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Infrared rays were discovered by William Herschel in 1800. This came about
when he was passing sunlight through a prism. He noticed that a thermometer
held just beyond the red end of
the visible spectrum indicated a rise in temperature. He thus concluded that this
indicated the presence of some form of invisible energy. was not until 1840 that
his son John Herschel produced the first thermogram on infrared film".

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Temperature has long been used as an indicator of machine condition.

Nowadays infrared temperature sensing provides a commonty used Predictive
Maintenance (PdM) technique. It allows the study and measurement of the
radiant heat pattern emitted by a body. Regions of increased or decreased heat
emission are often indicative of a fault.

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An infrared ray is an electromagnetic wave. It tan be thought of as a form of

light. Infrared rays are sometimes called heat rays and differ from other
radiation such as X-rays or Gamma rays in that it poses no hazard to the
human body, or to the measured object.

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Infrared is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It has a wavelength longer than

visible light, and shorter than radio or TV waves. Its position in the
electromagnetic is depicted on the screen.

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Thermography is commonty called 'thermal imaging"

atthough the term realty encompasses other methods for
tracking changes in plant equipment as will be seen later in
this text. In thermal imaging the radiant heat pattern emitted
by a body is displayed in the form of a temperature "map.
Radiant energy differences are indicated by variations in
grey level, or by use of colours. This thermal map is
sometimes called a thermogram. It is produced by means
of a detector that is sensitive to energy in the infrared
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Typically optics
are used to focus the image on to the detector. The
resulting signal is then amplified and sent to a video
processor from where it is displayed, and may be captured
in a manner similar to a digital photograph.

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All matter comprises atoms which link together to form

molecules. These vibrate against each ather and thus have
a kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is part of the internal
energy of the object. The kinetic energy of rapidly moving
molecules is referred to as thermal energy. As more
thermal energy is transferred to these molecules the
vibration increases. Temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the vibrating molecules of the
object

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As the kinetic energy of the molecules changes, the matter may undergo
changes of state. Matter may exist in solid state, as a liquid, or as a gas. In any
given subject the liquid state occurs at a higher level of temperature than the
solid state. Similarly the gaseous state occurs at a higher temperature level
than the liquid state.

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Heat and temerature are not synonymous, athough in

general conversatbn the terms are Offen confused. When
two bodies Of differinq temperatures the therrrW energy wil
transfer from the hot body to the cockr one until a state of
equarium is restore'. The process in which the therml
energy S transferred called

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In most countries the Fahrenheit scale of temperature measurement has been

replaced by a system devised by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. The
scale uses the freezing point of pure water as its Zero and the boiling point of
pure water as its 100 point.

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We saw in the last slide that the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales do not compare
directly in terms of temperature difference because they use arbitrary and
different zero points. When using thermography as a practical tool we are often
concerned with temperature change or difference. So when considering and
evaluating temperature change it is important to take into account the actual
measurement scale that is being used. Temperature change commonty referred
to in thermography as T.

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In the Iesson Background science we learned that heat is thermal energy in

transit, and that t flows from a point of high temperature to a of lower
temperature. The laws of physics tell us that energy can not be created nor
destroyed, and so all heat must be accounted for.

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There are four mechanisms by means of which thermal energy may transfer
from one body to another. These are conduction, convection, change of state,
and radiation. In a given situation any or all of these mechanisms may be
evident. The simple example depicted on this scene illustrates all four.

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Conduction is the only method by means of which heat can flow through a solid
body. Faster vibrating molecules in the hot part of the body collide with the
slower vibrating particles in the cooler part of the body and in doing so kinetic
energy is transferred. In consequence the faster molecules slow down, and the
cooler molecules vibrate faster until a condition of thermal equilibrium is
reached. The molecules do not leave their mean positions.

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If a temperature gradient exists, then convection may occur through movement

of a fluid (i.e., a liquid or a gas), or between a fluid and a solid. In convection,
thermal energy transferred in part through molecular collisions (similar to
conduction) as well as through displacement of the molecules from their rnean
position. This displacement occurs naturally as the warm part of the fluid
expands and rises, to be replaced by the denser cold part of the fluid body. In
some cases this effect may be accelerated by use, for example, of a fan, in
which case this is called forced convection.

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When a substance is being heated through a change of state (i.e., solid to liquid
or liquid to gas), the temperature does not change. Instead, it stays constant
until the change of state is completed. Thus, all the heat that is given to the
substance during the change is known as latent heat or "hidden" heat. The
same effect occurs as a substance cools through a change of state.

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As ice melts it changes from ice at 0C to water at 0C. Similarly, water boiling
at 100 'C changes to steam at 100 'C. This shows that same of the thermal
energy is used achieving the change of state. This apparenlty "lost thermal
energy is called "latent heat.

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Radiation results from electromagnetic energy generated by the movement of

charged atomic particle. We are most familiar with the phenomenon in the form
of light. Thermal radiation similar but occurs at a different wavelength, invisible
to the human eye. Radiation is characterized in terms wavelength and
frequency and travels at the speed of light.

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The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is broad. It is divided into

regions as indicated on the screen. The different regions represent different
temperature ranges. Typically, longer wave infrared detection is more sensitive
to lower temperature emissions. Most normal thermography is undertaken in
the near and middle infrared regions.

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When radiation falls upon a body some will be absorbed, some will be reflected,
and some will be transmitted through the body. The percentage of energy that is
absorbed is termed absorptivity and is written A, the percentage of energy that
is reflected is termed reflectivity and written R and the percentage of energy
that is transmitted is termed transmissivity and is written T. All energy must be
accounted for and so A + R + T must equal 100% or 1.

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For industrial thermography purposes we can say that most target objects will
be opaque to infrared, that is T will be 0. We can therefore say that A + R
equals 1.

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Emissivity refers to the amount of radiation emitted by an object. Kirchoffs law

tells us that the amount of radiation absorbed by an object will equal the amount
of radiation emitted. This holds good for a specific wavelength, temperature,
and direction. In a practical sense this tells us that highly reflective objects are
emitters of infrared radiation, whilst objects that absorb well are good emitters.
This means that when making quantitative comparison of temperature
differences using infrared measurements you have to allow for any differences
in the emissivity of the target materials.

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The emissivity of a material is often expressed in comparison to the emissivity

of a so called "black body. This is a theoretical object which a perfect absorber,
and with therefore has an emissivity of 1. It does not exist in the real world. The
emissivity of real bodies varies between greater than zero and less than one,
according to wavelength. A perfect mirror would have an emissivity of zero.

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For many inspections the variations in atmospheric conditions have negligible

effects. However, steam, water or vapor in the air can have an on measurement
accuracy. Water will absorb thermal radiation. and will also add its own to what
the thermal camera detects. In cases where it is impossible to take without the
presence of water it may therefore necessary to make appropriate
mathematical corrections to the data.

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The price of thermal cameras has dropped considerably recent years. However,
for many small companies the equipment cost may still be an issue. Therefore,
a number of organizations offer equipment for hire on an as and when
required basis. The technique requires dedicated and trained personnel to
achieve optimum effect. For this reason, its common to outsource the activity.

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The focus control on a thermal imaging camera works just like on a regular
camera. It controls the distinctness or clarity of the mage. Thermal imaging a
visual technique. It relies to a large extent on visual recognition of suspect plant
parts or components, and it is therefore important that the mage clear enough
to allow this.

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The range control relates to the ranges of measurements that are to be studied
in the target objects. The camera must be set to accommodate all of the
temperatures on the object that may be of interest.

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On an infrared camera the level and span controls correspond to the brightness
and contrast controls on a TV set, and further ads for mage clarity for the
thermographer.

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In the lesson Radiation basics we learned that highly reflective images require
some care in interpretation. We also learned about the need to take emissivity
into account when looking at thermograms. When considering temperature
differences exhibited by thermograms there are other factors that must be
accounted for, such as of target materials, reflections, geometric differences
and transmittance effects.

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The shape of a target object can affect the apparent temperature. For example,
viewing an open box from its open side expose the camera to radiation that is
being emitted from a number of sides together, and may therefore suggest a
higher temperature than that of the actual box material itself.

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In the lesson about Radiaton basics the assumption was made that for
industrial thermography purposes, most materials can be regarded as being
opaque to infrared. In reality some materials will transmit infrared radiation and
this can have an effect when target objects are hidden behind such materials.
Examples include glass, some plastic materials and certain types of surface
coatings.

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Electrical equipment probably the main application, The use of thermography

for condition assessment of electrical systems probably pre-dates the wider use
of terms such as condition based" or predictive maintenance.

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This transformer is not displaying any abnormality," The heat distribution in the
windings appears normal, and the operating temperature is within acceptable
limits.

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This table end terminal is visibly hotter than its neighbors The thermographer
suggested that it should be repaired in the near future, and that the electrical
bad should be monitored as a precaution.

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Some line traps in this switch yard warrant inspection. Thermography shows
temperatures over 60C. They should be inspected for physical damage and
looseness in the very near future

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The heat distribution across the windings of this motor shows some
abnormality. Maximum temperature on both sides exceeds 90C. Close
observation was recommended.

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Many mechanical problems give rise to forces that may result in heat
generation, the obvious example of this is friction. Thermography is thus a
useful tool enabling inspection of machine components such as couplings,
pulleys and belts without needing to stop the machine. This thermogram clearly
shows that all is not well with the motor drive end bearing.

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This therrnogram indicates a distinct thermal abnormality that suggests a

severe misalignment in this belt drive.

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A thermal abnormality evident on the non-drive-end bearing. Additional checks

including lubrication and vibration analysis were suggested as means of
obtaining a more specific diagnosis.

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This thermogram indicates that the temperature on the right-hand-side

compressor head 10C higher than on the left-hand-side. Further temperature
variation would be indicative of improper valve operation. It was recommended
that the machine be inspected again after one month to check for deterioration.

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The weakened insulation on the lower pipe of this heat exchanger is clearly
visible.

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The thermogram identifies thermal variation above 60C among the rolls. This
will also affect product quality. An additional survey after rectification would
provide evidence that the problem had been solved.

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This thermogram identifies a thermal abnormality in the trap number and in the
last two traps from the left.

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This thermogram for a turbine suggests that the insulation on the inlet pipe has
been damaged.

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Thermographic study of this furnace clearly indicates an abnormality in the

surface heat distribution, possibly resulting from damage to the refractory lining.

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Thermography makes the breakdown of the insulation in this cement ciln clearly
visible. Surface temperatures above 500C were evident.

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This thermogram indicates a problem with the exhaust duct from a gas turbine.

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