Intro to bioMedical Engineering

Pengantar Teknologi
Biomedik

Basari

27 Februari 2017
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Transducers
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Transducers
A transducer is necessary to convert one variable in to another
form

Used to measure physiological variables

Variable is a quantity that vary with time.

The term active and passive has different meaning when they
are applied to Transducers
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Transducers
Transducer can be classified in to two
Active Transducer
Known principles is used to convert variables in to electrical
signal
Passive Transducer
It involves control of an excitation voltage or modulation of
a carrier signal
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Principles used in Active Transducers

It can convert electrical signal in to physical variables and
also in reverse direction.

1. Magnetic Induction

2. Piezoelectric effect (e.g. Piezoelectric)

3. Thermoelectric effect (e.g. peltier Element)

4. Photoelectric effect (e.g. Phototransistor)

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Passive Transducers
Utilize the principles of controlling a DC excitation or an AC
carrier signal.

It consists of a passive circuit element which changes it value

as a function of physical variables to be measured.

It cannot convert electrical signal in to physical variables

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Principles used in Passive Transducers

Using Resistive element
1. Ordinary Potentiometer
a. Linear
b. Rotary
2. Strain gage
a. Un bonded
b. Bonded
c. Semiconductor strain gage
Using Inductive element
1. Variable reluctance Transducer
LVDT
Using Capacitive element
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Transducers for Biomedical field

Force transducer

Photoelectric displacement transducer

Pressure Transducers

Flow transducers

Transducers with digital O/P

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Transducers for Biomedical field

1. Resistive transducers - Muscle force and Stress (Strain
gauge), Spirometry (Potentiont), humidity, (Gamstrers),
Respiration (Thermistor)
2. Inductive Transducers - Flow measurements, muscle
movement (LVDT)
3. Capacitive Transducers - Heart sound measurement, Pulse
pick up
4. Photoelectric Transducers - Pulse transducers, Blood
pressure, oxygen Analyses
5. Piezoelectric Transducers - Pulse pickup, ultrasonic blood
flowmeter
6. Chemcial Transducer - Ag-Agfallas (Electrodes, PH electrode
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pH Electrode
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pH Electrode
This is a device for measuring the concentration of hydrogen

ions and hence the degree of acidity of a solution.

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration.
pH=7 means a concentration of 1x10-7 moles per litre.

The most essential component of a pH electrode is a special,

sensitive glass membrane which permits the passage of

hydrogen ions, but no other ionic species.
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pH Electrode
When the electrode is immersed in a test solution containing

hydrogen ions the external ions diffuse through the membrane

until an equilibrium is reached between the external and internal
concentrations.
Thus there is a build up of charge on the inside of the membrane

which is proportional to the number of hydrogen ions in the

external solution.
The potential difference developed across the membrane is in
fact directly proportional to the Logarithm of the ionic
concentration in the external solution.
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pH Electrode
The relationship between the ionic concentration (activity) and the

electrode potential is given by the Nernst equation:

E = E0 + (2.303RT/ nF) x Log(A)
Where
E = the total potential (in mV) developed between the sensing and reference electrodes.
E0 = is a constant which is characteristic of the particular ISE/reference pair.
(It is the sum of all the liquid junction potentials in the electrochemical cell, see later)
2.303 = the conversion factor from natural to base10 logarithm.
R = the Gas Constant (8.314 joules/degree/mole).
T = the Absolute Temperature.
n = the charge on the ion (with sign).
F = the Faraday Constant (96,500 coulombs).
Log(A) = the logarithm of the activity of the measured ion.

 AgCl Electrode

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 Ag-AgCl Electrode

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 Ag-AgCl Electrode
A silver chloride electrode is a type of reference electrode,
commonly used in electrochemical measurements.

The silver/silver chloride reference electrode is a widely used

reference electrode because it is simple, inexpensive, very stable
and non-toxic.

Typical laboratory electrodes use a silver wire that is coated with

a thin layer of silver chloride either by electroplating or by
dipping the wire in molten silver chloride.

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 Ag-AgCl Electrode
The electrode functions as a redox electrode and the reaction is
between the silver metal (Ag) and its salt silver chloride (AgCl, also
called silver(I) chloride).

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Biosensors
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Biomedical Sensors

CONTENTS
Biomedical Sensors Introduction

Physical Measurements:
- Description of Sensors
- Biomedical Applications of Physical Sensors
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Introduction

Sensors convert signals of one type of quantity such as

hydrostatic fluid pressure into an equivalent signal of
another type of quantity, for example, an electrical signal.

Biomedical sensors take signals representing

biomedical variables and convert them into what is usually
an electrical signal.

Biomedical sensor serves as the interface between a

biologic and an electronic system and must function in
such a way as to not adversely affect either of these
systems.
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Types of sensors

E.g. muscle displacement, blood pressure, core

body temperature, blood flow, cerebrospinal fluid
pressure, and bone growth

Measuring chemical quantities such as identifying the

presence of particular chemical compounds, detecting
the concentrations of various chemical species, and
monitoring chemical activities in the body for diagnostic
and therapeutic applications
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Sensors types how they are applied to the patient /
research subject

Biologic systems can affect sensor performance,

especially for indwelling and implanted sensors.
Biologic tissue represents a hostile environment which
can degrade sensor performance. Many corrosive ions,
body fluids contain enzymes that break down complex
molecules as a part of the bodys effort to rid itself of
foreign and toxic materials.
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Generic bioanalytical analyzer

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Physical Variables and Sensors

Physical variables associated with biomedical systems are measured by a

group of sensors known as physical sensors.
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Comparison of Displacement Sensors

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Displacement Sensors

Examples of displacement sensors: (a) variable resistance sensor, (b) foil strain
gauge, (c) linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), (d) parallel plate
capacitive sensor, and (e) ultrasonic transit time displacement sensor.
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Variable Resistance Sensor

The resistance between two terminals on this device is

related to the linear or angular displacement of a sliding
tap along a resistance element.
These devices can be connected in circuits that
measure such resistance as an ohmmeter or bridge, or
they can be used as a part of a circuit that provides a
voltage that is proportional to the displacement.
This sensor is simple and inexpensive and can be
used for measuring relatively large displacements.
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Strain Gauge (1)

Sensor based on an electrical resistance change.

If a long narrow electrical conductor such as a piece of

metal foil or a fine gauge wire is stretched within its
elastic limit, it will increase in length and decrease in
cross-sectional area.
where
: the electrical resistivity of the foil or wire
material,
l : its length, and
A : its cross-sectional area,

The relative sensitivity of this device is

given by its gauge factor, .

where, R is the change in resistance when the structure is

stretched by an amount l.
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Strain Gauge (2)

Strain gauges on a cantilever structure to provide temperature compensation:

(a) cross-sectional view of the cantilever and (b) placement of the strain gauges
in a half bridge or full bridge for temperature compensation and enhanced
sensitivity.
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Core
Inductance Sensors Coil

Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

The most frequently applied displacement transducer based upon

inductance.
Consist of three-coil variable reluctance transducer.
The two secondary coils are situated symmetrically about the
primary coil and connected such that the induced voltages in each
secondary oppose each other. When the core is located in the center
of the structure equidistant from each secondary coil, the voltage
induced in each secondary will be the same. Since these voltages
oppose one another, the output voltage from the device will be zero. As
the core is moved closer to one or the other secondary coils, the
voltages in each coil will no longer be equal, and there will be an
output voltage proportional to the displacement of the core from the
central, zero-voltage position. Because of the symmetry of the
structure, this voltage is linearly related to the core displacement.
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The magnetic core moves through the energized windings,

producing both a voltage and a phase
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Capacitive Sensors

Capacitance of a parallel plate:

where
is the dielectric constant of the medium between the plates,
D is the separation between the plates, and
A is the cross-sectional area of the plates

By moving one of the plates with respect to the other, the Eq.
shows us that the capacitance will vary inversely with respect to the
plate separation hyperbolic capacitance-displacement
characteristic.
If the plate separation is maintained at a constant value and the
plates are displaced laterally with respect to one another so that
the area of overlap changes, this can produce a capacitance-
displacement characteristic that can be linear, depending on the
shape of the actual plates.
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Sonic and Ultrasonic Sensors

If the velocity of sound in a medium is constant, the time it takes a short

burst of that sound energy to propagate from a source to a receiver will
be proportional to the displacement between the two transducers.

Displacement between the two transducers is given by:

where
c is the velocity of sound in the medium,
T is the transit time, and
d is the displacement
There is no physical connection

The electronic circuit used with this instrument carries out three functions: (1)
generation of the sonic or ultrasonic burst, (2) detection of the received
burst, and (3) measurement of the time of propagation of the
ultrasound.
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Velocity Measurement

Velocity is the time derivative of displacement, and so all the displacement

transducers can be used to measure velocity if their signals are processed by
passing them through a differentiator circuit.

Magnetic Induction

If a magnetic field that passes through a conducting coil varies with time, a
voltage is induced in that coil that is proportional to the time-varying magnetic
field.

where, v is the voltage induced in the coil,

N is the number of turns in the coil,
is the total magnetic flux passing through the coil (the product
of the flux density and area within the coil).
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How to apply the aforementioned principle

Attach a small permanent magnet to an object whose velocity is to be

determined, and attach a coil to a nearby structure that will serve as the reference
against which the velocity is to be measured.

A voltage will be induced in the coil whenever the structure containing the
permanent magnet moves, and this voltage will be related to the velocity of that
movement.

The exact relationship will be determined by the field distribution for the particular
magnet and the orientation of the magnet with respect to the coil.
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Doppler Ultrasound

When the receiver of a signal in the form of a wave such as electromagnetic

radiation or sound is moving at a nonzero velocity with respect to the emitter
of that wave, the frequency of the wave perceived by the receiver will be
different than the frequency of the transmitter Doppler Shift, given by:

where fd is the Doppler frequency shift,

f o is the frequency of the transmitted wave,
u is the relative velocity between the transmitter and receiver, and
c is the velocity of sound in the medium

Ultrasonic velocimeter
The frequency difference can then be converted into a signal proportional to
the relative velocity between the two transducers.
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Berikutnya silakan pelajari di Handbook of Biomedical
Engineering, Bronzino Vol 2.

Pelajari Bab V subbab 47 (Physical Measurement) dan 48 (Biopotential

Electrodes)