure of fragments of hardened cement paste from the same concrete samples was
carried out by means of nitrogen sorption measurements. This non-destructive method
allowed to establish texture in the whole nano and mesopore range. Specific volume and
surface of nanopores are a good indicator of structural changes of concrete. In our
experiments major texture changes in this range of pores take place in temperature range
180440 C.
Keywords: Temperature load, Fracture toughness, Porosity.
Dr Ass Prof V Vydra, is a Professor within the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech
Technical University, Prague.
Ass Prof K Trtk, is a Professor within the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical
University, Prague.
Prof F Vodk, is a Professor within the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical
University, Prague.
Ing Pavla Razmov, is a researcher within the Faculty of Civil Engineering, CTU Prague,
Thkurova.
243
244 Vydra, Trtik, Vodak, Razimova
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is often used as a construction material for its high compression resistance and good
durability. One of the disadvantages of concrete, however, is its low toughness which even
decreases with strength. Importance of toughness grows for massive structures. Such
structures and structures made from high strength concrete, can fail very suddenly, even
explosively if toughness of concrete is low. Structures do fail explosively (in a brittle way)
when there is enough potential energy accessible in the structure when ultimate load Pu is
reached. In contrast there is not sufficient amount of available potential energy in tough,
unbreakable structures and they need more ongoing external power to be completely broken.
Therefore, beside strength and stiffness, toughness is a very significant property of concrete
whenever assessing stability and reliability of structures. Many types of structures are (or can
be) subjected to temperature attack either during normal operation or during an accident
coupled with fire.
Exposure to elevated temperatures causes physical changes (esp. volume changes due to
thermal dilatations, water migration, drying and phase changes) and chemical changes
(dehydration and chemical decomposition) in the cement paste and aggregates and on
interfacial surfaces. Many investigations of strength and stiffness [16] and some of
toughness [812] of concrete exposed to high temperatures have been conducted by now.
Strength in tension is as a rule found monotonically decreasing with temperature thought
compressive strength shows a maximum within a temperature interval 100200C.
Toughness is generally assessed by means of GF - fracture energy (which is specific energy

required for complete separation of two parts of concrete) as recommended by RILEM [13] -
or by means of so called fracture toughness KIc or effective fracture toughness KIce. The last
two fracture parameters decrease with temperature monotonically but controversial results
can be found for fracture energy GF in literature. Baant and Prat [12] found GF decreasing
monotonically with temperature though Baker [8] suggested GF slightly increasing with
growing temperature and decreasing beyond some transition temperature. Zhang at all [9,10]
concluded from this controversial results that neither GF nor KIc (KIce) can effectively
represent concrete toughness.
They suggested to use as the more appropriate toughness parameters softening coefficient
and softening index which represent geometric shape of a descending branch of a load-
displacement curve found during three-point bending tests. Tall and spiky curves represent a
low toughness (area under the curve which represents external power required for separation
is small), while a short and extended curves refer to a tougher material. Despite of doubts
mentioned above the specific fracture energy GF determined from three-point-bend tests
according a RILEM recommendation is commonly used as a parameter in fracture analysis of
concrete structures. However, it is also well known that GF varies with sizes and shapes of
test specimens. To avoid this variability in the specific fracture energy determination Rilem
committee issued guidelines [13] for specimen sizes and test arrangement. The main
drawback of these recommendations is quite enormous sizes of specimens. Many researchers
have tried to identify reasons for variability of GF. Hu and Wittman [14] have addressed the
possibility that specific fracture energy may vary along the crack path as it propagates
throughout a relatively thin sample. Such local energy being a function of crack length a is
denoted as gf(a) to distinguish it from the averaged GF. The average fracture energy GF can
be, however, expressed as
High Temperature Effect on Toughness and Porosity 245
(1)
which should ideally give the same results as standard RILEM Equation 2:
(2)
in which is displacement of the load point, max is displacement of the load point at which
applied load reaches zero, m is mass of the specimen and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Authors of this paper developed recently a new method for local fracture energy
determination [15,16]. Local fracture energy gf (ae) is, in this concept, determined as
derivative of energy release rate with respect to effective crack length ae using entire records
of load-displacement curves of three-point-bending tests of concrete beams. Such concept of
local fracture allows determining the true, size-independent fracture energy G, which is a
material property; as long as the local fracture energy gf exhibits a plateau (seeing Figure 1).
600
gf
500 plateau trilinear best fit of gf
GF (Rilem)
400
G
300
gf [J/m2]
200
100
0
25 50 75 100
ae [mm]
Figure 1 Size independent fracture energy determined for sample exposed to 300C
EXPERIMENTAL
Test Setup
A set of ordinary concrete samples made of Portland cement was investigated. Samples were
exposed to elevated temperatures up to 900C in age of 180 days. Three point bend testing
was carried out using close-loop testing machine. Three samples were used for every
temperature. All samples were of uniform sizes i.e. B = 100 mm, W = 100 mm, beam span
S = 300 mm, length of samples L = 400 mm and initial notch depth a0 = 25 mm (see Figure 2).
Figure 2 TPB test arrangement
Complete load-displacement curves were recorded. Compressive strength was determined

using standard method on residual parts of samples left after the three-point bending tests.
Strength and Stiffness
The flexural strength (see Figure 3) was determined as the maximal nominal stress in the bar
in flexion using a standard formula
(3)
where Pu is the maximal (ultimate) force recorded during bending.
80 8
70 7
FLEXURAL STRENGTH [MPa]
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH [MPa]
60 Compressive strength 6
Flexural strength
50 5
40 4
30 3
20 2
10 1
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T [C]
Figure 3 Compresive and flexural strength

The three-point bending tests were used also for determination of the modulus of elasticity E
though it is rather a non-standard method. For this purpose Stibor [17, in Czech] developed
(by means of a finite element model) a formula:
(4)
e
where = a W is relative crack length, S is span of the beam, F1 = xY 2 ( x)dx and Y is
0
function of geometry, which is, according to Pastor [17], suitable for any sample geometry:
(5)
where
and
Equation 4 is valid in almost arbitrary range of the beam stiffness ( P ratio) and the crack

length. Initial beam stiffness ( 0) and initial crack length (a = a0) should be used for
determination of the modulus of elasticity E of an undamaged material.
12
10
8
E [GPa]
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T [C]
Figure 4 Modulus of elasticity obtained from three point bending tests when initial slope is
substituted for P/ and a0/W for . Error bars is 50% probable error
Toughness
Toughness was expressed using several parameters i.e. critical intensity factor, critical energy
release rate, effective critical intensity factor, effective critical energy release rate, fracture
energy GF , true size independent fracture energy G and also by softening coefficient
and softening index introduced by Zhang at al [9,10].
Critical intensity factor and critical energy release rate
Critical intensity factor is defined by Equation:
(6)
where u is relative crack length at ultimate force Pu. Thought u was not experimentally
determined during our measurement, it can be supposed that u 0 because maximal force Pu
is reached very soon after the crack started to develop and also function 4 is very flat (almost
constant) in a wide neighbourhood of a0 [16]. As long as the modulus of elasticity is known
critical energy release rate Gc can be determined using a well known formula
(7)
Effective critical intensity factor and effective critical energy release rate
Effective values of KIc and Gc can be determined using formulas 5 and 6 where au is
substituted by aue which is so called (ultimate) effective crack length [18]. Relative effective
crack length ue is normally evaluated numerically as a root of implicit Equation 4, but the
authors of this paper succeeded to express it approximately in explicit way as
(8)
where the last expression is just reformulation of the Equation 4.
Formula 8 is valid for width-to-span ratio W/S within an interval (0.1, 1) with accuracy better
than 0.7%. Resulting effective values of KIce and Gce are presented in Figure 5.
1,5 200
Eff. critical stress intensity factor
175
1,3 Eff. critical energy release rate
[MPam1/2]
Gce [J/m2]
150
1,0
125
KIce
0,8 100
75
0,5
50
0,3
25
0,0 0
0 200 400 T [C] 600 800 1000
Figure 5 Effective values of critical intensity factor and critical energy release rate
Fracture energy and true fracture energy
Fracture energy GF was determined using a standard Rilem procedure i.e. three point
bending [13] by means of Equation 2. Local fracture energy gf(ae) was also determined as
a function of effective crack length. The true, size-independent fracture energy G, was
determined as a value of the plateau observed on the curve gf(ae) (Figure 1). G experimentally
determined using suggested method is presented on Figure 6 and compared with fracture
energy GF calculated according to RILEM formula 2. Relative values of G/GF behave as
expected i.e. remain in reasonably narrow range of values being always higher than one.
Surprisingly both G and GF are not much effected till temperatures above 600C.
Softening coefficient and softening index
Softening coefficient and softening index (see Figure 7) were suggested by Zhang et all
[9,10]. Descending branch of load-displacement (P-) curves, experimentally determined by
three-point-bending, is suggested to be expressed as equation
(9)
600 2
G/GF [-]
G [J/m2] 500
1,5
400
300 1
200
0,5
G
100 G/GF
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T [C]
Figure 6 Size independent fracture energy G and its relation to GF where Pu and u are
ultimate load and displacement respectively
The physical meaning of and is obvious; the critical value of is 1, at which the first
derivative of Formula 9 changes from - to 0, the higher is the softening coefficient the
more spiky the P- curve is.
Porosity and Differential Thermal Analysis
As it was found in previous research [19] most of changes in cement stone porous structure
due to high temperatures is in nanopore (r < 10-8m) region. From this reason a gas absorption
method (BET) was chosen for the pore structure investigation as the most suitable method for
the above mentioned range of pores. Experimentally determined curves (Figure 8) show
a pronounced built-up of the volume of pores with volume 2 nm somewhere in the
temperature range 180440C. This temperature interval corresponds to successive thermal
disintegration of calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates (Figure 9). The
peak in differential pore volume distribution disappeared completely at 800C which can be
interpreted as total cement paste disintegration and shift of pores to much higher radiuses
which cannot be detected with the BET method.
CONCLUSIONS
Ordinary concrete samples were exposed to elevated temperatures up to 900C. Mechanical

properties were compared with porosity and DTA measurements. Changes in porous structure
inevitably lead to lower strength, especially in flexion and also to lower modulus of elasticity.
In any material with lower strength and modulus of elasticity is accumulated much less of
potential energy when ultimate load is reached. Therefore much more external power is
necessary for splitting after the maximum load. It manifests as tougher behaviour and short and
wider curves in three-point-bending. Contrary to strength, specific fracture energy (G, GF)
shows decrease at higher temperatures only and does not reflect microscopic changes in the
hardened cement paste. Samples exposed to high temperature although demonstrate lower
strength and modulus of elasticity are tougher. The toughness is best expressed through
softening coefficient and softening index. In contrast, customary toughness parameters KIc
and KIce decrease with temperature as early as above 300C.
Figure 7 Softening coefficient and index as determined for different temperatures. Arrows
mark start of the transition zone
120
100
T
80 180C
440C
dV/d log r (mm3/g)
60 500C
800C
40
20
0
1 10 100
r [nm]
Figure 8 Differential pore volume distribution (dV/dlog r) as a function of pore radius
Figure 9 DTA of cement paste from investigated concrete
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (research contract No:
MSM 6840770020).
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strength of concrete at high temperatures. in Proceedings of the International
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K. A, Tang, M. C, eds.), (Dundee), pp. 5158, Thomas Telford, 2005.
2. JANOTKA, I, NRNBERGEROV, T, Concrete behaviour in reactor envelope of a

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3. JANOTKA, I, MOJUMDAR, S. C, Thermal analysis of the evaluation of concrete

damage by high temperatures. Journal of Thermal Analyses and Calorimetry, Vol. 81,
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4. BAANT, Z. P, KAPLAN, M. F, Concrete at High Temperatures: Material Properties

and Mathematical Models. Harlow: Longman Ltd, 1996.
5. PIHLAJAVAARA, S. E, An analyses of the factors exerting effect on strength and other

properties of concrete at elevated temperatures. in ACI Special Publication 34(1) [7],
pp. 347354.
6. BERTERO, V. V, POLIVKA, M, Influence of thermal exposure on mechanical

characteristics of concrete. In ACI Special Publication 34(1) [7], pp. 505531.
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Vol. 1, (Detroit), ACI, 1972.
8. BAKER, G, The effect of exposure to elevated temperatures on the fracture energy of

plain concrete. Materials and Structures, Vol. 29, 1996, pp. 383388.
9. ZHANG, B, BICANIC, N, PEARCE, C. J, BALABANIC, G, Assessment of toughness

of concrete subjected to elevated temperatures from complete load-displacement curve,
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of concrete subjected to elevated temperatures from complete load-displacement curve,
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texture by porogram analysis. Acta Polytechnica, Vol. 39, 1999, pp. 5359.
PROBLEMS WITH ASSESSING THE DEGRADATION OF A
REINFORCED HALL AFFECTED BY FIRE
A Dufka
J Bydzovsky
Z Snirch
Brno University of Technology
Czech Republic
ABSTRACT. This paper examines diagnostic survey techniques and methods that can be
applied, in terms of building technical inquiry implemented, to a fire affected reinforced hall.
The purpose of the inqury was to properly examine the state of each structural element rather
determine their degradation level caused by the instrumentality of extreme temperatures
associated with fire. The structure was a single-storied two-aisle hall with a ground plan area
of2500m with prefabricated reinforced posts, longitudinal reinforced girders and roof
reinforced truss. The roof was constructed from a reinforced shell. Hall cladding were
bricked using ceramic and gas-silicate blocks. The hall was used to store 300 tonnes of paper
sanitary pads, which was an influencing factor for the spread of the fire. Concrete samples
were taken for examination using mechanical techniques (i. e. compression strength, strength
in tension of surface layer, modulus of elasticity etc.) and then chemical analyses (attention
was focused on assesment of chemical and mineralogical matrix constitution). Analysis of
these results would therefore make it possible to assess the degradation level of each
reinforced structural element and the complete static state of the hall.
Keywords: Problems, Assessment, Reinforced, Degradation level, Fire, Affected hall.
Dipl Ing PhD A Dufka, Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Institute of Building Materials and Elements
Doc Ing CSc J Bydzovsky Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Institute of Building Materials and Elements.
Dipl Ing Z Snirch Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institute of
Building Materials and Elements.
255
256 Dufka, Bydzovsky, Snirch
INTRODUCTION
Fire is one of the factors that might be the cause of considerable failure on constructional
objects and in extreme cases they might cause the collapse of the whole construction. It is
possible to state generally that extreme temperatures connected with the outbreak of fire
degraded building materials by contribution of both physical (expansion pressures of water
steam, linear respectively volume changes etc.), and physically chemical principles (degradation
of material swage, modification changes etc.). This synergy of negative mechanisms will be
applied understandably in case of fire affected reinforced concrete constructions.
The fact that reinforced concrete elements are degraded in case of fire by contribution of
different principles must be naturally taken into account while choosing diagnostic methods
respectively while putting together the conception of constructional technical research whose
aim is to judge succinctly the state of building respectively measure of damage caused by
fire.
This article is focused on problems with choosing diagnostic procedures that are required for
correct judgement of state of reinforced concrete constructions. It is possible to state that
these problems (i.e. problems of diagnostic of reinforced concrete constructions affected by
fire) are a scientific field that is somehow neglected nowadays by expert public.
One of the key aspects which is indispensable to accept while choosing diagnostic procedures
whose aim is to judge the state of constructions affected by fire is taking into account the
mechanisms that cause degradation of reinforced concrete. In this paper, attention is drawn
on principles of degradation of reinforced concrete.
THE PRINCIPLES OF DEGRADATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE IN

EXTREME TEMPERATURES
We can summarise the negative effects in consequence of which failures may occur after the
outbreak of fire, possibly entire loss of load-bearing capacity by the following:
Rapid growth in temperature occurs at the outbreak of fire, that is, the surface of construction
is exposed to considerable changes of temperature. The speed of growing temperature of
construction depends primarily on intensity of fire and character of construction. Destruction
of concrete is a consequence of such shocking temperature stress when breaking of the
surface concrete layers in thickness up to several centimetres occurs. This kind of failure is
called as so-called blasting of concrete (spalling). The consequence of this type of failure is
among others the fact that the top layer of concrete above the reinforcement was weakened;
eventually the reinforcement is exposed to direct action of fire. A considerable heating of
reinforcement occurs, accompanied by loss of its bastion, which can threaten in principle the
structural analysis of the whole construction.
From the point of view of decrease of physically mechanical parameters of concrete on a

basis of Portland cement, which occur as a result of action of higher temperature, the
processes that occur in microstructure of cement swage have crucial importance. Mainly
these facts are important:
Assessing Fire Damaged Concrete 257
The dehydrating of calcium hydrosilicates respectively calcium hydroaluminates occurs at

temperatures up to c. 400C. These reactions are to a certain extent reversible. The phases
stated above do not create as a rule major binder component of cement stone. The
dissociation of portlandite in cement stone happens in the interval of temperatures 460 until
560C. Portlandite is one of the materials that significantly affect binder capabilities of
cement stone.
Modification change of silica that as a rule creates the majority part of concrete aggregate
(gravel) occurs in temperature of concrete 573C. Change of silica to modification that
happens at the temperature stated is accompanied by significant volume changes and is
therefore a cause of genesis of considerable expansion pressures in the structure of concrete.
The decomposition of compact-grained calcium carbonate (that is, vaterite and aragonite)
occurs in approximate range of temperatures 700-820C. The dissociation of large-grained
calcium carbonate (mainly calcite) occurs in the interval of temperatures c. 820-940C. The
modification of calcium carbonate belongs to phases that considerably influence adhesive
force of cement swage.
It is obvious from the above stated that decrease of mechanical features of concrete exposed to
extreme temperatures created by fire is caused by synergic action both physical principles (i.e.
destruction as a consequence of temperature shock) and physically chemical processes that
proceed in microstructure of concrete (i.e. decomposition of concrete swage, modification
changes in gravel etc.). From the point of view of load-bearing capacity the changes in features
of reinforcement respectively decrease of mechanical bond are very important. Another aspect
that can further increase the development of degradation of constructions evaluated is chilling
during fire fighting.
DIAGNOSTICS OF FIRE AFFECTED CONSTRUCTIONS
In the previous text the fact was stated that mechanisms, which cause the development of
degradation on reinforced constructions affected by fire, are not trivial. This reality
understandably determines the fact that if the state respectively measure of degradation on
reinforced construction affected by fire has to be judged correctly, a complex approach to this
problem is indispensable.
A complex of activities whose aim is to judge succinctly the state of fire affected construction
respectively judge the measure of degradation on reinforced constructions by extreme
temperatures, can be designated as constructional technical research. Methodological
approaches applied in the frame of diagnostics of constructions affected by fire, must be
understandably adapted to character and state of construction. The following text is looking at
the problems.
Visual inspection is a source of initial information about the extent of damage caused by fire
and measure of disturbance of individual construction elements. In the frame of visual
inspection, the whole state of construction is evaluated primarily, that is, an inquiry is made if
some of the elements collapsed, deviation from column is then watched in vertical elements,
deflexion was watched in roof girders etc. (gained knowledge this way can be specified
geodetically). Furthermore, in the frame of visual inspection, attention is directed on
judgement on state of surface of individual elements (destruction of surface layers, presence
of breaks etc.), disturbance of decking above reinforcement is watched, measure of bare
reinforced steel etc. Gained knowledge in visual inspection enables us to gain source
information about damage caused by fire that, understandably, must be completed and
expanded in a considerable way for correct judgement of state of construction.
To judge succinctly the state of reinforced constructional elements, in the frame of

constructional technical research, determinations are made whose aim is to monitor
physically mechanical (that is, especially bastion) and physically chemical (i.e. especially the
state of cement swage) parameters of concrete.
Physically mechanical parameters of concrete:
Determination of compression strength destructively on core holes

(SN EN 12390-3) eventually non-destructively (for instance, SN 73 1373),
Determination of bastion of concrete in simple tension (SN 73 1318),
Determination of tensile strength of surface concrete layers (SN 73 1318),
Determination of elongation modulus (SN 731371).
Physically chemical analysis
The aim of physically chemical determinations is to judge the state respectively measure of
disturbance of cement swage of concrete, eventually to analyse the state of aggregate in
concrete. It is possible to use these analyses in advantage for discovering of these facts:
X-ray diffraction analysis (RTG analysis) qualitative analysis whose aim is to

determine mineralogical composition of swage, eventually aggregate. The procedure
of this analysis is defined by methodological approach of VUT FAST in Brno, no. 30-
33/1,
Differential thermal analysis (DTA analysis) quantitative analysis. Its aim is to
quantify especially the volume of phases that create concrete swage. The procedure of
this analysis is defined by methodological approach of VUT FAST in Brno, no. 30-
33/1.
Another phenomenon that is also monitored in the frame of research of fire-affected

constructions is the features of reinforced steel (tensile strength, characteristic strength).
The places for realisation of making tests respectively places of offtake of core holes are
chosen as a rule the way that both the localities in which visual inspection proved obvious
intensive affection of evaluated elements by fire would be involved and the places in which
this disruption is not visible by visual inspection. The aspect applied when judging the state
of concrete in separate elements is then comparison of characteristics monitored determined
on samples taken in places markedly affected by fire and from constructions in which the
traces of action of fire were not obvious.
Another criterion that can be taken into account when judging the state of constructions
researched is comparison of features of concrete evaluated with facts declared by project
documentation (mainly with declared concrete grade of bastion etc.).
INTERPRETATION OF GAINED KNOWLEDGE
Problems of judging of the state of reinforced constructions affected by fire require a

complex approach. While judging the state of real constructions, the facts can occur that can
significantly complicate the interpretation of gained knowledge in the frame of constructional
technical research.
The best way will be to document this statement by experience and examples that were
gained while evaluating of state of reinforced concrete constructions affected by fire. We
made a constructional technical research of one storey prefabricated reinforced concrete hall,
created by prefabricated columns, beams and bearers, membrane roofing was then created by
reinforced concrete TT panels. This hall was affected by fire.
Gained knowledge at visual inspection stated the fact that most of constructional elements of
this hall (that is, columns, bearers and membrane roofing) was quite markedly struck by
action of temperatures emerging during fire. A collapse of joining balks and membrane
roofing occurred in some parts of the hall. Some of the joining balks did not collapse entirely,
but their deflexion was considerable. There were a lot of cracks on joining balks. In some
localities, decking of concrete on joining balks was entirely destructed and reinforcement was
disclosed.
Membrane roofing was also struck by significant failures. In localities where joining balks
collapsed, a collapse of membrane roofing occurred understandably. There were places on
columns in which traces of fire were striking, that is, it concerns mainly destruction of
decking above the reinforcement. Presence of cracks was also identified on columns. Some
of the columns deviated from perpendicular, which could be seen already in visual
inspection.
Gained knowledge in visual inspection were naturally completed by a complex of

determination both physically mechanical and physically chemical characterisations of
concrete. It is possible to summarize this knowledge by the following: It was found that
bastion characterisation of concrete evaluated range in very wide interval. In localities where
intense action of fire was obvious, tensile strength of surface layers was significantly in
decrease and in some cases it actually equalled zero.
A rather different situation was found in case of compressive strength. In some elements in
which evident traces after massive action of fire were detected by visual inspection, from the
point of view of compression strength concrete corresponded with facts noted by project
documentation. On the contrary, in some cases the compression strength of concrete was
lower than concrete grade of bastion declared by project documentation. From the point of
view of judgement of state of separate constructional elements the fact that in some cases
decomposition of elements occurred during offtake of core holes was important too.
Destruction of core holes was caused by presence of cracks in concrete. In the majority of
cases these were cracks that on the surface of construction were only hair cracking, whereas
in concrete, which creates the inner mass of the element, their opening was wider. The
decomposition of core holes during offtake occurred in some cases as well as when core
holes were taken from components in which traces of action of fire were not visible in visual
inspection.
The samples of concrete were put through physically chemical determinations that enable
them to analyse their composition for judgement of measure of degradation. One of the
aspects that was taken into account in evaluation of results of physically chemical analyses
was comparison of gained knowledge for separate samples with results of analyses made on
sample that was taken off collapsed joining balk, i.e. element that was very strongly affected
by fire. It was stated that cement swage is very intensely degraded by action of high
temperatures in samples taken off collapsed joining balks. Cement swage of these samples
was practically wholly decomposed including phases of calcium carbonate.
The modifications of calcium carbonate (calcite, vaterite, aragonite) are minerals that
decompose in relatively high temperatures (c. 800 to 950C). In this case the results of
physically chemical analyses proved very intense destruction of cement swage and this fact
entirely corresponded with very low bastion of concrete that was found. Intense development
of degradation on cement swage by high temperatures was found as well in some other
constructional elements. Generally, it can be stated that elements, in which the decomposition
of cement swage was found, this fact was accompanied by decrease (and as a rule very
considerable) of bastion characterisation of concrete.
Indeed, the results of physically chemical analyses in some of the elements evaluated indicate
a relatively low measure of degradation on cement swage by high temperatures, which did
not respond to the results of physically mechanical determinations, when a considerable
decrease of bastion parameters of concrete was found. This disproportion between gained
knowledge by physically chemical analyses and results of tests of bastion characterisation of
concrete can be justified be these principles respectively by their synergy:
In consequence of temperature shocks emerging at the outbreak of fire respectively

even while putting it out conditions for development and propagation of cracks are
created in the structure of concrete. The cracks can also develop as a consequence of
cumulation of water steam in the structure of concrete (spalling). The development of
cracks can occur even in relatively low temperatures. These cracks do not result in
significant changes in mineralogical composition of cement swage.
The changes happening in aggregate, which creates filler in concrete, also take part in
lowering of mechanical parameters of concrete. Aggregate with relatively high
volume of silica was used in this case. Modification changes occur in increase of
temperatures in this material (change of silica to modification ) accompanied by
volume changes. However, these processes are reversible, that is, after lowering of
temperature silica in modification dominates absolutely again in the structure of
concrete. It is obvious from the stated above that detection whether modification
changes in concrete filler occurred as a consequence of fire is (with regard to
reversibility of these changes) relatively difficult.
In action of high temperatures on cement swage decomposition reactions of phases

that create this swage occur. It is mainly the decomposition of, for instance, calcium
hydrosilicates, ettringite, portlandite, phases of calcium carbonate etc. It was proved
that some of these decomposition reactions are reversible in real time horizon. As an
example of this fact, we can state repeated creation of portlandite in cement paste
exposed in temperatures that go beyond the temperature of dissociation of portlandite.
CONCLUSIONS
This article treats diagnostic processes whose aim is to judge succinctly the state of
reinforced concrete constructions struck by fire and especially securing the data for statical
judgement of constructions evaluated.
Generally, it can be stated that while monitoring the state of constructions struck by fire, de
facto analogical characteristics are watched, as in case of constructional technical research of
objects exploited in common conditions. Thus both physically mechanical parameters of
concrete are watched (especially its bastion characterisation) and physically chemical
analyses are made (with an aim to judge the state of cement swage) and the state of steel
reinforcement is monitored as well. It is indispensable to respect mechanisms that caused
destruction of reinforced concrete constructions evaluated (i.e. the fact that synergy of
physical and physically chemical principles is the cause of creation of failures) for relevant
interpretation of gained knowledge by a complex of these tests.
On the basis of knowledge found at evaluating of state of reinforced concrete constructions

struck by fire, it is possible to state that one of the phenomenon which significantly takes a
share in many cases on intense decrease of bastion characterisation of concrete, is creation
and development of cracks. The creation of cracks is determined mainly by physical
principles (as for instance, changes in temperature by shock, expansion pressure by water
steam).
Another piece of knowledge which was gained in the frame of diagnostic procedures realised
on fire affected constructions, is the fact that the quantity which very precisely describes
measure of interference on reinforced concrete element by extreme temperatures, is tensile
strength of surface layers of concrete.
Generally, it is possible to state that action of extreme temperatures significantly decreases

tensile strength of concrete than compression strength is. This fact is caused by creation of
microscopic cracks in cement swage, by creation of defects in the interface of swage grains
of aggregate etc. It is obvious that tensile strength of surface layers is a quantity which
describes mainly the state respectively measure of disturbance in full the surface of element
evaluated. We recommend unambiguously expanding the results of statement of tensile
strength of surface layers of concrete by carrying out tests of concrete tensile strength (tests
on core holes) for a more complex judgement of state of constructional elements.
Physically chemical analyses whose results in an effective way complete the gained
knowledge by physically mechanical tests are an integral part of complex of analyses realised
in research of reinforced concrete constructions struck by fire. It is possible to specify more
closely the temperature at which separate elements were exposed and thus formulate an
assumption about change of bastion parameters of concrete on a basis of determination of
mineralogical composition of cement swage in concrete etc.
Knowledge was stated in the article that was gained in the frame of solution in MPO FT-
TA/078 Technologie uren doit chladcch v a komn s vyuitm potu
pravdpodobnosti (Technology of Determination of Life Cycle Residue of Cooling Towers
and Smoke-stack with the Use of Probability Analysis) and with support of research centre
1M684077001 CIDEAS - Centrum integrovanho navrhovn progresivnch stavebnch
konstrukc .
REFERENCES
1. E.L. GLUEKLER, Local thermal and structural behavior of concrete at elevated

temperatures. In: Transaction of the 5th International Conference on Structural
Mechanics in Reactor Technology vol. A, International Congress Center Berlin, Berlin,
Germany (1979), pp. 1317 H8/4
2. H.L. MALHOTRA, The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of concrete.
Mag. Conc. Res. 18 23 (1956), pp. 8594
3. MATOUEK, M., DROCHYTKA, R.:Atmosfrick koroze beton, (The atmospheric
corrosion of concrete) , IKAS Praha 1998,
HEAT-RESISTING FOAM CONCRETE (HRFC) BASED ON
ALUMINIUM SILICATE
V A Beregovoi
A I Eremkin
A M Beregovoi
Penza State University of Architecture & Buildings (PSUAB)
Russia
ABSTRACT. The compositions of HRFC, with a density from 400 kg/m3, for thermal
insulation of hot surfaces to 1250C were developed. The local clay (at a clinkering
temperature 11501200C), which presently are used for the production of ceramics, was
chosen as a principal structure formation substance in creation HRFC. The increasing
thermo-resistance fraction of HRFC mortar was achieved by introduction into composition
the refractory clay and dinas fillers as well as by optimization of relationship clay high
alumina cement admixture, for which the formation of additional amount of mullite phase
on first heating of material is observed. The complex stabilizing admixture on the basis of
water-diluted synthetic resins (phenol formaldehyde grouping) with latex admixture and
foaming substance was formulated to improve the quality of foam material structure. The
progress structure forming processes and suitability of the introduction chosen on purpose
admixtures for their correction were explored by employing X-ray diffraction analysis and
infrared spectrophotometry. The relations physical-mechanical-properties, structure parameters,
composition, basic influencing factors are obtained.
Keywords: eat-resisting foam concrete, Refractory clay, High alumina cement admixture.
Dr V A Beregovoi is head of the Department Building Materials (PSUAB). He has 12

years of experience and research involvement in building materials of porous structure for
thermal protection of buildings and supporting constructions, heat- resisting materials
Dr A I Eremkin is a professor and Rector of PSUAB. He has 30 years of experience and

research involvement in thermal mode of buildings, energy savings by heat equipment
Dr A M Beregovoi is a professor. He has 36 years of experience and research involvement in

architectural and building basis for creation energy-responsive (active) buildings, thermal
protection of buildings, energy savings
263
264 Beregovoi, Eremkin, Beregovoi
INTRODUCTION
The increase of the cost of power resources promotes the rise of efficiency of industrial heat
equipments and heating furnaces at the expense of expedient usage in their erection or
operational improvement the thermal protective members, made of lightweight and heat-
resistant materials. It is known, that in the technology of fabrication of lightweight and heat-
resistant concretes, having porous fillers, are commonly used aluminate cements and, first of
all, high-alumina cements (HAC). Significant researches and developments on heat-resisting
concretes on basis of HAC and alkaline cements were carried out by [1- 3].
Direct usage of such cements in the compositions of high-porous foam concretes, made by
foam technology, there appears to be a number of problems: HAC considerably reduce the
stability of foam during obtaining of foam concrete mix; the majority of known foamers, used
for the production of foam concrete, that are destined for building in general use, exert
negative effect on the strength of aluminate cement rock; the concretes, made of aluminate
cements are notable for considerable strength reduction in the range of operation
temperatures of the majority of industrial heating furnaces. The added restriction, reducing
the general use of aluminate cements in the compounds of heat-resistant concretes, lies in
high cost of binding.
This paper reports the results of scientific investigation, the purpose of which is to develop
the compositions and research of basic processes, accompanying the formation of a
microstructure of heat-insulating foam concretes (density from 300 up to 500 kg/m3), the
maximum operating temperature of which amounts up to 1250 1300C. The solution of a
problem of designing of structures of heat-resistant foam concrete compositions on the basis
of HAC was found by replacement of the greater portion of expensive cement by widely
distributed in nature clay rocks, having clinkering temperature 1100 1200C. In
mineralogical composition the utilized clays are polymineral connections with predominance
of minerals of kaolinite-montmorillonite grouping and are characterized by being of various
degree sanded. To improve the material fire-resistance, fine-ground refractory clays and dinas
fillers, as well as another correction admixtures were used.
MIX DESIGN OF HEAT RESISTING FOAM CONCRETE
Investigation into Influence of a Foamer on Value of Heat of Hardening HAC
The stability augmentation of foam concrete mix, made of aluminate cements, was achieved
by usage of correctly chosen foamer and designed complex admixture, consisting of water-
diluted polymer of phenol formaldehyde grouping and synthetic latex. After creation and
initial fixing of macrostructure parameters, the obtained compositions passed through air
curing, and the final rise of strength took place while baking of a material or during its first
heating with furnace startup.
As pores-forming agents at formation of cellular structure of heat-resistant foam concretes the

various foamers were tested. The influence of one of them on heat of hardening of cement
mix is shown in Table 1. The chemical basis of that foamer are oil sulfite acids.
Heat-Resisting Foam Concrete 265
The data analysis in Table 1 indicates, that despite of some increase of speed of exothermic
processes, accompanying HAC hardening at some segments of interval of time, total amount
of heat, given up by control composition amounted 417 Joule/g, that is more than analogous
for the solutions with the foamer admixture by 35,7 56%.
Table 1 Computational amount of heat, released by cement mix during hardening
NAME OF FOAMER AMOUNT OF DURATION OF TOTAL

FOAMER, BY TEST, H AMOUNT OF
MASS, % HEAT, JOULE/G
Without admixtures 2 11,1
15 58,1
72 416,8
- 6 (Russia), (on the 2 12,2
basis of oil sulfite acids) 0,13 15 70,9
72 226,1
The value of heat of hardening of cement depends on speed and depth of process of a
hydration, that enables to use that parameter for an estimation of strength of a material. For
studied compositions such relation looks like:
Q t = k 3 R 2t
Where Qt - heat release of portland cement during first day, kilojoule/kg; k coefficient, that
depends on the characteristics of cement; for cement of a mean chemical-mineralogical
proportioning k = 19,4; Rt - binding activity after t days of hardening.
As in studied samples the composition of cement remained invariable, the change in the
quantity coefficient k may be taken as the effect of a kind of foamer on a hydration (strength)
process of active part.
Influence of a Composition on a Heat Resistance of Designed Foam Concretes
The complex lab tests, conducted for an estimation of fireproofness of foam concrete, have
shown a poor heat resistance of foam compositions, made with usage of monocomponent
binding on the basis of high-alumina cement. The majority of tested samples have survived
only one cycle of heating up to 1100C and subsequent air cooling. The introducing in a
structure of a material the admixtures of fire-resistant fillers, such as refractory clay and dinas
in amounts up to 45% by mass HAC, also has not led to noticeable increase of a heat
resistance of developed foam concrete.
In the practice of manufacturing of refractory clay products of a system Al2O3 SiO2 the
method of heat resistance rise of a material due to the increase of the contents of a mullite
phase is used. With this purpose in a structure of raw mixes on the basis of natural
aluminosilicate (clayrock) introduce alumina-containing admixtures or electromelted emery
[4].
In our study the increase of a heat resistance of developed foam concretes at the expense of
mullite phase formation was achieved by the way of selection of an optimum ratio between
alumina cement and clay, as well as by creation of thermal condition, indispensable for a
physicochemical interaction of clay components with dehydrated connections of alumina
cement rock. Here was intended the main mineral processes took place (Figure 1).
HAC Clay
H2O
Mullite
C2AH8 Al2O3 3H2O 3Al2O3 2SiO2 (I)
Anorthite
Al2O3 CaOAl2O3 2SiO2
SiO2 CaO Fe2O3
Mullite
3Al2O3 2SiO2 (II)
C2A Emery
Anorthite CaO - quartz
Helenite -C2S,
- tridymite
CS
CA, C12A7, - krystobalite

C2A, C3A
Helenite (C2AS)
Anorthite(CAS2) CF, C2F, C4AF
Figure 1 Diagram of possible mineral formation processes in a system HAC-clay
On a initial stage the main structure formation process of bicomponent binding is HAC hydration,
which as is known, leads to formation of hydroaluminates of calcium and aluminium
hydroxide:
2 (aOAlO310H2O) = 2aOAl2O38H2O + 2Al(OH)3+9H2O

The heating of a mix causes the progress of parallel processes in clay:
400600
Al2O32SiO22H2O Al2O3 2SiO22H2O;
9001100
3 (Al2O32SiO2) 3Al2O32SiO2 +4SiO2;
Primary mullite
And in hydrated HAC neoplasms:

550 600
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + H2O
At the temperature of heating of a material 1200C the probability of appearance of solid

state reactions between clay and cement components of binding increases sharply. The
chemical interactions, proceeding in range of high temperatures, promote increase of the total
mullite content in the structure of foam concrete at the expense of formation of additional
amount of mullite after the reaction
12001500
6Al2O3+4SiO2 2 (3Al2O32SiO2)
Secondary mullite
To reveal the influence of clay on heat resistance of a material on mixed binding, the samples,
containing clay, HAC and indispensable correction admixtures at water cement ratio, equal 0.5,
were made. The samples after exposure in the course of 5 days in air-dry conditions subjected to
a baking by a mode: the temperature rise at velocity 150-200C /h; waiting period - at the
temperature of 1250-1300C within 2 hours; cooling - 12 hours. The thermostability was
estimated by number of cycles heating - cooling, following the scheme: the heating of the
samples up to 900C and fast cooling in water at 20C.
For comparison purposes the compositions, consisting of clay and admixtures of silica
refractories - fine crusher (specific surface equal 4000 cm2/g) refractory clay and dinas -
were also studied. Amounts of HAC, refractory clay and dinas, was varied over 0-45% range
on clay mass at intervals of 15%. Some thermostability data of obtained samples are
displayed in Figure 2.
As is seen in Figure 2, a thermostability of the samples, made of HAC and clay mix, is much
higher, than that of made with no admixtures. So, the samples on the basis of clay maintain
only two thermal cyclings, whereas the compositions, containing 30% of HAC and70 % of
clay, - 10 thermal cyclings.
The optimum ratio HAC-clay, experimentally obtained, is within the limits from 15:85 to
30:70. The performed researches have shown, that the further growth of operating parameters
of the developed materials can be ensured at the expense of partial replacement of clay by
fillers, obtained by a way of grinding of used up dinas or refractory clay.
14
1
AMOUNT OF THERMAL CYCLES 12

2
10
3
8
0
0 15 30 45
AMOUNT OF FILLER, %
Figure 2 The effect of filler on a thermostability of a ceramic matrix:

1-HAC; 2 -Dinas; 3 - Refractory Clay
Diagram analysis (Figure 1) and performed calculations of a mix proportion of composition

for baking have enabled to make the assumption, that the basic components of the studied
compositions will be various modifications of quartz, as well as anorthite and mullite. Also it
is to be expected the appearance of aluminates, silicates and ferrites of calcium, emery,
helenite.
To test this expectation the experimental research to determine the phase constitution of a
developed material has been performed. Figure 3 presents X-ray pattern of foam concrete
sample, exposed to high-temperature heating.
Shown in Figure 3 are the lines: quartz; - krystobalite; - tridymite. The relative lines
strength of quartz is much more than that of krystobalite and especially tridymite. Therefore,
these components content in a baked composition considerably decreases in following
sequence: : quartz; - krystobalite; - tridymite.
The Figure 3 shows the lines of anorthite (CaOAl2O32SiO2); mullite (3Al2O32SiO2); emery
(Al2O3); monocalcium aluminate (CaOAl2O3); helenite (2CaOAl2O3SiO2); ferrite of
calcium (CaOFe2O3); wollastonite (-CaOSiO2) dicalcium silicate (-2CaOSiO2) and
okermanite (2CaOMgOSiO2). According to relative strength lines, this composition contains
a significant amount of anorthite. Mullite is contained less, than anorthite.
3,34
4,25
3,20
INTENSITY OF DIFFRACTION LINES
4,30
4,03
3,38
4,17
3,78
3,43
3,62
3,50
3,25
2,96
2,55
2,51
2,45
2,22
2,28
2,13
2,09
1,92
1,83
1,6
1,76
1,68
1,54
1,37
INTERPLANE DISTANCES,
Figure 3 X-ray pattern of a baked sample, made at components ratio HAC: clay 30:70
As a result of experimental research on definition of a phase constitution of developed foam

concrete was established, that after a baking the material contains a plenty of compounds
with high temperature of melting. From the point of view of preservation of a constancy of
volume under high temperature polymorphic transformations and consequently the rise of a
thermostability of heat-resistant foam concrete, the most significant are mullite, tridymite,
then krystobalite and quartz.
In order to activate the process of transition of quartz to tridymite in manufacturing of silica

refractories mineralizer-admixtures are used, the introducing of which in a structure of dinas
compositions promotes purposeful crystallization of quartz from a melt, generating in a
temperature range 1200 1450C. The most often as a mineralizer air hardening lime in
amounts 2 4% is used. For the case of studied composition the presence of sufficient
amount of a lime mineralizer is provided by the chemical composition of a clay component,
containing up to 10% of a calcium oxide, and also by separating CaO in the course of mineral
formation processes in high temperature area (Figure 1). As a consequence of the conducted
technological researches of manufacturing of products, made from high porous foamed
compositions, the positive influence of clay on a stability of cellular mass up to a moment of
setting cement component of two ingredient binding was established.
Hydration of Cement Components in Presence of Foamer Admixture
For mineral bindings a close interconnection between the processes of a hydration (speed,
depth of passage, peculiarity of morphology of neoplasms and so one) and parameters of
major operating properties is characteristic feature. In regard to foam composite materials it is
important to know the influence of the foaming admixtures on physico-chemical processes,
determining kinetic parameters of a strength rise and its final value.
Such researches are particularly important for a considered system of binding matters,
containing as one of components aluminate cement, as the negative influence of the anion-
active substances of foaming materials on strength parameters of hardened cement rock is
known. So the compression strength drop of control samples tested after 5 days of hardening
at air curing, achieves 20 40%.
The change of speed of products formation of HAC hydration hardening and the peculiarity
of neoplasms we investigated with usage of an infrared spectrometry method. The results of
investigation into the influence of anion active foamer, the chemical basis of which are oil
sulfite acids, demonstrated the following:
The composition 1. IR - spectra of the samples of monocomponent binding on the HAC

basis are notable for gradual increase of maxima number in the hardening period until 24
hours (Figure 4 curve 2). During a hydration take place a formation of structure of hydrated
phases concurrently with their number rise, that leads to separation of main levels of
connection oscillations through separate, close in frequency and symmetry, components on
IR spectra.
The composition No 2. A maximum of peaks in IR - spectra of samples, containing 0,07%

of admixture foamer, on masse HAC, is observed much earlier, in two hours of hardening
(Figure 4, curve 3). Then the number of peaks in a gradual way is stabilized after 24 hours of
a hydration. Therefore, the foamer admixture renders dispersing influence on structure of
solution on a initial stage, corresponding in time to processes of hardening of cement binding.
The rise of maxima number at once after manufacturing of compositions can be attributed to
the molecules of a foamer, which, being implanted in unit cells, upset their symmetry and
split vibrational levels of chemical bonds and grouping.
The composition No 3. The increase quantity of inserted foamer admixture up to 0,13 % on

masse HAC, renders the indeterminated influence on a multiplicity of IR spectra (Figure 4,
curve 1):
at a stage of 2 hours hardening the number of peaks is more by 60 %, than that of

control composition, but lower, than that of composition No 2 by 25%;
in 24 hours maxima number for all three compositions is approximately equal;
then the gradual rise of peaks number is observed, which achieves a maximum after 168
hours of hardening . In this interval of time the maxima number is more than that of
composition No 1 and No 2 by 34 % and 38% correspondingly.
The analysis of IR-spectra of studied compositions indicates, that the interactions between the
section of various phases in the structure is reduced, the structure is out of equilibrium, and
its formation is not over. The molecules of this foaming substance, having the organic nature,
are capable of being inserted in unit cells of silicon-oxygen and octahedral up-building,
increasing their being defective and make harder the interconnection of main structure
elements themselves.
A fact to be noted is a certain correlation between the received data of the experimental
researches: the increase of maxima number in IR spectra accords with the value of heat of
solutions hardening and with kinetics of strength rise, as function of foamer amounts. So, for
example, the foamer admixture on the basis of oil sulfite acids in amounts 0,13%, on masse HAC,
augments heat of hardening of cement solution during 2 hours of a hydration by 10 15%
(Table 1); concurrently the increase of maxima number in IR spectra in amounts 40 50%
(Figure. 4) and rise of strength in the indicated interval of time by 20% compared to control
composition without a foamer are occurring. However investigated peculiarities of the hardening
process of HAC solution with foamer admixture lead hereafter to the decrease of final strength of
samples (thereupon total number of a heat, given up during 5 days decreases by 35 56%, and
strength drop - by 30 40% by contrast to control composition).
60
55
50 1
MAXIMA NUMBER
45
2
40
35
3
30
25
20
0 50 100 150
TIME (t), h
Figure 4 The dependence between the maxima number in IR spectra

and time of hardening
1 - Composition No 3, containing foamer admixture in amounts 0,13%, en masse HAC

2 - Composition No 1 of HAC at water cement ratio, equal 0,35
3 - Composition No 2, containing 0,07% of a foamer, on masse HAC
For the making of elaborated porous materials the experimental industrial pilot plant, enabling
to execute the considerable regulation of some parameters of process of high-velocity stirring
and air entrainment is designed. To this end the processing equipment is supplied with the
electronic unit of fine adjustment of rotation rate of impeller, rotor blading with geometrically
variable parameters, air compressor, air-entraining equipment and dosimeters of high
accuracy.
After formation of cellular blocks and strength rise, sufficient for removal of products from
autonomous forms, their drying and subsequent baking at the temperature of 1100 1200C
is made.
CONCLUSIONS
University-based researches have confirmed the supposition about suitability of usage of not fire-
resistant clays for manufacturing of heat-resistant cellular compositions, containing alumina
cement (HAC).
The presence of a HAC and clay in the composition of the mixed binding favors the formation
of compounds, attributed to refractories mullite, anorthite and others, which impart the
necessary operating properties to developed material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express appreciation for the research grant, made by Russian
Federal Program of support for small enterprises in scientific-technical sphere.
REFERENCES
1. KEARSLEY E P and MOSTERT H F . The use of foamed concrete in refractories.

International Congress, Global Construction: Ultimate Concrete Opportunities, Dundee,
Scotland, July 2005.
2. MONTGOMERY Y R. Heat-resisting and refractory concretes. Advanced Concrete

Technology: Processes. Edited by J Newman & BS Choo. Elsevier Ltd, 2003, pp. 4/1-
4/13.
3. KRIVENKO P V, KOVALCHUK G YU, KOVALCHUK O YU. Heat-resisting cellular

concretes based on alkaline cements. International Congress, Global Construction:
Ultimate Concrete Opportunities, Dundee, Scotland, July 2005.
4. STRELOV .. Fundamental theory of technology of refractories. - M.: Metallurgy,

1985. - 480 pp.
UTILISATION OF ALKALI-ACTIVATED ALUMINOSILICATES
AS FIRE PROTECTING MATERIALS
P Rovnank
P Bayer
P Rovnankov
Brno University
Czech Republic
ABSTRACT. Portland cement concrete is the most common and widespread material for
constructions. However, its undesirable fast degradation, when exposed to very high
temperature, connected with compressive strength decrease, cracking and spalling limits the
utilisation of concrete in constructions endangered by fire. This paper deals with a possibility
of subsidiary fire protection using a material based on alkali-activated aluminosilicate
(AAAS). This material is more resistant against high temperatures, especially against shock
loading, than Portland cement concretes. In the experiments we examined and compared the
behaviour and properties of concrete specimens made from Portland cement and AAAS after
shock treatment at the temperatures of 1000 and 1200C. The influence of aggregates,
comparing quartz sand and electrical porcelain, was also examined.
Keywords: Alkali activation, Slag, Cement, High temperature.
Dr P Rovnank is a lecturer at Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology.

His research focuses mainly on utilization of waste materials in building construction and
durability of concrete structures.
Dr P Bayer is a lecturer at Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University of Technology. He

is a specialist in concrete microstructure.
Professor P Rovnankov is Head of the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Civil

Engineering, Brno University of Technology.
273
274 Rovnanik, Bayer, Rovnanikova
INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of building underground constructions for public use the fire protection
is still much discussed problem. This leads to intensive efforts to improve the safety levels for
users and for the structure themselves. Portland cement concrete can be regarded as a
material with high safety factor. It does not contribute to the fire load in any way. However,
the problems affecting this material relate to explosion like flaking and spalling occurring on
the affected surface upon the action of rapidly rising, high temperatures or fire. One way to
avoid these problems is to improve the fire proof properties of concrete itself; the other is the
utilisation of fire resistant materials such as geopolymer concrete as a cover in order to
protect a load-bearing construction.
An increase in temperature can occur either in successive steps or suddenly by shock (fire).
The effect of high temperatures up to 1200C on the mechanical properties of PC concrete
has been described by several authors [1-3]. Generally, concrete, when exposed to high
temperatures, loses mechanical strengths. During a gradual increase of the temperature to
200-300C, complete evaporation of capillary water occurs. From 300C, the hydrated
clinker minerals gradually decompose, and the water vapour pressure in pores of cement
increases. This process can cause an explosive delamination of concrete, known as spalling,
or even total destruction of the concrete. When fire occurs, this effect endangers affected
users as well as the rescue and extinguishing crews rushing to help.
Alkali-activated aluminosilicate materials such as geopolymer concrete made from alkali-

activated metakaolin or blast furnace slag exhibit very good resistance against very high
temperatures compared to Portland cement concrete [4,5]. These materials also perform
excellent resistance against corrosion and chemical attack, especially sulphate [6] and acid
attack [7]. They can be used as a good alternative to PC concrete for protection against fire
damage.
The properties of composites after high temperature exposure also depend on the stability of
aggregates. Quartz is not suitable as an aggregate in composites exposed to high temperatures
due to a change of its molar volume at 573C (-quartz -quartz) and 870C (-quartz
-trydimite). Therefore suitable materials must be stable by volume at higher temperatures.
Electrical porcelain is produced at temperature approx. 1400C, but its stability in alkali
environment is only up to 1150C. At higher temperature it starts to melt and forms a ceramic
bond with an AAS matrix [8]. Vermiculite, an expanded mica mineral, is also often used as a
fire resistant aggregate which is stable up to the temperature of 1150C.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Materials
For the investigation of material properties, three types of specimens have been prepared. The
materials used were:
finely granulated blast furnace (BF) slag (Kotou s r.o., tramberk) activated by dried
sodium water glass Portil A (Henkel AG) (AAS)
metakaolin-based geopolymer prepared from metakaolin activated by sodium water glass
(GPC)
ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Fire Protecting Materials 275
The chemical composition of slag and metakaolin is given in Table 1. The specific surface of
the slag was 380 m2/kg and its basicity modulus was 1.07. Dried sodium water glass Portil A
with Ms = 1.89 was used as an activator for slag and the mixture of sodium water glass with
Ms = 3.16 and sodium hydroxide was used as an activator for metakaolin.
Table 1 Chemical composition of BF slag and metakaolin
CONTENT, %
COMPONENT
BF slag Metakaolinite
SiO2 37.8 58.3
Al2O3 6.9 39.1
Fe2O3 0.2 0.65
CaO 34.9 0.20
MgO 12.8 0.34
MnO 0.5
Stotal 0.5
K2O 0.75
In order to involve the effect of aggregate, the influence of temperature-resistant electrical

porcelain, vermiculite, and quartz sand have been compared. The aggregates consisted of 3
fractions of either temperature-resistant electrical porcelain with grain size 0-1, 1-3, 3-6 and
its mixture with vermiculite in 70/30 volume ratio, or standardized quartz sand in 1:1:1 ratio.
The chemical composition of porcelain and vermiculite is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Chemical composition of electrical porcelain and vermiculite
CONTENT, %
COMPONENT
Electrical porcelain Vermiculite
SiO2 48.6 13.4
Al2O3 45.4 12.8
Fe2O3 0.8 5.5
TiO2 0.7 1.3
CaO 0.3 1.5
MgO 0.2 23.4
K2O 2.9 2.5
Na2O 1.0 0.8
Testing methods
The mixtures were placed into moulds of 40 40 160 mm dimension. Composition of the
mixture and properties of standard specimens are listed in Table 3. AAS and OPC mortars
were set at ambient temperature, whereas GPC specimens were cured at 60C for 3 hours
directly after mixing. The hardened specimens were stored in water for 28 days. In the case of
OPC mortars, the specimens had to be dried at 105C, to avoid spalling or an explosion upon
shock heating. Afterwards the composites were exposed to a thermal shock at temperatures
1000 and 1200C for 1 h. Reference specimens were stored at 20C. The properties of
composites were investigated by mercury porosimetry (Micromeritics Poresizer 9300) and
electron scanning microscopy (JEOL U 3).
For a fire resistance test 20 mm thick slabs were exposed to 1000C from one side. The
reverse-side temperature of the slabs was measured and recorded with digital thermo-couple
(Comet Logger).
Table 3 Composition of the mixtures and properties of standard specimens
MIX PROPORTIONS, kg
COMPONENT
AS-Q AS-E AS-EV MK-Q MK-E PC-Q PC-E
Slag 450 450 450
Metakaolin 450 450
Portland cement 450 450
Portil A 90 90 90
Water glass 376 376
NaOH 52 52
Aggregates 1350 1350 945 1350 1350 1350 1350
Vermiculite 44
Water 185 183 238 46 46 205 205
The properties of the investigated materials after high temperature treatment were compared
with reference specimens treated at an ambient temperature. The compressive strengths of
investigated materials are shown in Figure 1. The values for reference specimens are quite
comparable (between 60 and 80 MPa) except for AS-EV, which contains highly porous
aggregate vermiculite. Partial replacement of electrical porcelain with vermiculite causes a
decrease in strength by about 60%. After thermal shock at 1000C the compressive strengths
dropped under 50% of original strengths. It is caused mainly by dehydration and
decomposition of CSH gels, however, alkali-activated slag composites exhibit much lower
deterioration than the other composites, which can be ascribed to the formation of new
crystalline phase, akermanite [8].
After treatment at 1200 C a slight increase in strengths can be observed. This is connected
with the formation of crystalline phases, which enhance the compactness of the
microstructure. The influence of aggregate on the compressive strength is also evident. The
lower values of strength for composites with quartz sand arise from a change of molar
volume of quartz at 573C and 870C and weaker contacts between matrix and aggregate. On
the contrary, the surface layer of electrical porcelain melts in the presence of alkalis at
1200C and forms highly compact glassy phase that apparently enhances compressive
strengths mainly in AS-E and AS-EV specimens.
Flexural strengths follow the same trend as compressive strengths for particular material.
Although, the flexural strengths of reference AAS composites are slightly lowered, the
decrease in strengths after thermal treatment is not as substantial as for the other composites.
The influence of aggregate is more apparent here, and for two composites (AS-E, AS-EV) the
flexural strength even exceeds the reference one. This enormous increase in strength has the
same reason as for the compressive strength.
90
20 C
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, MPa
80
1000 C
70
1200 C
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 1 Compressive strengths of investigated materials treated at 20, 1000, and 1200C.
16
20 C
FLEXURAL STRENGTH, MPa
14
1000 C
12 1200 C
10
8
6
4
2
0
Figure 2 Flexural strengths of investigated materials treated at 20, 1000, and 1200C.
Distributions of pores in AAS, GPC and OPC matrixes are absolutely different. While in
AAS composites there are mostly larger pores above 1 m in diameter, smaller pores
between 0.01 and 0.1 m dominate the GPC and OPC matrix. The smaller pores, in the case
of OPC, cause a rapid increase of vapour pressure due to dehydration of CSH gel upon
heating, and for this reason, the PC concrete is more susceptible to a spalling or even an
explosion. Higher level of cumulative pore volume for AS-EV specimen arises from the
natural porosity of vermiculite (Figure 3). During heating to 1000C the cumulative pore
volume of AAS and OPC composites increases, while smaller pores disappear, as a result of
dehydration and decomposition of CSH gel (Figure 4). Above 1000C only large pores over
10 m in diameter are present in the GPC composites. Composites with quartz sand as an
aggregate are much more porous than those with electrical porcelain, which is in consequence
of thermal transformation of quartz. Only larger pores above 1 m in diameter can be
observed at 1200C (Figure 5). This is caused by sintering of the binder matrix with
aggregates, which avoids smaller pores to be present. AAS and GPC composites contain a
minimum amount of pores under 100 m at this temperature, therefore, the structures are
more compact and exhibit better mechanical properties than that of OPC concrete.
0.12
AS-Q AS-E
0.10 AS-EV MK-Q
CUMULATIVE PORE
MK-E PC-Q
VOLUME, cm /g
0.08
3
PC-E
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001
PORE DIAMETER, m
Figure 3 Cumulative pore volume of reference samples.
0.18
AS-Q AS-E
0.16
AS-EV MK-Q
0.14
CUMULATIVE PORE
MK-E PC-Q
VOLUME, cm /g
0.12 PC-E
3
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001
PORE DIAMETER, m
Figure 4 Cumulative pore volume of samples exposed to 1000C.

0.18
0.16 AS-Q AS-E
AS-EV MK-Q
0.14
CUMULATIVE PORE
MK-E PC-Q
VOLUME, cm /g
0.12
3 PC-E
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001
PORE DIAMETER, m
Figure 5 Cumulative pore volume of samples exposed to 1200C.
Figures 6, 7, and 8 show changes in structures of AAS, GPC and OPC composites,
respectively. All unexposed specimens exhibit quite compact structures; however, in contrast
to AAS matrix, GPC and OPC matrixes are more like built from small grains of gel stuck to
each other and thus forming small pores, which corresponds with porosimetric observations.
Upon heating, structures of all materials noticeably changed but each in different manner. At
1000C, AAS and GPC have sponge-like structure with large pores in the compact
amorphous matrix, whereas in OPC matrix lots of cracks appeared. At 1200C AAS
composite, especially that with electrical porcelain, is sintered forming a kind of glassy
structure with new crystalline phases such as akermanite, gehlenite and wollastonite [8],
which causes the structure to be very compact and resistant to a mechanical loading. GPC
matrix also forms compact glassy phase but the structure contains very large pores, which is
in accordance with significant compressive strength deterioration. The picture of OPC matrix
shows continuing deterioration of the structure, although some mechanical properties have
slightly improved.
Figure 6 Changes in structure of AAS composite after heating.

Figure 7 Changes in structure of GPC composite after heating.
Figure 8 Changes in structure of OPC composite after heating.
Figure 9 shows the fire resistance test for different composites. The observed temperature
range was from 380 to 420C after 60 minutes of exposure to 1000C flame. It is evident that
temperatures measured on the reverse side of the 20 mm thick slabs do not differ much and
heat transfer is quite comparable for all investigated composites.
450
400
350
TEMPERATURE, C
300
250
200 AS-Q AS-E
150 AS-EV MK-Q
100 MK-E PC-Q
50 PC-E
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
TIME, min.
Figure 9 Fire resistance test results.

Materials with quartz sand as an aggregate performed slightly better compared to those
containing electrical porcelain, but such a small difference cannot be significant. On the other
hand, specimens of OPC composites, which had not been pre-dried, exploded during fire test.
This only confirms the fact that Portland cement concrete is not a suitable material to be used
as a fire protection.
CONCLUSIONS
The paper presented a comparison of the properties and behaviour of several composites after
thermal shock with respect to their fire resistance and possible utilisation as a fire protective
material. An exposure of building materials to extremely high temperatures up to 1200C that
can occur during fire accident deteriorates their mechanical properties. However, it was
observed that AAS composites perform much better in comparison with either OPC or GPC
composites and in two cases the flexural strengths even exceeded those of the reference
samples.
This can be ascribed mainly to the formation of new crystalline phases at temperatures above
1000C, which cause the structure to be very compact and though. The effect of aggregate
type is also substantial. Modification of quartz and the related volume change has an adverse
effect on both compressive and flexural strength, whereas electrical porcelain is highly stable
and at temperatures above 1150C its surface layer reacts with matrix under the formation of
compact ITZ structure.
Following these results, it can be concluded that alkali-activated slag composites, especially
when electrical porcelain is used as an aggregate, seem to be suitable for utilisation as a fire
resistant material. Such material can be used, for example, as a protective layer for
constructions that can be potentially damaged by fire.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sport No. MSM 0021630511.
REFERENCES
1. YZER, N, AKZ, F, ZTRK, L D. Compressive strength-color change relation in

mortars at high temperature. Cement and Concrete Research. Vol. 34, No. 10, 2004, pp
1803-1807.
2. MATESOV, D, BONEN, D, SHAH, S P. Factors affecting the resistance of

cementitious materials at high temperatures and medium heating rates. Materials and
Structures. Vol. 39, 2006, pp 455-469.
3. LI, M, QIAN, CH. X, SUN, W. Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete after

fire. Cement and Concrete Research. Vol. 34, No. 6, 2004, pp 1001-1005.
4. CHENG, T W, CHIU, J P. Fire-resistant geopolymer produced by granulated blast

furnace slag. Minerals Engineering. Vol. 16, 2003, pp 205-210.
5. LYON R E et al. Fire resistant aluminosilicate composites. Fire and Materials. Vol. 21,
1997, pp 67-73.
6. BAKHAREV, T, SANJAYAN J G, CHENG, Y-B. Sulfate attack on alkali-activated

slag concrete. Cement and Concrete Research. Vol. 32, 2002, pp 211-216.
7. BAKHAREV, T, SANJAYAN J G, CHENG, Y-B. Resistance of alkali-activated slag

concrete to acid attack. Cement and Concrete Research. Vol. 33, 2003, pp 1607-1611.
8. ROVNANKOV, P, BAYER, P, ROVNANK, P, NOVK, J. Properties of Alkali-

Activated Aluminosilicate Materials with Fire-Resistant Aggregate after High Temperature
Loading. Cement Combinations for Durable Concrete, Proceedings of the International
Conference, Dundee, 2005, pp 277-286.
INFLUENCE OF HIGH TEMPERATURE HEATING ON THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AUTOCLAVED AERATED
CONCRETE PANEL
Y Kitsutaka
H Hiramatsu
M Tamura
Tokyo Metropolitan University
Japan
ABSTRACT. The influence of high temperature heating on the mechanical properties of an

autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) panel was investigated. Bending tests for AAC panel
were carried out and load deformation curves were measured. Bending strength and
deformation ability of AAC panel were evaluated by the measured load deformation curves.
Before the bending test, the AAC panel was heated by fire in a chamber by following a
standard heating condition curve proposed in the ISO Standard. The influences of the heating
temperature, the heating times and the material properties of AAC panel on the bending
strength and deformation ability were identified. Also, the possibility of reusing AAC that
has been subjected to fire was studied, based on the results. The results of bending tests
indicate that when the heated side was the tension side, higher yield strength and deformation
capacity were obtained than when the heated side was compressed. Moreover, these
characteristics enhance with greater AAC thickness.
Keywords: Autoclaved aerated concrete, High temperature heating, Bending tests.
Dr Y Kitsutaka, a professor in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering at

the Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan. He received his Dr. Eng. from the Tokyo Institute
of Technology in 1986. His research interest includes aesthetics of building faades,
durability of building materials, new concrete materials, and fracture mechanics of structural
materials. His research on the fracture of concrete received the prize of the Architectural
Institute of Japan in 2001.
Mr H Hiramatsu, a student in the Department of Architecture and Building Engineering at

the Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan.
Dr M Tamura, a research associate in the Department of Architecture and Building

Engineering at the Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan.
283
284 Kitsutaka, Hiramatsu, Tamura
INTRODUCTION
One of the properties considered desirable in building materials is the resistance to fire
spreading from the outside. Todays building materials are increasingly diverse, and are made
from a variety of raw materials. Yet there is no standard way of evaluating their fire
resistance, nor are there clear criteria for selecting materials based on their fire resistance
properties. In official regulations, the fire retardant/resistant property is defined as the
performance required in the parts of the structure involved in preventing the structure from
collapsing and the fire from spreading until the time the fire ends, in the case of an ordinary
fire. Nothing is said, however, about such matters as the reuse of building materials after a
fire. From the standpoint of building maintenance and management, the ability of materials to
be reused after being subjected to fire is likely to become an important issue. In the case of
autoclaved lightweight concrete (AAC), in particular, while it has been tested as a
fire-resistant material, little research has been conducted regarding its ability to retain
structural strength or to be reused.
In the research described here, heat resistance and strength properties of AAC were tested
and studied especially when affected by heating during the initial stages of a fire. The
possibility of reusing AAC that has been subjected to fire was studied based on the results.
OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS
Properties of AAC panel
A typical mixture proportion and chemical composition of AAC is shown in Table 1. The
AAC panel was cured in autoclave conditions at 180C temperature and 10 atmospheric
pressure for 15-16 hours. Dimensions of the AAC panel used are shown in Table 2.
Table 1 Mixture proportion and chemical composition of AAC

DENSITY,
W/C UNIT WEIGHT OF MIXTURE PROPORTION, %
g/cm3
Silica Sand Cement Limestone Additives Al
0.5 to 0.7 around 1.15
5070 1040 520 210 0.1or less
UNIT WEIGHT OF THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF AAC, %
5CaO6SiO25H2O 75
SiO2 25
Table 2 Dimensions of AAC panel

ITEMS LENGTH, mm WIDTH, mm THICKNESS, mm FIRE RESISTANCE
AAC35 2000 600 35
Quasi Fire-Resistant
AAC50 2130 600 50
for 1 hour
AAC100 2220 600 100
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Panel 285
High temperature heating
Figure 1 shows the photograph of a fire testing chamber and Figure 2 shows a standard
heating time-temperature curve. High temperature heating tests were performed according
with the ISO 834 standard. The effective heating size of a heating chamber was 2370 mm
height and 2300 mm width. For one test, three numbers of the same AAC panel were set and
tested. Temperatures of the specimen surface were continually monitored using
thermocouples which were set on the heating surface and un-heated back surface of the
panels. Heating time conditions were 10 minutes and 20 minutes in order to evaluate the fire
resistance of the initial fire period.
Figure 1 Fire testing chamber
1200
TEMPERATURE,
1000
800
600
400
200 Limited to 20 minutes in the experiment
0
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
TIME, min.
Figure 2 Heating time-temperature curve using an ISO 834 standard fire
Panel bending testing
Figure 3 shows the photograph of panel bending testing and Figure 4 shows the details of the
testing arrangement. An Amsler type universal testing machine was used for the bending tests
by four-point manually operated loading, with the span between the supports and the central
span between the loading points being 800 mm and 400 mm, respectively. The mid-span
deflection at bottom and the load point deflections were measured.
Figure 3 4-point bending test of an AAC panel
Figure 4 Details of the 4-point bending test arrangement
Appearance
After the heating testing, the AAC showed no significant change in appearance, however,
there were a lot of micro-cracks on the heated surface. These may be because the hydrated
paste matrix of the AAC shrank by heating.
Temperature measurements
The temperature measurements on three types of AAC panels during heating tests are shown
in Figure 5. The measured temperatures of the heated inside and the un-heated outside were
averaged. The recorded inside surface temperature of the panel was about 800C at the
highest, but on the outside surface, the panel temperature was under 100C, indicating the
heat insulation effect of the AAC panel. Moreover, the outside temperature in the AAC with
a thickness of 100 mm was around max. 40C, indicating excellent heat shielding performance.
inside outside
1000 1000 1000
TEMPERATURE, C
TEMPERATURE, C
TEMPERATURE, C
800 800 800

600 600 600
400 400 400
200 200 200
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
TIME, min. TIME, min. TIME, min.
a) AAC35 heated (20min.) b) AAC50 heated (20min.) c) AAC100 heated (20min.)
Figure 5 Temperature measurements of AAC panel
Load-load point displacement curves
Figure 6 shows the measured load-load point displacement curves for AAC specimens. The
stiffness and the load-bearing capacities of AAC panel subjected to heating tended to be
lower than those of an un-heated specimen.
Generally, when the heated period was 20 minutes, a lower yield strength and lower
deformation capacity were obtained than when the heated period was 10 minutes. Especially,
in the case of a thin specimen of 35 mm thickness, there was an extremely low loading
capacity. However, thick specimens had few falls of loading capacity by the increase of the
heating time.
The results of bending tests indicated that when the loading side was the heated side, lower
yield strength and lower deformation capacity were obtained than when the loading side was
the un-heated one. Moreover, these characteristics enhanced with lower AAC thicknesses.
This was because the bending properties of AAC were such that a tensile force was resisted
by the reinforcing steel on the inner side of a panel, whereas on the compression side, these
were affected by the compressive strength of the AAC, so that a drop in AAC strength on the
compression side caused by heating lowered the overall yield strength of the panel. So, an
effective approach to improving the reusability of AAC panels would therefore be one that
restores the compressive strength of the side that was heated.
plain Heated (10min.) Heated (20min.)
3 3
2 2
LOAD, kN
LOAD, kN
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
LOAD POINT DISPLACEMENT, mm LOAD POINT DISPLACEMENT, mm
a) AAC35 (heat-side loading) b) AAC35 (un-heated-side loading)
6 6
4 4
LOAD, kN
LOAD, kN
2 2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
c) AAC50 (heat-side loading) d) AAC50 (un-heated-side loading)
12 12
8 8
LOAD, kN
LOAD, kN
4 4
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
e) AAC100 (heat-side loading) f) AAC100 (un-heated-side loading)
Figure 6 Load and load-point displacement curve

CONCLUSIONS
The results obtained in this study are summarized as follows:

1. In the heating testing, AAC showed no significant change in appearance.
2. When AAC with a thickness of 100 mm was heated for 20 minutes, so that the temperature
on the heated side reached 800C, the reverse side temperature was 40C, indicating an
excellent heat shielding performance.
3. The results of the bending tests indicated that when the heated side was the compression
side, lower yield strength and deformation capacity were obtained than when the un-heated
side was compressed. Moreover, these characteristics were enhanced at the lower the AAC
thicknesses.
4. The bending properties of AAC were such that a tensile force resisted by the reinforcing
steel on the inner side of a panel, whereas on the compression side, these were affected by
the compressive strength of the AAC, so that a drop in AAC strength on the compression
side caused by heating lowered the overall yield strength of the panel.
5. An effective approach to improve the reusability of AAC panels would therefore be one
that restores the compressive strength of the side that was heated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the ALC Society in Japan for provision of materials and co-operation
during the research work.
REFERENCES
1. JAPAN ARCHITECTURAL STANDARD SPECIFICATION (JASS), No.21,

Autoclaved light-weight concrete (ALC) panel works, Architectural Institute of Japan,
2005.10.
290
THE DETERMINATION OF THE FIRE RESISTANCE OF
PRESTRESSED HOLLOW CORE CONCRETE SLABS
G Woniak
M ukomski
A Borowy
Building Research Institute (ITB)
Poland
ABSTRACT. The following paper deals with two different methods of determining the fire
resistance of prestressed hollow core concrete slabs - by testing and by calculating. Six fire
resistance tests performed in the Fire Testing Laboratory of Building Research Institute,
Warsaw, as well as in other European laboratories, are presented. Observations of the
behaviour of the slabs during fire tests are given. The results of these tests are analysed
according to the Eurocode 1992-1-2 and standard EN 1168, using calculation and tabulated
data methods. The comparison showed discrepancy between the tests and calculation results.
Most of the slabs lost load bearing capacity through shear and anchorage failure. This mode is
not expected in theory and is not covered by calculation procedure in Eurocode. However,
temperature calculations and critical temperature prediction for bending mode failure are in
close agreement with test results. In order to explain the phenomena observed during the
tests, theoretical analysis of thermal deformations is performed and conclusions concerning
destructive effects are discussed. The loss of bond between steel and concrete is the basic
point of interest. Remarks on fire resistance dependencies for different types and dimensions
of slabs are also formulated.
Keywords: Concrete, Hollow core slabs, Prestressed structures, Fire resistance.
Dr G Woniak holds a PhD from Warsaw Technical University (1987). Since 1990, he has
worked in the Fire Research Department of ITB. His main field of interests is fire resistance
and fire protection of structural members. He is an author of more then 30 papers and
conference presentations.
Mr M ukomski, a civil engineer, graduated from Warsaw Technical University in 1999. He

has been a research worker in the Fire Research Department of Building Research Institute in
Warsaw since 2001, in the field of fire protection systems and resistance of building elements
and installations to fire. He is also an author and co-author of papers dealing with fire safety
engineering.
Dr A Borowy holds a Masters degree from Warsaw University, from the Faculty of
Mathematics, Informatics and Mechanics and a PhD from the Building Research Institute
(ITB) in Warsaw (1992). Since 1995, he has been the head of the fire testing laboratory in
ITB, and is also the Deputy Head of Fire Research Department of ITB.
291
292 Woniak, ukomski, Borowy
INTRODUCTION
The paper deals with problems of fire resistance of hollow core, prestressed concrete slabs.
These structures, when exposed to fire, show features different from traditional reinforced
concrete structures. One may observe specific phenomena leading to the decrease of the fire
resistance of elements, e.g. anchorage failure or shear. Engineers are not often aware of such
possible phenomena and there are many discussions and controversies around this subject.
Eurocodes introduce the rule of equivalence between calculation and the empirical method of
fire resistance evaluation. General principles and rules for the fire design of concrete
structures are given in EN 1992-1-2 [1]. Standard EN 1168-1 [2] formulates detailed rules
appropriate for hollow core slabs. The calculation methods of fire resistance determination
given in Eurocodes, when applied to prestressed elements, in many cases seem to be
incorrect. Test results and calculations are usually different, most of the time with higher
calculated than tested values of fire resistance. In fire conditions, slabs, during a certain time,
should fulfil structural and separating requirements, defined by the limit state criteria of load
bearing capacity R, integrity E and insulation I. According to the internal regulations of
different European countries, the required fire resistance classes of floors are usually between
REI 15 and REI 120, and, for floors separating fire compartments, even 240 minutes of fire
resistance can be required.
In this paper, six fire resistance tests of hollow core prestressed concrete slabs are presented
and analyzed. The fire resistance determined in tests is compared with the results of
calculations performed according to the rules given in Eurocodes. The phenomena of slabs in
fire conditions, especially that leading to load bearing capacity failure, is described. These
phenomena are not predicted by calculation methods. The rules of design and detailing given
in Eurocodes do not take into account the methods of prevention for failure modes observed
in the tests. In the paper, the authors also make an attempt to give a theoretical explanation of
the phenomena resulting in the load bearing capacity failure of the prestressed slabs exposed
to fire.
THE FIRE RESISTANCE TESTS OF THE SLABS
The analysis presented below is based on the results of six fire resistance tests of hollow core
prestressed slabs. Three of them were performed in the years 2000-2002 in the Fire Testing
Laboratory of the Building Research Institute in Warsaw [3] and the three remaining tests in
other European laboratories. All tests were conducted following the rules specified in EN
1365-2 [4]. In Table 1, the cross-sections and dimensions of the tested slabs are given. The
designations are shown in Figure 1. The following paragraph gives a short description of the
tests and their results.
Slab 1. The test element consisted of a single slab 1.20 m wide and 5.20 m long. The simply
supported slab worked under an external load q = 7.5 kN/m2. The degree of utilization was
M = 71% for bending and V = 71% for shear. The test lasted 52.5 minutes. From the 33rd
minute onwards, longitudinal cracks began to appear above the channels all along the slab. In
the 35th minute, with the deflection f = 173 mm (f/L > 1/30) and the average temperature of
the steel being T = 325C, the load bearing criterion of the fire resistance was exceeded. The
external load was removed. After 52.5 minutes, the test element lost fire integrity, as the slab
defragmented into several separate I-sections and the temperature rise on the unexposed
Fire Resistance Prestressed Concrete 293
surface (due to cracks above the channels) exceeded T > 180K. After the test, it was
discovered that the tendons lost their bond to the concrete (the visible front of the steel
strands moved 10-20 mm inside the concrete). The shear capacity of the slab was not reached
until the end of test.
Figure 1 Cross-section of the hollow core slab
Table 1 Dimensions and Parameters of the Slabs
SLAB* DIMENSIONS, mm CONCRETE STEEL **

no H D B a T
1(Pl) 200 152 36 32 - C30/37 47,8 +312,5
2(Pl) 200 155 33 36 50 C50/60 712,5
3(Pl) 265 185 38 56 50 C50/60 1012,5
4 (E) 185 114 36 30 - C30/37 89,3
5 (E) 220 149 36 30 - C30/37 89,3
6 (E) 270 199 36 32 - C30/37 412,5+415,2
*) Pl Polish tests, E other European tests
**) The prestressing steel of a single slab 1.20 m wide; fpk = 1770 MPa (test 1), fpk =
1860 MPa (tests 2-6)
Slab 2. The test element was 2.60 m wide (slab 1.2 m + 2 parts of a slab 2 x 0.7 m) and
5.20 m long. 20 cm thick slabs were covered with 5 cm of concrete topping and finished with
reinforced concrete ties above the supports. Slab was simply supported, and the external load
was 8.9 kN/m2. The degree of utilization for bending was M = 53%, and for shear was V =
66%. The test was terminated after 60.5 minutes. The ultimate limit state of capacity was
reached after 57 minutes due to deflections exceeding the limit criterion. The average
temperature of steel was T = 395C. The load bearing shear capacity was not exceeded until
the end of test.
Slab 3. The test element had the same dimensions and construction as slab 2, but the
thickness was 26.5 cm. The external load was 16 kN/m2 and the utilization coefficients were
M = 49% and V = 79%. The test lasted 47.5 minutes. After that time, the ultimate limit state
of load bearing capacity was reached due to the shear of the slab in the support zone and an
exceeding of the deflection criterion. The average temperature of steel was T = 140C. The
first transverse crack on the unexposed side appeared in the 45th minute of the test.
Slab 4. The test element consisted of 2 slabs, each with dimensions 1.20 m x 6.30 m x
18.5 cm. Neither topping nor tie was supplied. The slab was simply supported, the external
loading was q = 9.1 kN/m2. The utilization coefficients were M = 89% and V = 74%. After
21.5 minutes, the element cracked close to the supports in the shear failure mode. After the
test, the loss of bond of the prestressing steel was observed and measured, the front of the
strands moved up to 9 mm inside the concrete.
Slab 5. The test element had the same dimensions as slab 4, but the thickness was 22 cm. The
external loading was 9.1 kN/m2, and the degrees of utilization were M = 74% and V = 62%.
The test was terminated after 26 minutes. The element lost shear capacity near the supports.
After the test, the anchorage failure of prestressing steel was observed and measured, the
strands moved 49 mm inside concrete.
Slab 6. The test element had the same dimensions as slabs 4 and 5, but the thickness was
27 cm. The external loading was 15.1 kN/m2 and the utilization coefficients were M = 54%
and V = 81%. After 21.5 minutes the element lost shear capacity. The displacement of the
strand fronts reached 4 mm.
Taking into account the results and observations described above, the following course of test
can be recognized as typical:
A fast increase of slab deflection (2-4 mm/min) due to a high temperature gradient during
the initial phase of heating. Usually, starting from 2nd 3rd minute, the effect of the
pulling in of the strands begins, when the bond between the concrete and steel above
supports is lost. Characteristic crackles can be heard, associated with a local cutting of
concrete surrounding the steel. The temperature of the strands goes up, after 15-20 minutes
reaching 100C (depending on the concrete cover thickness), and is subsequently stabilized
for several minutes due to the moisture plateau effect in the concrete.
After 30-40 minutes (earlier for slabs of less thickness), with a deflection of 8-10 cm, the
rate of deflection decreases and reaches a value of 1-2 mm/min. This effect is caused by a
slowing down of temperature gradient increase, and also by the concrete becoming hot
inside the slab. At the same time, the effect of pulling in the strands slows down or is
even interrupted. The temperature of the steel reaches 150-250C.
The effects which follow, leading to the load bearing capacity failure of the slabs, can be
different.
Variant I. With forthcoming heating and a slow increase of slab deflection (1 mm/min),
prestressing steel may keep a sufficient bond with the concrete. The temperature of the steel
gradually goes up. Starting from T = 300C, the mechanical properties of the prestressing
steel: Young modulus E and tensile strength fy, begin to decrease significantly. Depending on
the level of utilization (i.e. applied load), with steel temperature T = 350-450C, the loss of
bending capacity takes place. In the final stage of failure, deflections rise up rapidly (10-
20 mm/min) due to the yield of prestressing steel.
Variant II. A loss of bond takes place. The displacement of the strands inside the concrete can
reach 50-60 mm. A slab without prestressing shows phenomena similar to unreinforced
concrete. The final failure takes place either due to a shear in the support zone or a fracture
close to mid-span. Variant I is predicted by theory and is covered by calculation methods.
Variant II can be often observed during fire tests. The two modes of failure are illustrated in
Figure 2. The diagrams present deflection f, strand displacement L and steel temperature T.
The data were collected during 2 fire tests (these tests are not specified in Tables 1-5). The
case of slow failure concerns a slab 16 cm thick, with an axis distance of ao = 38 mm. The
case of sudden failure concerns a slab 27 cm thick, with an axis distance of ao = 50 mm.
Both slabs were tested with the same degree of utilization M = 45%. The slabs were designed
with the use of calculation methods respectively for 60 minutes and 120 minutes of fire
resistance. The load bearing capacity determined during the fire tests turned out to be 100 and
65 minutes.
250
200
DEFLECTION, mm
150
100
f 160
50 f 270
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME, min
60
50
DISPLACEMENT, mm
40
30
L 160
20
L 270

10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME, min
500
450
400
TEMPERATURE, oC
350
300
250
200
150
T 160
100
T 270
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
TIME, min
Figure 2 Deflection of Slab f, Displacement (inside Concrete) of Strands L,

Temperature of Strands T
THE COMPARISON OF TEST AND CALCULATION RESULTS
The fire resistance calculations of the slabs described earlier were performed according to the
rules given in standards EN 1992-1-2 and EN 1168. The calculations comprised two stages:
1. The determination of time dependent temperatures in slab cross section (thermal

analysis),
2. A check of the ultimate limit state of load bearing capacity in a fire situation (mechanical
analysis).
According to Eurocode recommendations, the check was performed for bending and
additionally (not required by Eurocode) for shear. Relations given in Polish standard PN-B-
03264: 2002 [5], concerning shear in prestressed concrete structures, were applied (the Polish
standard is equivalent to EN 1992-1-1 [6]).
The temperatures of prestressing steel, both calculated and measured, are given in Table 2.
Table 3 presents the calculated values of the critical temperature of the steel (for bending
capacity) and the critical temperature of the concrete (for shear capacity of webs). While
calculating the shear capacity, two possible situations were considered:
a) Prestressing steel remains bound to the concrete until the shear failure of the slab,
b) The loss of bond in the support zone occurs before the shear failure.
Table 2 Prestressing Steel Temperature Measurements * and Calculations
TIME, TEMPERATURE, oC
min Slab 1 Slab 2 Slab 3
Test Calculation Test Calculation Test Calculation
15 103 81 106 85 66 43
30 275 175 195 187 104 96
45 411 272 312 296 133 152
60 - 353 408 384 - 215
75 - 418 - 454 - 274
90 - 473 - 512 - 326
120 - - - - - 411
*) during tests 4, 5 and 6 the temperature of the steel was not measured
Table 3 Calculated Values of the Critical Temperatures of the Steel and Concrete
NO UTILIZATION, % CRITICAL TEMPERATURE, C

M V Steel Concrete - web
(bending) (shear)
a b
1 71 71 359 330 220
2 53 66 422 370 280
3 49 79 429 330 225
4 89 74 300 315 205
5 74 62 349 365 275
6 54 81 411 325 215
In Table 4, the empirical and calculated results of the fire resistance assessment of the
analysed slabs, as well as the mode of failure, are presented. The evaluation of the fire
resistance of slabs 4, 5 and 6 was performed by the authors of the presented paper, and also
by four experts from European countries. They applied different assumptions and calculation
methods for the assessment and received values written in the table in italics. In Table 5, the
fire resistance rating of the analysed slabs is presented. The classification was established by
applying three methods: two of them are recommended by standards (calculation method and
tabulated data method), while the third is an empirical method.
Table 4 Evaluation of Fire Resistance of Slabs
NO FIRE RESISTANCE, mins MODE OF FAILURE

Test Calculation (during fire test)
Bending Shear *
a b
1 35 61 118 79 bending
+ anchorage failure
2 57 68 107 78 bending **
3 47,5 127 152 101 shear**
4 21,5 46 - - shear
(46,55,65,50) + anchorage failure
5 26 54 - - shear
6 21,5 73 - - shear
*) for slabs 4, 5 and 6, the shear calculations were not performed because
information concerning the web temperature was not provided
**) during tests 2 and 3, no measurements and observations of strand endings were
performed because the strands were fully covered by concrete ties
Table 5 Fire Resistance Classification of Slabs for Load Bearing Criterion
NO FIRE RESISTANCE CLASSIFICATION

calculation tabulated data test
1 R 60 R 45 R 30
2 R 60 R 60 R 45
3 R 120 R 120 R 45
4 R 45 R 45 R 20
5 R 45 R 45 R 20
6 R 60 R 45 R 20
THE ANALYSIS OF THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS IN FIRE CONDITIONS
In order to explain the phenomena connected with the loss of bond between strands and
concrete in a fire situation, an analysis of the deformations and stresses in prestressing steel
due to thermal deformations of slabs has been carried out. The following designations are
applied: h = height of cross-section of slab, ao = the axis distance of prestressing steel, L = the
span of the slab, f = the deflection of the slab, T = the temperature gradient across the cross-
section. The line of deflection of a simply supported slab can be approximately described by
the following parabola equation:
4x2
y = f 2 1 (1)
L
The tendon elongation L1 is caused by a curvature change while elongation L2 is the effect
of a reciprocal rotation of the slab finishing cross-sections x = -L/2 and x = +L/2. The
elongation can be described by the following formulas (see Figure 3):
Figure 3 Deformation of Slab, Designations
L = L1 + L2
L 16f2 L2 L2 L2
L1 = 1+ 2 + ln 1 + + 1 ln 1 + 1 L
2 L 16f 16f2 16f2

(2)
8f h
L2 = ao 2
L 2
The diagram of tendon elongation as a function of deflection f (for L = 5,00 m, h = 27 cm and

ao = 5,0 cm) is shown in Figure 4.
Strains 2, constant along tendon, are linear function of deflection f.
8f h
2 = 2 ao (3)
L 2
while strains 1 rise up non-linearly and reach the following variable values, dependent on x
position:
8f
1 - cos x
1 = L2 (4)
8f
cos 2 x
L
The stresses in tendons, caused by thermal deformations of the slab, can be written in the
following form:
8f
1 - cos 2 x
L 8f h
= E(1 + 2 T ) = E + 2 ao TT (5)
8f L 2
cos 2 x
L
where T is the coefficient of thermal elongation and T is the temperature of the prestressing
steel. The variation of stresses is illustrated in Figure 5:
45
40 L1
STRANDS ELONGATION, mm
L2
35
L
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
SLAB DEFLECTION f, mm
Figure 4 Tendon Elongation Results of Calculations

1600
1400 f=5cm
f=10cm
STEEL STRESS, MPa
1200
f=15cm
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
DISTANCE FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SLAB SPAN, cm
Figure 5 Increase of Stresses in Steel along Tendon

Caused by Thermal Deformations of the Slab
According to equation (5), the variation of stresses in the prestressing steel also depends on
the steel temperature. An increasing temperature is favourable for stress level due to the
relaxation caused by the thermal elongation TT and the decrease of the Young modulus of
the prestressing steel E in elevated temperatures. A diagram of the relation E(T), according to
Eurocode [1], is given in Figure 6.
The theoretical analysis described above points towards the following conclusions:
Due to the deflection of slab caused by the temperature gradient, a significant increase of
stresses in the prestressing steel takes place. The stress increase has a non-linear character
along the tendons and reaches its highest values at the ends of the slab.
Stresses are higher for slabs of greater thickness than for slabs of lesser thickness.
After reaching the temperature of 150-200C, the rate of stress begins to go down. This
effect is caused by a slowing down of the slab deflection increase, as well as a relaxation
of the steel stresses with temperature.
200000
YOUNG MODULUS - STRANDS, MPa
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
Ep,fi
40000
20000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE, oC]
Figure 6 Variation of Young Modulus of Prestressing Steel E (Stands) with Temperature
On the basis of the theoretical analysis, the effects observed during the fire tests can be
interpreted in the following way. In the anchorage zone of the slab, through a fast increase of
stresses due to slab deflection, bond failure between steel and concrete finally takes place. A
progressive effect of pulling in the tendons inside the concrete core means increasing the
length of the lost bond zone, i.e. the zone without prestressing. With a certain load level, this
leads to the shear failure of the slab in the support zone.
Another possible mode of failure is connected to the mixed shear and bending, when a loss of
bond takes place on a long segment of the slab, and unprestressed sections are subjected to
shear and bending simultaneously. Slabs of great thickness, under high loading, are specially
endangered by an early loss of load bearing capacity when exposed to fire. The stress
increase caused by strains 2 (see (3)) is higher for thick than for thin slabs. In addition, in the
thick slabs, due to usually having a greater concrete cover a, the steel reaches a lower
temperature and a relaxation of stresses does not take place. The possibility of an early failure
of prestressed slabs exposed to fire (after 20-30 minutes) is confirmed by test results.
Another possible scenario of slab behaviour during a fire is associated with the slower
increase of stresses in steel during thermal deformations of a slab. It usually applies to thin
slabs under a low level of loading. If the zone of bond loss is not wide and the steel reaches a
temperature of 150-200C (after approx. 30-40 minutes for a concrete cover of 35-40 mm),
then the increase in deflections of the slab (much slower than at the beginning) and the
increase of stresses connected to it will go softly as a result of the thermal relaxation of steel.
The zone of anchorage failure will not increase and the load bearing capacity will be kept
until the steel reaches its tensile strength. In the case of a low load level, the bending failure
will take place at approximately steel temperature T = 450C.
Taking into account the formulas given earlier, a dependency can be seen between the fire
resistance of the slab and the length of the slab. If we apply theoretical formula to the slab
deflection as a function of the temperature gradient:
Tc T 2
f= L (6)
8h
where Tc stands for the coefficient of the linear thermal elongation of the concrete, we can
see that slabs of the same cross section (thickness h), under the same fire exposure (gradient
T), but of different length L, fulfil the following relation:
c
8f T T
= = const. (7)
L2 h
Through analysing expressions (4), (5) and (7), we can see that strain 1 and stresses at the
ends of the slab rise up as a function of the length of the slab. The load bearing capacity of
the slabs exposed to fire depends on the span. With a longer span, the loss of bond between
steel and concrete should take place earlier and over a longer distance. As a consequence,
slabs of longer span have lower fire resistance than shorter ones. This conclusion is
important, especially for slabs which are fire-tested on 5 m long sample elements and may
even reach an 18 m span in practice.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Among the six tested and analysed hollow core prestressed slabs, two lost their load bearing
capacity under fire exposure in bending mode and, four, as a result of shear, in support zones.
The dominant mode of failure of prestressed, hollow core slabs in fire conditions is that of
shear connected to an anchorage failure. In this scenario, the following stages of destruction
can be observed:
A loss of bond of prestressing steel and the effect of pulling in the tendons inside
the concrete.
A decrease of shear load bearing capacity near the support due to an anchorage
failure.
A successive decrease of shear load bearing capacity due to a temperature rise and a
tensile strength drop of concrete webs, terminated by a shear failure.
An explosive spalling of concrete was not observed during any of the analysed tests.
According to standards EN 1992-1-2 and EN 1168, floors constructed from hollow core slabs
are not affected by shear or anchorage failure and no additional check within this scope is
required. The calculation methods of fire resistance assessment given in Eurocodes assume a
bending failure mode of slabs subjected to fire. During tests 1 and 2, the time predicted by the
calculations to reach an ultimate limit state in bending turned out to be 74% and 19% longer
than the time reached during the tests. However, the real bending capacity in a fire situation is
a bit higher than the one established during the fire tests. This is because the tests were
terminated after exceeding a deflection limit, not after the full yielding or rapture of tendons.
The temperatures of the steel, measured during tests 2 and 3, differ 5-10% from the calculated
values. A similar exactness was reached during fire tests of the reinforced concrete beams and
slabs in ITB in 1988 [7]. A big discrepancy (30%) between the measured and calculated
temperatures during test 1 can be explained by additional heat transfer through wide
longitudinal cracks, which appeared above the channels during the test. The critical
temperature of the prestressing steel, measured during tests 1 and 2, was 325C and 395C,
while the calculated values were 359C and 422C. The difference is relatively small,
especially considering that the values coming from the test are slightly lower than they really
are (see conclusion 5). Both the calculation method and test method to determine the bending
capacity in a fire situation give similar results.
A realistic assessment of the shear capacity of prestressed slabs subjected to fire according to
Eurocodes is not possible, because these standards do not take into account the possible
special features associated with anchorage failure during fire exposure. The calculation
analysis presented in this paper, in spite of the simplifications applied, gives explanations for
the phenomena taking place in the anchorage zone of the prestressing steel, leading to an
early loss of load bearing capacity under fire exposure. Nowadays, the assessment of fire
resistance of hollow core prestressed slabs should be based on test results.
REFERENCES
1. EN 1992-1-2: 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1.2: General rules
Structural fire design.
2. EN 1168: 2005. Precast concrete products Hollow core slabs.
3. The Fire Testing Laboratory of ITB. Reports of fire resistance tests LP-716/99, LP-
534.1/01, LP-534.2/01, Warszawa 2000-2001.
4. EN 1365-2:1999. Fire resistance tests for loadbearing elements Part 2: Floors and roofs.
5. Standard PN-B-03264: 2002. Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed structures.
Static calculations and design (in Polish).
6. EN 1992-1-1: 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1.1: General rules
and rules for buildings.
7. BOROWY, A. Research work NP-32/88. Fields of temperature in cross sections of
steel and concrete elements, ITB 1988 (in Polish).
8. LUKOMSKI, M AND WOZNIAK, G. The fire resistance of floors from hollow core
prestressed slabs tests and calculations. Conference Concrete and prefabrication,
Jadwisin 2002 (in Polish).
9. WOZNIAK, G AND LUKOMSKI M. The load bearing capacity of hollow core
prestressed slabs exposed to fire. Conference Concrete and prefabrication, Jadwisin
2004 (in Polish).
FIRE ENDURANCE OF RC COLUMNS
K S Babunarayan
H C Chinnagiri Gowda
K Venkataramana
S C Yaragal
National Institute of Technology, Karnataka
India
ABSTRACT. Lateral ties not only hold longitudinal reinforcement of columns in place but
also help reduce their premature failure by buckling. Closely spaced lateral ties, confine the
core concrete and help concrete behave like a fluid under pressure. Lateral ties in fact
contribute to carrying capacity of column, but has been ignored, as they are present at
discrete locations. Standard codes of practice have recognized this fact and have allowed
higher strengths for columns where lateral reinforcement is in the form of spirals. In the
present work, welded wire fabrics as lateral reinforcement in RC columns are investigated in
order to understand the effect of confining the concrete and its impact on strength, ductility,
cracking and fire endurance.
Keywords: Fire Endurance, Welded Wire Fabric, R C Column, Concrete Confinement
K S Babunarayan, is a Professor at the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka.
H C Chinnagiri Gowda, is a Professor at the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka.
K Venkataramana, is a Professor at the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka.
S C Yaragal, is a Professor at the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka.
303
304 Babunarayan et al
INTRODUCTION
Fire Resistance
The fire resistance of a building component or assembly is its ability to withstand exposure to
fire without the loss of load bearing function or to act as a barrier against spread of fire or
both. Generally, requirements for fire resistance design are expressed in terms of length of
time that a construction can withstand exposure to a standard fire without losing its load
bearing or fire separating function. This length of time is a measure of fire performance of
component or assembly. The term fire endurance is popularly used to describe both
duration of load bearing and fire separating function.
The fire resistance requirements in building codes are usually a function of such factors as
fire load, building occupancy, height and area. In actual practice, however, the severity of a fire
and thus the required fire resistance is a function of additional factors, which are not considered
in building codes. These factors include the properties of material of walls enclosing the fire
and dimensions of openings in walls through which air can be supplied to fire and heat lost to
surroundings.
A common method to assess fire resistance is by subjecting specimens such as beams,

columns to a fire test. There are three criteria in standard test method. They concern load-
bearing capacity, integrity and for fire barriers, temperatures rise on the unexposed face. In
many cases not all criteria have to be met. Beams and columns, for example, are required
only to demonstrate ability to carry load for fire resistance period. Non load-bearing walls, if
used as a fire separation, only have to meet the requirement of integrity and requirement that
limits the temperature rise on unexposed face.
TEMPERATURE, C
TIME, Hr
Figure 1 Fire temperature-time relation

Fire Severity
Conventionally, the development of fire in a room is divided into three periods: growth
period, period of full development and decay period. Normally, a fire starts with the ignition
of a single product. It may then go out or may grow into a fully developed fire. The start of
full development period is usually preceded by a phenomenon referred to as flashover, which
is characterized by an almost instantaneous spread of flame over all combustible surfaces.
The word severity is commonly used to describe the potential of fire to spread by destruction.
It has long been usual to regard the temperature of fire gases in room as embodiment of
destructive potential of fire, and boundaries of room as passive participants in fire process
that merely respond to destructive conditions imposed on them. As a result of ongoing
research, it has been proven that it is inaccurate to regard the temperature of fire gases as
principal descriptor of fire severity. The temperature of fire gases is the result of a strong and
complex interaction between fire gases and room. Recent investigations revealed that so
called normalized heat load on room boundaries is an accurate measure of fires destructive
potential. Heat load is the total heat absorbed by room boundaries (per unit surface area)
during fire incident. Normalization is achieved by dividing heat load by thermal inertia of
boundaries.
Numerous theoretical and experimental studies have indicated that destructive potential of
fires depend mainly on five factors:
1. Total fire load.

2. Ventilation parameter (characterizing rate of inflow of air into room).
3. Total area of rooms internal surfaces.
4. Thermal inertia of rooms boundaries (low for insulating materials and high for
conductors).
5. Fraction of energy of volatile combustibles released within the room per unit time.
The fire resistive properties of building components are measured and specified according to
a common standard (in North America it is ASTM E 119), as presented in Fig. 2. Performance
is defined as the period of resistance to standard fire exposure elapsing before first critical
end point is reached. End point criteria are as below:
1. Load bearing specimens must sustain applied loading; collapse is an obvious end point.
2. Holes, cracks, fissures through which pass flames or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste
must not form.
3. Temperature of unexposed surface of floors, roofs or walls must not rise to an average of
250F or a maximum of 325F at any one point.
4. Walls must sustain a hose stream test (simulating in a specified manner a fire fighters
hose stream) and twice the superimposed load after fire test.
5. In alternate tests of large steel beams (not loaded during test) end point criteria occurs
when steel temperature reaches an average of 1000F or a maximum of 1200F at any one
point.
The standard fire exposure is defined in terms of a time-temperature relation of fire shown in
Figure 1. The fire represents combustion of about 10 lb of wood (with a heat potential of
8000 BTU per lb) per sq. ft of exposure area per hour of test. Actually, the fuel consumed
during a fire test is dependent on furnace design and heat capacity of test assembly. During
fire tests of floors, roofs, beams, load-bearing walls and columns maximum permissible
superimposed load is applied. Floor and roof specimens are exposed to fire from beneath,
beams from bottom and sides, walls from one side and columns from all sides.
2500
TEMPERATURE, F
2000
atmosphere temperature, F
1500
FurnaceATMOSPHERE
1000
FURNACE
500
0
0 2 4 6 8
FIREtest
Fire TEST TIME,
time, hr Hr
Figure 2 Furnace atmosphere temperature specified in ASTM E119
Fire Endurance of Concrete Columns
Historically, reinforced concrete columns have had excellent performance records in fires.
Because of structural requirements, building columns are seldom smaller than 12-inch in
diameter or 12-inch square. Many building codes assign ratings of 4 hr for 12-inch columns
made of carbonate or structural lightweight aggregate concrete and ratings of 2 hr and 3 hr for
similar columns made of siliceous aggregate concrete.
Fire tests conducted in Europe indicate that smaller columns can be used for shorter fire
endurances.
Even though the standard fire test for columns calls for fire exposure on all sides of a column,
a more severe situation may exist when a column is exposed to one, two or three sides. To
evaluate structural consequences of such a fire exposure, an estimate of temperature
distribution must be made. The isotherms in rectangular columns exposed to fire on three
sides will be similar to those for beams of same dimensions. For columns exposed to fire on
one side only, isotherms can be assumed to be similar to those in a slab.
During a standard fire test of a column, a constant concentric load is applied. In many
situations, the load on a column exposed to fire will increase due to thermal expansion of
column, and restraint of members framing into column. This situation is likely to occur in
lower storey columns of multi-storey buildings. In general, such columns are large and can
withstand fires of long duration while sustaining considerable overloads.
Thermal Properties
Thermal properties of concrete are significant in connection with keeping differential volume or
length changes at a minimum, extracting excess heat from concrete and dealing with similar
operations involving heat transfer. The main factor affecting the thermal properties of a concrete
is the mineralogical composition of aggregate. Since the selection of aggregate to be used is
based on other considerations, little or no control can be exercised over thermal properties of
concrete and tests for thermal properties are conducted only for providing constants to be used
in behavior studies. Specification requirements for cement, pozzolona, percentage of sand and
water content are modifying factors but with negligible effect. Entrained air is an insulator and
reduces thermal conductivity. The thermal properties involved are, Coefficient of thermal
expansion/contraction, Conductivity, Diffusivity and Specific heat. The last three are largely
inter-related.
Coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction
The coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction represents the change of concrete volume
or as usually measured on test specimens, change in length with change in temperature. An
increase in temperature may cause concrete to expand or contract, latter depending upon a
change in moisture content. As with most materials, concrete tends to expand with increasing
temperature, however this normal expansion may be overshadowed by shrinkage due to
moisture loss. The thermal coefficient for reinforced concrete may be assumed as 6 x 10-6 in
per F, the average for concrete and steel. Concrete with lower coefficients of expansion have
a great advantage in resisting stresses due to severe temperature changes. Thermal expansion
is strongly reduced as limiting stress level is increased.
Conductivity
Conductivity represents the uniform flow of heat through a unit thickness over a unit area of
concrete subjected to a unit temperature difference between two faces. Generally, conductivity
is essentially a function of cement paste and aggregate and within these narrow limits, is a
function of unit weight of concrete. Designers usually compute heat transfer coefficient of an
assembly on the basis of values for thermal conductivity of dry component materials, as it is
difficult to measure heat transfer in moist materials. An increase in moisture content causes
an increase in conductivity of concrete at all temperatures.
Specific heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of concrete
by one degree (heat capacity of concrete). The specific heat of concrete is equal to summation
of weighted specific heats of the constituents. The common range of values for normal weight
concrete is 0.20 to 0.28 BTU/lb F. The specific heat increases with a decrease in unit weight of
concrete, but is affected very little by mineralogical character of aggregates or by variations in
aggregate or cement content of mix. In general, specific heat varies directly with variation in
moisture content of concrete because of high specific heat of water.
Diffusivity
Diffusivity is an index of the facility with which concrete will undergo temperature change
and is expressed in m2/hr or ft2/hr.
a=k/c
where a = diffusivity;
k = thermal conductivity;
c = specific heat;
= density of concrete.
The value of diffusivity is largely affected by aggregate type. The range of typical values of
diffusivity varies between 0.02 to 0.08 ft2/hr. The higher the value of diffusivity, more readily
heat will move through concrete. In general, diffusivity increases with an increase in aggregate
content or decrease in water-cement ratio and it decreases with an increase in temperature of
concrete.
CODAL PROVISIONS FOR FIRE RESISTANCE
IS 456:2000 covers very briefly the required fire resistance for various structural elements.
The code prescribes the minimum dimensions for members and related minimum covers, the
adherence to which is said to have met the requirements for fire resistance for corresponding
members. The tables giving minimum dimensions of members and covers are listed below.
b
b
ONE FACE EXPOSED

50% EXPOSED
D b
b
FULLY EXPOSED COLUMNS
SOLID SLABS
bw
b
RIB/WAFFEL SLAB
SLABS BEAMS
Figure 3 Structures covered by IS 456:2000 for fire resistance

Table 1 Minimum dimensions of members
COLUMN
MINIMUM WALL THICKNESS
DIMENSION
mm
b or D, mm
B bw D 0.4% p
h FE 50%E OFE p < 0.4% p > 1%
mm mm mm 1%
0.5 200 125 75 150 125 100 150 100 100

1 200 125 95 200 160 120 150 120 100
1.5 200 125 110 250 200 140 175 140 100
2 200 125 125 300 200 160 - 160 100
3 240 150 150 400 300 200 - 200 150
4 280 175 170 450 350 240 - 240 180
h = fire resistance in hours.

b = minimum beam width.
bw = rib width of slabs.
D = minimum thickness of floors.
FE = fully exposed face.
OFE = one face exposed.
p = percentage steel reinforcement.
Table 2 Nominal covers in mm
FIRE BEAMS SLABS RIBS

RESISTANCE COLUMNS
Hr SS CONT SS CONT SS CONT
0.5 20 20 20 20 20 20 40
1.0 20 20 20 20 20 20 40
1.5 20 20 25 20 35 20 40
2.0 40 30 35 25 45 35 40
3.0 60 40 45 35 55 45 40
4.0 70 50 55 45 65 55 40
SS: Simply supported.

CONT: Continuous.
Additional measures such as application of fire resistant finishes, provision of fire resistant
false ceilings and sacrificial steel in tensile zone, should be adopted in case the nominal cover
required exceeds 40 mm for beams and 35 mm for slabs, to give protection against spalling.
Specialist literature may be referred to for determining fire resistance of structures, which
have not been covered in the figures shown.
SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK
Critical review of available literature suggests that strength and ductility of concrete in
compression is significantly improved when confined by reinforcement. However, the confining
effect has been found to vary with the type of lateral reinforcement provided. Lateral
reinforcement which runs continuously throughout the length of the column has been found to
better confine concrete than lateral ties which are present at discrete locations. Welded wire
fabrics have been used to confine concrete and appear to further improve strength and ductility.
However, research in this field has been found to be very little.
Hence it is felt that further study be done in this area and potential benefits exploited.
Therefore, the present work makes an attempt to study the effect of laterally confining the
concrete through welded wire fabrics. It is believed that by doing so, strength and ductility of
the column is significantly improved. Improvement in ductility is a potential advantage in
seismically active zones. It is also believed that due to better confinement an improvement in
fire performance can be expected. This again is a potential advantage in cases where the
columns are likely to be subjected to fire. Along with the above a better performance of
column in terms of cracking is also expected.
A total of twenty eight (28) columns have been cast which have been classified into seven (7)
series with four (4) columns in each series. The series are as follows with the following
details.
Longitudinal reinforcement: 4-12 mm diameter bars.

Lateral reinforcement: 6 mm diameter ties at 190 mm c/c.
Welded wire fabrics with mesh size: 25.4 x 25.4 mm; 50.8 x 50.8 mm; 76.2 x 76.2 mm.
The longitudinal reinforcement of 4-12 mm bars one at each corner is common in all series.
Wherever lateral ties have been used, they are spaced at 190 mm c/c of 6mm diameter. In
columns with no lateral ties and only fabrics, three (3) ties of 6mm diameter are equally
spaced to maintain the geometry of the cage.
The series have been designated as follows:
Columns with lateral ties only. : CLF0

Columns with lateral ties and 25.4 mm x 25.4 mm welded wire fabrics. : CLF1.
Columns with no lateral ties and 25.4 mm x 25.4 mm welded wire fabrics. : CF1.
The columns in each series have been numbered as A, B, C, and D.

Material specification
Cement: Birla Super 53 grade

Concrete grade: M20 (Nominal mix as per IS: 456-2000)
Concrete mix: 1:1.67:3.33 with water/cement ratio = 0.6
Steel grade: Fe415 (Longitudinal steel) and Fe250 (Lateral steel)
Column specification
Size of column: 230 mm x 230 mm;

Length of column: 1.2 m
l/d = 1.2/0.23 = 5.2 < 12Y hence the column is short.
Longitudinal reinforcement: 4-12 mm diameter.

Lateral reinforcement: 6 mm diameter at 190 mm c/c.
Welded wire fabrics:
Mesh size of 25.4 mm x 25.4 mm, 50.8 mm x 50.8 mm and 76.2 mm x 76.2 mm
Gauge number: 10
Diameter: 3.251 mm
Sectional area: 8.3019 mm2
Theoretical capacity of column: Pu = 0.4 fck Ac + 0.67 fy Asc

= 0.4 x 20 x (230 x 230 - 452) + 0.67 x 415 x 452
= 545 kN.
Longitudinal reinforcement
4-12mm diameter
Lateral reinforcement
6mm diameter at 190mm c/c
Minimum cover 40mm

1.20m
10 Gauge welded wire fabric

230mm a = 25.4mm/50.8mm/76.2mm
230mm
Figure 4 Typical reinforcement arrangement of the column used in investigation

MATERIAL TEST RESULTS
Before casting the columns it was decided to test the properties of the basic materials to
ensure that the materials had the desired properties. Tests on cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and steel were conducted to ascertain their use in experiments.
The following tests were conducted on cement conforming to IS 4031-1968, (i) Normal
consistency (ii) Soundness (iii) Initial and final setting time (iv) Fineness (v) Specific gravity
and (vi) Compressive strength. The results of all the above tests are tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3 Test results of Ordinary Portland Cement (53 Grade) as per I.S: 12269-1987
and tested as per IS: 4031 (Part 1) - 1988
REQUIREMENTS
NO TEST CONDUCTED RESULT OBTAINED
AS PER I.S.
1 Specific gravity 3.11 -
2 Normal consistency, % 30 -
Initial 100 Not less than 30 minutes
3 Setting time, minutes
Final 300 Not more than 600 minutes
4 Fineness, m2/kg 291 Not less than 225 m2/kg
Expansion should not be
5 Soundness, mm Expansion 0.1
more than 10 mm.
3 day 7 day 28 day 3 day 7 day 28 day
6 Compressive strength, MPa
31 43 58 27 37 53
Specific gravity of fine aggregate is 2.60 and that for coarse aggregate is 2.65.
Test of steel for yield strength and ductility
Table 4 Details of the specimen
SPECIMEN WEIGHT, g LENGTH, m AREA, mm

1 860 0.996 109.9
2 850 0.997 108.6
3 862 0.998 110.0
Weight/meter = 0.860/0.996 = 0.863 kg/m.

Area = (weight/meter)/density of steel
= 0.863/0.00785
= 109.9 mm2.
Density of steel = 0.00785 g / mm3
Table 5 Result of the tension test of steel
YIELD STRENGTH,
ORIGINAL GAUGE
MAX STRENGTH,
% ELONGATION
FINAL GAUGE
LENGTH, mm
YIELD LOAD,
MAX. LOAD,
SPECIMEN
LENGTH,
N/mm
N/mm
mm
kN
kN
1 58 70 528 637 60 70.7 17.8
2 64 76 589 700 60 69 15
3 60 76 545 691 60 69.3 15.5
All the material tests conform to the respective codal requirements.
Figures 5 to 7, shows the lateral reinforcement details.
Figure 5 CLFO - column with 4-12 mm longitudinal steel and 6 mm at 190 mm c/c
lateral ties only
Figure 6 CLF1 - column with 4-12 mm longitudinal steel, 6 mm lateral ties at 190 mm c/c
and 25.4 mm x 25.4 mm mesh size fabric
Figure 7 CF1-column with 4-12 mm longitudinal steel and 25.4 mm x25.4 m mesh size fabric
FIRE ENDURANCE TEST RESULTS
In the present investigation, one column in each series was subjected to fire exposure for 2hr
at a temperature of 1000C in a furnace as per ASTM E119. The plot of heat treatment cycle
followed in the furnace is presented in Fig. 2. Column specimens after exposing to fire were
air cooled. The columns were then tested to determine post-exposure strength. The results of
post heat treatment strength test are tabulated below.
Table 6 Reduction in strength of columns after heat treatment
STRENGTH AFTER
COLUMN STRENGTH BEFORE % REDUCTION
HEAT TREATMENT,
SERIES HEAT TREATMENT, kN IN STRENGTH
kN
CLF0 729 232 68
CLF1 808 525 35
CLF2 750 287 62
CLF3 740 215 71
CF1 750 250 67
CF2 713 230 68
CF3 670 320 52.2
The results suggest that the percentage reduction in strength after heat treatment is smaller in
case of columns laterally reinforced with welded wire fabrics of small mesh openings. This
can be attributed to the fact that smaller mesh opening fabrics produce better confinement of
the core. This confining effect helps the column to preserve its integrity, maintain strength
and hence minimize disintegration. This is evident from test results as CLF1 has the least
reduction in strength and CLF3 has the greatest.
It was observed during testing after heat treatment that columns with welded wire fabrics
exhibited a cracking pattern which was favourable to columns without fabrics. The cracks were
relatively of lesser width in columns with fabrics. It was also observed that cover concrete spalled
off completely over certain length of the column. But core concrete was more or less intact
without much disintegration. As the disintegration was limited the fire would not have entered the
core and caused damage, which would explain the columns retaining quite considerable strength
after exposure.
Figure 8 Inside view of the heat chamber

Figure 9 Column lifted by crane into heat chamber
Figure 10 Columns after fire exposure
Figure 11 Disintegrated fire-exposed column

CONCLUSIONS
1. Fire endurance tests after exposure to 1000C for 2 hr have indicated that disintegration
and spalling of concrete is pronounced in conventional column and is insignificant in
columns laterally reinforced with welded wire fabric.
2. Strength test after fire exposure have indicated that columns laterally reinforced with
welded wire fabric have retained two-third of their original strength against conventional
column which has retained only one-third of their original strength. Hence, beneficial
effects of welded wire fabrics al lateral reinforcement at limit state of fire resistance
need recognition.
3. Disintegration characteristics after exposure exhibited by conventional column vis--vis

columns with welded wire fabric showed that core was intact in columns reinforced
with welded wire fabric, which is suggestive of crack arrest mechanism and resistance
to heat penetration.
4. Enhancement of strength, ductility and fire endurance of columns laterally reinforced

with welded wire fabric are suggestive of their potential use in seismic zones, elements
subjected to dynamic, impact and shock loading and that are likely to be subjected to
high temperatures.
REFERENCES
1. FINTEL, Mark, Handbook of Concrete Engineering.,(1986) CBS Publishers and

Distributors.
2. NEVILLE, A. M., Properties of Concrete., (1977) FLBE.
3. PILLAI, S.U and MENON D, Reinforced Concrete Design, (1998) Tata McGraw-Hill.
4. RAZVI S.R and SAATCIOGLU M., Confinement of reinforced concrete columns
with welded wire fabric, ACI Structural Journal, (1989) 615-623.
5. SCHODEK, Daniel, Structures. (2002) Prentice-Hall of India.
CLOSING
PAPER
CONCRETE EXPOSED TO FIRE
L Bostrm
SP Fire Technology
Sweden
ABSTRACT. Concrete is generally a good material with respect to fire resistance. Design of
concrete structures is mainly based on thermal calculations which do not consider spalling,
i.e. a scaling off of the surface. Conventional vibrated concrete has a relative low probability
of spalling but there may be a great risk for some new types of concrete such as high
performance and self-compacting concrete. The current knowledge about the spalling
phenomenon is limited, but extensive research is in progress around the world, both empirical
and pure physical. There are different protective systems available which should be used for
high risk concrete. These could be thermal barriers or an admixture of polypropylene fibres.
It is, however, important to carefully control that the function of the protective system in the
actual application. Studies have shown that the mechanical behaviour of thermal barriers
must be verified and not only the thermal insulation. Regarding polypropylene fibres the
amount of fibres needed to get a sufficient protection depends on several factors such as type
and geometry of the fibres, concrete quality, loading conditions and more.
Keywords: Concrete, Fire resistance, Spalling, Protection.
Dr L Bostrm, received his doctoral degree in 1992 on fracture mechanics of wood. For the
last 10 years he has worked as manager of the Fire Resistance laboratory at SP Fire
Technology Sweden, with his research focus being fire behaviour of concrete on concretes
for tunnel applications and self-compacting concrete. He is actively participating in the
RILEM work on durability of self-compacting concrete, and the RILEM committee on
properties of high performance concrete at high temperatures.
319
320 Bostrm
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is generally a very good material with respect to fire resistance. The low thermal
conductivity and high specific heat make the heat transfer very slow. Even if the mechanical
properties of concrete decrease with increasing temperature the load bearing capacity of the
structure will be kept for a long time in a fire situation. Also the reinforcement steel is well
protected by the covering concrete. It is fairly simple to design concrete structures for fire
exposure with good accuracy.
A variety of more or less complex methods are available in design codes such as Eurocode [1].
There are, however, situations when care must be taken. Before new concrete qualities are
used, the material properties should be determined. This does not only include the mechanical
properties at ambient temperature but also at high temperatures as well as the thermal
properties.
In some cases a severe type of damage can occur namely fire spalling. There is a risk that the
surface is scaled of, which may be a continuous process. The phenomenon is still not fully
understood but can cause severe damage. The fires in the Channel tunnel lead to a complete
loss of the concrete in some parts, i.e. the 400 mm thick concrete lining spalled off. Similar
behaviour was observed after the fire in the Great Blt tunnel in Denmark. It is therefore
necessary to be aware of the probability of fire spalling and thus assess the risks involved.
Although, it must be kept in mind that in some situations it may not be a problem if fire
spalling occurs, while in other cases it cannot be accepted. The properties and behaviour of
concrete can vary widely. Concrete must therefore be regarded as a family of materials. The
behaviour of a concrete in a specific strength class manufactured in Sweden may show a
completely different behaviour compared to one manufactured in France. Even if the cement
is similar there can be large differences of the aggregates leading to other behaviour when
heated by a fire.
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
The design of concrete structures for fire endurance is usually based on thermal calculations.
The calculation methods are the same independent of concrete quality. The differences
between the concrete qualities are the material properties used in the calculations. Hence the
thermal properties as well as the mechanical properties and how they are affected by
temperature must be known for the concrete quality to be used. For conventional vibrated
concrete many experimental studies have been performed and the material properties are well
known.
When modelling the structural behaviour the general rule garbage in, garbage out is valid.
Hence if the material properties used in the calculations are unknown the results may be
unreliable. New types of concrete reach the market continuously and the material properties
of these concretes can be different compared to the conventional concrete qualities. The
properties of the concrete at ambient temperatures are usually determined, but when
designing for fire the properties at high temperatures are needed as well.
There are good methods available for the determination of thermal properties. With the
Transient Plane Source (TPS) method is it possible to determine both the thermal
conductivity and specific heat simultaneously and at temperatures up to 700 C [2]. Test
results have shown that high strength concrete and self-compacting concrete have a higher
thermal conductivity compared to conventional vibrated concrete [3]. The mechanical
properties can be tested with conventional mechanical testing equipment with a heating
furnace.
Many studies have been performed and basic data are often found in the design codes.
Although, when new concretes are introduced there is a chance that the mechanical properties
are different at high temperatures. Some tests were carried out on self-compacting concrete [4].
It was found that the modulus of elasticity was comparable with conventional concrete but the
compressive strength was much lower at temperatures above approximately 700C.
FIRE SPALLING
Fire spalling is a complex phenomenon which can appear differently. Some light spalling
almost always takes place, especially at sharp corners. Often small flakes can also come off
from the surface. This type of spalling is usually of minor importance for the load bearing
capacity and the integrity of the structure. Another type of spalling is the continuous scaling
off when 5-10 mm thick pieces shoot from the surface. This type of spalling, often called
pop-corn spalling, can proceed until almost all material is lost.
The continuous spalling can be observed on all types of structures and may jeopardize the
function of the structure. When it happens large reparations are usually necessary. Another
very severe type of spalling is the explosive spalling. In this type of spalling a large part of
the structure will explode momentarily. This type of spalling can be observed in for example
I-beams with a three-sided fire exposure, resulting in a sudden loss of the load bearing
capacity. The fire spalling phenomenon has been studied for over 100 years but still no firm
explanation has come up. It is a very difficult problem since different physical processes are
acting simultaneously.
In literature different hypotheses can be found, often based on three factors, an internal pressure
built-up due to the heating of water and water vapour, internal thermal stresses due to the
temperature gradient through the structure, and stresses due to differences in shrinkage/expansion
of the materials in the concrete. How and in what way these factors interact is difficult to answer.
One reason for this is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to measure the needed
properties/behaviour of a concrete sample when exposed to fire.
Many experimental studies have been performed around the world. One might believe that it
would be of great value if all these test results could be assembled and used as a database for
researchers. The problem is that the results are not comparable, and in many cases
contradictory. There are several reasons for this. First of all the necessary documentation of
the tests performed is often too short and important information is missing. It could be
fundamental parameters such as the concrete admixtures used, how the specimens have been
conditioned and the type of aggregates used.
Another important factor is that new test methods, usually small scale methods, are often
invented for each study enabling research on specific parameters. If different test methods are
used the results can usually not be compared. Due to different boundary and loading conditions,
specimen size, geometry and more, the methods will end up with different results. A third
322 Bostrm
important factor is that the concrete used in different parts of the world are quite diverse. The
admixtures vary as well as the materials. Therefore a concrete with a water-cement ratio
w/c = 0.7 from Sweden cannot be compared with one from Italy. To conclude, it is complicated
and in many cases impossible to compare results from different studies.
A possible way to learn more about the spalling phenomenon is by simulations of the
behaviour with computer models. There are many researchers working in this field today, see
[5-7]. The models used are often very complex and many different properties are needed. The
main dilemma is to experimentally determine the data needed as input to the model. Some
material properties can be measured at high temperature but usually not in the transient
process occurring during a fire. For other properties there are no available methods for testing
at high temperatures, for example the porosity development during transient heating. Much of
the available data on these types of properties are determined as residual properties after
heating.
To summarize the only reliable solution today to determine whether there is a probability of
spalling of a specific concrete quality is by full scale testing. This is an expensive way, and it
only tells if the tested concrete works or not when conditioned as done prior to the test,
loaded as in the test, with a geometry as in the test an so on.
CONCRETE WITHOUT FIRE PROTECTION
The studies conducted have been on Swedish concrete for tunnel applications and on self-
compacting concrete. The basic data on the experiments, i.e. concrete admixtures, test set-up
and conditioning, can be found in [8]. One objective with some of the tests performed was to
establish a small scale test which gives similar results as a full scale slab test. This was
important since a lot of different concrete qualities were to be tested and full scale testing was
too costly. The results showed that a small slab specimen with a one-sided fire exposure gave
the most comparable results with full scale slabs [9]. It was thus decided to continue the tests
with mainly the small slab specimens, together with some verifying tests in full scale.
Example on the spalling of a full scale and a small scale specimen is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Full scale specimen to the left and small scale specimen to the right after fire test
In order to standardize the experiments as far as possible the general standard on fire
resistance testing EN 1363-1 [10] has been used, i.e. a time-temperature curve similar as ISO
834 [11]. A compressive loading has been applied in many of the tests. The load was applied
by internal mounted pre-stressed wires or post-stressed bars on the full scale specimens. On
the small scale specimens the load was applied through an externally mounted cradle. Some
of the test results are presented in Table 1.
The results shown are the mean spalling depth from two tests, and the spalling depth is given
as the ratio between the maximum spalling depth and the thickness of the specimen. It can be
noted that all concrete qualities spalled severely. All these tests were made on concrete cured
during three months, i.e. very young concrete and with high moisture content (the moisture
content was approximately 5%).
Table 1 Test results from initial tests on tunnel and self-compacting concrete
CONCRETE w/p STRESS LEVEL, MPa SPALLING DEPTH, %

Large slab Small slab Large slab Small slab
A 0.38 2.1 2.5 90 35
C 0.38 2.1 2.5 26 23
E 0.38 2.1 2.5 82 40
G 0.30 8.8 2.5 32 87
H 0.40 8.8 2.5 34 87
J 0.55 8.8 2.5 34 60
Another test program is currently in progress focusing on the behaviour of self-compacting

concrete. Many different factors such as water-cement ratio, water-powder ratio, amount of
limestone filler, age, load level, fire curve and protection by polypropylene fibres are studied.
All experiments have not yet been done, but some results are available and shown in table 2.
The presented results are only concrete for building applications, i.e. made with CEM II. As
in the previous test series the results given are the mean spalling depth of two separately
tested specimens. Also in this test series severe spalling was observed in almost all cases.
The conclusion from these studies is that there is a great probability of fire spalling of tunnel
concrete and self-compacting concrete. This could, however, be expected. Many experiments
have been carried out on high strength concrete which showed that some type of protection
usually must be used [12]. Concrete used in tunnels and self-compacting concrete normally
have a relative high strength and are thus high strength concrete. A high strength concrete is
denser compared with conventional vibrated concrete leading to less permeability. This is one
possible explanation why high strength concrete spalls more. When the permeability is low it
is more difficult for the water and water vapour to be transported through the material. Hence
higher vapour pressure will be created when the specimen is heated, which in turn could lead
to spalling. There are, however, experimental data on the vapour pressure within the concrete
that contradicts this theory [13-16]. Measurements of the vapour pressure were made in
concrete specimens during fire tests. The results show very low pressure, from 0.2 MPa [16]
up to 2.1 MPa [14] which in itself not would cause spalling.
324 Bostrm
Table 2 Test results from the main test series
CONCRETE w/p w/c FILLER AGE MOISTURE LOAD SPALLING, %

% MPa Large Small
1 0.43 0.52 Lime 6 4.5 6.3 - 21
2 0.37 0.52 Lime 6 4.1 6.2 - 25
3 0.40 0.40 Cement 6 5.1 6.0 - 24
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 3 5.3 2.0 - 25
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 3 5.3 3.9 - 8
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 6 5.0 0 43 6
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 6 5.0 3.9 51 19
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 9 - 2.0 - 18
10 0.50 0.65 Lime 9 - 3.9 - 26
12 0.55 0.71 Lime 6 - 0 - 16
12 0.55 0.71 Lime 6 - 4.1 - 24
There are, however, other possible explanations why spalling occurs. In [17] it is stated that
spalling relates to brittle fracture and delamination buckling caused by compressive biaxial
thermal stresses parallel to the heated surface. Furthermore it points out that when a crack,
produced by pore pressure, starts to open, the available volume for the water vapour and
liquid increases drastically leading to a pressure drop. Hence it is concluded that the pore
pressure only can act as a trigger for the spalling phenomenon. After the pore pressure has
triggered the crack, its growth and the resulting spalling will depend on the thermal stresses.
PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
Thermal barriers
There are different types of protective systems available for concrete structures such as
thermal barriers and fibres of polypropylene. The most frequently used solution has
traditionally been different types of insulation. The principle is simply to keep the
temperature at a low level on the concrete surface. These systems work very well. For
insulating products it is not only the capability to insulate the concrete that is important. It is
as important that the system is stable and stay in place during the life time and also during a
fire.
Therefore the stickability and/or the fastening system must be reliable. Some pre-tests were
performed on different types of thermal barriers for the Bjrvika tunnel in Oslo, Norway [18].
In the first test two different spray-on systems were examined. These products all had test
protocols showing their capability to protect the concrete in a severe fire, i.e. they had been
tested with the RWS time temperature curve [20]. The products were mounted by the
manufacturers on concrete slabs.
During the test both products failed because they fell down, i.e. the adhesion to the concrete
was not good enough. An explanation to the failure is that the test was made in full scale.
When testing this kind of products it is important that the set-up is made in such a way that
also the mechanical function of the system is examined. Often small scale tests are performed
where only the thermal insulation is examined. A small scale test will normally not be
sufficient to tell anything about the mechanical behaviour and is thus unsuitable for testing of
these products.
A second test series was performed where a mechanical fastener was used as well on the spray-on
systems. In addition to the spay-on systems a board material was tested. The spray-on systems
attached now properly to the concrete during the complete test and insulated as intended. The
boards, however, started to fall off after approximately 60 minutes which means that the fixation
system used was too weak. These tests show clearly that the mechanics of thermal barriers must
be properly tested before approved.
Polypropylene fibres
A completely different way of protection is by using very thin fibres of polypropylene. The
diameter of these fibres is usually between 15-70 m and the length from 5 mm. The fibres
are mixed directly in the concrete admixture and thus the protection lies within the concrete.
Several experimental studies have been performed around the world showing very good
results regarding prevention of fire spalling [8, 15, 19].
It is still not clear how much fibres are needed to prevent spalling. It most certainly depends on
many factors such as fibre type and geometry, concrete quality, loading conditions, fire
severity, geometry of the structure and more. Nevertheless, the available results indicate
relative small amounts ranging from 0.5 kg/m3 concrete up to 5 kg/m3.
In what way the fibres prevent spalling is not known. An explanation often found in literature
is that channels are formed when the fibres melt and evaporate. These channels would
increase the permeability and thus decrease the internal pressure of the water vapour. This
explanation is thus based on the vapour pressure as the driving force of spalling. In the
previous discussion it was shown that the vapour pressure is quite low and thereby probably
not the important driving force.
Therefore the fibres must have other functions than affecting the permeability. Furthermore
when tests have been performed with the RWS time temperature curve [20] the spalling takes
place after 2 minutes. At that time the fibres have not been heated at the depth where the
spalling takes place, i.e. a depth of 5-10 mm. Nevertheless, when comparing the same
concrete quality with and without fibres the one with fibres does not spall while the one
without fibres spall severely.
A hypothesis is that the fibres have a reinforcing ability. There is no experimental evidence of
this. Tests have been made on a macroscopic scale which showed that the fibres only had a
minor influence on the mechanical properties [4]. A negative aspect regarding the use of
fibres is the influence on the fresh concrete. The fibres make the concrete more viscous and
can also affect the air content and the pore size distribution. Therefore some initial studies
must be done on the manufacturing process to establish a suitable admixture giving the
correct consistency and air pore distribution.
326 Bostrm
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
The new denser concretes used, such as high performance or self-compacting concrete, have
a higher probability of fire spalling compared to conventional vibrated concrete. Therefore it
is of great importance that the requirement on fire resistance is examined before these types
of concrete are used. Although, in many applications the requirements are limited and quite
an extensive spalling can be accepted, but in some almost no spalling can be allowed.
Extensive research is in progress around the world on fire spalling. The research can be
divided into pure empirical studies and physical studies aimed at modelling and simulations.
Regarding the empirical studies an obstacle is that no standardized methods are available for
determination of spalling. There are methods for testing protective solutions such as thermal
barriers but not for concrete.
Although, even if there would be a method available comparisons would be difficult since the
concrete qualities and its constituents varies considerably. Therefore physical studies are
necessary. The available computer models are most certainly very good, but the input data
needed are difficult to determine. More research is needed regarding measurement of physical
data at high temperatures.
There are different systems available for protection of concrete such as thermal barriers and
polypropylene fibres. Regarding thermal barriers it is not only the insulating properties that
must be verified but also the mechanical behaviour such as the stickability. Tests have shown
that these barriers may fall down during fire and hence the protection is lost.
Many studies have shown the good effect of polypropylene fibres. It is still not clear,
however, how much fibres must be used for different concrete qualities. It depends on several
factors such as concrete admixture, fibre type and geometry, moisture content of the concrete,
loading conditions and more.
REFERENCES
1. EUROCODE 2: Design of concrete structures- Part 1-2: General Rules Structural fire
design: 2004
2. ADL-ZARRABI B., BOSTRM L., WICKSTRM U. Using the TPS Method for
Determining the Thermal Properties of Concrete and Wood at Elevated Temperature.
Fire and Materials, Vol. 30, pp.359369, 2006
3. JANSSON R. Measurement of Thermal Properties At Elevated Temperatures, SP Report

2004:46, Bors, Sweden, 2004
4. PERSSON B. Self-Compacting Concrete At Fire Temperatures. Report TVBM-3110,

Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden, 2003
5. TENCHEV R. , PURNELL P. An Application of a Damage Constitutive Model To

Concrete at High Temperature and Prediction of Spalling. International Journal of Solids
and Structures 42 (2005) 65506565
6. GAWIN D., PESAVENTO F., SCHREFLER B. A. Modelling of Hygro-Thermal

Behaviour of Concrete at High Temperature With Thermo-Chemical and Mechanical
Material Degradation. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 192 (2003) 17311771
7. ALNAJIM A. Modelisation et Simulation du Comportement du Beton sous Hautes

Temperatures par une Approche Thermo-Hygro-Mecanique Couplee - Application a des
Situiations Accidentelles. PhD thesis, Universite de Marne la Vallee U.F.R de Sciences
et Technologies, pp. 1-183, 2004
8. BOSTRM L. Innovative Self-Compacting Concrete Development of Test

Methodology For Determination of Spalling, SP Report 2004:06, Bors, Sweden, 2004
9. BOSTRM L., WICKSTRM U., ADL-ZARRABI B. Effect of Specimen Size and

Loading Conditions On Spalling of Concrete, Fire and Materials, accepted for
publication
10. EN 1363-1 Fire Resistance Tests Part 1: General Requirements, 1999
11. ISO 834-1 Fire-Resistance Tests Elements of Building Construction Part 1: General
Requirements, 1999
12. ALI F.A., CONNOLLY R., SULLIVAN P.J.E. Spalling of High Strength Concrete at
Elevated Temperatures. J. Applied Fire Science, Vol.6(1), pp.3-14, 1996
13. JANSSON R. Liquid/Steam Pressure Measurement Inside Concrete Exposed To Fire.

Proc. of 4th Int. Workshop Structures in Fire, Aveiro, Portugal, 2006
14. PHAN T.L. High-Strength Concrete at High Temperature An Overview. Utilization of

High Strength/High Performance Concrete, 6th International Symposium. Proceedings.
Volume 1. June 2002, Leipzig, Germany, Konig, G.; Dehn, F.; Faust, T., Editor(s)(s),
501-518 pp, 2002.
15. KUSTERLE W. et al. Brandbestndigkeit von Faser-, Stahl- und Spannbeton. Heft 544,
Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Innovation und Technologie, Wien, pp.1-221, 2004
16. HARADA K., TERAI T. Heat and Mass Transfer in the Walls Subjected to Fire. U.S./Japan
Government Cooperative Program on Natural Resources (UJNR). Fire Research and Safety.
13th Joint Panel Meeting. Volume 1. March 13-20, 1996, Gaithersburg, MD, Beall, K. A.,
Editor(s), pp 423-435, 1997.
17. BAZANT, Z. P. Concrete Creep at High Temperature and its Interaction with Fracture:
Recent Progress. Concreep-7 Conference: Creep, Shrinkage and Durability of Concrete
and Concrete Structures, pp 449-460, 2005
18. BOSTRM L., LARSEN C.K. Concrete for Tunnel Linings Exposed to Severe Fire
Exposure. Fire and Technology, Vol.42, issue 4 , 2006
328 Bostrm
19. HAN C.G. et al. Performance of Spalling Resistance of HPC with Polypropylene Fiber
Contents and Lateral Confinement. 7th Int. Symp. on Utilization of High-Strength/HPC.
Washington, D.C. ACI, 2005
20. TNO Fire Research Centre, Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) Curve, Netherlands

INDEX OF AUTHORS
Afif N 115-126 Levy M 1-12

Lukhanin M V 171-180
Babunarayan K S 303-318 Lukomski M 291-302
Bali A 47-54
Bamonte P 103-114 Malla A P 205-214
Bayer P 273-282 Matesova D 77-88
Behnood A 229-242 Mindeguia J-C 115-126
Beregovoi A M 263-272 Moss P J 55-66
Beregovoi V A 263-272
Bernard J 1-12 Nalini M 27-34
Borowy A 291-302
Bostrom L 319-328 Oudjit N 47-54
Boutemeur R 47-54
Buchanan A H 55-66 Pavlenko S I 171-180
Bydzovsky J 255-262 Pimienta P 115-126
Potha Raju M 27-34
Cameron N 181-190
Cangiano S 103-114 Razdolsky L 157-170
Chana P 13-26 Razimova P 243-254
Chang J 55-66 Robert F 139-148
Chattopadhyay B 127-138 Rovnanik P 273-282
Chattopadhyay A K 127-138 Rovnanikova P 273-282
Chinnagiri Gowda H C 303-318
Sancak E 89-102
de Chefdebien A 139-148 Shimura K 149-156
Demidem M 67-76 Simon A 115-126
Dhakal R P 55-66 Simsek O 89-102
Dhiersat M 115-126 Snirch Z 255-262
Dufka A 255-262 Srinivasa Rao K 27-34
Srinivasa Rao P V 27-34
Eremkin A I 263-272 Suhaendi S L 149-156
Fox D 215-228 Tamura M 283-290

Torero J 181-190
Gambarova P G 103-114 Trtik K 243-254
Tuladhar R 205-214
Heise A 191-204
Hiramatsu H 283-290 Usmani A 181-190
Horiguchi T 149-156 215-228
Venkataramana K 303-318
Khanzadi M 229-242
Kitsutaka Y 283-290 Veyron P-L 1-12
Kowalski R 35-46 Vodak F 243-254
Vydra V 243-254
Lamont S 191-204
Lane B 191-204 Wozniak G 291-302
Lange D 181-190
215-228 Yaragal, SC 303-318
329
330
SUBJECT INDEX
This index has been compiled from the keywords assigned to the papers, edited and extended as appropriate.
The page references are to the first page of the relevant paper
Activation energy 47 High aluminia cement admixture 263

Affected hall 255 Heat-resisting foam concrete 263
Aggregate 103 High strength concrete 139, 149, 229
Alkali activation 273 High temperature 77, 89, 103, 139, 205, 273, 283
Assessment 255 Hollow core slabs 55, 291
Autoclaved aerated concrete 283
Infinite element 67
Bending tests 283 Investigation 191
Calculation 35 Lightweight concrete 89

Case studies 13 Load bearing capacity 35
Cement 103, 273
Compressive action 181 Mechanical tests 115, 139
Compressive strength 27, 77, 229 Membrane interactions in slabs 215
Computer model 55 Moderate exposure 205
Concrete 1, 35, 47, 103, 127, 191, 205, 291, 303 Mullite 171
construction 13 Mullite-silicon carbide 171
slabs in fire 215
Constant load 47 Nepal 205
Creep 47, 157 Numerical simulations 115
Cross-section 35
Percentage elongation 27
Degradation level 255 Polypropylene fibre 139, 149
Porosity 77, 243
Effectiveness 171 Prestressed 139
Elevated temperature 229 structures 291
Explosive spalling 77, 149 Pretensioned 139
Problems 255
Fibre geometry 149 Protection 303
Fibre reinforced concrete 139 Pumice 89
Finite differences 67
Finite element 67 Refractory clay 263
analysis 55 Reinforced concrete 157, 255
modelling of fire 215 Residual compressive strength 127
Fire 35, 127, 139, 181, 191, 255 Residual properties 103
resistance 55, 291, 303
safety 13 Silica fume 89
spalling 1 Slab boundary conditions 215
tests 115 Slag 273
Flexural strength 27 SMR 171
Floor slabs 181 Spalling 127, 139, 303
Fly ash 127 Splitting tensile strength 229
Fracture toughness 243 Steel fibres 139
Structural design 157
HAP 171 Structural performance 19
Heat transfer 67 Sustainability 127
Heat-resisting concrete 171 Synthesis 171
331
Temperature 47, 115, 127 Time 47
distribution 27 Tunnel 1
load 243 TWG 171
Tensile membrane action 181
Tensile strength 27 Ultra high performance FRC 115
Thermal- Ultrasonic pulse velocity 229
diffusivity 103
effects 181 Water/cement ratio 77
load 157
tests 115 Yield strength 27
Thermo-hydral 149
332

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Concrete Technology Unit

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