BACTERIA

Only a limited number of bacterial species are pathogenic to humans. The greater
majority are photosynthetic, chemosynthetic, or saprophytic in their nutrition and play
important roles in many processes beneficial to humans.
For Example: Fermentation, decomposition, nitrogen cycle, etc.

Bacterial pathogens may enter the body through a cut in the surface or through the
mucous membranes. They reproduce rapidly by binary fission, dividing every 20 minutes
in ideal conditions. A single bacterium can lead to 272 in 24 hours and these numbers,
despite their size, may be sufficient to cause disease in the host.
They do so in a variety of ways:

Releasing enzymes which destroy connective tissue allowing spread of the bacterium,

Physically blocking blood vessels and disrupting blood supply,

Attaching to mucous membranes, thus concentrating their attack on nearby tissues,

Causing starvation or malfunction of the host by over-utilisation of the hosts resources.

Production of poisonous substances (toxins). Bacterial toxins are of two types:

Endotoxins found in the walls of some bacteria and released only when the cell is
dead. Endotoxins are associated with some kinds of food poisoning where the bacteria
are swallowed but do no harm until digested in the gut. Endotoxins resist the bodys
defence system better than exotoxins.These toxins can still cause effect on cells (shown
as symptoms) even after the bacteria has died.
They can:
- inhibit protein synthesis,
- damage cell membranes thus disrupting material transport of the cells
- interfere with normal nerve functions

Exotoxins are protein products of the pathogens activities that may result in fever,
headache, nausea, etc. as they enter specific target cells and cause their death by
disrupting their metabolism. Are released within the bacteria when alive.
They can:
inhibit protein synthesis
damage cell membranes or disrupt transport of material across cell membranes
interfere with normal nerve function
For Example: Neurotoxins, enterotoxins, hemolysin.

Occasionally, the bacteria-host relationship manages to achieve an equilibrium where

the bacterium survives in the host without causing symptoms of disease. The host
becomes a carrier, able to pass on the bacteria to other hosts. This is a relatively
dangerous situation since the source of infection is not readily detected.
General knowledge

Bacteria
Are single celled organisms that are prokaryotic. They have a cell wall a single
major chromosome a circular thread of DNA double helix.
Bacteria can tolerate extreme conditions while some can function in anaerobic or
oxygen present conditions.
Facultative anaerobes can survive whether or not oxygen is present
Obligate anaerobes grow and reproduce only in the absence of oxygen.

Shape can determine the type of bacteria.

- Whether they are round shaped (coccus)
- rod shaped bacterium (bacillus)
- spiral-shaped (spirochaete).

The way in which bacteria clusters. Whether they are singular, in pairs (diplo-), in a
chain (strepto-)

Structures
Some bacteria have flagella thin tall like that are below the bacterial wall and
are visible with a light microscope when special stains are used. Flagella allow a
bacterium to move.
The cell wall is a firm, flexible layer that maintains the cells shape and protects the
inside contents.
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, but some also produce spores which are
pouches resistant to heat and drying out, which can open in ideal conditions
Some bacteria are photosynthetic/chemosynthetic (autotrophs)
Bacteria can be transmitted by contaminated food and water, airborne, direct
contact and vectors (animals that carried a pathogen from one organism to
another)
Bacteria play an important told as decomposers in ecosystems and are vital in the
recycling of biologically important elements such as nitrogen.
Bacteria are found everywhere
Many bacteria have a layer called a capsule outside the cell wall. A capsule is
made of slimy gelatinous material and determines the virulence of the bacterium.
A bacterium with a capsule can easily cause disease because the slimy nature of
the capsule makes it more difficult for the bodys defence cells to capture and
ingest the bacterium. When the capsule is removed, the bacterial cell can be more
readily captured by the defence mechanisms. Bacteria with their capsules removed
are sometimes used in vaccines.
The virulence of a bacterium is the degree to which it can cause disease.
The cell wall of a bacterial cell is a firm, flexible layer that maintains the shape of
the cell and protects the underlying protoplasm. The cell wall is composed of a
network of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids.
Some bacteria are photosynthetic they use light as their energy source. Only
some of these bacteria are able to use carbon dioxide as their carbon source.
Chemosynthetic organisms obtain their energy from oxidation reactions. Some
chemosynthetic bacteria can oxidise only organic compounds for their carbon
 source. Others can oxidise inorganic substances such as ammonia, sulfides and
iron compounds and use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon. Chemotherapy
is the term used when a disease is treated with chemicals.

How do bacteria cause disease?

Bacteria can cause disease in humans if:
1. They can enter a person who acts as a host
2. They can reproduce in the host
3. They act adversely on tissue in the host.

Bacteria can be transmitted from one person to another through droplets if an

infected person coughs or sneezes or comes into body contact. Contaminated
water and food can also be an important source of pathogens.
Pathogenic organisms can also be carried from one host to another by an insect or
some other animal. Such an animal is called a vector.

Reproduction of bacteria
In order to reproduce, bacteria require an environment with adequate nutrients
and water, and an appropriate temperature and pH. When conditions are
favourable, bacteria grow very quickly. They reproduce about every 20 minutes
so that over a relatively short time large numbers are produced. It has been
estimated that if unlimited space and food was available for a single bacterium,
after two days of reproduction there would be a mass about 4000 times that of
the Earth.

Some bacteria grow particularly well in this dead tissue. The destruction of some
tissue makes it easier for the pathogen to infect further tissue.
Some bacteria are helped to spread by secreting enzymes which digest the
material that holds cells together.
Some drugs are narrow-spectrum and act against a limited variety of micro-
organisms; others are broad-spectrum and act against many different kinds of
pathogens.

Gram Stain
Gram Positive=layer of Teichoic acid in their walls are sensitive to penicillin and
sulfonamide drugs. Therefore penicillin and sulfonamide kill those certain bacteria. Is a
violet colour stain.

Gram negative= have smaller amounts of disaccharides and amino acids but no
teichoic acid. Therefore penicillin cannot act against it and other drugs are also not very
effective.
Drugs useful against gram negative are Streptomycin, chloramphenical, tetracycline. Is a
pink stain.

Contains teichoic acid use penicillin

Contains no teichoic acid use other drugs
harder to get rid of
Sensitivity tests are used to determine which drugs is most effective against the infecting
bacteria.
Reasons for not using the most effective antibiotic is because
- To strong, may kill the host cell.
- have side effects
- not cost effective (are expensive)
- needs special permission from the government

Chloramphenicol
- Broad spectrum- active against gram positive bacteria, Gram-
negative bacteria and anaerobes
- Side effects- are bone marrow does not produce sufficient new
cells to replenish cells. Also Nausea, diarrhea and appetite loss.
- Mode of action - Inhibits translation (protein synthesis)
Tetracyclines
- Broad spectrum- Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria,
Rickettsias
- Modes of action- inhibit protein synthesis so bacteria are unable
to make essential compounds.
- Side affects- gastrointestinal upset, teeth sicolouration,
sometimes kidney and liver damage
Penicillin G
- Narrow spectrum- active against Gram-positive bacteria
- Mode of action- inhibits cell wall synthesis so bacteria cannot
reproduce
- Side effects- Allergic responses
Streptomycin
- Broad spectrum- Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
- Mode of action- Inhibit translation (protein synthesis)
- Side effects- rash, difficulty breathing, tightness in the chest;
swelling of facial areas), decreased urination, nausea
Sulphatriad
- Broad spectrum- Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
- Mode of action- compete against and inhibit the bacteria.
- Side effects- allergic responses, kidney and liver damage.
 Bacteria- measurements in diameter
Antibiotic E coli Staphylococcus albus
Chloramphenicol 2.5 cm 4cm
Penicillin G 0 cm 3cm
AmP 1.5 cm 5cm
Streptomycin 1.8 cm 1.1 cm
Tetracycline 2.2 cm 2.6 cm
Sulphatriad 0 cm 0 cm
Total 8cm 15.7 cm