COMBENG

BASIC CONCEPTS

Bore is the diameter of the cylinder

Stroke the length that piston travels
Stroke ratio also known as bore/stroke ratio and stroke/bore ratio, used to
describe the form of a piston engine's cylinder when the piston
is at the bottom dead center (bdc) point
Engine displacement the volume swept by the piston(s) in a single movement
Clearance volume the volume of gas left in the cylinder at the discharge end of
the stroke
Indicated work the work done by the gases in the cylinder
Brake work the useful or shaft work
Friction work energy dissipated in order to counteract friction in the moving
parts of the engine
Volumetric efficiency the efficiency with which the engine can move the charge into
and out of the cylinder
Engine efficiency the ratio of the actual work of the system to the work of
corresponding ideal system
Mechanical efficiency the ratio of the brake work to the indicated work
Thermal efficiency the fraction of the total heat input that is converted to work; the
ratio of the net work to the total heat input in the engine
Isentropic compression ratio the ratio of the volume at the start of the isentropic
compression to the volume at the end of such process
Fuel cutoff ratio the ratio of the volume at the end of the constant
pressure heat intake to the volume at the start of such
process
Clearance volume the smallest volume in an internal combustion engine
cycle
Percent clearance the ratio of the clearance volume to the displacement
volume, expressed in percent form
Engine displacement (volume) the volume swept by the piston(s) in a single movement
Mean effective pressure a constant value of pressure which when made to act
on engine piston/rotor shall produce the work of the
cycle
Volumetric efficiency the efficiency with which the engine can move the
charge into and out of the cylinders

Heat energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a

difference in temperature
Work the amount of energy transferred by a force
Internal energy the total of the kinetic due to the motion of molecules
and the potential energy associated with the vibrational
and electric energy of atoms within molecules or
crystals
Enthalpy a quotient or description of thermodynamic of a system,
which can be used to calculate the heat transfer during a
quasi-static process taking place in a closed
thermodynamic system under constant pressure
Entropy a measure of the disorder of a system
 Gasoline (gas) petroleum spirit (petrol) or petrogasoline; is a petroleum-
derived liquid mixture consisting mostly of aliphatic
hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane or the aromatic
hydrocarbons toluene and benzene to increase its octane
rating, and is primarily used as fuel in internal combustion
engines
Diesel fuel a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil. Petrodiesel,
or fossil diesel is produced from petroleum and is a
hydrocarbon mixture, obtained in the fractional distillation of
crude oil between 200 C and 350 C at atmospheric pressure
Biofuel a secondary fuel processed from biomass feedstock

Gasoline Properties

Gasoline Property Desirable for Impact on Environment

Octane Number Avoid engine knocking; Octane boosting

increase fuel-air mix
compression ratio, engine
power & efficiency.
Volatility Sufficient light components
( Reid vapor pressure) to give adequate vaporization
of fuel air mix for easy engine
cold start.
Sulfur Content Not desirable at all.
Olefins Desirable for their octane
value
Aromatics Desirable for their octane
value
compounds are not
environmentally friendly
Lead additives are toxic
air pollutants & poison catalytic
converter catalysts.
Benzene is carcinogenic.
Aromatics produce more smoke
& smog.
Olefins form engine
fouling gums , more smoke &
smog
Too many light
components result in
hydrocarbon loss & result in
atmospheric pollution.
pollution.
Too many heavy
components contribute to
chamber deposits & spark plug
fouling causing release of
unburnt hydrocarbons into the
atmosphere.
Sulfur compounds are
corrosive, foul smelling,
smelling, and
increase sulfur trioxide
emissions.
emissions.
Decrease catalytic
converter efficiency.
Adversely affect ignition
timing, leading to lower engine
efficiency
Leads to deposits and
gum formation and increased
emissions of ozone forming
hydrocarbons and toxic
compounds.
Increased engine deposits
and tailpipe emissions including
carbon dioxide
Produces carcinogenic
 benzene in exhaust
Stability additives Reduce valve deposits Affect carburetors
resulting in higher H/C and CO
emissions.

Diesel Properties

Sulfur content Affects wear, deposits, and particulate emissions. Diesel fuels
contain varying amounts of various sulfur compounds which
increase oil acidity. Legislation has reduced the sulfur content
of highway fuel to 0.05% by weight. Off road fuel has an
average of 0.29% sulfur by weight.
Cetane Number A measure of the starting and warm-up characteristics of a
fuel. In cold weather or in service with prolonged low loads, a
higher cetane number is desirable. Legislation dictates the
Cetane index should be 40 or above.
Aromatic Content By definition, aromatic content is characterized by the
presence of the benzene family in hydrocarbon compounds
that occur naturally in the refining of diesel fuel. In the chemical
make up of fuel, the heavier aromatic compounds of toluene,
xylene, and naphthalene are also present. Limiting these
aromatic compounds has the effect of reducing burning
temperature and thus NOx formation.
Cloud & Pour Point Affect low-temperature operation. The cloud point of the fuel is
the temperature at which crystals of paraffin wax first appear.
Crystals can be detected by a cloudiness of the fuel. These
crystals cause filters to plug.
API Gravity Related to heat content, affecting power and economy. Gravity
is an indication of the energy content of the fuel. A fuel with a
high density (low API gravity) contains more BTU's per gallon
than a fuel with a low density (higher API gravity).
Ash Measures inorganic residues - The small amount of non-
combustable metallic material found in almost all petroleum
products is commonly called ash. Ash content should not
exceed 0.02 mass percent.
Water & Sediment Affect the life of fuel filters and injectors. The amount of water
and solid debris in the fuel is generally classified as water and
sediment. Filter elements, fuel screens in the fill pump, and
fuel inlet connections on injectors must be cleaned or replaced
when they become dirty. These screens and filters, in
performing intended function, will become clogged when using
a poor or dirty fuel and will need to be changed more often.
Water and sediments should not exceed 0.1 volume percent.
Viscosity Affects injector lubrication and atomization. The injector
system works most effectively when the fuel has the proper
"body" or viscosity. Fuels that meet the requirements of 1-D or
2-D diesel fuels are satisfactory with Cummins fuel systems.
Carbon Residue Measures residue in fuel - can influence combustion. The
tendency of a diesel fuel to form carbon deposits in an engine
can be estimated by various tests to determine the carbon
residue after 90% of the fuel has been evaporated .

Cummins Fuel Recommendation:

A Cetane rating of at least 40 is recommended at temperatures above 32 degrees.
A Cetane rating of at least 45 is recommended at temperatures below 32 degrees.