Introduction to Transformers 1
repeat the above explanation in a more brief way here. Whenever we
apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating
flux surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one,
there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux
is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change in flux linkage with
respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be induced in it as
per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic
concept of the theory of transformer.
The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally
known as primary winding of transformer. Here in our above example it
is first winding.
The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer, is commonly known as secondary winding of
transformer. Here in our example it is second winding.
Introduction to Transformers 2
circuit of later, will be so small in amount that it will be difficult to
measure. The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of
linked flux with the second winding. So, it is desired to be linked to
almost all flux of primary winding to the secondary winding. This is
effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path
common to both of the winding. This low reluctance path is core of
transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by the
primary is passed through and linked with the secondary winding. This is
the most basic theory of transformer.
Main Constructional Parts of Transformer
The three main parts of a transformer are,
Introduction to Transformers 3
As the current source to primary is sinusoidal, the flux induced by it will
be also sinusoidal. Hence, the function of flux may be considered as a
sine function. Mathematically, derivative of that function will give a
function for rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time. This later
function will be a cosine function since d(sin)/dt = cos. So, if we derive
the expression for rms value of this cosine wave and multiply it with
number of turns of the winding, we will easily get the expression for rms
value of induced emf of that winding. In this way, we can easily derive
the emf equation of transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 4
To obtain the rms value of induced counter emf, divide this maximum
value of e by 2.
Ideal Transformer
Definition of Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which does not have
any loss in it, means no core losses, copper losses and any other losses
in transformer. Efficiency of this transformer is considered as 100%.
Introduction to Transformers 5
transformer are purely inductive and the core of transformer is loss free.
There is zero leakage reactance of transformer. As we said, whenever we
place a low reluctance core inside the windings, maximum amount of flux
passes through this core, but still there is some flux which does not pass
through the core but passes through the insulation used in the
transformer. This flux does not take part in the transformation action of
the transformer.
This flux is called leakage flux of transformer. In an ideal transformer,
this leakage flux is also considered nil. That means, 100% flux passes
through the core and links with both the primary and secondary windings
of transformer. Although every winding is desired to be purely inductive
but it has some resistance in it which causes voltage drop and I2R loss in
it. In such ideal transformer model, the windings are also considered
ideal, that means resistance of the winding is zero. Now if an alternating
source voltage V1 is applied in the primary winding of that ideal
transformer, there will be a counter self emf E1 induced in the primary
winding which is purely 180 in phase opposition with supply voltage V1.
Introduction to Transformers 6
same core where the primary winding is placed, the emf induced in the
secondary winding of transformer, E2 is in the phase with primary emf E1
and in phase opposition with source voltage V1. The above chapter was
about a brief discussion about ideal transformer, it has also explained
the basic ideal transformer model.
Introduction to Transformers 7
primary, the source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of
transformer.
But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit
greater than actual magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied
from the source has two components, one is magnetizing current which is
merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the
source current is consumed for compensating the core losses in
transformer. Because of this core loss component, the source current in
transformer on no-load condition supplied from the source as source
current is not exactly at 90 lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an
angle is less than 90. If total current supplied from source is Io, it will
have one component in phase with supply voltage V1 and this component
of the current Iw is core loss component. This component is taken in
phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or working
losses in transformer. Other component of the source current is denoted
as I. This component produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core,
so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of the transformer source
current. Hence I will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with
alternating flux .
Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can
be represented as
Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer
in no-load.
Introduction to Transformers 8
Theory of Transformer on Load
Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and Leakage
Reactance
Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load,
that means load is connected to the secondary terminals. Consider,
transformer having core loss but no copper loss and leakage reactance.
Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will
start to flow through the load as well as secondary winding. This load
current solely depends upon the characteristics of the load and also upon
secondary voltage of the transformer. This current is called secondary
current or load current, here it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing through
the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding will be produced. Here it
is N2I2, where, N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of
transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 9
current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the
secondary winding. It is known as load component of the primary
current. Hence total no load primary current I1 of a electrical power
transformer having no winding resistance and leakage reactance can be
represented as follows
We have proved earlier that, total primary current from the source on
load is I1. The voltage drop in the primary winding with resistance, R1 is
R1I1. Obviously, induced emf across primary winding E1, is not exactly
equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by
Introduction to Transformers 10
an amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
Introduction to Transformers 11
Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop
will be perpendicular to the current vector as shown in the above vector
diagram of transformer.
Impedance of Transformer
As we said, both primary and secondary windings will have resistance
and leakage reactance. These resistance and reactance will be in
Introduction to Transformers 12
combination, is nothing but impedance of transformer. If R1 and R2
and X1 and X2 are primary and secondary resistance and leakage
reactance of transformer respectively, then Z1 & Z2 impedance of primary
and secondary windings are respectively,
Introduction to Transformers 13
if we also consider voltage drop due to primary resistance of transformer,
then voltage equation of a transformer can easily be written as,
Here in the figure above, the primary and secondary windings are shown
in separate limbs and this arrangement could result a large leakage flux
in transformer because there is a big room for leakage. Leakage in
primary and secondary windings could be eliminated if the windings could
be made to occupy the same space. This of course is physically
impossible but, by placing secondary and primary in concentric manner
can solve the problem in good extent.
Introduction to Transformers 14
equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of
% impedance.
In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage
across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1.
So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1
+ j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared
across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage
equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
Introduction to Transformers 15
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current
I1 has two components, one is no - load component Io and the other is
load component I2. As this primary current has two components or
branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of
equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of
the excitation circuit can be represented as
Introduction to Transformers 16
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.
Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it
would be K times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2.N1
= I2.N2
Therefore,
Introduction to Transformers 17
good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in approximate
equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance
being in series can now be combined into equivalent resistance and
reactance of transformer, referred to any particular side. In this case it is
side 1 or primary side.
Introduction to Transformers 18
Core Losses and Copper Loss in
Transformer
Losses in Transformer
As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in
transformer normally does not come into picture. We generally consider
only electrical losses in transformer. Loss in any machine is broadly
defined as difference between input power and output power. When input
power is supplied to the primary of transformer, some portion of that
power is used to compensate core losses in transformer i.e.
Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy current loss in
transformer core and some portion of the input power is lost as I2R loss
and dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because
these windings have some internal resistance in them. The first one is
called core loss or iron loss in transformer and the later is known as
ohmic loss or copper loss in transformer. Another loss occurs in
transformer, known as Stray Loss, due to Stray fluxes link with the
mechanical structure and winding conductors.
Introduction to Transformers 19
Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,
Introduction to Transformers 20
reversal, there will be extra work done. For this reason, there will be a
consumption of electrical energy which is known as Hysteresis loss of
transformer.
Mathematical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss in Transformer
Let, the flux density at this instant is B, Therefore, total flux through the
ring, = BXa Wb As the current flowing through the solenoid is
alternating, the flux produced in the iron ring is also alternating in
nature, so the emf (e) induced will be expressed as,
Introduction to Transformers 21
According to Lenz,s law this induced emf will oppose the flow of current,
therefore, in order to maintain the current I in the coil, the source must
supply an equal and opposite emf. Hence applied emf ,
Energy consumed in short time dt, during which the flux density has
changed,
Thus, total work done or energy consumed during one complete cycle of
magnetism,
Now aL is the volume of the ring and H.dB is the area of elementary strip
of B - H curve shown in the figure above,
Introduction to Transformers 22
current will not contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as
heat. This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss of transformer.
This was a broad and simple explanation of eddy current loss. The detail
explanation of this loss is not in the scope of discussion in that chapter.
Introduction to Transformers 23
Here, from the above diagram,
Introduction to Transformers 24
Here, from the above diagram,
Introduction to Transformers 25
Connection of Three Phase Transformer
A variety of connection of three phase transformer is possible on
each side of both a single 3 phase transformer or a bank of three single
phase transformers.
Marking or Labeling the Different Terminals of Transformer
Terminals of each phase of HV side should be labeled as capital letters, A,
B, C and those of LV side should be labeled as small letters a, b, c.
Terminal polarities are indicated by suffixes 1 and 2. Suffix 1s indicates
similar polarity ends and so do 2s.
Star-Star Transformer
Introduction to Transformers 26
Delta-Delta Transformer
In delta-delta transformer, 1 suffixed terminals of each phase primary
winding will be connected with 2 suffixed terminal of next phase primary
winding.
Introduction to Transformers 27
Star-Delta Transformer
Here in star-delta transformer, star connection in HV side is formed by
connecting all the 1 suffixed terminals together as common point and
transformer primary leads are taken out from 2 suffixed terminals of
primary windings.
Introduction to Transformers 28
Delta-Star Transformer
Delta-Zigzag Transformer
The winding of each phase on the star connected side is divided into two
equal halves in delta zig zag transformer. Each leg of the core of
transformer is wound by half winding from two different secondary
phases in addition to its primary winding.
Star-Zigzag Transformer
The winding of each phase on the secondary star in a star-zigzag
transformer is divided into two equal halves. Each leg of the core of
transformer is wound by half winding from two different secondary
phases in addition to its primary winding.
Choice between Star Connection and Delta
Connection of Three Phase Transformer
In star connection with earthed neutral, phase voltage i.e. phase to
neutral voltage, is 1/3 times of line voltage i.e. line to line voltage. But
in the case of delta connection phase voltage is equal to line voltage. Star
connected high voltage side electrical power transformer is about 10%
cheaper than that of delta connected high voltage side transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 29
Lets explain, Let, the voltage ratio of transformer between HV and LV is
K, voltage across HV winding is VH and voltage across LV winding is VL
and voltage across transformer leads in HV side say Vp and in LV say Vs.
In Star-Star Transformer
In Star-Delta Transformer
In Delta-Star Transformer
Introduction to Transformers 30
cost in between these windings is also less. Hence for step down purpose
stardelta transformer connection is most economical, design for
transformer. Similarly it can be proved that for step up purpose delta-
star three-phase transformer connection is most economical.
Introduction to Transformers 31
Again if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel
can be removed from system to balance the capital investment and its
return.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers
When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the
following conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the
conditions for parallel operation of transformers.
1. Same voltage ratio of transformer.
2. Same percentage impedance.
3. Same polarity.
4. Same phase sequence.
Same Voltage Ratio
If two transformers of different voltage ratio are connected in parallel
with same primary supply voltage, there will be a difference in secondary
voltages. Now say the secondary of these transformers are connected to
same bus, there will be a circulating current between secondaries and
therefore between primaries also. As the internal impedance of
transformer is small, a small voltage difference may cause sufficiently
high circulating current causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.
Same Percentage Impedance
The current shared by two transformers running in parallel should be
proportional to their MVA ratings. Again, current carried by these
transformers are inversely proportional to their internal impedance. From
these two statements it can be said that, impedance of transformers
running in parallel are inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In
other words, percentage impedance or per unit values of impedance
should be identical for all the transformers that run in parallel.
Same Polarity
Polarity of all transformers that run in parallel, should be the same
otherwise huge circulating current that flows in the transformer but no
load will be fed from these transformers. Polarity of transformer means
the instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers
are opposite to each other when same input power is fed to both of the
Introduction to Transformers 32
transformers, the transformers are said to be in opposite polarity. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers
are same when same input power is fed to the both of the transformers,
the transformers are said to be in same polarity.
Same Phase Sequence
The phase sequence or the order in which the phases reach their
maximum positive voltage, must be identical for two parallel
transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each pair of phases will be
short circuited. The above said conditions must be strictly followed for
parallel operation of transformers but totally identical percentage
impedance of two different transformers is difficult to achieve practically,
that is why the transformers run in parallel may not have exactly same
percentage impedance but the values would be as nearer as possible.
Introduction to Transformers 33
If the transformer is switched on at the instant of voltage zero, the flux
wave is initiated from the same origin as voltage waveform, the value of
flux at the end of first half cycle of the voltage waveform will be,
Introduction to Transformers 34
source which is called magnetizing inrush current in transformer or
simply inrush current in transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 35
Transformer Accessories:
Breather, Conservator Tank and
Radiator
For providing long service life to the transformer, different transformer
accessories get fitted with it. These transformer accessories should
also be included in our study for better understanding transformer
operation and maintenance.
Breather of Transformer
When the temperature changes occur in transformer insulating oil, the oil
expands or contracts and there an exchange of air also occurs when
transformer is fully loaded. When transformer gets cooled, the oil level
goes down and air gets absorbed within. This process is called breathing
and the apparatus that pass through the air is called breather. Actually,
silica gel breathers controls the level of moisture, entering electrical
equipment during the change in volume of the cooling medium and/or
airspace caused by temperature increasing.
Conservator Tank of a Transformer
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof of
the transformer's main tank. When transformer is loaded, the
temperature of oil increases and consequently the volume of oil in the
transformer gets increased. Again; when ambient temperature is
increased, the volume of oil is also increased. The conservator tank of
a transformer provides adequate space for expansion of oil. Conservator
tank of transformer also acts as a reservoir of oil.
Introduction to Transformers 36
damages of upper diaphragm. Near the lower end, a small oil level
indicator is provided to lower diaphragm ruptures; transformer oil rises in
the vent pipe and is visible through the indicator indicating the failure of
the lower diaphragm. If even after brushing the lower diaphragm, there
is enough pressure and is not reduced, the upper diaphragm then bursts
out to give way to release the inside pressure of transformer tank by
thronging out oil and gases. In this way, explosion vent of transformer
prevents mechanical damage to the transformer tank. Sometimes, upper
portion of conservator tank is connected with explosion vent with an
equalizer pipe with or without a valve.
Radiator of Transformer
Oil immersed transformer is always provided with radiator. In case of
electrical power transformer, the radiators are detachable and
transported separately to the site. The upper and lower portions of the
radiator unit is connected with the transformer tank via valves. These
values are provided to prevent draining of oil during detaching a radiator
unit from the transformer for cleaning and maintenance purposes.
Operation and Purpose of Radiator in Transformer
When transformer is in the loaded condition, the hot oil comes up in the
main tank, and enters into the radiator tank through upper valve. As the
heat transfer surface of the radiator is quite large, the oil gets cooled and
enters into the transformer tank via lower value of radiator units. The
convectional flow of oil in the tank and radiator of transformer continues.
The cooling effect of radiator can be accelerated by applying force air to
the radiator outer wall by air fans.
Silica Gel Breather of Transformer
Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the
transformer insulating oil increases, consequently the volume of the oil is
increased. As the volume of the oil is increased, the air above the oil level
in conservator will come out. Again at low oil temperature; the volume of
the oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to be decreased
which again causes air to enter into conservator tank. The natural air
always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture can be
mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air
moisture should be resisted during entering of the air into the
transformer, because moisture is very harmful for transformer insulation.
Introduction to Transformers 37
A silica gel breather is the most commonly used way of filtering air from
moisture.
Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator tank
by means of breathing pipe.
Introduction to Transformers 38
Conservator Tank of a Transformer
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the
transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of
transformer is to provide adequate space for expansion of oil inside the
transformer.
Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer
When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the
volume of oil inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of
transformer provides adequate space to this expanded transformer oil. It
also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.
Construction of Conservator Tank
This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One large
inspection cover is provided on either side of the container to facilitate
maintenance and cleaning inside of the conservator.
Introduction to Transformers 39
inside the conservator. This arrangement ensure that oil does not enter
the silica gel breather even at highest operating level.
Introduction to Transformers 40
The space available outside the cell in conservator tank is totally filled by
oil. Air vents are provided on the top of the conservator for venting
accumulated air outside the air cell. The pressure inside the air cell must
be maintained 1.0 PSI.
Diaphragm Sealed Conservator
Here diaphragm is used as a barrier between transformer oil and
atmospheric air. In this case the conservator of transformer is made of
tow semicircular halves as shown below.
The diphram is held between the the two halves and bolted. As oil
expands it pushes up the diaphragm. The position of the diaphragm is
indicated by the oil level indicator i.e. magnetic oil gauge (Here MOG is
not shown in the figure above) as the rod of this MOG is connected to the
diaphragm. When the oil level falls down in the conservator, the
diaphragm deflects and the atmospheric air fills the vacant place. This air
is sucked through silica gel breather which is connected to the top middle
Introduction to Transformers 41
of conservator tank of transformer. (Here silica gel breather is not
shown in the figure above)
This type of conservator has one advantage over air cell conservator. If
gas is pressurized to a high level, it gets dissolved in oil. Over a period of
time the amount of gas in oil reaches the saturation point. If at this
stage, the load of transformer is suddenly dropped or the ambient
temperature falls severely, the pressure falls, oil becomes supersaturated
and the gas bubbles will be evolved. If there is a pimp connected in the
cooling circuit, it will help generating bubbles. These bubbles may cause
insulation failure in the region of strong fields. (Here silica gel breather,
MOG, Drain Valves, Air Pockets and Conservator to main tank
connections are not shown in the figure above.)
Radiator of Transformer
Function of Radiator
When an electrical transformer is loaded, the current starts flowing
through its windings. Due to this flowing of electric current, heat is
produced in the windings, this heat ultimately rises the temperature of
transformer oil. We know that the rating of any electrical equipment
depends upon its allowable temperature rise limit. Hence, if the
temperature rise of the transformer insulating oil is controlled, the
capacity or rating of transformer can be extended up to significant range.
The radiator of transformer accelerates the cooling rate of
transformer. Thus, it plays a vital role in increasing loading capacity of an
electrical transformer.This is basic function of radiator of an electrical
power transformer.
Oil immersed power transformer is generally provided with detachable
pressed sheet radiator with isolating valves. But in case of small size
distributing transformer, the radiators are generally integrated parts of
transformer body and projected from the main tank.
The working principle of radiator is very simple. It just increases the
surface area for dissipating heat of the oil. In case of electrical power
transformer, due to the transport limitation, this units are sent separately
and assembled at site with transformer main body. At the time of
dispatching, the flings of radiator are blanketed by gasket and blanketing
Introduction to Transformers 42
plates. The radiator valves on the main tank are also blanketed by gasket
and blanketing plates.
Assembling and Mounting of Transformer Radiator
Special care should be taken while removing radiators from crates and
the same care should also be taken during handling and mounting the
radiator bank. This is because any minor damage can initiate oil leakage
from the bank as radiator units are made from very thin steel sheets of
metal for good conduction of heat from oil to air.
After removing from crates, these radiators must be cleaned externally.
These are also required to be clean from inside by flashing with
transformer insulating oil. The radiator units must be assembled one by
one that means, fitting and fixing of one unit must be completed in all
respect before assembling the next unit. The assembling should be
started from one side and finished at other side. Before assembling the
unit, remove blanketing plates from the top and bottom radiator valves.
During the removing of blanketing plates; if gasket surface is damaged, it
should be replaced by new gasket. Then the radiator unit would be lifted
vertically and brought nearer to the respective main tank valves. Now
remove the blanketing plates of the main tank valves. Fit the radiator
flange on respective valve of main tank by nuts, bolts, plain and spring
washers. Assemble all the other radiator units in same manner.
After assembling all the units, this is the time for filling insulating oil. This
should also be done one unit by one unit. For that, first the bottom valve
is opened and air release plug on the top of the radiator is also gets
slowly unscrewed. The oil from main tank will enter into the transformer
radiator unit. Air starts escaping from air release plug till the unit is
totally filled with transformer insulating oil. The oil filling in the unit is
completed when oil comes out from unscrewed air release plug. After
that, the air release plug is tightened and top radiator valve is open.
Introduction to Transformers 43
Operation of Transformer Radiator
Under loaded condition, warm oil increases in volume and comes to the
upper portion of the main tank. Then this oil enters in the radiator
through top valve and cools down by dissipating heat through the thin
radiator wall. This cold oil comes back to the main tank through the
bottom radiator valve. This cycle is repeated continuously till the load is
connected to the transformer. Dissipation of heat in the transformer
radiator; can be accelerated further by force air provided by means of
fans. These fans are fitted either on the radiator bank itself or fitted
nearby the bank but all the fans must be faced towards the radiator.
Sometime, the cooling rate of convectional circulation of oil is not
sufficient. That time an oil pump may be used for speeding up oil
circulation.
1. One float
2. Bevel gear arrangement and
3. An indicating dial.
One ball type or drum type float is attached with a sufficiently long float
arm. One unit of bevel gear is fitted on the other side of the float arm.
Other unit of the bevel gear is magnetically coupled with pointer and
mercury switch arrangement. The bevel gear arrangement is positioned
Introduction to Transformers 44
inside the conservator tank of transformer and dial, pointer and mercury
switch are positioned outside the conservator tank.
Working Principle of Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG
All oil immersed distribution and electrical power transformers are
provided with expansion vessel which is known as conservator of
transformer. This vessel takes care of oil expansion due to temperature
rise. When transformer insulating oil is expanded, the oil level in the
conservator tank goes up.
Again when oil volume is reduced due to fall in oil temperature, the oil
level in the conservator goes down. But it is essential to maintain a
minimum oil level in the conservator tank of transformer even at lowest
possible temperature. All large electrical power transformers are
therefore provided with a magnetic oil level indicator or magnetic oil
gauge. In conventional conservator tank, a light weight hollow ball or
drum floats on the transformer insulating oil. The float arm is attached
with bevel gear as we already explained during the discussion on the
construction of magnetic oil gauge. Naturally the position of the float
goes up and down depending upon the oil level in the conservator and
consequently the alignment of float arm changes. Consequently, the
bevel gear rotates. This movement of bevel gear is transmitted to the
pointer outside the conservator, as this pointer is magnetically coupled
with the bevel gear. The pointer of magnetic oil level indicator is also
incorporated with a mercury switch. So it is need not say, when oil level
in the conservator goes up and down, the pointer moves on the MOG dial
to indicate the actual level of transformer insulating oil in conservator
Introduction to Transformers 45
tank. As the alignment of mercury switch changes along with the pointer,
this switch closes and actuates an audible alarm when pointer reaches
near empty position on the dial of magnetic oil gauge. This event alerts
us for topping up oil in electrical power transformer. In air cell
conservator, the float arm is attached with air cell and alignment of float
arm changes with the changing size of air cell due to the expansion and
contraction of oil.
Introduction to Transformers 46
The types of temperature indicator of transformer are-
1. Oil temperature indicator (OTI)
2. Winding temperature indicator (WTI)
3. Remote temperature indicator (RTI)
Construction of Temperature Indicator of Transformer
These indicators are provided with a sensing bulb. This sensing bulb is
placed in a pocket on the roof of transformer tank. The pocket is filled
with transformer oil. The bulb is connected to the instrument housing by
means of flexible connecting tubing consisting of two capillary tubes. One
capillary tube is connected to the operating bellow of the instrument and
other to a compensating bellow. Compensating bellow compensates
variation of ambient temperature. The pointer is fixed with a steel
carriage on which normally four mercury switches are mounted. The
make and break temperature of these mercury switches can be adjusted
separately. One mercury switch is use to operate cooling fans, one
mercury switch is used to switch on oil pumps, one mercury switch is for
high temperature alarm and last switch is used to inter trip the
transformer in extremely high temperature condition. In addition to these
the dial of oil temperature indicator is also provided with dummy
pointer which is pushed by main pointer when temperature rises. When
main pointer moves back due to decreasing temperature, the dummy
pointer stays at maximum temperature position of the main pointer. This
indicates maximum temperature rise of transformer during a preset
period of time.
Introduction to Transformers 47
Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI
This device is used to measure the top oil temperature. An oil
temperature indicator or OTI is also used for protection of transformer.
Operating Principle of Oil Temperature Indicator
This device measures top oil temperature with the help of sensing bulb
immersed in the pocket by using liquid expansion in the bulb through a
capillary line to operating mechanism. A link and lever mechanism
amplifies this movement to the disc carrying pointer and mercury
switches. When volume of the liquid in operating mechanism changes,
the bellow attached to end of capillary tube expands and contracts. This
movement of bellow is transmitted to the pointer in temperature
indicator of transformer through a lever linkage mechanism.
Winding Temperature Indicator or WTI
This device measures the LV and HV winding temperature. A winding
temperature indicator or WTI is also used as protection of transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 48
through transformer winding. This is because there is no scope of direct
measuring of temperature inside a winding. When load of transformer
increases, the winding temperature is also increased and this increased
temperature is sensed by sensing bulb as the heater coil surrounds it.
Rest of the working principle of winding temperature indicator is same as
principle of oil temperature indicator.
Remote Temperature Indicator
A precision potentiometer mounted inside the instrument case functions
as a transmitter and operates an electrical repeater for remote reading of
measured temperature. In one scheme the transmitter is directly
connected to the repeaters and alternative scheme is to connect the
transmitter to a resistance transducer, which will supply direct current for
operating repeater.
Introduction to Transformers 49
ONAN Cooling of Transformer
This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The full form of
ONAN is "Oil Natural Air Natural". Here natural convectional flow of hot oil
is utilized for cooling. In convectional circulation of oil, the hot oil flows to
the upper portion of the transformer tank and the vacant place is
occupied by cold oil. This hot oil which comes to upper side, will dissipate
heat in the atmosphere by natural conduction, convection & radiation in
air and will become cold. In this way the oil in the transformer tank
continually circulate when the transformer put into load. As the rate of
dissipation of heat in air depends upon dissipating surface of the oil tank,
it is essential to increase the effective surface area of the tank. So
additional dissipating surface in the form of tubes or radiators connected
to the transformer tank. This is known as radiator of transformer or
radiator bank of transformer. We have shown below a simplest form on
natural cooling or ONAN cooling arrangement of an earthing transformer
below.
Introduction to Transformers 50
ONAF Cooling of Transformer
Heat dissipation can obviously be increased, if dissipating surface is
increased but it can be make further faster by applying forced air flow on
that dissipating surface. Fans blowing air on cooling surface is employed.
Forced air takes away the heat from the surface of radiator and provides
better cooling than natural air. The full form of ONAF is "Oil Natural Air
Forced". As the heat dissipation rate is faster and more in ONAF
transformer cooling method than ONAN cooling system, electrical power
transformer can be put into more load without crossing the permissible
temperature limits.
OFAF Cooling of Transformer
In oil forced air natural cooling system of transformer, the heat
dissipation is accelerated by using forced air on the dissipating surface
but circulation of the hot oil in transformer tank is natural convectional
flow.
The heat dissipation rate can be still increased further if this oil
circulation is accelerated by applying some force. In OFAF cooling system
the oil is forced to circulate within the closed loop of transformer tank by
means of oil pumps. OFAF means "Oil Forced Air Forced" cooling methods
of transformer. The main advantage of this system is that it is compact
system and for same cooling capacity OFAF occupies much less space
than farmer two systems of transformer cooling. Actually in oil natural
cooling system, the heat comes out from conducting part of the
transformer is displaced from its position, in slower rate due to
convectional flow of oil but in forced oil cooling system the heat is
Introduction to Transformers 51
displaced from its origin as soon as it comes out in the oil, hence rate of
cooling becomes faster.
OFWF Cooling of Transformer
We know that ambient temperature of water is much less than the
atmospheric air in same weather condition. So water may be used as
better heat exchanger media than air. In OFWF cooling system of
transformer, the hot oil is sent to an oil-to-water heat exchanger by
means of oil pump and there the oil is cooled by applying sowers of cold
water on the heat exchanger's oil pipes. OFWF means "Oil Forced Water
Forced" cooling in transformer.
ODAF Cooling of Transformer
ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer can be considered
as the improved version of OFAF. Here forced circulation of oil directed to
flow through predetermined paths in transformer winding. The cool oil
entering the transformer tank from cooler or radiator is passed through
the winding where gaps for oil flow or pre-decided oil flowing paths
between insulated conductor are provided for ensuring faster rate of heat
transfer. ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer is
generally used in very high rating transformer.
ODWF Cooling of Transformer
ODAF or oil directed water forced cooling of transformer is just like ODAF
only difference is that here the hot oil is cooled in cooler by means of
forced water instead of air. Both of these transformer cooling methods
are called forced directed oil cooling of transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 52
operating in rapid sequence with usually four separate make and break
units.
Introduction to Transformers 53
1. Because the currents are lower, the tap changer contacts, leads, etc., can be smaller.
2. As the HV winding is wound outside the LV winding, it is easier to get the tapping connections out
to the tap changer.
Figure 1 below shows the connections for an on-load tap changer that operates on the
HV winding of the transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 54
During the tap change, the selector switches are selected to different taps (see Figure 2) and
a circulating current will flow in the reactor circuit. This circulating current will create a flux
and the resulting inductive reactance will limit the flow of circulating current.
3. Vacuum Switch
This device performs the duty of a circuit breaker that makes and breaks current during the
tap changing sequence.
4. Bypass Switch
This switch operates during the tap changing sequence but, at no time, does it make or
break load current, though it does make before break each connection.
An example of the tap changing sequence is detailed in Figure 2 (diagrams 1 through
10). Table 1describes the sequence of operations for the tap changer of Figure 2 to change
from tap 1 to tap 2. Changing to any other tap position is done similarly with the selector
switch always moving sequentially (i.e., it is impossible to go from tap 1 to tap 3 directly, the
order must be tap 1, tap 2, then tap 3).
The operating mechanism for the on-load tap changer is motor driven. Manual operation is used in
the event of motor failure.
The sequence of operation is mechanically linked, orinterlocked, to ensure that all contacts
always operate in their correct order. Any failure of the operating mechanism can result in
severe damage to the transformers and tap changers.
1 Present position tap changer selected to tap 1, bypass switch in, A + B, home position.
3 Vacuum switch opens, removing load current from upper circuit arm freeing one half of
selector switch for move.
5 Vacuum switch closes both selector switches onload, circulating current is limited by
reactors.
6 Bypass switch selects upper arm circuit arm. No arcing occurs as vacuum switch is closed and
in parallel.
7 Vacuum switch opens, removing load current from lower circuit arm, freeing lower selector
switch for move.
Introduction to Transformers 55
9 Vacuum switch closes both selector switches onload, in parallel, on tap 2.
10 With vacuum switch closed and selector switch on a single tap, the bypass switch can now
return to its home position. Both reactor circuits stay normally in parallel. The tap change is
now complete.
The previous example describes one type of on-load tap changer. There are several other
types inuse however, which may differ significantly from the type described.
Introduction to Transformers 56
Differences are usually in how the selection of taps is made and the degree of
mechanization. However, most importantly, all on-load tap changers allow voltage changes to take
place without interrupting the power circuit.
Introduction to Transformers 57
Where I and are current and flux in the transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 58
total current flows through the neutral of secondary side of transformer is
In = 3.Io. This current cannot be balanced by primary current as the zero
sequence current cannot flow through the isolated neutral star connected
primary. Hence the said current in the secondary side set up a magnetic
flux in the core. As we discussed earlier in this chapter, low reluctance
path is available for the zero sequence flux in a bank of single phase
units and in the 5 limb core consequently; the impedance offered to the
zero sequence current is very high. The delta connected tertiary winding
of transformer permits the circulation of zero sequence current in it. This
circulating current in this delta winding balances the zero sequence
component of unbalance load, hence prevents unnecessary development
of unbalance zero sequence flux in the transformer core. In few words it
can be said that, placement of tertiary winding in star - star-neutral
transformer considerably reduces the zero sequence impedance of
transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 59
reluctance magnetic path in transformer is known as core of
transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 60
Material for Transformer Core
The main problem with transformer core is, its hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss in transformer. Hysteresis loss in transformer mainly
depends upon its core materials. It is found that, a small quantity of
silicon alloyed with low carbon content steel produces material for
transformer core, which has low hysteresis loss and high permeability.
Because of increasing demand of power, it is required to further reduce
the core losses and for that, another technique is employed on steel,
which is known as cold rolling. This technique arranges the orientation of
grain in ferromagnetic steel in the direction of rolling. The core steel
which has under gone through both the silicon alloying and cold rolling
treatments is commonly known as CRGOS or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented
Silicon Steel. This material is now universally used for manufacturing
transformer core. Although this material has low specific iron loss but
still; it has some disadvantages, like, it is susceptible to increase loss due
to flux flow in direction other than grain orientation and it also
susceptible to impaired performance due to impact of bending and
blanking the cutting CRGOS sheet. Both the surfaces of the sheet are
provided with an insulating of oxide coating.
Introduction to Transformers 61
In reality, manufacturers use different groups or packets of predefined
number of same dimension lamination sheets. The group or packet is a
block of laminated sheets with a predefined optimum height (thickness).
The core is an assembly of these blocks in such a successive manner as
per their size from core central line, that it gives an optimum circular
shape of the cross-section. Such typical cross-section is shown in the
figure below. Oil ducts are needed for cooling the core. Cooling ducts are
necessary because hot-spot temperature may rise dangerously high and
their number depends on the core diameter and materials that get used
for core. In addition to that, clamp plates made of steel are needed on
either sides of the core to clamp the lamination. The steel sheet
lamination blocks, oil ducts, and clamping plates; all should lie within the
peripheral of optimum core circle. The net sectional area is calculated
from the dimensions of various packets and allowance is made for the
space lost between lamination (known as stacking factor) for which steel
sheet of 0.28 mm thickness with insulation coating is approximately
0.96. Area is also deducted for oil ducts. The ratio of net cross sectional
area of core to the gross cross - sectional area inside the imaginary
peripheral circle is known as Utilization factor of transformer core.
Increasing numbers of steps improve the Utilization factor but at the
same time, it increases manufacturing cost. Optimum numbers of steps
are between 6 (for smaller diameter) to 15 (larger diameter).
Introduction to Transformers 62
Manufacturing of Transformer Core
During core manufacturing in factory some factors are taken into
consideration,
1. Higher reliability.
2. Reduction in iron loss in transformer and magnetizing current.
3. Lowering material cost and labor cost.
4. abatement of noise levels.
Quality checking is necessary at every step of manufacturing to ensure
quality and reliability. The steel sheet must be tested for ensuring the
specific core loss or iron loss values. The lamination should be properly
checked and inspected visually, rusty and bend lamination should be
rejected. For reducing the transformer noises, the lamination should be
tightly clamped together and punch holes should be avoided as far as
possible to minimize cross flux iron losses. The air gap at the joint of
limbs and yokes should be reduced as much as possible for allowing
maximum smooth conducting paths for magnetizing current.
Corner Jointing of Limbs with Yokes
Core losses in transformer happen mainly due to,
Introduction to Transformers 63
Interleaved Joints in Transformer Core
Interleaved joint in transformer core is the simplest form of joints. This
joint is shown in the figure. The flux leaves and enters at the joint in
perpendicular to grain orientation. Hence cross grain losses are high in
this type of joints. But considering the low manufacturing cost, it is
preferable to use in small rating transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 64
purpose of this oil is, it prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen
with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is susceptible to
oxidation.
Introduction to Transformers 65
Electrical Parameter of Transformer Oil
Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil
Introduction to Transformers 66
Generally this measurement is taken 3 to 6 times in same sample of oil
and the average value of these reading is taken. BDV is important and
popular test of transformer oil, as it is primary indication of health of oil
and it can be easily carried out at site.
Dry and clean oil gives BDV results, better than the oil with moisture
content and other conducting impurities. Minimum breakdown voltage
of transformer oil or dielectric strength of transformer oil at which
this oil can safely be used in transformer, is considered as 30 KV.
Specific Resistance of Transformer Oil
This is another important property of transformer oil. This is measure of
DC resistance between two opposite sides of one cm3 block of oil. Its unit
is taken as ohm-cm at specific temperature. With increase in temperature
the resistivity of oil decreases rapidly. Just after charging a transformer
after long shut down, the temperature of the oil will be at ambient
temperature and during full load the temperature will be very high and
may go up to 90C at over load condition. So resistivity of the insulating
oil must be high at room temperature and also it should have good value
at high temperature as well. That is why specific resistance or resistivity
of transformer oil should be measured at 27C as well as 90C. Minimum
standard specific resistance of transformer oil at 90C is 35 1012 ohm
cm and at 27C it is 1500 1012 ohmcm.
Introduction to Transformers 67
active. Again it is clear from above diagram, value of which is also
known as loss angle,
Introduction to Transformers 68
the water content in transformer oil. Thus the temperature of the oil
at the time of taking sample for test is very important. During oxidation
acid are formed in the oil the acids give rise the solubility of water in the
oil. Acid coupled with water further decompose the oil forming more acid
and water. This rate of degradation of oil increases. The water content in
oil is measured as pm (parts per million unit).
Introduction to Transformers 69
Pour Point of Transformer Oil
It is the minimum temperature at which oil just start to flow under
standard test condition. Pour point of transformer oil is an important
property mainly at the places where climate is extremely cold. If the oil
temperature falls below the pour point, transformer oil stops convection
flowing and obstruct cooling in transformer. Paraffin based oil has higher
value of pour point, compared to Naphtha based oil, but in India like
country, it does not affect the use of Paraffin oil due tits warm climate
condition. Pour Point of transformer oil mainly depends upon wax content
in the oil. As Paraffin based oil has more wax content, it has higher pour
point.
Viscosity of Transformer Oil
In few wards, viscosity of transformer oil can be said that viscosity is
the resistance of flow, at normal condition. Obviously resistance to flow
of transformer oil means obstruction of convection circulation of oil inside
the transformer. A good oil should have low viscosity so that it offers less
resistance to the convectional flow of oil thereby not affecting the cooling
of transformer. Low viscosity of transformer oil is essential, but it is
equally important that, the viscosity of oil should increase as less as
possible with decrease in temperature. Every liquid becomes more
viscous if temperature decreases.
Introduction to Transformers 70
relay it is not possible to predict the condition of the total internal
healthiness of electrical power transformer. That is why it becomes
necessary to analyse the quantity of different gasses dissolved in
transformer oil in service. From dissolved gas analysis of transformer
Oil or DGA of transformer oil, one can predict the actual condition of
internal health of a transformer. It is preferable to conduct the DGA test
of transformer oil in routine manner to get prior information about the
trend of deterioration of transformer health and life.
Introduction to Transformers 71
home. The pages of very old books become very much brittle. In
transformer, the aging affect of paper insulation is accelerated due to
oxidation occurs in oil. When insulating paper becomes mechanically
weak, it can not withstand the mechanical stresses applied during
electrical short circuit and leads to electrical breakdown. It is therefore
necessary to monitor the condition of paper insulation inside a power
transformer. It is not possible to bring out a piece of paper insulation
from a transformer in service for testing purpose. But we are lucky
enough, that there is a testing technique developed, where we can
examine the condition of paper insulation without touching it. The
method is called Furfuradehyde analysis of in short Furfural test.
Although by dissolved gas analysis one can predict the condition of the
paper insulation primarily, but it is not very sensitive method. There is a
guide line in IEC-599, where it is told that if the ratio of CO2 and CO in
DGA results is more than 11, it is predicted that the condition of paper
insulation inside the transformer is not good. A healthy cellulose
insulation gives that ratio in a range of 4 to 11. But still it is not a very
sensitive way of monitoring the condition of paper insulation. Because
CO2 and CO gases also produced during oil breakdown and sometimes
the ratio may misleads the prediction.
When oil is soaked into paper, it is damaged by heat and some unique oil
soluble compounds are realized and dissolved in the oil along with CO2
and CO. These compounds belong to the Furfuraldehyde group. These
are some times called Furfural in short. Among all Furfurals compounds
2- Furfural is the most predominant. These Furfural family compound
can only be released from destructive heating of cellulose or paper.
Furfuraldehyde analysis is very sensitive as because damage of few
grams of paper is noticeable in the oil even of a very large size
transformer. It is a very significant diagnostic test. It is best test for
assessing life of transformer. The rate of rise of percentage of Furfurals
products in oil, with respect to time, is used for assessing the condition
and remaining life of paper insulation in power transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 72
Transformer Testing
For confirming the specifications and performances of an electrical power
transformer it has to go through numbers of testing procedures. Some
tests are done at manufacturer premises before delivering the
transformer. Mainly two types of transformer testing are done at
manufacturer premises- type test of transformer and routine test of
transformer. In addition to that some transformer tests are also
carried out at the consumer site before commissioning and also
periodically in regular & emergency basis through out its service life.
Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming the basic design
expectation of that transformer. These tests are done mainly in a
prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of
transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.
Routine Tests of Transformer
Routine tests of transformer are mainly for confirming operational
performance of individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are
carried out on every unit manufactured.
Introduction to Transformers 73
Special Tests of Transformer
Special tests of transformer are done as per customer requirement to
obtain information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of
the transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 74
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints
and gaskets.
That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except
temperature rise and vacuum tests. The oil pressure test on transformer
to check against leakages past joints and gaskets is included.
Special Tests of transformer include
1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase
transformers
3. Short-circuit test.
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level.
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchhloz
relay, temperature indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation
system etc.
Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement
Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate
the I2R losses and to calculate winding temperature at the end of a
temperature rise test. It is carried out as a type test as well as routine
test. It is also done at site to ensure healthiness of a transformer that is
to check loose connections, broken strands of conductor, high contact
resistance in tap changers, high voltage leads and bushings etc.
Introduction to Transformers 75
Transformer Ratio Test
The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of
specific turns or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ratio test is
an essential type test of transformer. This test also performed as
routine test of transformer. So for ensuring proper performance of
electrical power transformer, voltage and turn ratio test of transformer
one of the vital tests.
There are three limbs side by side in a core of transformer. One phase
winding is wound in one limb. The voltage induced in different phases
depends upon the respective position of the limb in the core. The voltage
induced in different phases of transformer in respect to neutral terminals
given in the following table.
Introduction to Transformers 76
Left side phase Central phase Right side phase
AN BN CN
1. First of all keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all IV
& LV terminals.
2. Then apply three phase 415 V supply on the line terminals for three
phase transformers and single phase 230 V supply on single phase
transformers.
3. Measure the supply voltage and current in each phase.
4. Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformertest with
keeping tap changer in normal position.
5. And repeat the test with keeping the tap at highest position.
Generally there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases
on transformer core and one lower reading on the centre limb phase, in
case of three phase transformers. An agreement to within 30% of the
measured exciting current with the previous test is usually considered
satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50 times higher
than the value measured during factory test, there is likelihood of a fault
in the winding which needs further analysis.
Introduction to Transformers 77
Vector Group Test of Transformer
In three phase transformer, it is essential to carry out a vector group test
of transformer. Proper vector grouping in a transformer is an essential
criteria for parallel operation of transformers.
Introduction to Transformers 78
Measurements are to be taken as follows: For auto transformer: HV-IV to
LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E. For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E,
LV to E. Three winding transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to
E, IV to E, LV to E. Oil temperature should be noted at the time of
insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the IR value of
transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be
recorded at intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the
duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in IR
is an indication of dryness of insulation. Absorption coefficient = 1 minute
value/ 15 secs. value. Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute
value.
Dielectric Tests of Transformer
Dielectric tests of transformer is one kind of insulation test. This test is
performed to ensure the expected over all insulation strength of
transformer. There are several test performed to ensure the required
quality of transformer insulation, dielectric test is one of them. Dielectric
tests of transformer is performed in two different steps, first one called
Separate source voltage withstand test of transformer, where a single
phase power frequency voltage of prescribed level, is applied on
transformer winding under test for 60 seconds while the other windings
and tank are connected to the earth and it is observed that whether any
failure of insulation occurs or not during the test. Second one is induced
voltage test of Transformer where, three phase voltage, twice of rated
secondary voltage is applied to the secondary winding for 60 second by
keeping the primary of the transformer open circuited. The frequency of
the applied voltage should be double of power frequency too. Here also if
no failure of insulation, the test is successful. In addition to dielectric
tests of transformer there are other type test for checking insulation of
transformer, such as lightning impulse test, switching impulse test and
partial discharge test.
Induced Voltage Test of Transformer
The induced voltage test of transformer is intended to check the inter
turn and line end insulation as well as main insulation to earth and
between windings:
1. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.
Introduction to Transformers 79
2. Apply three phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied
voltage should be twice of rated voltage of secondary winding in
magnitude and frequency.
3. The duration of the test shall be 60 second.
4. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage,
and it shall be quickly increased up to desired value.
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during
test.
Temperature Rise Test of Transformer
Temperature rise test of transformer is included in type test of
transformer. In this test we check whether the temperature rising limit
of the transformer winding and oil as per specification or not. In this type
test of transformer, we have to check oil temperature rise as well as
winding temperature rise limits of an electrical transformer.
Introduction to Transformers 80
pairs of line terminals. As in delta connection the resistance of individual
winding can not be measured separately, the resistance per winding shall
be calculated as per the following formula:
Caution for voltmeter ammeter method: Current shall not exceed 15% of
the rated current of the winding. Large values may cause inaccuracy by
heating the winding and thereby changing its temperature and
resistance.
NB: - Measurement of winding resistance of transformer shall be carried out at each tap.
Introduction to Transformers 81
current is injected to the winding and corresponding voltage drop across
the winding is measured.
Introduction to Transformers 82
1. For star connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase
would be half of measured resistance between two line terminals of
the transformer.
2. For delta connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase
would be 0.67 times of measured resistance between two line
terminals of the transformer.
3. This current voltage method of measurement of winding
resistance of transformer should be repeated for each pair of line
terminals of winding at every tap position.
Introduction to Transformers 83
whereas for higher value Wheatstone bridge method of resistance
measurement is applied. In bridge method of measurement of winding
resistance, the errors is minimized.
Introduction to Transformers 84
Voltage and Turn Ratio Test of Transformer
The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of
specific turns or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ration
test is an essential type test of transformer. The voltage should be
applied only in the high voltage winding in order to avoid unsafe voltage.
Introduction to Transformers 85
This theoretical turn ratio is adjusted on the transformer turn ratio tested
or TTR by the adjustable transformer as shown in the figure above and it
should be changed until a balance occurs in the percentage error
indicator. The reading on this indicator implies the deviaton of measured
turn ratio from expected turn ratio in percentage.
Introduction to Transformers 86
Vector Group Test of Power
Transformer
Vector Group Test of Transformer
The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful
parallel operation of transformers. Hence every electrical power
transformer must undergo through vector group test of transformer
at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector group of
transformer. The phase sequence or the order in which the phases
reach their maximum positive voltages, must be identical for two
paralleled transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each pair of phases
will be short circuited. The several secondary connections are available in
respect of various primary three phase connection in a the three phase
transformer. So for same primary applied three phase voltage there may
be different three phase secondary voltages with various magnitudes and
phases for different internal connection of the transformer. Let's have a
discussion in detail by example for better understanding.
We know that, the primary and secondary coils on any one limb have
induced emfs that are in time-phase. Let's consider two transformers of
same number primary turns and the primary windings are connected in
star. The secondary number of turns per phase in both transformers are
also same. But the first transformer has star connected secondary and
other transformer has delta connected secondary. If same voltages are
applied in primary of both transformers, the secondary induced emf in
each phase will be in same time-phase with that of respective primary
phase, as because the the primary and secondary coils of same phase
are wound on the same limb in the core of transformer. In first
transformer, as the secondary is star connected, the secondary line
voltage is 3 times of induced voltage per secondary phase coil. But in
case of second transformer, where secondary is delta connected, the line
voltage is equal to induced voltage per secondary phase coil. If we go
through the vector diagram of secondary line voltages of both
transformer, we will easily find that there will be a clear 30o angular
difference between the line voltages of these transformers. Now, if we try
to run these transformers in parallel then there will be a circulating
Introduction to Transformers 87
current flows between the transformers as because there is a phase
angle difference between their secondary line voltages. This phase
difference can not be compensated. Thus two sets of connections giving
secondary voltages with a phase displacement can not be intended for
parallel operation of transformers.
The following table gives the connections for which from the view point of
phase sequence and angular divergences, transformer can be operated
parallel. According to their vector relation, all three phase transformers
are divided into different vector group of transformer. All electrical
power transformers of a particular vector group can easily be operated in
parallel if they fulfill other condition for parallel operation of transformers.
GROUP Connection Connection
Yy0 Dd0
0
(0o)
Yd1 Dy1
1
( 30o)
Introduction to Transformers 88
Yy6 Dd6
6
( 180o)
Yd11 Dy11
11
( - 30o)
Introduction to Transformers 89
Procedure of Vector Group Test of Transformer
For YNd11 transformer, we will find, 2U-1N > 2V-1N > 2W-1N 2V-1W >
2V-1V or 2W-1W . The vector group test of transformer for other
group can also be done in similar way.
Introduction to Transformers 90
applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac,
applied voltage gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading
equal to the rated voltage of the LV side. After reaching at rated LV side
voltage, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter readings) are recorded.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current Ie. As no load current Ie is
quite small compared to rated current of the transformer, the voltage
drops due to this current that can be taken as negligible. Since,
voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to secondary induced
voltage of the transformer, the input power during test is indicated by
watt-meter reading. As the transformer is open circuited, there is no
output, hence the input power here consists of core losses in transformer
and copper loss in transformer during no load condition. But as said
earlier, the no load current in the transformer is quite small compared to
full load current, so copper loss due to the small no load current can be
neglected. Hence, the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to core
losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Po.
Introduction to Transformers 91
These values are referred to the LV side of transformer as because the
test is conducted on LV side of transformer. These values could easily be
referred to HV side by multiplying these values with square of
transformation ratio.
Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on transformer is used
to determine core losses in transformer and parameters of shunt branch
of the equivalent circuit of transformer.
Short Circuit Test on Transformer
The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown
in the figure. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in
HV side of the transformer as shown. The voltage at rated frequency is
applied to that HV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of
variac applied voltage is slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading
equal to the rated current of the HV side. After reaching at rated current
of HV side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-
meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary
equivalent of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for full load
current in short circuit test on transformer is quite small compared to the
rated primary voltage of the transformer, the core losses in transformer
can be taken as negligible here.
Lets say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is
indicated by watt-meter reading. As the transformer is short circuited,
there is no output; hence the input power here consists of copper losses
in transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage in
the transformer and hence it is quite small compared to rated voltage, so
Introduction to Transformers 92
core loss due to the small applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the
wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to copper losses in transformer.
Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc. Where Re is equivalent
resistance of transformer. If, Ze is equivalent impedance of transformer.
Procedure
1. All three line terminals of the winding to be tested are connected
together.
2. Other winding terminals which are not under test and also tank of the
transformer should be connected to earth.
3. Then a single-phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately
sinusoidal is applied for 60 seconds to the terminals of the winding
under test.
Introduction to Transformers 93
4. The test shall be performed on all the windings one by one.
5. The test is successful if no break down in the dielectric of the
insulation occurs during test.
415V 1.1 KV 3 KV
11 KV 12 KV 28 KV
33 KV 36 KV 70 KV
Winding with graded insulation, which has neutral intended for direct earthing,
is tested at 38KV
Introduction to Transformers 94
Induced Voltage Test of Transformer
Introduction to Transformers 95
3. The voltage of such value is applied to the HV winding that power
input is equal to no load losses plus load losses corrected to a
reference temperature of 75C.
4. The total losses are measured by three watt-meters method.
5. During the test, hourly readings of top oil temperature are taken from
the thermometer already placed in the pocket of top cover.
6. Hourly readings of the thermometers placed at inlet and outlet of the
cooler bank are also noted to calculate the mean temperature of the
oil.
7. Ambient temperature is measured by means of thermometer placed
around the transformer at three or four points situated at a distance of
1 to 2 meter from and half-way up the cooling surface of the
transformer.
8. Temperature rise test for top oil of transformer should be continued
until the top oil temperature has reached an approximate steady value
that means testing would be continued until the temperature
increment of the top oil becomes less than 3C in one hour. This
steady value of top oil is determined as final temperature rise of
transformer insulating oil.
Introduction to Transformers 96
During temperature rise test for top oil of transformer we make the LV
winding short circuited and apply voltage to the HV winding. So for full
load rated current flows in the transformer, the supply voltage required
will much less than rated transformer voltage. We know that core loss of
a transformer depends upon voltage. So there will not be any
considerable core loss occurs in the transformer during test. But for
getting actual temperature rise of the oil in a transformer, we have to
compensate the lack of core losses by additional copper loss in the
transformer. For supplying this total losses, transformer draws current
from the source much more than its rated value for transformer.
Top Oil
When transformer is neither
sealed
45oC 50oC
nor equipped with conservator
tank
Introduction to Transformers 97
NB: These temperature rises limits mentioned in the above table are the
temperature rises above the temperature of cooling medium. That means
these are the difference between winding or oil temperature and
temperature of cooling air or water.
Winding Temperature Rise Test on Transformer
1. After completion of temperature rise test for top oil of transformer the
current is reduced to its rated value for transformer and is maintained
for one hour.
2. After one hour the supply is switch off and short circuit and supply
connection to the HV side and short circuit connection to the LV side
are opened.
3. But, the fans and pumps are kept running (if any).
Introduction to Transformers 98
For determining winding temperature rise we have to apply the above
discussed indirect method. That means hot winding resistance is
measured and determined first and then from that value we have to
calculate the winding temperature rise, by applying resistance
temperature relation formula. This is because unlike oil the winding of
transformer is not accessible for external temperature measurement.
Lightning Impulse
The lightning impulse is a pure natural phenomenon. So it is very difficult
to predict the actual wave shape of an lightning disturbance. From the
data compiled about natural lightning, it may be concluded that the
system disturbance due to natural lightning stroke, can be represented
by three basic wave shapes.
Full wave
Front of wave
Although the actual lightning impulse disturbance may not have exactly
these three shapes but by defining these waves one can establish a
Introduction to Transformers 99
minimum impulse dielectric strength of a transformer. If lighting
disturbance travels some distance along the transmission line before it
reaches the transformer, its wave shape may approach to full wave. If
during traveling, if flash-over occurs at any insulator of the transmission
line, after the peak of the wave has been reached, the wave may become
in form of chopped wave. If the lightning stroke directly hits the
transformer terminals, the impulse voltage rises rapidly until it is relieved
by a flash over. At the instant of flash - over the voltage suddenly
collapses and may form the front of wave shape. The effect of these
wave forms on the transformer insulation may be different from each
other. We are not going here in detail discussion of what type of impulse
voltage wave forms causes what type of failure in transformer. But
whatever may be the shape of lightning disturbance voltage wave, all of
them can cause insulation failure in transformer. So lighting impulse
test of transformer is one of the most important type tests of
transformer.
Switching Impulse
Through studies and observations reveal that the switching over voltage
or switching impulse may have front time of several hundred
microseconds and this voltage may be periodically damped out. The IEC -
600060 has adopted for their switching impulse test, a long wave having
front time 250 s and time to half value 2500 s with tolerances. The
purpose of the impulse voltage test is to secure that the transformer
insulation withstand the lightning overvoltage which may occur in
service.
All the dielectric tests check the insulation level of the job. Impulse
generator is used to produce the specified voltage impulse wave of
1.2/50 micro seconds wave. One impulse of a reduced voltage between
50 to 75% of the full test voltage and subsequent three impulses at full
voltage. For a three phase transformer, impulse is carried out on all three
phases in succession. The voltage is applied on each of the line terminal
Transformer Maintenance
A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an
electrical transformer. So for getting high performance and long
functional life of the transformer, it is desired to perform various
maintenance activities. Not only that, a power transformer also requires
various maintenance actions including measurement and testing of
different parameters of the transformer. There are mainly two types of
maintenance of transformer. We perform one group is in routine
basis, and second group is as when required. That means for getting
smooth performance from a transformer we have to perform some
maintenance actions in regular basis.
The term 'theoretically' means some equipment may have very low or
zero resistance compared to their inductance and capacitance values
again, some equipments may have very low or zero inductance compared
to their resistance and capacitance and again some equipments may
have very low or zero capacitance compared to their resistance and
inductance but theoretically all of them can be considered as RLC circuit
although may be R = 0, or L = 0 or C = 0. But in most cases the
resistance, inductance and capacitance of an equipment have non zero
values. Hence most of the electrical equipments can be considered as
RLC circuit hence they response to the sweep frequencies and produce an
unique signature. As in a transformer each winding turn is separated
from other by paper insulation which acts as dielectric and windings
themselves have inductance and resistance, a transformer can be
considered as a complicated distributed network of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance or in other words a transformer is a
complicated RLC circuit.
LV Red to Yellow phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Blue phase are open
LV Yellow to Blue phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Red phase are open
LV Blue to Red phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Yellow phase are open
Commissioning of Power
Transformer
After installation of power transformer, several pre-commissioning tests
to be done before putting the transformer in service. Along with different
pre-commissioning tests, different instruments associated to the
transformer also to be checked.
The phase relationship test should also be carried out. The tap changer
should be undergone the following tests
Manual operation
Parallel operation
The operation should be checked from one end of the range to the
Megger.
History of Transformer
If we want to know the history of transformer we have go back long in
the 1880s. Around 50 years before that in 1830 property of induction
which is the working principle of transformer was discovered. Later the
transformer design was improved resulting in more efficiency and lesser
size. Gradually the large capacity of transformers in the range of several
KVA, MVA came into existence. In the year 1950, 400KV electrical
power transformer was introduced in high voltage electrical power
system. In the early 1970s, unit rating as large as 1100 MVA was
produced and 800KV and even higher KV class transformers were
manufactured in year of 1980.
Two winding transformers are generally used where ratio of high voltage
and low voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use auto
transformer where the ratio between high voltage and low voltage is less
than 2. Again a single unit three phase transformer is more cost effective
than a bank of three single phase transformers unit in a three phase
system. But a single three phase transformer unit is a bit difficult to
transport and have to be removed from service entirely if one of the
phase winding breaks down.
Types of Transformer
Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their
purpose, use, construction etc. The types of transformer are as
follows,
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length
and cross - sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is
proportional to its number of turns and cross - sectional area varies with
rated current. So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to
product of number of turns and rated current of the winding. Therefore,
weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,
N1I1 + N2I2
Let's assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and
two winding transformer respectively,
Auto transformer employs only single winding per phase as against two
distinctly separate windings in a conventional transformer.
4. Extra high voltage transformer & insulators testing 20 to 50 KVA 100 200 KV
Voltage Regulation
The surges on the high voltage side of the transformer should be
avoided. Also for accuracy of voltage measurement, the voltage
regulation of transformer should be smooth enough. Sudden variation of
voltage during test also to be avoided. A voltage regulator should not
distort the voltage wave form during testing. The output voltage of high
voltage transformer is regulated by changing input voltage to the primary
side.
The neutral point of the distribution transformer is projected from the tie
point of 3phase winding inside the transformer. In case of industrial
heavy three phase load, four wire system is directly delivered to the
consumer end, but in case of single phase light load, one phase and
neutral connection of the three phase distribution transformer, are
connected to the consumers energy meter.
A transformer has mainly two types of losses, these are, iron losses and
copper losses. Iron loss, which is also referred as core loss, consists of
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These two losses are constant
when the transformer is charged. That means the amount of these losses
does not depend upon the condition of secondary load of the transformer.
In all loading condition, these are fixed. But the copper loss which is also
referred as I2R loss entirely depends upon load I. A distribution
transformer cannot be run with constant load throughout 24 hours. At
day peak time its loading is high, whereas in night lean time its loading
may be negligible. So selecting a transformer depending upon its
conventional efficiency is not practical and economical, too. As a solution
of these problems, the concept of all day efficiency of distribution
transformer came into the picture. So this efficiency is same as the
efficiency of distribution transformer. In this concept, we use the
ratio of total energy delivered by the transformer to the total energy fed
to the transformer, during a 24 hrs span of time instead of ratio of power
output and input of the transformer. Hence, all day efficiency is
determined as, total KWh at the secondary to the total KWh at the
primary of the transformer for a long specific time period preferably 24
hrs. i.e,
Easy installation.
Environmentally friendly.
No fire hazard.
Inner-city substations
Generally copper and aluminum are used to make the winding or coil.
Though copper is better conductor, aluminum conductor wound
transformer possesses low cost and weight. For the same current rating,
copper conductor with less cross section is used as the winding material
in the transformer. Copper coil provides more mechanical strength than
aluminum coil.
Regulation
From the electrical equivalent circuit shown in the Fig.1, the electrical
circuit equation can be related as,
From most familiar basic electrical Ohms law in a bulk form, which states
that the Driving Current (I) through a conducting material is directly
proportional to the applied Driving Voltage (V) across the conducting
material, provided the operating temperature is constant. Therefore we
can equate the bulk Ohms Law to V = IR ........(iv) From the above,
OHM'S LAW at any particular point the space can be derived as below,
which is so called as Ohm's Law in Point Form.
From the Bulk Ohms Law i.e. V = IR, can be rewritten as,
As an analogy to the Conduction Ohms law at any point in the space from
the equation (v) , the Magnetic Ohms Law at any point in the space can
be equated as,
From above Inductance (L) as be defined as, Flux linkages per ampere
in a turn is called Inductance measured in henries (H).
Core Saturation and Air Gap
The general purpose toroid core inductor with an Air Gap of length Lg is
as shown in the Fig.7.
With the Air gap in circuit the equation-(ix) can be rewritten as,
From the Equation-10 its clear that Providing an Air Gap in the Core
makes the inductance to be independent of the Core Shape used, Core
Reluctance and Core effective Length. It only depends on the Air Gap
length and Area. So, the advantage by providing Air Gap can be
understood as following. The typical Flux linkages versus magnetizing
current graph for ideal case is as shown below in fig.8.
The core area (Ac=Ae) is taken from the data sheet magnetic
characteristics as shown in the below figure.
Where
Ac= Effective Core Area of the transformer where the actual
magnetic flux passes
Aw = Window Area, which provides the accommodation to primary
winding, secondary winding and a portion of it to the insulation.
Deducing a relation for Ac (Core Area) and Aw (Window Area):
The high frequency transformers are also called Pulse transformer as the
input voltage wave form commonly applied to it is a pulse train as
depicted in the figure below. The flux waveform is also shown in it which
is integral of voltage waveform from the relation
From the above table we can conclude that ETD 49/25/16 is the
required core for our application.
Step 2: Deriving No. of Primary Turns and No. of Secondary (N1
and N2)
NOTE: The Core Area (Ac) Value is taken from the ETD/49/25/16 Core
Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also
used. Primary is connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore,
sometimes it also called series transformer. The secondary is having
large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an ammeter. As the
ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current
1 Connected in series with power circuit. Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.
3 Secondary works almost in short circuited Secondary works almost in open circuited
condition. condition.
4 Primary current depends on power circuit Primary current depends on secondary burden.
current.
5 Primary current and excitation vary over wide Primary current and excitation variation are
range with change of power circuit current restricted to a small range.
6 One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid One terminal of secondary can be earthed for
the insulation break down. Safety.
7 Secondary is never be open circuited. Secondary can be used in open circuit condition.
But in the case of protection, the CT may not have the accuracy level as
good as metering CT although it is desired not to be saturated during
high fault current passes through primary. So core of protection CT is so
Where
Is - Secondary current. I0 - Excitation current.
Es - Secondary induced emf. Im - Magnetizing component of I0.
Ip - Primary current. Iw - Core loss component of I0.
Ep - Primary induced emf. m - Main flux.
KT - Turns ratio = Numbers of
secondary turns/number of primary
turns.
For an ideal CT the angle between the primary and reversed secondary
current vector is zero. But for an actual CT there is always a difference in
phase between two due to the fact that primary current has to supply the
component of the exiting current. The angle between the above two
phases in termed as phase angle error in current transformer or CT.
Where
Is - Secondary current. Xp - Primary winding reactance.
Es - Secondary induced emf. KT - Turns ratio = Numbers of
Vs - Secondary terminal voltage. primary turns/number of secondary
Rs - Secondary winding resistance. turns.
Xs - Secondary winding reactance. I0 - Excitation current.
Ip - Primary current. Im - Magnetizing component of I0.
Ep - Primary induced emf. Iw - Core loss component of I0.
Vp - Primary terminal voltage. m - Main flux.
Rp - Primary winding resistance. - Phase angle error.
Another significance of ISF is during huge electrical fault, the short circuit
current, flows through primary of the CT does not affect destructively,
the measuring instrument attached to it as because, the secondary
current of the CT will not rise above the value of rated secondary current
multiplied by ISF.
As per IS As per BS
Ammeters 1 or 3 CD
Special Protection PS
This material is intended as a quick access to basic knowledge of transformers with no commercial implication. The content was compiled from this
website with minor editing