Chem2 Metals PDF

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Emmaus Catholic College SL#802440

keep it simple science
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2
METALS
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. OUR USE of METALS
2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY of the METALS
3. PATTERNS of the PERIODIC TABLE
4. QUANTITY CALCULATIONS... the MOLE
5. METALS from their ORES
...all in the context of how Chemistry contributes to cultural development
but first, an introduction...

Technology Needs Metals Chemistry of the Metals
The great sweep of human cultural development has many In the previous topic you learnt about the Elements of the
aspects... Language, Religion, Art & Music, and, of course, Periodic Table. In this topic you will concentrate on the
Technology. chemistry of the metals, and some of the chemical patterns
that they show.
The history of technology is closely linked with our use of ... and Speaking of Patterns,
metals; in fact historians have named some parts of history in this topic you will find that
after the metals that changed the way people lived.
The Periodic Table No
n-
Sword from the Bronze Age is full of patterns Me
t a l s tal
s
This topic starts with a quick look at the history of metal

Me
use, and ends with a study of how we get metals from the
Earth, and the chemistry of the extraction process.
Measuring Chemical Quantities
In this topic you will also be introduced to the concept of
Electrically powered smelter plant the Mole... not a burrowing mammal!
for extracting not a traitor within the group!
Aluminium from its ore not a gangsters girlfriend!
certainly not a skin blemish!
A Chemical Mole is a clever way to measure quantities;
...essential for analysis & chemical manufacture.
If you know the mass, you can

figure out how many atoms
there are...
thanks to the mole.
Photo courtesy of Comalco Aluminium Ltd
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 1 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC
Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Metals The Activity Series

We Use of the Metals
Metal Metal Reaction with
Today
Extraction Oxygen
Needs Energy Water
Acids Electron Transfer
History of REDOX
Metal Use
1st Ionization Energy

Chemical Activity
of the
Metals Activity & Usage
Our Use of of Metals
Metals
History of the
Patterns Periodic Table
METALS
of the
Periodic Table
Patterns in
Conductivity
Extracting Definition Melting Points
Metals Quantity of the Mole Chemical Bonding
from Calculations Valency
Ores Reactivity
the Mole Atomic Radius
Avogadros
Number 1st Ionization
Minerals Energy
Ores Electronegativity
&
Resources
Molar Ratios in
Reactions
Empirical
Case Study: Formulas
Extracting
Copper Mole Quantity
from its Ore Calculations
Gay-L
Lussacs Law Masses
& Gas Volumes
Avogadros Hypothesis
The Case for Recycling
Metals

2 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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1. OUR USE OF METALS
The First Uses of Metals The Iron Age (approx. 2,500 to 1,500 years ago)
For most of human existence, people used tools of stone, About 1,000 B.C. the extraction of iron from its ores was
wood and bone. Primitive tribes were familiar with gold discovered. This requires much higher temperatures, and
which occurs uncombined in nature, but it is too soft to be the breakthrough was probably the invention of the
useful for anything but jewellery and decoration. bellows, a device to pump air into a furnace so the wood or
charcoal burns hotter.
About 5,000 years ago, in the Middle East, some people
accidentally discovered that if certain rocks were roasted by Iron is stronger and harder than bronze. A warrior armed
fire, small amounts of copper would be found later in the with iron weapons will usually beat a bronze-armed man.
ashes. Copper is too soft to be really useful, but there was Iron tools and even the humble nail allowed new
a brief Copper Age around the eastern end of the developments in buildings, ships, wagons... remember that
Mediterranean Sea. Copper was used for decoration, towns, trade and commerce give wealth and power. An iron
jewellery, small utensils, and occasionally for knives and plough allows more land to be cultivated to grow more
spear points. food, to feed a bigger army... and so on.
The big breakthrough was the discovery by these copper- It is no accident that the dominant world power of this
using people that if they roasted copper-bearing rocks time was ancient Rome, because their technology was
(ores) with tin ores, the resulting alloy (mixture) of based on iron.
copper and tin produced a much harder metal, bronze,
which could be cast in moulds, and hammered to shape From the Medieval to the Modern
many useful tools and weapons... this was the start of After the collapse of the Roman Empire the various
cultures that dominated the Dark Ages still had iron-
The Bronze Age (approx 4,500 to 2,500 years ago) based technologies.
It is no accident that the rise of the great ancient
civilizations occurred about this time. The stone blocks of The next great technological change was the Industrial
the pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt were cut and Revolution which began about 1750 in England. This
shaped with bronze chisels. Egyptians, and later Greeks, had many aspects, but the big change in technology was the
dominated their world because their soldiers were armed use of coal (instead of wood) for fuel. As well as steam
with bronze swords, spears and arrowheads. engines, coal allowed for large scale smelting of iron and
the invention of steel (an alloy of iron with carbon).
With bronze tools they built better ships and wagons for
transport and trade, which brought wealth and power. The engines, tools and machinery of the great factories
were based on steel. Transport was revolutionized by steel
Photo by Jop Quirindongo
locomotives running on steel rails. Steel ships replaced
wooden ones, and steel weapons (machine guns, tanks and
artillery) achieved new heights (depths?) in warfare and
mass destruction.
Photo: Keith Syvinski
Photo:
Arian
Kulp
In the 20th century, new metals and alloys became available...

Sad as it might be, the facts of human history are that aluminium, titanium, chromium, and many more.
progress has been marked by conflict, war and conquest,
and metals have been a vital part of that development. This was made possible by electricity, which is needed in
large amounts to extract some metals from their ores, or to
Metal has many advantages over stone, wood, or bone: purify and process them once extracted.
metal is harder, stronger, and flexible, not brittle.
metal can be cast, hammered or drawn into shapes not Human Progress has always been linked
possible in stone, such as saw blades, swords and armour. to our use of Metals.
when tools become blunt, metal can be re-sharpened.
Progress in metal usage has always been linked
Basically, a warrior with a bronze sword always beats a to the availability of energy to extract the metals.
bloke with a stone axe... we call that progress!

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The Metals We Use Today Solder
In one sense, we are still in the Iron Age. Iron is still the is an alloy of 30-50% tin with lead.
metal we use the most, but nearly always it is mixed with
other elements in a variety of alloys, notably steel. Its most notable property is a very low melting point,
around 150-200oC.
Its major use is in plumbing for sealing the joints between

pipes, and in electronics for connecting small components
on a circuit board.
Metals That Are Used in Their Pure State

Although we use a wide range of alloys, there are some
important metals we use in their pure, elemental state.
Photo by Diana
Aluminium
Steel is used for bridges, tools and machinery, bolts, screws is very lightweight, yet strong and corrosion resistant
and nails, reinforcing inside concrete structures, engines,
vehicle bodies, trains and their rails, ships, and tin cans. Its lightweight strength is perfect
for aircraft construction.
Why is steel so widely used?
Lightweight and a good conductor,
Iron ore occurs in huge deposits, so iron is common and it is used for electricity power lines.
economical to produce.
Steel (in its various forms) is very hard and strong. Malleable and corrosion resistant, it
It can be cast, milled, rolled, worked, bent, cut and is ideal for window frames and drink cans.
machined into just about any shape or size imaginable.
Copper
As always, our usage of the different steel alloys is linked to is used for electrical wiring in buildings and appliances,
their particular properties: because of its great electrical conductivity and its ductility
for ease of wire-making.
Steel Iron, Properties Uses
Alloy with... Metal Extraction Needs Energy
Mild steel 0.2% strong, but car bodies, As mentioned previously, our use of different metals
carbon malleable pipes, roofing through history can be linked to the availability of energy.
Tool steel 1-1.5% very hard drills, knives,
carbon hammers In topic 1, you learned about the process of chemical
decomposition; where a compound breaks down into
Stainless 20% nickel resists food utensils, simpler substances.
Steel & chromium corrosion, medical tools
hygenic Decomposition is generally an endothermic process;
energy is absorbed by the reactants during the reaction.
Generally, you must supply energy to make the process
Brass happen.
is a common non-ferrous (no iron) alloy.
Metal ores are mineral compounds. To obtain the elemental
metal involves decomposition, which is endothermic and
requires energy. Some compounds require more energy
than others for decomposition.
Copper and tin ores require little energy. A decent wood

fire can smelt the metal from its ore. This why copper
and bronze were used in ancient times.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc (about 50% each) Iron ore requires more energy for decomposition. Thats
why the Iron Age came later.
Brass is very hard, but easily machined for screw threads, etc.
It is more expensive than steel, but is corrosion resistant, so Aluminium and other modern metals require even more
energy, and electricity works better than heat, so these only
it is ideal for taps and fittings for water and gas pipes.
became available in quite recent times.

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Worksheet 1 Today, the metal we use most is still t)....................,

in the form of the alloy u)................................. Its
Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back. widespread use is because:
it is common and v)..................................... to
Before metals, people used tools mainly made produce.
from a)............................. or ................................. it is very w)........................ and ................................
The first metal used was probably Steel comes in a variety of alloys, including
b)................................., because it occurs in the x)....................... steel (car bodies, pipes, roofing)
elemental state in nature. However, it is too soft and y)................................. steel used for food
to be used for tools, so was just used for utensils and medical tools.
c)................................
Other alloys used widely include:
Metallurgy (the technology of metals) began with brass, a mixture of z).................... and ...................
the extraction of d)................................. from ores aa)...................................., with a very low melting
that were simply e)............................................ point, is an alloy of ab).................................. and
............................................. .................................... and is used in
A big improvement was the mixing of ores of ac)..................................... and ....................................
f)............................... and ...........................................
This produced the alloy g)......................................, As well as many alloys, there are some metals
which made tools and weapons with many commonly used in their pure, elemental form:
advantages over stone: Aluminium, which has the advantages of being
metal is h)............................ and ............................ ad)................................. and resistant to
and is not i)........................................ like stone ae).......................................
metal can made into intricate shapes, such as Uses include af).....................................................
j)......................................., not possible in stone. and ..................................................
ag)....................................... is used for electrical
Later, bronze was replaced by k).............................. wiring because of its good
which is l)............................... and............................., ah)............................................ and because it is
but requires more m).......................................... for ai)................................ so it is easy to draw out into
its extraction. wires.
During the Industrial Revolution, the use of Chemically, the extraction of metals from ores
n)................. for energy led to the production of involves aj)..................................................
o)............................... which is iron with a small reactions, which are ak)................-thermic. Some
amount of p)................................ in it. This metals, such as al).................................... require
allowed the development of machinery, trains very little energy, others such as
and the modern industrial world. am)...................................................... require much
more. In many cases an)......................................
In the 20th century new metals such as works better than heat in the extraction and
q).............................. became available because the purification processes. The changes in
r).................................. needed to extract it from its ao)............................ usage through history can be
s)................... was available. directly linked to societys changing sources and
uses of ap)......................................
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS

BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 5

Copyright 2005-2007 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF THE METALS
Metals React With Oxygen Metals React With Acids

One of the most familiar laboratory reactions is the The different activity levels of the metals is most clearly
burning of magnesium: seen when metals are reacted with dilute acids.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
You may have done experimental work to observe how
2 Mg + O2 2 MgO
vigorously different metals react with a dilute acid.
In fact, many metals will burn, some a lot more readily and
violently than magnesium: Metals like calcium and
magnesium react vigorously.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
4 Na + O2 2 Na2O Zinc and iron are slower.
In these cases there is a violent exothermic reaction, with Lead is very slow indeed.
light and heat energy produced. The product is often a
powdery, crumbly solid. Copper does not react at all. Bubbles of
gas are
Other metals, such as aluminium and zinc, react on the When there is a reaction, the produced.
surface and the oxide compound formed is airtight and gas produced is hydrogen.
prevents further reaction. Thats why these metals are often A flame test
dull-looking... the surface coat of oxide is dull. The metal is eaten away and gives a pop
dissolves into the liquid. This is explosion
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide because it forms a soluble ionic
2 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3 compound. Exactly what the
compound is, depends on which acid is used.
Other metals, such as copper, react with oxygen very slowly
and only if heated strongly. Some, like gold, will not react Examples:
at all.
Zinc + Hydrochloric Hydrogen + Zinc
acid chloride
The point is, that Zn + 2 HCl H2 + ZnCl2
metals have different chemical activities.
Magnesium + Nitric Hydrogen + Magnesium
Metals React With Water acid nitrate
Another favourite school reaction is when sodium reacts Mg + 2 HNO3 H2 + Mg(NO3)2
with water. This is often done outdoors, because it results Iron + Sulfuric Hydrogen + Iron(II)
in an exciting little explosion. acid sulfate
Fe + H2SO4 H2 + FeSO4
What happens is:
Sodium + Water Hydrogen + Sodium The ionic compounds formed are collectively known as
(gas) hydroxide
salts, so the general pattern of the reactions is
2 Na + 2 H2O H2 + 2 NaOH
Metal + Acid Hydrogen + a Salt

(In fact this is NOT the explosion reaction. The explosion
is the reaction of the hydrogen with oxygen, to form water)
It will help you greatly to learn
Once again, some metals react easily and rapidly and form the common laboratory acids
the metal hydroxide, while others react slowly if heated in Common Name Chem Name Formula
steam, and form oxides. Hydrochloric = Hydrogen chloride HCl
Zinc + Water Hydrogen + Zinc oxide Sulfuric = Hydrogen Sulfate H2SO4
Zn + H2O H2 + ZnO Nitric = Hydrogen nitrate HNO3
Metals like copper and gold do not react at all.

There is an Activity Series among the metals. Try the WORKSHEET at end of section

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The Activity Series of the Metals Electron Transfer in Metal Reactions
From these 3 patterns of reaction, it seems there is a The chemical reactions that allow us to see the pattern of
further, underlying pattern. Certain metals, like sodium, the Activity Series are just part of an even greater pattern
always seem to react readily and vigorously. Others, like in Chemistry... the process of electron transfer.
copper, always react slowly or not at all.
To understand this, look again at the reaction between a
From this, and other reaction studies, the common metal and an acid:
laboratory metals can be arranged in an Activity Series:
Zinc + Hydrochloric Hydrogen + Zinc
acid (gas) chloride
Most K
Active Zn + 2 HCl H2 + ZnCl2
Na
Li HCl and ZnCl2 are both ionic compounds. Here is the
equation re-written to show the individual ion species.
Ba
Zn + 2H+ + 2Cl- H2 + Zn+2 + 2Cl-
Ca
Mg Study this carefully and make sure you understand why
there have to be 2 of some ions to agree with the original
Al balanced equation.
-
Zn Notice that the chloride ions (Cl ) occur on both sides of
the equation unchanged. Nothing has happened to them at
Fe all. We say they are spectator ions. Like by-standers at a
car crash they are not involved, while other atoms and ions
Sn undergo serious changes.
Pb Since they arent actually involved, we can leave the

spectators out. This is called a net equation.
Cu
Ag Zn + 2H+ H2 + Zn+2
Least
Active Au
Now we can see what really happened;
a zinc atom became a zinc ion
If you look for these metals on the Periodic Table you will and 2 hydrogen ions became a (covalent) hydrogen
notice a further pattern. molecule.
Positions of the first 6 metals
of the Activity
To do this, the zinc atom has to lose 2 electrons, and the
3 Series. hydrogen ions must gain a pair of electrons to share.
2 6
1 5
4 Zn Zn+2 + 2e-
2H+ + 2e- H2
The highly active metals all lie to the extreme left of the
table, AND the higher their activity, the lower down the
table they are within each column. Now it should be clear what really happened: the zinc atom
gave a pair of electrons to some hydrogen ions. Electrons
This is one of many patterns that allows you to use the were transferred from one species to another.
Periodic Table instead of learning many small facts. For
example, instead of memorizing the Activity Series fully, The equations above are Half-Equations and are often
you can remember the pattern above and always be able to used to describe what is really happening in a reaction.
figure out the order of the most active metals.

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Oxidation and Reduction First Ionization Energy
The transfer of electrons from one species to another is Although youre not yet required to know about
one of the most fundamental and important general Oxidation and Reduction, this bit you have to learn.
reactions of Chemistry.
Definition
The Ionization Energy of an element is the energy
The reaction between zinc and acid can be visualized like
required to remove an electron from an atom.
this:
electrons transferred For technical reasons, the measurement of this energy
is carried out for atoms in the gas state.
+
+
Zn(g) Zn+(g) + e-
Zinc atom 2 Hydrogen ions
The energy required for this to happen is the

1st Ionization Energy
Hydrogen molecule
We know that zinc atoms normally lose 2 electrons to
form the Zn+2 ion. However, the formal definition for
+2 this process involves just the loss of 1 electron.
Zinc ion Every element has its own characteristic value, even
Covalent bond
(2 electrons being shared) those elements which would not normally lose
electrons, such as non-metals like chlorine.
The zinc atom has lost 2 electrons,

Cl(g) Cl+(g) + e-
Zn Zn+2 + 2e- Normally a chlorine atom forms a negative ion
by gaining an electron.
For historical reasons, Technically though, it is possible for it to lose K
Increasing values for 1st Ionization Energy

the loss of electrons is called Oxidation an electron if energy is added.
This energy is the 1st Ionization Energy Na
and the hydrogen ions have gained electrons.
Li
Even the inert gases, which normally do not form ions
2H+ + 2e- H2
at all, can be forced to lose an electron if energy is Ba
added. They too have a 1st Ionization Energy value.
The gain of electrons is called Reduction
Ionization Energy Determines the Activity Series
Ca
Now back to the metals and the Activity Series.
Mg
Neither process can occur alone... they must occur together In order for a metal to begin reacting with an acid, (or
with water or oxygen) it must lose an electron. This will Al
The zinc oxidation allows the hydrogen to be reduced, and require the input of its 1st Ionization Energy.
the hydrogen reduction allows the zinc to be oxidized. Zn
If the value for 1st Ionization energy is very low, the
The total reaction is an Oxidation-Reduction and is metal will gain this energy easily and quickly from its Fe
commonly abbreviated to REDOX. surroundings. It will readily enter the reaction, and the
reaction will proceed vigorously. Sn
Note that the syllabus does NOT require you to know
If its value for 1st Ionization energy is higher, the atom
these definitions yet, but it is worth knowing about Redox cannot react so readily or vigorously... its activity is Pb
for future topics. You ARE required to know about lower.
electron transfer and its involvement in metal reactions. Cu
The ACTIVITY SERIES of the Metals Ag
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section is determined by
1st IONIZATION ENERGY Au

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Choice of Metals Based on Activity Another example is the choice of metals for water pipes.
Sometimes which metal is chosen for a particular
application is based on its position in the Activity Series. Steel is cheap, but since iron
is about the middle of the
Example Activity Series it will
In critical electronic connections, such as computer corrode (rust) by contact
network plugs, it is essential that the electric signals get with water. Is it better to
through without loss or distortion. choose a lower activity metal
such as copper, which will
Normally we use copper for electrical wiring, but in a not corrode as quickly, but is
critical connection plug it is worth the extra expense of more expensive?
using gold.
The decision is usually to Brass fittings
Copper is a low activity metal, but can slowly react with use cheap steel pipes for
oxygen to form a non-conducting oxide layer in the longer, outdoor uses like
connection. Gold is lower down the activity series and will your garden taps. Copper pipe
not react at all, so the plug connection cannot corrode.
Indoors, where distances are
Golds extremely low chemical activity (due to a relatively shorter, and a rusted-out
high 1st Ionization Energy) is part of the reason it has leaking pipe would be a
always been used for jewellery. disaster inside a wall or
ceiling, copper is chosen,
especially for hot water
supply.
Interestingly, sometimes the higher activity metals corrode

less. Aluminium and zinc are higher up the Activity Series
than iron. They react rapidly when exposed to oxygen, but
the surface layer of oxide is airtight and waterproof, and
prevents oxygen or water getting to the metal underneath.
Therefore, these metals can be used in situations where
corrosion needs to be prevented.
Galvanized steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to

prevent (or slow down) corrosion of steel roofing, fence
wires, nails, bolts, etc.
Golds low activity means it will not tarnish or corrode, so

it retains its beautiful colour and lustre.
Metals in Art and Religion
Photo by Brett Jephson

Photo by Diana

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Worksheet 2 Part B Practice Problems
Part A Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back. 1. Write a balanced, symbol equation for the reaction of
each of the following metals with oxygen.
When a metal reacts with oxygen it forms an a)......................
compound. a) Lead
(assume lead(IV) ion forms)
METAL + OXYGEN b)......................................
b) Iron
Some metals will also react with water, forming (Assume iron(III) ion)
c)..................................... gas and a d)......................................
compound. c) Lithium
METAL + WATER c)..................... + d).................

2. a) Arrange the metals in Q1 in order of decreasing
Most metals will react with acids, forming e).......................... chemical activity.
gas and an ionic compound called a f)................................. b) Which one(s), if any, might ignite easily and burn in
air with a visible flame?
METAL + ACID e)....................... + f).................
In all these reactions the various metals react at 3. Write a word equation AND a balanced, symbol
g)................................... rates, showing an order of chemical equation to describe the reaction of:
h)...................................... From these reactions and others,
the Activity Series has been determined. a) calcium metal with water (reacts spontaneously at room
temperature)
Metals such as i)...................................... and .............................
are the most active. These are the elements located in the
j)........................... columns of the Periodic Table.
b) Tin metal with water (heated in steam) (Assume tin(II))
Some metals such as k)............................. and .........................
have very low activity, and often do not react at all. Other
common metals like l)............................................. and
.................................... are in the middle of the series. They
will react, but generally do so m)............................................ 4. All the following equations are Metal + Acid reactions.
Fill in all blank spaces, then re-write in symbols and
All these reactions involve the transfer of n)......................... balance.
In the case of the Metal + Acid reaction, the metal atoms
always o)........................... electron(s) while a pair of a) Zinc + Sulfuric acid ....................... +.........................
p)................................ ions gain 2 electrons (which they
share in a q)........................................ bond) and form a
r)........................................ molecule with formula s)............... b) Calcium + Hydrochloric ........................ +......................
acid
Oxidation is the technical term for t)...................................
................................. The opposite is u)................................... c)....................... +........................... Hydrogen + Barium
In the Metal + Acid reaction, the metal is always nitrate
v).............................................. while w).............................. ions
are always x).................................................. d).................... + ......................... Hydrogen + iron(II)
chloride
The 1st y).................................... Energy of an element is
defined as the energy required to z)......................................... 5. For each of the reactions in Q4, which chemical species
............................... from atoms in the aa)....................... state. a) lost electrons?
The very active metals are like that because they have very b) gained electrons?
ab)................................... (high/low) values for this. Metals c) was a spectator?
further down the series do not react as vigorously because
their values are ac)...................................................
Sometimes the choice of which metal to use is determined

by the activity level. An example is ad)....................................
....................................................................................................... BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

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3. PATTERNS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Atomic Structure, Number and Mass History of the Periodic Table

Here is a quick reminder of some basics about atoms you The modern concept of a chemical element as a substance
need to know: containing identical atoms was first accepted almost exactly
In the Nucleus are 200 years ago.
Protons &
Neutrons By 1830 there were about 40 known elements. Even with
such a small sample, people began to notice patterns:
Dobereiner (German) pointed out that there were several

groups of 3 elements with remarkably similar properties:
In orbit around Lithium, sodium & potassium was one triad.

the nucleus are Chlorine, bromine and iodine formed another triad.
the Electrons
By 1860, with over 60 known elements, Newlands
No.Electrons = No.Protons = Atomic Number (English) proposed a Law of Octaves.
Each elements atoms have a different, characteristic, If the elements were arranged in order of relative weights,
number of protons and electrons. Therefore, each element Newlands found that every 8th element (an octave) was
has a different Atomic Number. similar in properties. These similar elements included
Dobereiners triads.
In the Periodic Table the elements are arranged in order of
Atomic Number. The system worked well for the first 20 elements, but then
became confused.
No.Protons + No.Neutrons = Mass Number
(Electron mass is insignificant) The basis of the modern Periodic Table was developed by
The Mass Number is always a whole number, but in the the Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
Periodic Table the Atomic Weight is shown instead.
(How and why this is different will be explained in a later Mendeleev used many physical and chemical properties:
topic) atomic weight density
melting point formula of oxide compound
The Periodic Table density of oxide and many more,
is firstly a list of the elements, arranged in order, and and arranged the elements in order of weight, but with
showing all the basic details. elements with similar properties under each other.
Atomic Number
18 Equal to the number of electrons
and the number of protons in
Similar elements placed in
vertical columns Inert Gases had NOT
been discovered
each atom
Ar
Argon
Chemical Symbol
Element Name
Mendeleevs vertical families
included Dobereiners triads
and Newlands octaves, but
had one big difference...
39.95 Atomic Weight
Mendeleevs genius was to realize that there were probably
NOT the Mass Number
missing elements that hadnt been discovered yet. He
However, the Periodic Table is far more than a simple list. cleverly left gaps in his table for these undiscovered
elements.
Why is it such a complicated shape?
The most famous case was that of the missing element
The shape and arrangement of the Periodic Table is a very
clever device to allow many patterns and groupings to be Mendeleev called eka-silicon. He used the patterns in his
accommodated. You have already learnt one pattern in the table to predict, very precisely, the properties for eka-
position of the most active metals, and their 1st Ionization silicon. Scientists went looking for such a substance and
Energies. soon found a new element (which was named
There are lots more... Germanium) with properties almost exactly as predicted.

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Patterns of the Periodic Table

In Mendeleevs day no-one could explain why these patterns existed.
However, when scientists see patterns in nature like this, they know there must be underlying rules or
laws of nature causing and controlling the patterns.
Perhaps Mendeleevs great contribution was not just the Periodic Table itself,
but the stimulus it gave other scientists to investigate the reasons behind the patterns.
Within 40 years Science had unravelled the secrets of atomic structure, the electron energy levels, and more.
At this stage, your task is to learn some of the patterns.
Melting Point
You learned in topic 1 how melting point is determined by the
bonding within a substance.
At the left side of the table are the very active metals of the
Electrical Conductivity
Activity Series. They are also usually soft, and have relatively low
As you go across any row (period) of the table, you will
(for metals) melting points.
move through a number of metals, then one or two semi-
metals, then into the non-metals.
Moving to the right across a period you enter the Transition
Block containing typical hard, high melting point metals, held
Therefore, the conductivity will start out high, but rapidly
strongly together by metallic bonding.
decrease as you encounter a semi-metal, and become
extremely low at the non-metals.
Further right you hit the Semi-Metals. These often have very high
Semi-Metals melting points because of their covalent lattice structure.
Non-
Metals Metals Then you enter the Non-Metals which have covalent molecular
structures and quite low mps. At the far right column, each period
ends with an Inert Gas which are all single-atom molecules, and
have the lowest mp of each period.
Conductivity This pattern repeats itself along each period.

decreasing
Sketch Graph. Melting Points of Elements
2,000
Periods 3 V
Peaks are Transition Metals
Boiling Points or Semi-Metals
(oC)
follow a similar pattern to Si Period 4

1,000
Melting Points
Melting Point
K Rb
Na
0
Kr
Ar Inert Gases
Valencies are the same
down each group Atomic Number
Chemical Bonding, Valency & Reactivity

What youve already learnt about the Activity Series, Ionic and Covalent Bonding and Valency
will help you make sense of the following: Group 8 Inert Gases
No chemical reactions,
+1 0 no bonding
+2 +3 4 -3
3 2 -1
-2 1
Activity of Metals
Semi-Metals Activity of Non-M
Metals
Most active at
bottom-left. Metals (Covalent only) Most active at top-right
(+ve ions) (Fluorine)
Activity (generally)
decreases upwards Activity (generally)
and to the right. Non-Metals
(Covalent or (-ve) ions) decreases downwards
Bonding and to the left.

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Atomic Radius
The size of an atom is the distance across its outer electron shell.
You might think that the atoms along each period would be the same size, The following diagrams
because its the same orbit being added to.
are to scale and show the
relative sizes of the first
However, the increasing amount of positive charge in the nucleus pulls that 20 elements
orbit inwards closer and closer to the centre.
H He
37 The numbers given are the atomic radii in picometres. 50
1 picometre = 1x10-112 metre
Radius increasing down a group
Li Be B C N O F Ne
152 112 88 77 70 66 68 70
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
186 160 143 118 110 102 99 94
Radius decreasing across a period

K Ca
231 197
Down each group the radius increases.
This is because, as you go down a group, you have added an entire
electron shell to the outside of the previous layer
Spreadsheet Plot of Atomic Radii

300
rend
sing T
Atomic Radius (picometre)
The Syllabus requires that you

Increa a group Rb
produce a table and a graph of down K
the changes in a property De
Na acr creasi
200
across a period, oss ng

a p Tren
and down a group Li erio d
d
When you do, you can clearly see

100
Kr
how the Periodic Table got its Ar
name. d
Ne ng Tren
He Increasai group
do w n
Periodic means recurring at
0
regular intervals. 1 10 20 30
This graph shows what a Atomic Number

spreadsheet plot gives for the radii
of the first 37 elements. There are a number of irregularities and glitches
apparent on the graph. It is beyond the scope of
Notice how the same graphical this course (and way beyond the K.I.S.S. Principle)
pattern keeps recurring... it is a to attempt an explanation of these.
periodic pattern.

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Ionization Energy Successive Ionization Energies
The meaning of the 1st Ionization Energy was explained Having added the energy of 1st I.E. and removed an
previously in relation to the Activity Series of Metals. electron from any atom, it is then possible to add more
energy and remove a 2nd electron, and a 3rd, and so on.
A(g) A+(g) + e- 1st I.E. A(g) A+(g) + e-

where A stands for any atom
in the gas state 2nd I.E. A+(g) A+2(g) + e-
Any atom can lose an electron if enough energy is 3rd I.E. A+2(g) A+3(g) + e-
supplied... even atoms which do not normally lose
electrons.
...and so on,
The Periodic Trend in 1st Ionization Energy according to how many electrons
You should remember that the very active metals are the the atom has
ones with low 1st ionization energies. They easily lose their
outer electron(s) and so react readily. Once the first electron is removed, the remaining electrons
are pulled in tighter to the nucleus. Each one experiences
The trend for the whole Periodic table is: increased force of attraction, so it requires more energy to
remove the next electron.
1st Ionization Highest value
Each successive ionization requires more energy.
Energy
decreasing
Once the entire outer orbit has been stripped away, the next
ionization must remove an electron from an underlying
orbit, which requires a huge increase in the next ionization
energy. This results in an interesting pattern:
Lowest increasing Patterns in Successive Ionization Energy Data

(values shown are energy measurements)
Successive Elements on Period 3
Explanations:
Element Electron 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
1st I.E. increases to the right because each atom across a
Config. I.E. I.E. I.E. I.E.
period has more and more (+ve) nuclear charge attracting
and holding electrons in the orbit concerned. Therefore, it Sodium 2.8.1 0.5 4.5 6.9 9.6
requires more energy to remove an electron.
Magnesium 2.8.2 0.7 1.4 7.7 10.5
1st I.E. decreases down each group because, at each step
down, an extra whole layer of electrons has been added to the Aluminium 2.8.3 0.6 1.8 2.8 11.6
outside of the atom. The outer shell is further away from the
nucleus, and is partially shielded from nuclear attraction by Notice how the values jump (underlined data) as the next
the layers of electrons underneath it. Therefore, it becomes ionization has to remove an electron from the next lower
easier and easier to remove an electron. orbit.
Electronegativity Highest Value Inert gases

is a value assigned to each element to describe the Fluorine not included
power of an atom to attract electrons to itself.
(values decrease down)
Atoms with a tendency to gain electrons and Electronegativity Values

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
form negative ions have high values. of selected elements
0.9 3.0
Atoms with a tendency to lose electrons easily (values decrease to left)
0.8 2.8
(low 1st I.E.) and form (+ve) ions have very low
0.8
values. 2.5
0.7 2.2
Once again, there is a pattern in these values in
the Periodic Table. 0.7

TM
Worksheet 3 Atomic Radius ae).......................................... across a period

because each successive element has af)...........................
Part A Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back. (more/less) positive charge in the ag).................................. to
attract the electron shell and pull it inwards. As you go
As early as 1830, the German a)............................................ down a group the radius ah)................................. as each new
noticed patterns in the properties of the elements. In 1860, electron shell is added.
the English scientist b)...................................... proposed a
Law of c)......................................... describing the First ai)........................ Energies aj)............................
repeating pattern of properties. across a period, as the increasing amount of nuclear charge
makes it more and more difficult to ak)..................................
It was the Russian d).......................................... who invented an electron. The values al).................................... down a
the e)........................................................, in more or less its group because each extra shell of electrons is am).................
modern form. He realized that there were probably many (more/less) strongly held than the previous.
elements that had not f).............................................................,
so he g)................................................... in his table for later Successive Ionization Energies measure the energy
additions. By studying the details of known elements, he required to an)............................ another, subsequent
was able to h)....................................... very precisely the electron from an atom. The energy required to remove the
properties of the missing elements. next electron is always ao)..............................................
(higher/lower). When the next electron happens to be in
Sure enough when discovered, the missing elements were the next lower shell, the value ap)............................................
found to have properties i)........................................................ by a huge amount.
.......................................................................................................
aq)................................................... is a value which describes
The patterns in the Periodic Table include: the power of an atom to ar)................................... electrons.
The element with the highest value is as)...............................,
Conductivity, which generally j)......................................... to and values decrease as you move to the at).........................
the right, as you go from metals to k)..................................... and as you move au).................................. the Periodic Table.
and .................................................
Part B Practice Problems
Melting Points: tend to l)........................to about the
middle of each period, then m)............................. The 1. a) Write equations to represent the 1st, 2nd, 3rd & 4th
highest value is usually a n)...................................... metal or ionisations for a calcium atom.
one of the o)................................................. elements. The b) Between which two of these successive ionisations
lowest value on each period is always the would you expect a huge increase in the required energy?
p)................................ gas member on the extreme
q)................................ (right/left) 2. On each of the following Periodic Table diagrams label
the arrows with the word increasing or decreasing to
Valencies are r)................................. down each vertical correctly describe the trend in the direction shown.
group. Bonding follows the pattern of the main categories
of elements. s).................................. form t)............................. a) Atomic i) (right)
bonds when they lose electrons and become u).................... Radius
ions. The Semi-metal elements form only v)...........................
bonds. The Non-metals can bond w).......................................
or can x)................................ electrons to form y).................... ii) (down)
ions.
b) Electro-
Chemical Reactivity is different for metals and non- negativity i)
metals. The most active metals are located at the left Also indicate
z)................................... (top/bottom) of the table. (H&L) the
Generally, activity decreases aa)............................. and to the position of
ab)................................... The Inert Gases show no chemical elements with
highest & ii)
activity. Apart from them, the most active non-metals are lowest values.
located on the right ac).................................. (top/bottom)
of the table. Activity generally decreases as you move c) 1st i)
ad)........................................... and .......................................... Ionisation
Energy
ShowH&L
ii)
TM
4. QUANTITY CALCULATIONS & THE MOLE
Quantities in Chemical Calculations Defining the Mole

Atoms, molecules and ions always react with each other in For technical reasons, the atomic standard used to
fixed, whole-number ratios. Thats why balancing an compare the masses of all atoms is the carbon atom,
equation is so important... it actually brings the equation which contains
into line with what is happening at the particle level.
6 protons
For example, when hydrogen and oxygen react to form 6 neutrons
water, the balanced equation is 6 electrons
6p+
6n0
2H2 + O2 2H2O Atomic Number = 6
Mass Number = 12
This is a true description of what is happening to the
molecules: The mass of this atom is defined to be
exactly 12.000000 atomic mass units (a.m.u.)
and all other atoms are given masses relative to this one.
Since this is the standard of comparison, the formal

definition of the mole is:
2 Molecules 1 Molecule 2 Molecules
+ of O2
the number of atoms contained in
of H2 of H2O
exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
However, when we carry out chemical reactions in the Note: In Topic 1 it was pointed out that the Mass
laboratory or in Chemical Industry, we cannot see or count
Number for any atom is a whole number. It has still not
the molecules. Instead, we measure the mass or volume of
substances. been explained why the Atomic Weights in the
Periodic Table are mostly not whole numbers.
To measure out the correct numbers of particles for a
reaction we need a simple way to convert masses and This WILL be explained in a later topic.
volumes to numbers of molecules, and vice-versa. Thats If you cannot wait, go find out about Isotopes.
the purpose of
The Mole
1 mole is a quantity of a chemical substance.
Avogadros Number
Just how many atoms are in 1 mole?
Obviously, it is a very large number. We now know that it

1 mole of any element or compound contains exactly the is about 6,000 billion trillion.
same number of particles.
Avogadros Number
1 mole of each substance has a different mass, because the
atoms and molecules all weigh differently. 6.022 x 1023
particles in 1 mole of anything
The really clever and convenient thing about the mole is its
link to the Periodic Table and the Atomic Weights shown.
This number is named in honour of an Italian scientist
6 18 82 who you will learn about soon.
C Ar Pb
207.2 grams of
Lead
contains
Carbon Argon Lead 6.022 x 1023
39.95 grams of
Argon
Lead atoms
12.01 39.95 207.2 contains
6.022 x 1023 12.01 grams of
Argon atoms Carbon
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole contains
= 12.01 grams = 39.95 grams = 207.2 grams 6.022 x 1023
Carbon atoms
EACH OF THESE HAS THE SAME NUMBER OF ATOMS

TM
Calculating Mole Quantities Moles and Numbers of Particles
You need to be able to calculate mole quantities in terms of Since one mole of any substance contains Avogadros
both mass and number of particles. Number of particles:
Molar Mass No. of moles = No. of particles you have

The Molar Mass of any chemical species is the mass (in Avogadros Number
grams) of 1 mole of the substance.
n= N
You need to add up all the Atomic Weights NA
of all the atoms given in the formula.
Examples: Example Calculations

Name Formula Molar Mass (g) 1. How many moles are present in a sample of lead
Argon Ar 39.95 containing 7.88 x 1024 atoms?
Sodium Na 22.99
(for elements like these just use Atomic Weight) Solution n= N = 7.88x102423
NA 6.022x10
= 13.1 mol
Oxygen O2 (16.00 x 2) 32.00
Chlorine Cl2 (35.45 x 2) 70.90 2. a) How many atoms of lead are needed to make
(these elements are diatomic molecules... 2 atoms each) 0.0250 mole?
b) What would be the mass of this quantity?
Water H2O (1.008x2 + 16.00) 18.016
Solution
Carbon Dioxide CO2 (12.01 + (16.00x2) 44.01 a) n = N so N = n x NA = 0.0250 x 6.022x1023
Sodium chloride NaCl (22.99 + 35.45) 58.44 NA = 1.51 x 1022 atoms
(add up At.weights of all atoms in the formula)
b) m = n x MM = 0.0250 x 207.2 (molar mass of Pb)
Try the Worksheet at the end of this section = 5.18 g
Number of Moles in a Given Mass

Try the Worksheet at the end of this section
When you weigh a chemical sample you then need to be
able to calculate how many moles this contains.
Mole Quantities in Chemical Equations
When you consider an equation like
No. of moles = mass of substance you have
molar mass
2H2 + O2 2H2O
n= m
MM you know it means
Example Calculations
1. How many moles in a) 5.23g of magnesium?
b) 96.7g of water? 2 Molecules 1 Molecule 2 Molecules
of H2 + of O2 of H2O
Solution a) n = m = 5.23 = 0.215 mol
MM 24.31
However, the number of molecules reacting is really just a
b) n = m = 96.7 ratio. The actual numbers might be
MM (2x1.008 + 16.00)
= 96.7/18.016 2 million H2 + 1 million O2 2 million H2O
= 5.37 mol
2. What mass is needed if you want to have 1.50 moles or, 200 zillion H2 + 100 zillion O2 200 zillion H2O
of salt (sodium chloride)?
or, (lets use Avagadros number)
(2 x NA) H2 + NA O2 (2 x NA) H2O
n= m so m = n x MM = 1.50 x (22.99 + 35.45)
MM = 1.50 x 58.44
= 2 moles H2 + 1 mole O2 2 moles H2O
= 87.7 g
The Balancing Coefficients in a Chemical Equation
Try the Worksheet at the end of this section May be Interpreted as Mole Ratios

TM
Mole Quantities Calculating Mass Quantities in Reactions
in Chemical Equations (cont.) Mole calculations allow you to calculate the mass of
The balancing coefficients of an equation can be products and reactants involved in a reaction.
interpreted as the mole ratio of reactants and products.
Example Problem
So, 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O Aluminium burns to form aluminium oxide.
If 4.29g of aluminium was burned,
a) what mass of oxygen would be consumed?
means 2 mol. reacts with 1 mol. to form 2 mol.
b) what mass of aluminium oxide would be formed?
or, 4 mol. reacts with 2 mol. to form 4 mol.
or, 100 mol. reacts with 50 mol. to form 100 mol. Solution
or any other proportional quantities. Always start with the balanced equation:
Example Problem 4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3

a) If 0.50 mol of sodium reacted completely with mole
hydrochloric acid, how many moles of products would ratio 4 : 3 : 2
be formed?
No. of moles of Aluminium: n = m = 4.29
b) What mass of each product would be formed? MM 26.98
= 0.159 mol
Solution
a) The balanced equation is a) Mass O2 consumed:
mole ratio Al : O2 = 4 : 3
2 Na + 2 HCl H2 + 2 NaCl moles of O2 = 0.159 x 3 = 0.119 mol
mole 4
ratio 2 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol : 2 mol. mass of O2: m = n x MM = 0.119 x 32.00
= 3.81 g
so, 0.50 mol : 0.50 mol : 0.25 mol : 0.50 mol
Answer: 0.25 mol of H2 and 0.5 mol of NaCl b) Mass Al2O3 produced:
mole ratio Al : Al2O3 = 4: 2 (i.e. 2:1)
b) Mass of Hydrogen: m = n x MM = 0.25 x 2.016 moles of Al2O3 = 1/2 x 0.159 = 0.0795 mol
= 0.50 g
Mass of salt: m = n x MM = 0.50 x 58.44 mass of Al2O3: m = n x MM = 0.0795 x 101.96
= 29 g = 8.11 g

Practical Work:
Using Mass & Mole Ratios to Determine a Formula
A common experiment is to burn a piece of magnesium in a crucible, as ceramic
suggested by the diagram. The difficulty is to open the lid enough to admit crucible
oxygen for complete combustion, but to limit the loss of powdery product.
The reaction is Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
Careful measurement of mass allows the empirical formula for magnesium

oxide to be determined.
Analysis of Results
Typical Measurements Remember that to convert any
mass to moles:
Mass of empty crucible = 42.74 g n = m / MM
Mass of magnesium = 2.05 g
Mass of crucible
+ product after burning = 46.22 g Elements Magnesium : Oxygen
Ratio of masses: 2.05 g : 1.07 g
Mass of magnesium oxide Ratio of moles: 2.05 / 24.31 : 1.07 / 16.00 (divide by Atomic Weight)
formed = 3.48 g = 0.0843 mol : 0.0669 mol
Mass of oxygen in Simplified ratio = 0.0843/0.0669 : 0.0669/0.0669 (divide both by the
compound = 1.07 g = 1.26 : 1 smaller)
Nearest whole number ratio 1 : 1 There is often a large error
Empirical Formula is MgO due to incomplete burning

TM
Comparing Mass Changes A Little History...
When Metals Burn How the Mole was Invented
Atoms always react in simple whole-number mole ratios, The mole as a measure of chemical quantities, is a
but atoms have different masses, and compounds have mathematically convenient device (a trick) to help
various formulas, so the result is that chemicals do NOT chemical calculations.
react in simple ratios by mass.
Heres how it was figured out...
Thats why we need the mole... we measure quantities by
their mass, but this makes no sense until moles are Gay-Lussacs Law
calculated. Joseph Gay-Lussac was a French scientist with an
unfortunate name, by modern standards. He lived 200 years
The syllabus requires that you should consider the mass ago, and was very interested in flight using balloons, so he
changes involved when various metals combine with investigated the way gases react chemically.
oxygen to form their oxide compound.
After a series of clever experiments, in which the volumes
The following table shows the mass changes for 100g of of reacting gases were measured, in 1808 he proposed the
the metal in each case: Law of Combining Volumes:
100g of Formula Mass O2 Mass of When measured

Metal of oxide needed(g) Oxide formed at constant temperature and pressure,
the volumes of gases in a chemical reaction
Lithium Li2O 115 215 show simple, whole-number ratios
to each other.
Iron Fe2O3 43 143
The volume of a gas is easily changed by temperature and
Zinc ZnO 49 149 pressure, so it is very important that the volumes are all
measured at the same conditions.
Lead PbO2 15 115
Examples of Gay-Lussacs Law:
Empirical Formulas v Molecular Formulas
You are reminded that a molecular formula really does Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g)
describe the atoms present in a molecule. 1 litre 1 litre 2 litres
The molecular compound methane, Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) Water(g) (vapour)

has formula CH4, because thats 2 litres 1 litre 2 litres
exactly what each molecule contains...
1 carbon atom and 4 hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen(g) + Nitrogen(g) Ammonia(g)
3 litres 1 litre 2 litres
Lattice structures, either ionic or covalent
are NOT molecular. Notice that in every case, that the volumes are always in a
Example: sodium chloride, NaCl simple, whole number ratio to each other.
The formula does NOT Now consider the balanced equations for these three
describe a molecule, but only example reactions:
gives the simplest ratio between
the bonded atoms... this is an empirical formula. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
On the previous page was an example of how formulas are 2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
determined by analysing the mass composition of a
compound. 3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
You should note that this method can only produce an The mole ratios are the same as the volume ratios
empirical formula. (In fact, the word empirical means discovered by Gay-Lussac!
something determined by experiment, not by theory.)
Why should this be?
If a molecular compound, with molecular formula X2Y6
was analysed by mass measurements, its empirical formula ... enter Avogadro!
would be calculated to be XY3... simplest ratio of atoms.

TM
Avogadros Hypothesis Molar Volume of a Gas
The Italian, Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) was trained in If 1 mole of any chemical species contains the same
Law, but became very interested in Science. number of particles (Avogadros Number) AND if equal
volumes of gases contain equal number of particles
In 1811, he noticed the similarity between Gay-Lussacs (Avogadros Hypothesis), then it follows that
Law (an empirical law based on experiment) and the 1 mole of any gas must occupy the same volume,
concept that atoms must combine in simple, whole number if measured at the same temperature and pressure.
ratios to form compounds.
This volume is the Molar Volume and is the same for
This led him to make an hypothesis: every gas. It is measured at the standard set of conditions
known as Standard Laboratory Conditions (SLC); 25oC
Equal Volumes of all Gases and 1 standard atmosphere of pressure.
Contain Equal Numbers of Molecules
1 mole of any gas = 24.8 litres at SLC
(when measured at the same conditions
of temperature and pressure)
Mole Calculations Involving Gases
This additional knowledge opens up the opportunity to
This was a vital breakthrough in the history of Chemistry. carry out quantity calculations which involve mass and
volumes of gases.
For example, consider the reaction:
Example Problems
Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g) 1.
If 15.65g of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was completely
Prior to Avogadro, it was assumed that the the reaction decomposed by heat, what volume of carbon dioxide
involved single atoms, like this: gas would be produced (if measured at SLC)?
H(g) + Cl(g) HCl(g) Solution

Always begin with the balanced equation for the reaction.
but the combining volumes (discovered by experiment) were CaCO3(s) CO2(g) + CaO(s)
mole ratio = 1 : 1 : 1
Hydrogen(g) + Chlorine(g) Hydrogen chloride(g) Moles of CaCO3: n = m = 15.65 = 0.1564 mol
1 volume : 1 volume : 2 volumes MM 100.09
Mole ratio is 1 : 1, so moles of CO2 formed = 0.1564
Now, reasoned Avogadro, gases react in simple, whole-
number volume ratios because each litre of gas has the Volume of CO2 = 0.1564 x 24.8 Molar Vol.
same number of molecules in it. Therefore, to get the = 3.88 L (at SLC) of all gases
at SLC
volume ratios shown above, each hydrogen molecule, and
each chlorine molecule, must have 2 atoms! 2.
What volume of hydrogen gas (at SLC) would be
i.e. Hydrogen is H2(g) and Chlorine is Cl2(g), and the correct produced if 10.00g of lithium metal was reacted with
equation is sulfuric acid?
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g) Solution

2 Li(s) + H2SO4(aq) H2(g) + Li2SO4(aq)
Then, for the same reaction, scientists could measure the 2 : 1 : 1 : 1
masses of these gases as well as volumes. This showed that
chlorine atoms must be about 35 times heavier than Moles of lithium: n = m = 10.00 = 1.441 mol
hydrogen... chemists were on the way to figuring out the MM 6.941
relative atomic weights of elements, and being able to Mole ratio is 2:1, so moles of H2 = 1/2 x 1.441=0.7204
calculate chemical quantities.
Volume of H2 = 0.7204 x 24.8
Although he did not invent the concept of the mole, we = 17.9 L (at SLC)
name the number of particles in 1 mole in Avogadros
honour...
23
Avogadros Number, NA = 6.022 x 10 Try the Worksheet at the end of this section

TM
Worksheet 4 4. Mole Ratios in Equations

Sodium reacts with water as follows:
Part A Practice Problems 2Na + 2H2O H2 + 2NaOH
1. Molar Masses a) If 1 mole of sodium reacted, how many moles of

Calculate the molar mass of: i) hydrogen formed? ii) water consumed?
a) potassium b) krypton b) If 0.25 mol of NaOH formed, how many moles of
c) tin d) bromine (Br2) i) sodium consumed? ii) hydrogen formed?
e) nitrogen gas f) magnesium oxide c) If 0.75 mole of hydrogen formed, how many moles of
g) sodium iodide h) iron(III) sulfide i) sodium consumed? ii) NaOH produced?
i) ammonia j) copper(II) sulfate
k) aluminium oxide l) glucose (C6H12O6) Aluminium reacts with oxygen:
4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3
2. No. of Moles in a Given Mass
How many moles in: d) If 0.5 mole of Al used, how many moles of
a) 100.0g of lead? i) Alum.oxide formed? ii) oxygen used?
e) If 0.1 mole of alum.oxide formed, how many moles of
b) 100.0g of zinc?
i) aluminium used? ii) oxygen used?
c) 100.0g of water?
d) 100.0g of copper(II) nitrate? 5. Mass Quantities in Reactions
e) 38.55g of magnesium fluoride? a) Calcium burns in oxygen to form calcium oxide:
f) 60.00g of carbon dioxide? 2Ca + O2 2CaO
g) 1.000g of zinc oxide? If 8.50g of calcium reacted, what mass of calcium oxide
h) 500.0g of glucose (C6H12O6)? would be formed?
i) 3.258 x 10-3g of salt (sodium chloride)?
j) 128.6g of ammonium carbonate? b) Silver carbonate decomposes when heated:
2Ag2CO3 2CO2 + 4Ag + O2
3. Moles and Number of Particles
a) How many particles (atoms/molecules) in: If 20.0g of silver carbonate was decomposed
i) 3 moles of water? i) what mass of silver metal would form?
ii) 2.478 mol of CO2? ii) what mass of CO2 would be produced?
iii) 5 mol of salt? iii) what mass of O2 would be formed?
iv) 0.007862 mol of copper
v) 1/1000 mol of helium c) Aluminium reacts with hydrochloric acid:
2Al + 6HCl 3H2 + 2AlCl3
b) Convert between mass, moles and no.of particles.
25
i) If there are 8.800x10 atoms of tin, how many moles is If 6.50g of aluminium reacted
this, and what would be the mass? i) what mass of HCl would be consumed?
ii) what mass of hydrogen gas produced?
ii) You have a sample containing 2.575x1024 molecules of iii) what mass of aluminium chloride produced?
water. How many moles is this, and what is its mass?
d) Tin reacts with steam as follows:
iii) If you weigh out 400.0g of water, how many moles is Sn(s) + 2H2O(g) 2H2(g) + SnO2(s)
this, and how many molecules are present?
If 14.8g of tin reacted
iv) If you have 2.569g of pure nickel, how many atoms are i) what mass of tin(IV) oxide would be formed?
there? ii) What mass of steam would be consumed?
iii) what mass of hydrogen would be produced?
v) What mass of sulfur would contain 2.500x1023 atoms?
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6. Empirical Formulas from Mass Composition 8. Mass & Gas Volume Calculations
a) A compound containing only copper and chlorine is a) To scrub the air and remove poisonous CO2 on board
decomposed, and the masses measured to find the mass the Space Shuttle, the air is continually pumped through
composition: canisters containing 5.0kg of lithium oxide. The reaction is
Mass of copper present = 12.84g Li2O(s) + CO2(g) Li2CO3(s)
Mass of chlorine present = 7.16g
i) How many moles of lithium oxide in each canister?
i) Find the empirical formula. ii) How many moles of CO2 can this amount absorb?
ii) Name the compound. iii) What volume of CO2(g) is this? (measured at SLC)
b) i) Find the empirical formula of a compound containing b) Iron reacts with oxygen:
carbon and hydrogen; a sample was found to contain 1.5g 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
of carbon and 0.5g of hydrogen.
ii) Name the compound, given that its empirical and i) If 10.0L of O2 at SLC reacted, what mass of iron(III)
molecular formulas are the same. oxide would be formed?
ii) If 100g of iron reacted, what volume of oxygen (at SLC)
c) A compound was found to contain 30% nitrogen and would be needed?
70% oxygen by mass.
c) The electrolysis of water causes decomposition:
i) Find the empirical formula. 2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
ii) It is later found that its molecular formula is a 2 times
multiple of the empirical. Write the molecular formula. i) If 1.00g of water was decomposed, what volumes of
iii) Name the compound. each gas (measured at SLC) would be formed?
In an electrolysis experiment, 50mL (0.050 L) of oxygen

7. Volumes of Reacting Gases was produced. (measured at SLC)
( Assume all are measured at same temperature & pressure) ii) What volume of hydrogen (at SLC) was produced?
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g) iii) What mass of water must have been decomposed?
Part B Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back

a) If you used 5 litres of hydrogen, how many litres
i) of oxygen consumed? The formal definition of the mole is the a)..........................
ii) of water vapour formed? of atoms in 12.00 grams of b).................................................
One mole of any substance contains the same number
b) If you used 0.25 litres of oxygen, how many litres of of c).................................. The mass of 1 mole of any
i) water vapour formed? substance is equal to its d)...........................................................
ii) hydrogen consumed? in grams. The actual number of particles in one mole of
anything is known as e).................................................s
c) If this reaction produced 20 litres of steam, how many Number and has a value of f)..................................................
litres of
i) hydrogen consumed? In a balanced chemical equation, the balancing numbers
(coefficients) may be interpreted as being g)...........................
ii) oxygen consumed?
.............................. of reactants and products.
By converting between the h).......................... of substances

Ammonia gas is formed by reaction of hydrogen with and the number of i)..............................., it becomes possible
nitrogen to calculate all the quantity relationships during a chemical
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g) j).................................... From the mass composition it is also
possible to determine the k).................................. formula of
d) In order to make 9 litres of ammonia, what volume compounds.
i) of hydrogen needed?
ii) of nitrogen needed? Historically, the mole concept arose from the work of 2
men: The Frenchman l).................-.............................
discovered that the m)........................... of gases in chemical
e) If 0.6 litre of hydrogen reacted, what volume
reactions always show simple, n)............................................
i) of ammonia formed? ratios to each other. Soon after, the Italian
ii) of nitrogen need? o)................................................. suggested that Equal
p)................................... of all gases contain q).......................
numbers of r)................................... (when measured at the
same conditions of s).............................. and ..........................)
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS The standard conditions usually used are known as
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES t)...................... (abbreviation) and is a pressure of
o
u)........................................... and temperature v)............... C.

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5. METALS FROM THEIR ORES
Ores and Minerals The Importance of Predicting

... and now back to the metals. Yield from an Ore
The whole situation of economic feasibility makes the
Minerals are naturally occurring compounds. Rocks are science of Analytical Chemistry vital in the mining and
mixtures of various minerals. Most minerals are lattice metals industry.
structures, both ionic and covalent. Some very common
minerals include: Mining operations cost millions of dollars to set up. To do
so, the operators need to be sure that the ore contains
Silica, which is chemically silicon dioxide (SiO2) and is the enough metal to be profitable. Chemical analysis in the
most common mineral on Earth. Other compounds are laboratory is used to measure the mineral content of the
often included in the silica lattice to make silicate ore body, to predict the final yield of the metal.
minerals. These occur in virtually all rocks.
Photo:
Calcite, which is calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the main Thanks Ulrik
mineral in limestone and marble.
Some minerals contain significant quantities of metal(s),

chemically combined in the compound.
Ores are rocks and/or minerals from which it is

economically worthwhile to extract a desired metal.
It is the economic part of this definition which is critical.

For example, there are many rocks and minerals that
contain significant amounts of iron and aluminium. These
are not iron ore or aluminium ore unless it is
economically worthwhile to mine and process them to get
the metal.
Ores are Non-Renewable Resources

Minerals and ores have been formed over millions and
billions of years of geological processes on Earth.
Because of that time-frame, the ores are non-renewable in

Comalco Aluminium Ltd
the sense that once we use them up, they cannot be

Photo courtesy of
replaced.
There is no immediate concern for running out of the

most important ores, but unlimited exploitation of any
non-renewable resource is:
What Makes It Economically Worthwhile? irresponsible, to future generations.

Basically, economic feasibility is the balance between: unsustainable, because all non-renewable things must
eventually run out.
the Commercial Price for which the metal can be sold economically stupid, because it may be cheaper to re-use
and and recycle, than to constantly extract new materials.
the Production Costs of mining and transporting the environmentally damaging, because mining and metal
ore, and chemically extracting and purifying of the metal. smelting have a history of pollution and ecosystem
destruction.
Another factor is the abundance of the metal and its ores
on Earth. For example, iron is relatively cheap because it is In the not-too-distant future it may become economically
very common in huge deposits of iron ores. Platinum is worthwhile to begin mining the old rubbish dumps
very rare, so it commands a high price. This makes it around our cities, to recover the discarded metals in
worthwhile to mine even very low-grade ores. A low-grade societys garbage.
iron ore would not be worth mining!

TM
Case Study:
Extraction of Copper from its Ores
Copper Ores
include a variety of compounds of copper, including: Froth Flotation to Concentrate the Ore
The ore is crushed into a powder and the copper
copper(I) sulfide, Cu2S minerals are separated from the silicates by a process of
copper(II) hydroxide mixed with Froth Flotation which relies on differences in
copper(II) carbonate, Cu(OH)2.CuCO3 wettability and density.
These compounds usually occur as thin veins of blue- Froth overflows

green minerals embedded in masses of worthless silicate for collection
rock.
The copper content of the entire ore body might be only

3% or less. Therefore, the first step after mining is to
separate the copper minerals from the rock.
Compressed air creates froth bubbles
Compressed air creates a froth of bubbles in a detergent

solution.
Copper minerals, sprayed with a special oil, cling to the

Chemistry of Smelting bubbles and are carried upwards to overflow with the
The concentrated copper minerals now undergo froth.
Decomposition Reactions.
Silicate minerals are wetted by the water and, being
In Australia, the main copper ores contain copper(I) denser, sink to the bottom.
sulfide. If this is heated in a furnace supplied with plenty
of air the reaction is: The collected froth is then treated to separate the oil and
detergent for re-use.
Copper(I) sulfide + oxygen Copper + Sulfur dioxide
Cu2S + O2 2Cu + SO2 The ore concentrate is now about 30% copper.
The copper collected is about 98% pure.
Sulfur dioxide is a serious pollutant if released
from the smelter.
These days it is collected and used to
manufacture sulfuric acid... a useful by-product.
Final Purification by Electrolysis

The major use of copper is for electrical wiring. For this it needs to be 99.9% pure.
Copper is purified by electrolysis:
-
The impure copper
is immersed in
+ After migrating
through the solution,
CuSO4 solution and the ions are re-
electrified: deposited as pure
Impure Pure
Copper Cu+2 ions
copper metal on the
+2 - Copper
Cu Cu + 2e dissolves migrate through deposits other electrode:
into CuSO4 solution on
solution electrode
The copper dissolves Cu+2 + 2e- Cu
into the solution, but
impurities do not. Impurities

TM
The Case for Recycling Producing the electricity usually involves the burning of
The point that mineral ores are non-renewable has already coal at a power station. The burning of fossil fuels like coal
been made. Eventually, any non-renewable resource must is a major contributor to the Greenhouse Effect which
run out, so recycling is inevitable. many scientists are now convinced is causing massive
climate changes to the entire Earth.
There is also a strong environmental case for recycling of
metals, especially aluminium. Recycling aluminium requires about 7kJ of energy, a saving
of about 96% in energy and environmental impact!
Extracting aluminium from its ore requires about 200kJ
(kilojoules) of energy per kg of metal. This energy is
mainly in the form of electricity, which is needed in huge
quantities for the electrolytic smelting process.
Most local councils now operate Recycling Centres

which can sort out paper, glass, plastic, etc from our
garbage, as long as we remember to put recyclables in the
correct bin.
Aluminium (mainly drink cans) collected this way is

returned to scrap-metal businesses which clean and re-melt
Photo by Griszka the metal to return it to manufacturing industry for re-use.
Worksheet 5 Copper ores contain compounds such as m)...........................

............................ and .....................................................................
Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back. After mining, the ore is crushed, then concentrated by
n)........................... ........................................ This process
Minerals are naturally occurring a)........................................ uses a froth of bubbles to separate the
which are mixed together in rocks. o)................................... density copper compounds from the
worthless rock which is mainly p)........................................
An ore is a b).................................. from which it is minerals.
c)......................................... worthwhile to extract a desired
d).............................. The smelting process involves q)............................................
reactions. For a sulfide ore, it reacts with r).............................
Whether it is worthwhile (or not) to mine an ore depends on to form s).............................. metal and t)....................................
the balance between the e)........................................................... gas.
and the f)........................................................... of mining,
transporting and g)..................................... the metal. The final step is to u)................................... the copper by a
process of v).......................................................
h)..................................... analysis of an ore deposit is vital to
predict the i)..................................... from the ore, to There are many good reasons to w).........................................
determine if it is worth mining. metals, especially x)........................................ which requires
large amounts of y)................................... energy to extract
Ores are j)............................................... resources because from its ore. Producing the electricity required is often done
once used, they cannot k)........................................................ by burning z).......................... fuels such as aa)......................
due to the immense time it takes for l)....................................... This contributes to the ab)....................................................
processes to form them. Effect, responsible for global climate changes. Recycling
aluminium requires only a fraction of this energy.

TM
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
METALS

TM
Practice Questions 7.
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to The scientist most responsible for the development of the
challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the Periodic Table was:
topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the A. Avogadro B. Newlands
K.I.S.S. Principle level. C. Gay-Lussac D. Mendeleev
When you have confidently mastered this level, it is 8.

strongly recommended you work on questions from past Element X is in Group 2 and element Y in Group 7.
exam papers.
Part A Multiple Choice
1. If X & Y
Which list shows metals used by humans in the correct formed a
chronological order of their history of usage? compound,
A. bronze, aluminium, iron you would
B. copper, bronze, iron expect it to be
C. gold, iron, bronze
D. copper, steel, bronze A. ionic, with formula X2Y
B. covalent, with formula X2Y
2.
C. ionic, with formula XY2
Which list correctly identifies an alloy, and the elements it
contains? D. covalent, with formula Y2X
A. Steel; iron and tin
B. Bronze; tin and zinc 9.
C. Solder; copper and lead If the elements X & Y in Q8 lie in the same period of
D. Brass; copper and zinc the table, you would expect:
A. X to have a smaller radius than Y.
3. B. Y to have a higher electronegativity than X.
The metals used by humans have changed over the course C. X to have a higher 1st ionization energy than Y.
of history. The availability of new metals has often been D. Y to have a higher melting point than X.
dependent on the:
A. availablity of energy to extract metals from ores.
10.
B. discovery of new minerals as people explored the world.
C. invention of new alloys. The reason for the trend in atomic radius as you move
D. development of new technologies to use the metals. across a period to the right, is:
A. increasing nuclear charge.
4. B. addition of extra electron shells.
A metal which reacts readily and vigorously with oxygen, C. decreasing attraction of electrons to the nucleus.
water and dilute acids would probably: D. increasing mass of the atoms.
A. have a high value for 1st ionization energy.
B. be from the Transition block of the Periodic Table. 11.
C. have a very low 1st ionization energy. An atom of argon is about twice as heavy as an atom of
D. be located at extreme right of the Periodic Table. neon. You would expect:
A. a mole of argon to contain about half as many atoms as
5.
If nickel reacted with sulfuric acid, the products of the a mole of neon.
reaction would be: B. equal masses of each element to contain about the same
A. hydrogen gas and nickel sulfate number of atoms.
B. carbon dioxide gas and nickel sulfate. C. 2g of argon to contain about the same number of atoms
C. nickel sulfide and hydrogen gas. as 1g of neon.
D. sulfur dioxide gas and nickel hydroxide. D. the molar mass of neon to be about twice the molar
mass of argon.
6.
During the reaction in Q5, the basic underlying change 12.
occurring is: Which line shows correctly the molar mass (to the nearest
A. the breaking covalent bonds.
gram) of the named substance?
B. the transfer of electron(s) from one species to another.
C. chemical changes in spectator ions. A. water, 18g
D. physical dissolving of metal in the acid. B. carbon dioxide, 28g
C. oxygen gas, 16g
D. helium gas, 8g

TM
13. 20. (5 marks)
Aluminium reacts with oxygen to form aluminium oxide. Give an outline of an experiment you have done to
4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3 investigate the relative chemical activity of some metals.
Include the observation(s) you made to assess metal
If 1 mole of aluminium (about 27g) was to be reacted, you activity, and state the conclusion(s) reached.
would need how many moles of oxygen gas?
A. 0.75 mol B. 3 mol 21. (6 marks)
C. 1 mol D. 1.3 mol Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction of:
a) magnesium with hydrochloric acid.
14. b) calcium with water (reacts at room temperature).
Avogadros number can be described by the abbreviation NA. c) potassium with oxygen.
If you had 2 moles of methane (CH4), then the number of
hydrogen atoms present is: 22. (4 marks)
A. 2 x NA B. 4 x NA When barium metal reacts with an acid there is an exchange
C. 8 x NA D. 10 x NA of electrons such that hydrogen gas and barium ions are
formed.
15. Write 2 half-equations to show clearly the species
Carbon monoxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form gaining, and the species losing, electrons.
carbon dioxide gas as follows:
2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g) 23. (4 marks)
a) Write an equation (including states) for the first
If 100mL of carbon dioxide was produced, then the total ionization of i) magnesium
volume of reactants (all measured at the same temp. & ii) oxygen
pressure) before the reaction would have been: b) Describe how the Activity Series of Metals is related to
A. 100mL B. 150mL the values of 1st Ionisation Energy.
C. 50mL D. 250mL
24. (5 marks)
16. a) Sketch a graph (values are not required) to show the
The smelting of a metal ore always involves: general changes in melting points of the elements across
A. separating the metal-containing mineral from the rock. one period of the Periodic Table.
B. decomposing a compound of the metal. b) Briefly explain the general trend shown in your graph.
C. purifying the extracted metal by electrolysis.
D. all of the above. 25. ( marks)
a) Write equations (including states) to describe the
Longer Response Questions i) 1st
Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to give ii) 2nd
you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate.
and iii) 3rd ionisations of potassium.
17. (5 marks) b) At which ionization would you expect a huge increase in
Give an example of the ionization energy? Explain your answer.
a) a metal used in its elemental state, and
b) a non-ferrous alloy (naming its components) 26. (6 marks)
in common use. For each, relate the properties of the metal a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of aluminium
to its particular use(s). metal with hydrochloric acid.
b) If 6.58g of aluminium reacted fully, calculate:
18. (3 marks) i) the number of aluminium atoms involved.
Give a reason why ii) the mass of aluminium chloride formed.
a) metal tools are superior to stone tools. iii) the volume of hydrogen gas (at SLC)
b) iron replaced bronze in the history of metallurgy.
c) aluminium did not come into common use until the 20th
century. 27. (4 marks)
It was found by experiment that a compound containing
19. (6 marks) only tin and oxygen, contained 88% tin, by mass.
The most common metal in use today is steel, which comes Showing your working, determine the empirical formula for
in a variety of forms, with different properties and uses. this compound, and give its correct chemical name.
Compare 3 different types of steel, stating the composition
of each and relating its properties to a common use.

TM
28. (4 marks) 30. (8 marks)
In the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen gases to form a) Give the name and formula for a compound commonly
ammonia gas, it was found by experiment that 300mL of found in copper ores.
hydrogen reacted completely with 100mL of nitrogen.
200mL of ammonia gas was produced. All the gas volumes b) Name, and briefly describe the process by which a
were measured at a pressure of 10 standard atmospheres copper ore is concentrated and separated from the
and 150oC. surrounding rock.
a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
b) Explain how the experimental measurements are in c) Write a chemical equation to describe the reaction which
agreement with Gay-Lussacs Law. occurs in the smelting of the ore. (Involving the compound
you named in part (a))
29. (5 marks)
a) Differentiate between a mineral and an ore. d) Name the process by which the smelted copper is
b) Outline the role of Chemical Science in assessing the purified, and relate the need for purification to a common
economic feasibility of mining a mineral resource. use of the metal.
c) Briefly discuss the sustainability of using the Earths
mineral resources, and outline a strategy for conservation.
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IN ALL CHEMICAL PROBLEMS
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Answer Section 4.
a) hydrogen + zinc sulfate
Worksheet 1 Zn + H2SO4 H2 + ZnSO4
a) stone or wood/bone b) gold b) hydrogen + calcium chloride
c) decoration/jewellery d) copper Ca + 2HCl H2 + CaCl2
e) roasted by fire f) copper and tin c) Barium + nitric acid
g) bronze h) hard and strong Ba + 2HNO3 H2 + Ba(NO3)2
i) brittle j) a saw blade d) Iron + hydrochloric acid
k) iron l) harder and stronger Fe + 2HCl H2 + FeCl2
m) temperature/energy n) coal 5.
o) steel p) carbon a) the metals: Zn, Ca, Ba, Fe
q) aluminium r) energy b) hydrogen ions (from the acid)
s) ores t) iron c) sulfate, chloride and nitrate ions.
u) steel v) cheap/economical
w) hard and strong x) mild Worksheet 3
y) stainless z) copper and zinc Part A
aa) solder ab) tin and lead a) Dobereiner b) Newlands
ac) plumbing and electronics c) Octaves d) Mendeleev
ad) lightweight ae) corrosion e) Periodic Table f) been discovered
af) drink cans/window frames/aircraft construction g) left gaps h) predict
ag) copper ah) conductivity i) almost identical to the predictions
ai) ductile aj) decomposition j) decreases k) semi-metals & non-metals
ak) endothermic al) copper l) increase m) decrease
am) aluminium an) electricity n) Transition o) semi-metal
ao) metal ap) energy p) inert q) right
r) identical s) metals
Worksheet 2 t) ionic u) positive
Part A v) covalent w) covalently
a) oxide b) METAL OXIDE x) gain y) negative
c) hydrogen d) hydroxide (or oxide) z) bottom aa) upwards
e) hydrogen f) salt ab) right ac) top
g) different h) activity ad) down and left ae) decreases
i) potassium and sodium j) left af) more ag) nucleus
k) copper and gold l) iron and tin/lead/zinc ah) increases ai) Ionisation
m) slowly n) electrons aj) increase ak) remove
o) lose p) hydrogen al) decrease am) less
q) covalent r) hydrogen an) remove ao) higher
s) H2 t) loss of electrons ap) increases aq) Electronegativity
u) Reduction v) oxidized ar) attract as) fluorine
w) hydrogen x) reduced at) left au) down
y) Ionisation z) remove one electron
aa) gas ab) low Part B Practice Problems
ac) higher 1.
ad) gold used in electronics, because it will not corrode. a) 1st Ca(g) Ca+(g) + e-
Part B Practice Problems 2nd Ca+(g) Ca+2(g) + e-

1.
a) Pb + O2 PbO2 3rd Ca+2(g) Ca+3(g) + e-
b) 2Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3 4th Ca+3(g) Ca+4(g) + e-

b) Between 2nd and 3rd, because 3rd ionisation takes an
c) 4Li + O2 2Li2O electron from an inner orbit.
2.
2. a) i) decreasing ii) increasing
a) Li, Fe, Pb b) i) increasing ii) decreasing
b) Lithium H= fluorine L= francium
c) i) increasing ii) decreasing
3. H = helium L = francium
a) calcium + water hydrogen + calcium hydroxide
Ca + 2H2O H2 + Ca(OH)2
b) Tin + water hydrogen + tin(II) oxide
Sn + H2O H2 + SnO

TM
Worksheet 4 d) n(Sn) = m / MM = 14.8 / 118.7 = 0.125 mol
Part A i) n(SnO2) = 0.125 mol
1. Molar Masses m(SnO2) = n x MM = 0.125 x 150.7 = 18.8g
a) 39.10g b) 83.80g c) 118.7g ii) n(H2O) = 0.125 x 2 = 0.250 mol
d) 159.8g e) N2 = 28.02g f) MgO = 40.31g m(H2O) = n x MM = 0.250 x 18.016 = 4.50g
g) NaI= 149.9 h) Fe2S3=207.9g i) NH3=17.03g iii) n(H2) = 0.125 x 2 = 0.250 mol
j) CuSO4=159.6g k) Al2O3=102.0g l) 180.2g m(H2) = n x MM = 0.250 x 2.016 = 0.504g
2. Moles in a Given Mass use n = m/MM 6. Empirical Formulas

a) n= 100.0/207.2 = 0.4826 mol a) i) Copper : Chlorine
b) n = 100.0/ 65.39 = 1.529 mol masses = 12.84g : 7.16g
c) n = 100.0 / 18.016 = 5.551 mol No moles = 12.84/63.55 : 7.16/35.45
d) n= 100.0 / 251.12 = 0.3982 mol = 0.2020 : 0.2019
e) n = 38.55 / 62.31 = 0.6187 mol ratio = 1 : 1
f) n = 60.00 / 44.01 = 1.363 mol emp. formula is CuCl
g) n = 1.000/ 81.39 = 0.01229 mol ii) Copper(I) chloride
h) n = 500.0 / 180.2 = 2.775 mol b) i) Carbon : Hydrogen
i) n = 3.258x10-3/ 58.44 = 5.575 x 10-5 mol masses = 1.5g : 0.5g
j) n = 128.6 / 96.094 = 1.338 mol No moles = 1.5/12.01 : 0.5/1.008
= 0.125 : 0.496
3. Moles & Particles = 0.125/0.125 : 0.496/0.125
a) use n = N/NA and N= n x NA = 1 : 3.96
i) N = 3 x 6.022x1023 = 1.807x1024 molecules ratio 1 : 4
ii) N = 2.478 x 6.022x1023 = 1.492x1024 molecules emp. formula is CH4
iii) N = 5 x 6.022x1023 = 3.011x1024 sets of ions. ii) methane
iv) N = 0.007862 x 6.022x1023 = 4.734x1021 atoms c) i) Nitrogen : Oxygen
v) N = 1/1000 x 6.022x1023 = 6.022x1020 atoms masses = 30% : 70%
b) i) n = N/NA = 8.800x1025/6.022x1023 = 146.1 mol No moles = 30/14.01 : 70/16
m = n x MM = 146.1x118.7 = 17,340g (=17.34kg) = 2.14 : 4.375
ii) n = N/NA = 2.575x1024/6.022x1023 = 4.276 mol = 2.14/2.14 : 4.375/2.14
m = n x MM = 4.276 x 18.016 = 77.04g ratio = 1 : 2.04
iii) n = m/MM = 400.0/ 18.016 = 22.20 mol 1 : 2
N = n x NA = 22.20 x 6.022x1023 = 1.337x1025 molecules emp. formula is NO2
iv) n = m/MM = 2.569/58.69 = 0.04377 mol ii) 2 x (NO2) = N2O4
N = n x NA = 0.04377 x 6.022x1023 = 2.636x1022 atoms iii) dinitrogen tetra-oxide
v) n = N/NA = 2.500x1023/6.022x1023 = 0.4151 mol
m = n x MM = 0.4151 x 32.07 = 13.31g 7. Volumes of Reacting Gases
a) i) 2.5L ii) 5 L
4. Mole ratios in Equations b) i) 0.5 L ii) 0.5 L
a) i) 0.5 mol ii) 1 mol c) i) 20 L ii) 10 L
b) i) 0.25 mol ii) 0.125 mol d) i) 13.5 L ii) 4.5 L
c) i) 1.5 mol ii) 1.5 mol e) i) 0.4 L ii) 0.2 L
d) i) 0.25 mol ii) 0.375 mol
e) i) 0.2 mol ii) 0.15 mol 8. Mass & Gas Volume
a) i) n(Li2O) = m/MM = 5,000/29.882 = 167 mol
5. Mass Quantities in Reactions ii) n(CO2) = 167 mol
a) n(Ca) = m/MM = 8.50/40.08 = 0.212 mol iii) v(CO2) = 167 x 24.8 = 4.14x103 L (>4,000L !)
n(CaO) = 0.212 mol b) i) n(O2) = 10.0/24.8 = 0.403 mol
m(CaO) = n x MM = 0.212 x 56.08 = 11.9g n(Fe2O3) = 0.403 x2/3 = 0.269 mol
b) n(Ag2CO3) = m/MM = 20.0/275.81 = 0.0725 mol m(Fe2O3) = n x MM = 0.269 x 159.7 = 42.9g
i) n(Ag) = 0.0725 x 2 = 0.145 mol ii) n(Fe) = m/MM = 100/55.85 = 1.79 mol
m(Ag) = n x MM = 0.145 x 107.9 = 15.6g n( O2) = 1.79 x 3/4 = 1.34 mol
ii) n(CO2) = 0.0725 mol V(O2) = 1.34 x 24.8 = 33.2 L
m(CO2) = n x MM = 0.0725 x 44.01 = 3.19g c) i) n(H2O) = m /MM = 1.00/ 18.016 = 0.0555 mol
iii) n(O2) = 0.0725 / 2 = 0.03625 mol n(H2) = 0.0555, v(H2) = 0.0555 x 24.8 = 1.38 L
m(O2) = n x MM = 0.03625 x 32.00 = 1.16g and n(O2) = 0.0555/2, v(O2) = (0.0555/2) x24.8=0.688L
c) n(Al) = m / MM = 6.50/26.98 = 0.241 mol ii) use Gay-Lussacs Law: v(H2) = 100mL (0.10 L)
i) n(HCl) = 0.241 x 3 = 0.723 mol iii) n(H2) = 0.10 / 24.8 = 0.00403 mol
m(HCl) = n x MM = 0.723 x 36.458 = 26.4g n(H2O) = 0.00403 mol
ii) n(H2) = 0.241 x 3/2 = 0.3615 mol m(H2O) = n x MM = 0.00403 x 18.016 = 0.073g
m(H2) = n x MM = 0.3615 x 2.016 = 0.729g
iii) n(AlCl3) = 0.241 mol
m(AlCl3) = n x MM = 0.241 x 133.33 = 32.1g

TM
Worksheet 4 21.
Part B a) Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2
a) number b) carbon (carbon-12)
c) particles d) formula mass b) Ca + 2H2O H2 + Ca(OH)2
e) Avogadros f) 6.022 x 1023
g) ratio of moles h) mass c) 4K + O2 2K2O
i) moles (particles) j) reactions 22.
k) empirical l) Gay-Lussac Ba Ba+2 + 2e-
+ -
m) volume n) whole-number 2H + 2e H2
o) Avogadro p) volumes (Barium lost, hydrogen ions gained)
q) equal r) molecules/particles 23.
s) temperature & pressure t) SLC a) i) Mg(g) Mg+(g) - + e-
+
u) 1 standard atmosphere v) 25 ii) O(g) O (g)+ e
b) The lower the ist Ionisation Energy the more active the
Worksheet 5 metal, because the metal readily loses electron(s) to enter a
reaction.
a) compounds b) mineral 24
c) economically d) metal a) graph
Melting Point
e) commercial price f) production cost b) At the beginning of a
g) extracting (smelting) h) Chemical period (left) the elements
i) yield j) non-renewable are soft metals with
k) be replaced l) geological moderate to low mps.
m) copper(I) sulfide & copper carbonate/hydroxide Moving right, the mps rise
n) Froth-flotation o) lower to a maximum at a transition
p) silicate q) decomposition metal, or semi-metal. Then mps fall rapidly at the non-
r) oxygen s) copper metals. Lowest values are the inert gases on far right.
t) sulfur dioxide u) purify 25.
v) electrolysis w) recycle a) 1st: K(g) K+(g) -+ e-
+ +2
x) aluminium y) electrical 2nd: K (g) +2 K (g) + e
z) fossil aa) coal 3rd: K (g) K+3(g) + e-
ab) Greenhouse b) Between 1st & 2nd, because the 2nd ionization involves
an electron from an inner orbit, which will require a big
Practice Questions increase in energy to remove.
26.
Part A Multiple Choice a) 2Al + 6HCl 3H2 + 2AlCl3
1. B 5. A 9. B 13. A b) n(Al) = m / MM = 6.58 / 26.98 =2 0.244 mol23
2. D 6. B 10. A 14. C i) N(Al)= n x NA=0.244x6.022x10 = 1.47x10 atoms
3. A 7. D 11. C 15. B ii) n(AlCl3) = 0.244 mol
4. C 8. C 12. A 16. B m(AlCl3) = n x MM = 0.244 x 133.33 = 32.5g
iii) n(H2) = 0.244 x 3/2 = 0.366 mol
Part B Longer Response V(H2) = 0.366 x 24.8 = 9.08 L
In some cases there may be more than one 27.
correct answer possible. The following model Tin : Oxygen
answers are correct, but not necessarily perfect. % mass 88 : 12
17. moles = 88/118.7 : 12/16.00
a) Copper. Used for electrical wiring, due to its excellent = 0.74 : 0.75
conductivity and high ductility. 1 : 1
b) Solder, an alloy of tin & lead. Used for joining pipes in empirical formula is SnO. Tin(II) oxide
plumbing, and joining wires in electronics, because of its 28.a) N2 + 3H2 2NH3
very low melting point.
18. b) volumes = 100mL 300mL 200mL
a) not brittle/ can be re-sharpened/shape possiblities (saw) Vol. ratio = 1 : 3 : 2
b) Iron is stronger and harder... tools are superior. The volumes of the gases are in a simple, whole number
c) Needs electricity for smelting. ratio to each other. This is Gay-Lussacs Law.
19. 29. a) A mineral is a naturally-occurring crystalline compound.
Mild Steel (0.2% carbon). Used for car bodies & sheet An ore is a mineral which is economically worth mining
metal, because it is strong but very malleable. to extract a metal from. All ores are minerals; not all
Tool Steel (1.5% carbon). Used for hammers, drills, etc minerals are ores.
because it is very hard and strong. b) Chemical analysis allows an ore body to be analysed to
Stainless Steel (20% nickel & chromium). Used for food predict the yield of metal.
utensils and medical equipment because it resists corrosion c) Ores are non-renewable resources, and once used
and is very hygenic. cannot be replaced. Therefore, it is wise to conserve these
20. resources by recycling metals wherever possible.
Small pieces of metal added to dilute acid in test tubes. 30. a) Copper(I) sulfide, Cu2S.
(To keep expt. fair, the acid must be same strength, and b) Crushed ore is separated by froth flotation. Low
metal pieces same size.) density ore is carried in a detergent froth, while silicates
Observe the rate of gas production to assess reactivity. fall to the bottom.
Conclusion: order of activity is: Mg > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu c) Cu2S + O2 2Cu + SO2
d) Electrolysis. Copper needs to be very pure for its main
use in electrical wires. If impure, conductivity is lower.

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TM

Emmaus Catholic College SL#802440

but first, an introduction...

This topic starts with a quick look at the history of metal

If you know the mass, you can

Photo courtesy of Comalco Aluminium Ltd

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 1 www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Metals The Activity Series

1st Ionization Energy

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

1. OUR USE OF METALS

Photo: Keith Syvinski

In the 20th century, new metals and alloys became available...

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Its major use is in plumbing for sealing the joints between

Metals That Are Used in Their Pure State

Copper and tin ores require little energy. A decent wood

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Worksheet 1 Today, the metal we use most is still t)....................,

WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 5

2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF THE METALS

Metals React With Oxygen Metals React With Acids

Metal + Acid Hydrogen + a Salt

Metals like copper and gold do not react at all.

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Pb Since they arent actually involved, we can leave the

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

The energy required for this to happen is the

The zinc atom has lost 2 electrons,

Increasing values for 1st Ionization Energy

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Interestingly, sometimes the higher activity metals corrode

Galvanized steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to

Golds low activity means it will not tarnish or corrode, so

Metals in Art and Religion

Photo by Brett Jephson

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Worksheet 2 Part B Practice Problems

METAL + WATER c)..................... + d).................

Sometimes the choice of which metal to use is determined

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2 10

3. PATTERNS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Atomic Structure, Number and Mass History of the Periodic Table

Dobereiner (German) pointed out that there were several

In orbit around Lithium, sodium & potassium was one triad.

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Patterns of the Periodic Table

Conductivity This pattern repeats itself along each period.

follow a similar pattern to Si Period 4

Chemical Bonding, Valency & Reactivity

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

Radius decreasing across a period

Spreadsheet Plot of Atomic Radii

The Syllabus requires that you

across a period, oss ng

When you do, you can clearly see

This graph shows what a Atomic Number

Preliminary Chemistry Topic 2

A(g) A+(g) + e- 1st I.E. A(g) A+(g) + e-

Lowest increasing Patterns in Successive Ionization Energy Data

Electronegativity Highest Value Inert gases

Atoms with a tendency to gain electrons and Electronegativity Values