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CONTENTS
Click on the links below to jump down to the relevant section of the page:
Summary
Background
Effects of resistance training
Effects of ballistic training
Effects of Olympic weightlifting
Effects of plyometrics
Effects of balance training
Effects of combined training
Comparisons between methods
Mechanisms
References
SUMMARY
PURPOSE
This section provides a summary of the current evidence regarding
the importance of improving rate of force development for sports
performance.
CONTRIBUTORS
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BACKGROUND
PURPOSE
This section provides a background to rate of force development. It
includes a precise definition of the term, details of the various
measurements that have been used to quantify it, and an
assessment of the research showing correlations between higher
athletic performance and greater rates of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Rate of force development is thought to be critical for sports performance for
one very simple reason: most sports movements happen within a shorter
period of time than human muscles take to reach maximum force production
(see review by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). Although peak force is
typically achieved within around 250ms (see data reported by Haff et al.
2007), sports movements often occur within a period of time much
shorter than this. For example, the ground contact phase during sprint
running lasts <100ms (Beneke and Taylor, 2010), the take-off phase for the
long jump lasts <160ms (Luhtanen and Komi, 1979), and the take-off phase
for the high jump lasts <220ms (Dapena and Chung, 1988). Consequently, it
is not surprising that researchers have concluded that for many sports
movements (including sprinting, jumping and throwing) the rate at which
force is developed is arguably more important than the maximum force that
can be produced (Aagaard et al. 2002a; Andersen et al. 2010). Indeed,
several studies have reported that higher athletic status (elite vs. sub-elite,
starter or non-starter, or professional vs. non-professional) is associated with
having greater rates of force development (Thompson et al. 2013b; Palmer et
al. 2014b; Palmer et al. 2014c).
Definitions
Formal definition
Practical definitions
Importantly, measurements of muscle force have shown that the curve
produced by the graph of force versus time is non-linear and displays a steep
rise to a plateau over <0.5 seconds. Consequently, it has become customary
to take linear approximations of the RFD over intervals of time within the
initial window in which force is developed. Common intervals include 0
50ms, 50 100ms, 100 150ms, 150 200ms and 200 250ms. In such
cases, RFD is expressed as a single rate (still in Newtons per second) that
averages the solution to the equation over the interval in question.
Measurements
Reliability
Reliability is essential for ensuring that measurements taken before and after
a training program are reflective of real improvements and not measurement
error. When measuring maximum voluntary contraction force, test-re-test
reliability is generally good (Norcross et al. 2010). This means that taking the
same measurement of maximum force production in the same subject
generally produces the same result, at least compared with other subjects. In
statistical terms, the intra-subject variability is much less than the inter-
subject variability. However, test-re-test reliability for rate of force
development has been reported to be less good by some researchers (e.g.
Chiu et al. 2004; Ingebrigtsen et al. 2009; Prieske et al. 2014), although
many others have found good-to-excellent reliability (see review by
Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). Interestingly, all of these studies that
reported poor reliability for rate of force development used peak rate of force
development and not rate of force development measured in specific time
increments (e.g. 50ms, 100ms etc.). At the same time, they used a range of
different types of equipment and exercise position, indicating that the lack of
reliability was probably not a function of the testing equipment or exercise
selected. Recently, Haff et al. (2015) found that the exact calculation method
of rate of force development was critical for establishing good reliability and
that the use of specific time increments was better than the alternatives.
CORRELATIONS WITH
JUMPING PERFORMANCE
Study selection
Population any
Intervention countermovement or squat jump test for height
Comparison correlation (either r or R-squared)
Outcome strength of relationship between measure of rate of force
development and jumping performance
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Psuke (2001), Ugarkovic (2002), Kawamori (2005), Kawamori
(2006), De Ruiter (2006), De Ruiter (2007), McGuigan (2006), McGuigan
(2008), Nuzzo (2008), Kraska (2009), McLellan (2011), West (2011), Tillin
(2012), Muehlbauer (2013), Thompson (2013a), Marques (2014a), Marques
(2014b), Copi (2014), Chang (2015). A small majority of studies found a
significant relationship between rate of force development in either isometric
or dynamic tests of the lower body musculature and either squat or
countermovement jump height. This suggests that having a high rate of
force development may be beneficial for achieving superior jumping
performances.
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EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE
TRAINING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of resistance training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Resistance training, particularly using heavy loads, has been suggested as a
valuable method for increasing rate of force development. Although some
researchers and coaches have suggested that athletes must move quickly in
order to develop the ability to produce force quickly, others have accepted
the proposal put forward by Behm and Sale (1993) that it is the intended
velocity rather than the actual movement velocity that is key for
creating velocity-specific adaptations and improving explosive strength,
power and rate of force development. Under this theory, so long as it is
the intention of the athlete to move quickly, the adaptations following the
resistance training program will be similar to as if they had actually moved
quickly.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following study being
identified: Heggelund (2013). The single study found a beneficial effect of
training with heavier loads on rate of force development, implying that this
training variable may be important for programming. However, since the
literature is very limited, this conclusion is uncertain.
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Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Duchateau (1984), Young (1993), Behm (1993), Ingebrigtsen
(2009), De Villarreal (2011), De Villarreal (2011), Lamas (2012), Correa
(2012), Wallerstein (2012), Lopes (2014). Three of these studies found that
faster bar speeds (usually involving power-oriented training compared to
traditional, heavy resistance training) led to superior improvements in rate of
force development. This indicates that while fast bar speeds are not
necessarily key for improving rate of force development during non-ballistic
resistance training, they may yet be beneficial.
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Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Blazevich (2008), Cadore (2014). Neither study found that there
was any difference in the change in rate of force development between
concentric and eccentric muscle actions. This suggests that emphasising the
use of either concentric or eccentric muscle actions will not have an effect on
changes in rate of force development.
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Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Hartmann (2009), Painter (2012). The two studies compared linear
and block periodization models with non-linear (daily undulating)
periodization. Neither found any effect of training with different periodization
models on rate of force development, implying that this training variable has
minimal effect. However, both studies reported a non-significant trend that
daily undulating periodization was inferior to both linear and block
periodization which may imply that this type of periodization model is
disadvantageous but since the literature is very limited and the findings not
significant, this conclusion is very uncertain.
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Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Hkkinen (2003), Stren (2008), Santtila (2009), Sunde (2010),
Rnnestad (2012), Cadore (2013). These studies showed that concurrent
training can still improve rate of force development in comparison with an
endurance-only training group but that strength-only groups tend to improve
rate of force development to a greater extent. This suggests that
an interference effect from endurance training likely exists in relation to rate
of force development.
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EFFECTS OF BALLISTIC
TRAINING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of ballistic training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Definitions
There are indications that the pattern of neural drive during explosive
movements may differ from the pattern of neural drive during controlled
movements. Researchers have observed that during isometric muscle
actions with steadily increasing force, the rate of increase in force appears to
be related to the rate of increase in motor unit firing frequency, with both
increasing over time (MilnerBrown et al. 1973; Desmedt and Godaux, 1977).
However, during explosive (ballistic or non-ballistic) muscle actions, there is
an initial burst of neural activity with a very high motor unit firing frequency
that then reduces thereafter (Desmedt and Godaux, 1977; Van Cutsem et al.
1998; Van Cutsem et al. 2005). In an interesting trial, Van Cutsem et al.
(2005) compared the effects of reducing the motor unit firing frequency in
this initial burst by introducing a pre-existing isometric muscle action before
a explosive muscle action. They found that the reduction in motor unit firing
frequency was associated with a reduction in rate of force development. This
suggests that motor unit firing frequency is at least partially responsible for
the change in rate of force development during explosive muscle actions,
such as ballistic training.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
There are several mechanisms by which ballistic training might increase the
rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral
factors. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA
from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle
stiffness) that can result from ballistic training very likely contribute reduce
rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases
in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type
IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms) that
can also result from ballistic training are all thought to contribute positively
to increases in rate of force development.
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Van Cutsem (1998), Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Schubert
(2008), Cormie (2010), De Villarreal (2011), Kramer (2012). All studies
reported that ballistic training significantly improved rate of force
development. This suggests that ballistic training is valuable for improving
rate of force development.
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EFFECTS OF OLYMPIC
WEIGHTLIFTING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of Olympic weightlifting on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Olympic weightlifting has been suggested as a valuable method for
increasing rate of force development. However, its technique requirements
make it challenging for use with athletes who are not Olympic weightlifters.
Nevertheless, there are many valuable Olympic lift variations that can be
used that have lower technique requirements. For example, the hang
variations can be used where athletes lack the mobility to pull from the floor;
the power variations can be used where athletes lack the stability or mobility
to attain a very deep squat or lack the desire to learn to move quickly under
the bar; and the pull variations can be used where catching the bar on the
shoulders is problematic either for reasons relating to the wrist or shoulder
girdle.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Haff (2008). This trial found that Olympic weightlifting can
improve rate of force development. This is unsurprising, as Olympic
weightlifting is a form of ballistic training and the literature also indicates
that ballistic training is valuable for increasing rate of force development.
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EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRICS
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of plyometrics on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Plyometrics were originally developed for athletes who had already
successfully improved their strength and speed using resistance training and
required further challenge. They were popularised by the Soviet jumping
coach, Verkoshansky. Verkoshansky wanted to find ways to develop the
jumping ability of athletes who had already attained high performance levels
from jumping practice and resistance-training. Verkoshansky reasoned that
since there seemed to be a correlation between short ground contact times
and better performances in triple jumpers, this could imply that a greater
muscle-tendon stiffness was the key to improving jumping performance. He
began using depth jumps (plyometrics) with his athletes to enhance muscle-
tendon stiffness and reduce ground contact times (see review by Faccioni,
2001). Interestingly, plyometrics actually involve very high acute rates of
force development, which may imply that they could be particularly useful
for developing this quality. Ebben et al. (2010) compared rate of force
development between the depth jump (a plyometrics exercise), the jump
squat (a ballistic training exercise), and the back squat (a resistance training
exercise) and reported that rate of force development was highest in the
order: depth jump > jump squat > back squat. Whether these acute
measurements imply a superior ability to develop the quality long-term,
however, is unclear.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
There are several mechanisms by which plyometrics might increase the rate
of force development, including changes in central and peripheral factors.
Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA from
type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness)
that can result from plyometrics very likely contribute reduce rate of force
development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon
stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from
type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms) that can
also result from plyometrics are all thought to contribute positively to
increases in rate of force development.
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Spurrs (2003), Kyrlinen (2005), Burgess (2007), De Villarreal
(2011), Correa (2012), Behrens (2014). Most of these studies found increases
in rate of force development with long-term plyometrics training, suggesting
that this training modality is effective for this purpose.
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EFFECTS OF BALANCE
TRAINING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of balance training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Balance, or sensorimotor training was developed for elderly people in order
to help them avoid falls. It has been suggested that rate of force
development is a key component in avoiding falls, which typically occur in
periods of time <200ms (Suetta et al. 2004). Indeed, elderly individuals who
have a history of falls have been found to display reductions in rate of force
development compared to age-matched individuals with no history of falls
(Bento et al. 2010; LaRoche et al. 2010; Palmer et al. 2014a), even where no
deficits in strength are apparent (Bento et al. 2010; Palmer et al. 2014a).
This may be because rate of force development is associated with tests of
balance in the elderly (Chang et al. 2010) and in athletes (Palmer et al.
2014b). However, whether balance training is superior to more
common types of training for improving rate of force development seems
doubtful. McBride et al. (2006) reported that squats performed under
unstable conditions involved substantially lower acute rates of force
development than those performed under stable conditions.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
There are several mechanisms by which balance training might increase the
rate of force development. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber
type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing
reduced muscle stiffness) could reduce rate of force development. However,
increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in
proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in
neural drive in the early phase (50ms) might positively to increases in rate of
force development. Whether peripheral factors are relevant for balance
training, however, is unlikely. Rather, it seems more probably that central
factors (i.e. increases in early phase neural drive) are the primary cause of
changes in rate of force development following balance training. Indeed,
Gruber et al. (2004) reported concomitant increases in rate of force
development and neural drive following balance training.
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Gruber (2004), Bruhn (2005), Gruber (2007), Taube
(2007), Schubert (2008). Only 2 of these 5 studies reported an increase in
rate of force development following balance training, which suggests that
while this training modality could be beneficial, it should not be the primary
training method.
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EFFECTS OF COMBINED
TRAINING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of combined training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Rate of force development can be improved through long-term programs of
resistance training, ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, and
balance training. However, it is unclear whether combined training programs
are superior to programs involving solely one type of training. It is possible
that if different training programs are effective through different
mechanisms, then combining different training modalities within a single
training program could be more effective than a program involving a single
training modality.
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COMPARISONS BETWEEN
METHODS
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has compared different
training methods on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Comparing the effects of different long-term training programs (i.e.
resistance training, ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics,
balance training and combined programs) on rate of force development is
the best way to assess their relative effectiveness.
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Taube (2007), Burgess (2007),
Correa (2012), Schubert (2008), De Villarreal (2011). Both Gruber et al.
(2007) and Schubert et al. (2008) compared the effects of balance training
and ballistic training on rate of force development. Gruber et al. (2007) found
that ballistic training was significantly superior to balance training and
Schubert et al. (2008) reported a strong non-signficant trend in the same
direction.
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MECHANISMS
PURPOSE
This section reviews the literature exploring the central and
peripheral mechanisms by which different training methods might
increase the rate of force development.
CONTENTS
Relationship between strength and rate of force development
Central: introduction
Central: agonist muscle activity
Peripheral: introduction
Peripheral: muscle fiber type
Peripheral: muscle fascicle length
Peripheral: tendon stiffness
Peripheral: extracellular lateral force transmission
Peripheral: muscle fiber conduction velocity
CENTRAL FACTORS
Introduction
Rate of force production is determined by a range of factors, central and
peripheral. In general, it has been assumed that central factors are more
likely to affect rate of force development than peripheral factors (see review
by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). In this respect, it may be noteworthy
that potentiating contractions designed to create a post-activation
potentiation (PAP) effect increases both force production and rate of force
production (Requena et al. 2011) in athletes and that long-term trials
investigating the cross-over effect have found similar improvements in rate
of force development in both trained and untrained limbs (Adamson et al.
2008). Within central factors, increased agonist muscle activity (by means of
greater motor unit firing frequency) is generally identified as the variable
most likely to contribute to changes in rate of force development with
training (see review by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014).
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
Introduction
EMG is the most commonly-used measure of neural drive. However, there
are three very important considerations to note about the interpretation of
changes in the magnitude of the EMG activity signal with training. Firstly, and
perhaps most importantly, EMG activity measured during voluntary muscle
actions does not measure voluntary activation relative to the maximum
possible level of recruitment under involuntary conditions. Secondly, EMG
measures a signal that is the sum of both motor unit recruitment and motor
unit firing frequency (Suzuki et al. 2002). Therefore, observing changes
in magnitude of the EMG signal cannot differentiate between changes in
motor unit recruitment and changes in motor unit firing frequency. This
means that changes in EMG activity levels cannot provide information about
whether motor unit recruitment has increased or whether motor unit firing
frequency has increased. They only tell us that one or the other (or both
together) have increased. Thirdly, the EMG signal provides an indication of
the magnitude of the neural drive to the muscle but this can be influenced
by two sets of intrinsic factors: central and peripheral. Central factors include
the number of recruited motor units and the motor unit firing frequency,
while peripheral factors include muscle fiber type composition, blood flow,
fiber diameter, the location of the electrode on the muscle fiber, and the
quantity of subcutaneous tissue (see reviews by De Luca, 1997; Reaz et al.
2006).
During plyometrics
VOLUNTARY ACTIVATION
Introduction
Unlike agonist muscle activity (EMG activity), which measures absolute levels
of muscle activity, voluntary activation is a relative measure assessing the
ability of an individual to activate a muscle voluntarily compared to the
extent to which it can be activated using involuntary, electrical stimulation
(Shield and Zhou, 2004). The central activation ratio and twitch interpolation
techniques are the most reliable and commonly-used measures of voluntary
activation. These measures involve relating maximal voluntary torque
production to maximal involuntary torque production superimposed with an
electrical stimulus during a maximal voluntary contraction. Measures of
voluntary activation are limited in that they appear to be dependent upon
muscle length (Noorkiv et al. 2014) and the reliability of the methods have
been questioned (Cooper et al. 2013).
Spinal excitability
Increased motor neuron excitability at the spinal level might contribute to
increased rate of force development following long-term resistance training
(Holtermann et al. 2007a). Spinal excitability is most commonly measured by
using a test of the Hoffman reflex (see review by Schieppati, 1987). Testing
the Hoffman reflex involves a simple electrical stimulation of the (Ia afferent)
sensory nerve fibers. The electrical stimulus causes a reflex reaction at the
spinal level, which leads to a neural signal being sent back to the muscle.
This neural signal can be detected as agonist muscle activity using
electromyography (EMG) and also evidenced visually by a short-
duration contraction of the muscle. The Hoffman reflex is analogous to the
stretch reflex, only the stretch reflex involves first stimulating the muscle
spindles, which then in turn cause stimulation of the (Ia afferent) sensory
nerve fibers. By removing the need to first stimulate the muscle spindles, the
Hoffman reflex allows researchers to investigate changes in the spinal reflex
independently of changes in the muscle at the local level. Such changes
might be expected to arise either from alterations in the excitability of spinal
alpha-motoneurons, or changes in presynaptic inhibition in the Ia afferent
synapses (Aagaard et al. 2002a; Holtermann et al. 2007a).
PERIPHERAL FACTORS
Introduction
There are a number of peripheral factors that might contribute to altered
rate of force development, including shifts in muscle fiber type, changes in
proportional muscle fiber type area, alterations in muscle fascicle length as a
result of sarcomerogenesis, alterations in tendon stiffness, changes in
extracellular lateral force transmission, and alterations in muscle fiber
conduction velocity caused by shifts in calcium ion flux rates.
Introduction
Muscle fiber type is thought to affect rate of force development since type II
muscle fibers display a markedly faster muscle contraction velocity (when
measured during single fiber studies) than type I muscle fibers.
Consequently, training methods that affect muscle fiber type (such as
resistance training) can alter rate of force development through two
mechanisms. Firstly, they can cause a shift in the actual muscle fiber type of
individual muscle fibers. Secondly, they might cause preferential growth of
the muscle fiber area of specific muscle fiber types. However, in a modelling
study based upon mouse muscle fibers, Burkholder et al. (1994) found that
muscle fiber type only affected muscle contraction velocity to a small extent
in comparison with muscle fascicle length.
Some studies have suggested that the change from type IIX to type IIA
muscle fiber type that occurs with resistance training might cause a
reduction in rate of force development. Indeed, Andersen et al. (2010)
reported that reductions in rate of force development in the early phase
(100ms) were significantly and moderate-to-strongly related with reductions
in type IIX muscle fiber relative area (r = 0.61) following resistance training.
On the other hand, they found that rate of force development increased in
the late phase (200ms) and that a relationship did not exist between rate of
force development in the late phase (200ms) and relative area of type
IIX muscle fiber type. Farup et al. (2014) reported no change in early phase
rate of force development following resistance training for the knee
extensors but they noted reductions in late phase (200ms) rate of force
development. They found that rate of force development was significantly
and moderately related with type IIX muscle fiber relative area over 30ms,
50ms and 100ms (r = 0.61, 0.56, 0.46) but not over 200ms (r = 0.26).
Interestingly, Kyrlinen et al. (2005) noted that 15 weeks of plyometrics
training increased rate of force development but had no effect on muscle
fiber type, leaving even type IIX fiber proportion unchanged.
Although early shifts from type IIX to type IIA may be disadvantageous, later
preferential growth in type IIA fiber area may be beneficial. Hkkinen et al.
(2003) reported a significant increase in rate of force development (peak)
and a non-significant trend for reduced type IIX fiber distribution (50% to
36%), increased type IIA fiber distribution (16% to 26%), and little effect on
type I muscle fiber distribution (34% to 37%). Also, Aagaard et al. (2002a)
reported that preferential increases in type II muscle fiber area were
observed in conjunction with increases in rate of force development. This is
in line with the overall findings of the literature, which generally
reports preferential increases in type II muscle fiber area and increases in
rate of force development following long-term resistance training programs,
even if they are not reported in the same individual trials.
TENDON STIFFNESS
Introduction
Greater tendon stiffness has been suggested to enhance rate of force
development (Wilson et al. 1994; Kubo et al. 2001) and greater tendon
stiffness does appear to be positively correlated with superior athletic
performance (e.g. Bojsen-Mller et al. 2005). Additionally, several types of
training, including resistance training (Kubo et al. 2001; Burgess et al. 2007)
and plyometrics (Burgess et al. 2007), have been found to increase tendon
stiffness while also increasing rate of force development (Kubo et al. 2001;
Burgess et al. 2007).
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