A

I
IEEE Turorial Course

APPLICATION OF
POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Coordinator: R.D. Garzon

SPonsored bY
IEEE Switchgear Committee
and
IEEE Power Engineering Education Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering SocietY
Abstrrcting is permiued with credit [o the source. Instructors are permitted to photocopy
isolated articles for noncommer-
cial classroom use without a fee. For copying, reprint, or republiiations permission,
o,rite to the IFFF Copyright Manager,
IFF'tr Service Crnter, 445 Hoes Lare, P.o. Box 1331, Piscataway,
NJ ossss-ts:t. Ail rights reserved. printed in tlrc
USA. Copyright @ 1993 by The Instinrte of Electrical and Elecronics Engineers, Inc.

mFF Caalog Number: 93EH0 388-9pWR

ISBN Softbound: G7803-9854

Additional copies of this publication are available from

IFFF $6pi69 Center

zl45 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 088544150
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paqe

R.D.Garzon v
FOREWORD,

HISTORY OF CIRCUIT BREAKER STANDARDS' G.N. Lester 1

REVIEW OF INTERRUPTING MEDIUMS, . .. ' ' R.D. Garzon 16

APPLICATION CONSIDERATION OF
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRE}iE,
A-K. McCabe 26

CIRCUIT BREAIGR TRANSIEI\II

RECOVERY VOLTAGES, ... S.R. LAMbCTT 32

OVERLOAD CI,RREI\ITT RATINGS, ... D.L. SWiNdICT 38

APPLICATION OF POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS FOR 43

CAPACITIVEAI{IDSMALLIIilDUCTIVECI]RRE}ITS,J.H.Brunke
INSULAT]ON COORDINAT]ON, C'L' Wagner' R'A' York 58

HIGH PO},IER TEST PROCEDURES FOR HIGH POWER

74
CIRCUIT BREAKERS, --- ' I'T' Szlkkanen
SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS, .. A.iI. MOINAT, W. FTEEMAN B6
 FOREWORD

APPLICATION OF POWER CIRCUIT BREAKERS

over the years circuit breakers and the Industry standards they are
governed by h";;-;h.rrqea in order to accommodate new or improved
circuitbreakertechnologiesandsystemapplications.This
evolution p.o."== is rir<eri-io cottt-it',i as new technologies
and
systemsneedsarise,for=,=*ldesignengineersthenitbecomes
vitaltobewellinformedofthesechangesinStandardsand apply this
Technology, in order to be able to properly select and
equipment.
we feel that a historical review of the standards evolution will newbe
welcome by those engineers iaced with t.he problem of speci-fying
circuitbreakers"intendedLoreplaceequipmentthatwasbelieve t'hat'
manufactured in accordance to oia.t standards ' We also
anunderstandingoftodaymostCommontypeofcircuitbreakersand
consi*d-erations wiIl provide the
a review of ;;pi;"i-"ppfi"-"ti"" and application of High
necessary gruiaJrice for ihe n';";;
-I; ifr" intent of this tutorial to
"-.f".t:-"n
power Circuit Breakers . I't to facilitate
accomplish this qoa1, to provide the necessary tool
the selection Process '
-ahi=time limitations andwe its consequent
We also recogf T\LZ.. the existing hope that it
timitation on the scope of tutorial ' However'
*"V form the basis for future studies '
TheContributionoftheauthorsofthesevera}sectionsare ield on
experts not only in the f circuit
qratefulf, ,.1.L*ledged, t-h.y are fields of
which they have written b;i also ir. .Llrt"d and alt of them hrave made
breaker desiqn, ratings ""a-"pJiication,
- i;-;h; writ'ing of the SLandards f or
signif icant contributiorrs
Circuit Breakers.
 HISTORY OF CIRCUIT BREAKER STANDARDS

George N. I-,ester, Fellow,IEEE

Boston Edison
Boston, Massachusetts

By 1910 some breakers were being built as single

ABSTRACT
tank per phase units. Circuit breakers had thus far
This chapter is essentially the complete text of the
bee, assigned voltage and continuous current ratings
but generilly no interrupting kVA or interruptiug time
first chapter of the original IEEE Tutorial.Course Text
classification.
"Appticaiion of Power Circuit Breakers" with up-dating
in sections on circuit breaker standardization activities'
It traces the evolution of standards for alternating The AIEE (American lnstitute of Electrical

currenthigh voltage circuit breakers in the United Engineers), now IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers) formed its first committee on
States from approximately 1900 to 1993' It reviews
differences io iutirrg principles and application methods
standardizatio, "... i, recognition of the importance of
standardization in the electrical field"' The first report
in the original "total current" and the presently used
on Standardization Rules of the AIEE was adopted in
symmetriJal current" basis of rating standards and
outlines some of the new areas of circuit breaker
1899.

stanclardization under development in industry

committees.

INTRODUCTION

Standards for ratings, performance and testing of

alternating current high voltage circuit breakers have
evolved in the United States over a long period of time,
reflecting the practices and needs of the electric power
iudustry." Development of these standards, from the
beginning to those effective today have generally
puLU*t"A the growth of electric power systems from
ih"i. o*o begiooiog to the inter-connected networks of
today. l,tany individuals, through many organizations,
have contributecl to the development of circuit breaker
stzLndards. It is the purpose of this chapter to trace
the
history of circuit breaker standards, to discuss some of
the areas of clifferences in the "Total Current" and
"symmetrical Current" basis of rating standards'
principally with respect to interrupting basis, and to
outfinl slme of the newer areas of circuit breaker
Figure 1. An early oil circuit breaker design
standards technology recently issued, now being
initallecl in 1898 at the Boston Electric Light
finalized, or uncler consideration in industry committees
CompanY.
for future adoPtion.

HISTORY
Through subsequent revisions of the original
Activities towarcl development of standards for report, and expansion of the committee in succeeding
years (to the AIEE Standards Committee in 1906),
ratings and performance of circuit breakers began
ihese standarclization rules covered various aspects of
princlpafly wiih experience gained in tests made on
definitions, rating and performance of many types of
po*"i ,y.t"*.. An early installation of an oil circuit
electrical equiPment.
t."uk". i., the United States was in 1898 at the L Street
Station of the Boston Electric Light Co' (now Boston
These standarclization rules were published almost
Edison Co.)' This breaker shown in Figure 1, was
yearly as a single volume urfill 79ZZ when a program
manually operated and had upward-breaking contacts
*rs; b"gun to pub[sn standards for various apparatus in
in an open oil tank mounted on a panel, as were maoy
inclividual format. AIEE Standard No' 19 initially
breakers of that time and in succeeding years'
 covered C)il Circuit Breakers and later coverecl more
generally Altcrnating Current power Circuit Breakers
[2,3, 41.
The content of AIEE Standard No. 19 originated
principally with the Subcommittee on Oil Circuit
Breakers and Switches of the AIEE protective Devices
Clommittee and with other groups which will be
mentioned.
Rcvisions of this standard through the years, along
with corresponding standards primarily from th;
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA), and the Association of Edison Illuminating
Companies (AEIC), fonned thc basis for the firsi
publication of an American Standard, by the American
Standard Association (ASA), for AC power Clircuit
Breakers. Initially published for trial use in i941, it was
revised and published officially in 194-5. The several
sections of the standard coverecl clefinitions ancl ratings,
preferred ratings (sizes), and test procedures among
others, and had the now-familiar number series C37_4
through C37.9. Revision of these sections in 19-53 and
addition of C31 .12 Guide Specification, resultecl in the
19-53 series of American Standards which were
periodically reaffirmed and remained in effect for some
"sizes" (i.e. ratings) of circuit breakers for many years
until this standard series was replaced. This 1953 series
of standards was the final publication of a standard
based on what has come to be known as the ',total_
current basis of rating".
- manufacturer, Condit Electrical Manufacturing Corp.
During the years following the initial use of oil
circuit breakers, several other organizations were
interested in equipment standardization in adclition tcr
the AIEE. Among these were several manufacturers,
trade associations and the National Electric Light
Association (NELA). The Electric power Club,
originally forrned in 1908, was one of the tracle
associations which became active in stanclarcls work,
though the first manufacturers, association actually
began in 190-5.
A number of papers were presentecl to the AIEE
on the subject of rating and testing of circuit breakers,
by both user and manufacturer authors
[6], generating
much discussion of standardization.
In
1919 the Electric power Club acloptecl an
interrupting capability rating basis for circuit breakers
as a given rms current at normal voltage, to be
interrupted two times with a 2-minute intervil between
operations. No limitation was imposecl on oil or flame
discharge from the breaker as long as it completed the
required interruptions.
AIEE Standards at the time defined temperature
rise limits on contacts and 60 Hz dielectric test levels on
equipment. The 60 Hz dry test was 2.2-5 times rated
voltage plus 2000 volts applied for 1 rninute.
Additionally there was 10-second wet test for outcloor
equipment at 2 times rated voltage plus 1000 volts.
Discussion continued on interrupting perforrnance
and circuit breaker condition after interrupting its
required duty. In 1924 the Electric power Club
adopted a standard prohibiting ,'flame_throwing,, and
defining conditions required of a circuit breaker after
operations. It would be requirecl to be in ,'substantiallv
the same mechanical condition,', ancl able to ,,carry
rated voltage" but it was recognized that ,,tlrc
interrupting ability might be materiaily reclucecl,, and it
m-ight require "inspection and, if necessary, repairs,
The [7].
CLOSE-OPEN-2-minure-CLOSE_OpEN auty
cycle was still in effect and basically there was no
prohibition on oil-throwing.
In 1925, with the recommenclations of NELA,
AIEE and the Electric power Cllub, the AIEE Stanclarcl
No. 19 was revised to include in general, the clefinitions
and requirements listed above.
ln 1926 the Elcctric power Club rnergecl with the
Associated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies to
form the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) wirh one of irs stated objectives bcing ,to
promote the standardization of electrical apparatus ancl
supplies" [5].
As a point of interest, Figure 2 shows a table of
outdoor oil circuit breakers offerecl in 1926 by one
(later Allis-Chalmers, Boston plant) I9l. These
breakers had interrupting times of 12 to 20 iycles. It is
significant to note the wide range of interrupting
current.ratings po.ssible on a given breaker aepenaing
on application voltage, and the fact that the interrupting
kVA (voltage x current x ,/:; is actually higher at
the
lower voltage in many cases. This was a rating method
on what was called a "hump', curve. It actually imposed
a more severe relative duty on a breaker at the lower
voltages and the practice was generally eliminatecl in
the period 1923-1930, in favor of a ',straight_line,, or
constant kVA method over a given range of voltage, a
method followed for many years, though with
substantiallly narrower voltage range. Later issues of
these tables included kVA interrupting ratings.
Standards development continuecl with lnore
testing and experience on the part of manufacturers and
users, as electric systems grew in size and complexity.
Requirements for faster interrupting time capability lecl
to S-cycle breakers in the 1930,s. This was folowecl in
the 40's, 50's, and 60's by interrupting time ratings of
5 cycles, 3 cycles, and 2 cycles as requirements grew for
faster fault disconnection times to protect system
stability, transmission lines and connectecl equipment.
 In the standard operating duty cycle time
1934
interval was reduced from 2 minutes to 15 seconds'
Insulation capability requirements of circuit
Requirements became more strict regarding oil-throw breakers were incieased by the adoption of impulse
withstand test levels, the familiar 1'-5 x 40 microsecond
du.iog interruption and in 1938 a clause was added to
wave (later revised to 1.2 x 50).
AIEE Std. N;. 19 prohibiting the emission of any
"appreciable quantitY of oil".

P"hhntinn No- 1@4'2 B@N, ldBs.

c,NDrt mrc^L ME. C()tflrFx,

OIL FIRST AMERICAN STANDARD PUBLISHED

INTERRUPTING CAPACITIES CONDIT
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
FOR OUTDOOR SERVICE
Circuit breaker standards of both AIEE and
Pe NEMA continued to be refined and expanded' In order
lnbmpfi.a B x. s. br'tvEtu Bu
to attempt to standardize on preferred "circuit breaker
u,om l reooo zs'ooo
voklvdklVolB rati.gS" or "sizes", a "joint" committee of representatives
@ 20,M 3B00 Z,ffi: l.d of f+eMA, AEIC (Association of Edison llluminating
Companies) ancl EEI (Edison Electric Institute)
I

G1 | 26,m 6e $,m 3,9m 2Bm 1,1m

I
o-1 I 16,m tm 40,000 3Bm zpoo
a series of circuit breaker sizes as
I I

D-164 I 4,0m {00 20,000 7,m osoo

L

I
8rm ,,* recommended
Preferred Standard Ratings. Some sizes were
|
I

& 20,0m 11,1@ ts,8m 1,700 {,?m

Eo4oAl 37,ooo I

suggested for future development and some for

s0 17,llt) 13,8OO 7]70o r,?00
Fo{oAl 37,ooo 80,0m I

800 10,0m 17,4m 1Ar00 13N a,?m

deletion. These recommendations formed the basis of

{,080 3,{?0
FHoAI Eo,ooo a00 zo,0m 17300 1{,m 8p00 5,050
a,@ 6,05S {,081) 8,170
17,8m 14,ffi0
roroel 600 30,0o0

the lust publication by ASA of American Standard

ro.ooo {,ffio
$0 r0,000 17r00 1{,OS t,ff)o 60s E,l?0
Fo-4o^l 60,000
{,600 3,860
9,ffi
C37.6il941 Preferred Ratings for Power Circuit
1a,r0o 6,51X)
Foio^l ?t.ooo {0) 20,000
8,860
600 s,0m rrloo I 8,600 5,6m 1,500

Breakers. Issued for trial use in 194L, it was later

I
8,m
FO{B I g?.m {00 m900 20.000 20,otr 12,800
p,Gm 8,M
6m s,0m x,m n,7fi
m &,00o m,m n,7N D,m 8,m0
?,m 6,m issued as an approved American Standard in 194-5 along
9,m
with other C37 sections dealing with aspects of rating,
{00 20,0m 20,m0 m,ooo , 13,il)o
29lm frm 0,m 7,m 6,@
FO{oB I il,m 6m 30r00 zs2oo
?,m 6po0
4,m zzpo', 13/$O
testing and application of circuit breakers, all of which
29rm 9,000
FO{BIS.m 800
{00 m,000 20,m 14,ofi orm tw 6,{m

were based on established standards of the AIEE,

80,000 2s300 1{,000 0,100 7,600 6a5o
600 I
l

FO4oC I gI.m
rum I az,ooo
,a00

6{n
lm,m
I 3o-ooo
20,000
30000
20,@o
30,000
19,100
19,{0o
12,000
12,off) NEMA and AEIC. The C37 section on preferred
l*,*
,
{0,m 19,@
ratings has been revised through the years since 1945 as
800 s1,00 u,0o0
FO-&C I 37,0m
20,0m 20,000 20,000 20,000 12,?00 8,700
Fo-lllc | 50,000 {00
needid to reflect changing requirements for different
I i
tz?0o
qx) I Bo,ooo 80,000 so,ooo 20Jm 8,700
Fo-aoc I 60,000 I

o0 I roooo r0,000 s6,uoo 20J00 8,7t0 &700

voltage, interrupting, etc' ratings. The FEI-AEIC-
FO-a0c I Serm I

100 ,p* 20,000 16,m

NEMA Joint Committee on Power Circuit Breakers
I
6m t0,000 26lq) 16,000

{,ooo : 25,{oo 16,m

(informally called the Triple Joint Committee)
FO-loDl 87,000 800
Fo{DIa,m lm 20,m I m,o{n 1?,500 12,0d)

iunctioned for many years as the source of these

ffi I s,000 2r,6S t?5m u,0m
800 lo,m 21,600 1?,500
f,lm
12,ofi
ltpm
&
m
| 20,m, 20,m
I 80,m0 ' z8,m 18J6 13,000 preferred rating recommendations. The preferred
iatings of C37.6 were grouped into four Tables,
Eshd 6E I[t mptins B.lt.S. AhFE.t V$ioe BE Pt@ 1. Indoor Oil Breakers; 2. Indoor Oilless
Type
se,ooo lrro,ooo lt?,urc ;220,000
"ou"iiog,
Breakers; Outdoor Oil Breakers; 4. Outdoor Oilless
3.
Volt8 Mpf, Cap*ity v6lk I Yolta Volu I Yolts
Voltr I VolE
Breakers.
BO-80 !10,000 {01) 20,000 un,I u,,
600 20,1)0o 6,680 6150
BO40 110,(mo
I 6,{m 1953 AMERICAN STANDARD
B0-60 132,0{x} r0,0 20,000 8pq) | 6550 I

BO$0 132,000 600 20p00 8p0o I 61660 6,180 I

B0-60 1#,000 400

6fi)
20,000
a)poo
,*
er00
| ,n* 7,860
.,u* | us*
6,550 I 6,660
i
During 1952 and 1953, revisions and additions to
BO40 15a,000
II 9roo ,,*
BO-@ 181,000 400 20poo I unro
|
,,a*
6,.00
I
the 1945 American Stardard were published' These
B0-60 187,r)00

no,0oo
600

{&)
20,m0

20,000
I"* ?660
a,r, |
6,6?0

,* erso
I

I o'zm standards, basically unchanged, were reaffirmed

periodically and remained ln effect for some circuit
BO4()
BO-6i) na,oN 6{m 20,1x)0
I
8JE0 I ?,600 6J80
I spto
treaker ratings into the 1970's (see for example C31'6-
Figure 2. Condit Electrical Mfg. Co', part of lg'77). At the time of publication this group of
caialog table of oil circuit breaker sizes offered standards included:
n 1926.
C37.4-7953 AC Power Circuit Breakers(included
definitions, rating basis, and some test
requirements)
The practice grew of automatic reclosing of
breakers ifter tripping. Standard reclosing time
requirements were tentatively adopted at 30-45 cycles' a C37.5-1953 Methods for Determining the rms
Value of a Sinusoidal Current Wave
value just about the limit of the available solenoid
and Normal-FrequencY RecoverY
op".utiog mechanisms. Shorter reclosing times, down
Voltage, and for SimPlified
to ZO cyctes, became a requirement and a practical
Calculation of Fault Currents'
physical possibility with the development of pneumatic
operating mechanisms.
 C37.6-1953 Schedules of Preferred Ratings for
Power Circuit Breakers. Max Design KV
Rated KV

C31 .7-1952 Interrupting Rating Factors for

Reclosing Service.

C31.8-1952 Rated Control Voltages and their I'lin imum KV

Ranges. For Rated
KVA
C31 .9-1953 Test Code for power Circuit Breakers.

L:37 .12-1952 Guide Specifi cations for Alternating

Curent power Circuit Breakers.

r,t:ilistr"e
Current
Til:Iffir.,"n
Current'
The next issue of C37.6 was in 1955. A portion of
Table 3 of this issue, covering Outdoor Oil Circuit
Breakers, is reproduced in Figure 3. The rating Figure 4. Circuit breaker application voltage ancl
quantities listed included application voltage, clielectrii interrupting current relationship for constant MVA
test levels, continuous and short-time through-currents, between Maximum Design Voltage ancl Minimum
interrupting curents and MVA as well as interrupting kV for Rated MVA under 1953 (Total Current)
time. Rated kV was the normal system line-to-lini basis of rating.
application voltage, with "amperes at rated voltage', the
interrupting rating at that voltage. A voltage spreacl
was defined over which the interrupting MVA was
constant" These relations are shown in Figure 4. The
value of Maximum Design Voltage was approximately
5Vo over Rated Voltage to allow for expected periods of
system operation at higher than normal rated voltage.

Rct. U, S, Pa. O0. Table 3. Outdoor Power Circuit Breakerer

c37.&1955
Revisioo of Volts& n.tiagr Iuulatioa Itvol CunaDt Ratiatt in Amporer Intarrupting Rutin3r
c37.6- r953
Witbrtrrd Tcet Shorr Timc
uDc 62r.3r6.57
Ampcrcr Timc
Ma: Mia Ev Iaw ImpuLc 3-Phuc et Ratad i!
Linc nat d Dcigu ForRetrd Frcqucncy Crt 60 Cvclcr Mmon- 4 Ratad Yoltarc Mu Cycla
No. Kv (2) Kv (2) Iul Mvr Rru-Kt Kv (3) (4) tary Smnd Mve (s) Ampcu (6)
I 7.2 2.3 26 75 600 20,000 12,500 50 4,000 12,500 8
t7 @ 72.5 @ l@ 350 600 r6,@0 9,600 1,O00 8,4{X) 9,600 I
l8 69 72.5 60 t60 350 rpoo 23,000 14,500 1,500 12,6(X) 14,500 I
l9 69 72.5 @ 160 350 r200 38,000 24,000 2,500 21,000 24,000 8
20 69 72.5 6 l@ 350 2,0(x) 49,000 31,000 3,500 29,ooo 31,m0 8
2t
4,,
l15 12l r05 2@ 550 800 13,500 8,300 1,500 7,5(x) 8300 5
l15 12l t05 2& 550 rp00 3l,(x)o 19,300 3,500 l?,500 19J00 5
23 l15 12l rt0 260 550 1,200 39,000 26,000 5,000 25,@0 26,(x)0 3
24 138 l1t5 120 3t0 650 rJ00 27,000 17,000 3,500 r4,700 17,m0 i
25 138 1,15 120 310 650 1,200 36,000 24,000 5,000 21,000 24,O00 3
26 r38 145 132 310 650 1,6fi) 66,000 44,000 10,000 42,000 44,000 3
27 16r r69 150 365 750 1,200 29,000 19.300 5,000 I8,000 19,300 3
28 t6l L69 154 365 ?50 1.600 57,000 38-000 r0.000 36.000 38.000 3
29 230(7) 242(7" 220 425(7) 900(7) 1,200 19,500 13,fix) 5,000 12,500 13,fi)o 3
30 230(7) 242(7" 220 42s(7) 900(7) 1,600 39,000 26,0(x) 10,000 2s,000 26,000 3
3l 230(7) 242(7" 220 425(7) 900(7) 1,600 58,500 39.000 15,000 37,500 39,O00 3
32 287.5(?) 302(7', 275 48s(7) r,050(7) 1,600 4?,000 31,500 15,000 30,000 3l.ii00 3
33 330(7) 3so(71 315 sss(7) l.u5(7) 1.600 69.000 116,000 25.000 ,14.000 45,000 3

Figure 3. Preferred ratings for outdoor power circuit breakers

(part of Table 3) from American Standard C37.6-1955.
 60Hz CURRENT WAVES
Aside from the requirements for completing a

certain number of closing and opening (CLOSE-OPEN

or CO) operations at specified current conditions, the
main criteria of the basis of the interrupting rating of a
breaker was the highest current to be interrupted at the
specified operating voltage' Paragraph 4-6'11, Rated
Interrupting Current, of C31 .4-L953, identified this
current as "...the rms value, including the dc component,
at the instant of contact separation as determined from
(o) svNuerntcal
the envelope of the curent wave."
4c (e)
When a short circuit occurs in a power system (or
when any resistance-inductance circuit is energized with
an ac voltage), the current that flows will consist of two
components: a steady state component as determined
by the voltage and the impedance (R + jX), of the
circuit, and a dc transient component whose initial
value and rate of decay are determined by the point on
the voltage wave when the short circuit occurs and the
relative amount of resistance and inductance in the
circuit, usually expressed in terms of the ratio X/R' (In
a power system there can also be an ac transient
cuirent depending on machine characteristics and Figure 5. Single phase short circuit current waves:

electrical proximity of the fault to sources of (a) Symmetrical

generation. This ac decrement is not considered here
but will be mentioned later.)
Figureshows single phase short circuit currents:
-5
(a) symmetrical, and (b) asymmetrical' The
iymmetrical current resulted from fault initiation at a
time close to voltage crest, and the asymmetrical
current from fault initiation at a time close to voltage
zero. The asymmetry can, of course, occur to any
degree in between (a) and (b). In Figure 5b the
asymmetrical current is shown with an initial
asymmetry, or dc component' of 100Vo. lt is completely
ofiset with the initial dc component equal to the crest of
the ac, or symmetrical, current. At any point, the Total
rms, or Total Current can be expressed as the rms value
of the ac ald dc components of current:
Total rms Current = system decrement characteristics and circuit breaker
This is the current referred to above h C37.4-6'11-7953'
The current at contact separation could be
asymmetrical or syrnmetrical depending on when (on
thl voltage wave) the fault occured, and on when the
contacts parted (regardless of initial asymmetry)'
(b) Asymmetrical
Total rms current at anY instant =
Under this standard, circuit breaker application
was made on the basis of the maximum total current
possible at contact separation, considering system X/R
and the time from fault initiation to contact separation
(relay time plus trip-to-contact-separation time) for the
breaker in question. A simplified application method
was available in C37.5-1953 which listed multiplying
factors for use with the symmetrical fault current, as
calculated for a particular system location, to derive an
equivalent total current to use in choosing a circuit
breaker rating, or size. These factors recognized typical
operating times, for a "general" application and for
application directly with generators. These factors (for
the general case) were:
Circuit Breaker Rated
Interrupting Time Multiplying
(60 Hz Basis) Factor

Since this standard based the interrupting rating on

the total current including dc component at the instant
8 cycle 1'0

of contact separatior, it became known as the "Total

Current Basis of Rating". 5 cYcle 1.1

3 cYcle 1.2

As an example, consider that in a 138 kV system

the maximum symmetrical fault current for a given
location was determined to be 30,000 amperes. For
application of a 3-cycle breaker with the procedure of
 C.31 .5-1953, this current would be multiplied by 1.2
giving 36,0004. This total rms value of current would
be used to determine the necessary breaker size in a
table such as Table 3, C37.6 (Figure 3) indicating the
use of the 138 kV, 10,000 MVA oil breaker.
C.31 .9-1953 Test Code outlined various tests,
particularly shortcircuit switching tests, to demonstrate
a breaker's capability. AIso defined were related
Design Tests and Production Tests.
SYMMETRICAL RATING STANDARD
In 19-51 the AIEE Switchgear Committee began an
investigation of developing a circuit breaker rating
method based on symmetrical interrupting currents.
This work was initiated to:
1" Simplify application where high speed relaying and
fast clearing circuit breakers are used.
2" Bring American standards into closer agreement
with accepted international standards (IEC-
International Electrotechnical Commission) to
avoid confusion on rating differences, and
3. Require that circuit breakers be proven to
demonstrate a definite relationship between
asymmetrical interrupting capability and
symmetrical ratings [ 11].
A Working (iroup of the Power Circuit Breaker
(PCB) Subcommittee began consideration of this
assignment in 1952. The Working Group was expanded
in 19-5-5 to get wider representation of switchgear users
and manufacturers" During the course of work on the
new standard, reports of the proposals on the new
rating, testing and application methods were made
several times to the industry as a whole through
committee sponsored papers at AIEE meetings in L954,
1959, and 1960 Il2, 13, 14, 15, 161. Discussions of the
proposals as offered at the AIEE meetings were
considered by the Working Group and suggestions were
incorporated where practicable.
Many chalges and improvements were brought into
these proposals by the Working Group, the PCB
Subcommittee, and others during their preparation.
The principal change from the 1953 "Total Current"
standard was in the basis of rating. Paragraph -4.5.1 of
C31 .04-1964 defined Rated Short Circuit Current as
"...the highest value of the symmetrical component of
the short circuit current in rms amperes, measured
liom the envelope of the currenf wave at contact
separation, which the circuit breaker is required to
interrupt at rated maximum voltage..." for a specified
operating duty. (Note: This standard, as later
approved and published became known as the
"Symmetrical Basis of Rating Standard". To distinguish
it from the previous "Total Current Standard", since
both would be in effect for some time during a
transition period, its sections were numbered
respectively C37.A4, C3'1 .05, etc., since they were not
strictly replacements for C37.4, C37.5, etc.)
Other parts of C37.04 listed Related Required
Capabilities, as related to the breaker's s),rnmetrical
current interrupting rating. These included a required
interrupting curent capability inversely related to its
Rated Maximum Voltage (maximum Design Voltage
previously) by a Voltage Range Factor K to a
maximum current of K times Rated Short Circuit
Current as shown in Figure 6. Also included was a
required asymmetrical current interrupting capability to
a value determined by the breaker's operating
characteristics (trip-to-contact-separation, i.e., opening
time), certain minimum system decrement
Rated
l,lax lmum
Vo I taqe
V
(Current)x(Voltage)
Kr
n"l.a
Short
Cincult
Cu rrent
Figure 6. Application voltage and requirecl
symmetrical interrupting capability relationship for
circuit breakers'rated on symmetrical basis (C37.04-
1964). K = Voltage Range Factor. (See also Fig. f,
c31.04)
system decrement characteristics and an assumed
minimum practical relay time of 1f2 cycle. The
required asymmetrical interrupting capability (total rms
current) is related to the required s),rnmetrical
interrupting current by the ratio S. As defined in
paragraph A4-4.5.2.2 of C37.04-1964 and, shown ir
Figure 7, the asymmetry capability ratio S is, for a 3-
cycle breaker, for example, a minimum of 1.2 but coulcl
be higher if the breaker opening time was less than 1.5
cycles. The slope of the "curvo" shown in Figure 7
defines a typical system X/R ratio of approximately 16
to 17. Other necessary related capabilities are listed in
C37.04 also, such as required interrupting capability for
single-line- to-ground faults, short-time through-current
carrying capability and reclosing capability.
Performance requirements are established for short
circuit interruption, including service capability
(number of full rating interruptions) and breaker
condition after a presuibed duty.
 The sections identified; -
04a, - 06a, and -09a were
also issued h L964 as addenda to the particular section
involved. Respectively they described ratings, values,
and test p.o.Ld,r." for certain increased dielectric
requirements for a number of breaker sizes' In
uddition to full wave impulse withstand tests, outdoor
breakers are requirecl to withstand a series of chopped
impulse waves up to L29Va of rated BIL (Basic lmpulse
Level), ancl outdoor breakers L21 kV and above are
E
E

also io be subjected, without damage, to a full wave

o.s t.o 1.5 2.0 2.5
Ci.cult B.eat$ Opening Tirc'Cvclcr
( Tr I Fto-cont'ct- rcParat lon )
Figure 7. Asymmetry factor S as determined by
inGrrupting time rating, or opening time for circuit
impulse test ai 75Vo of BIL across their interrupting
gaps only.
(60 Hz baslr)
The initially published tables of preferred ratings in
C37.06-1964 as recommended by the EEI-AEIC-
NEMA Joint Committee did not contain all the

breakeis iated on symmetrical basis' Required breakers that had been in C37-6-196L, the last previous
asymmetrical current interrupting capability = S x issue of C37.6. lt had been agreed that circuit breaker
Symmetrical interrupting capability. (See also Fig' 2, ratings would be "transferred" to the new rating basis
c37.04-7964)
periodically, in recognition of the work prospectively
involved in the re-rating program.
ln this group of standard sections on the
1964,
This transfer has been carried on and C31 '06 revised
symmetrical basis of rating had been approved by the
participating organizations and was published by the accordingly a number of times. A portion of Table 3
i-".icu., itandarcls Association. These sections and for outdoor oil breakers from C37'06a-1968 is
the 1953 section they replaced, or supplemented, were: reproduced for information as Figure ll' From the
p.Lvious cliscussion of rating parameters and frorn
hign." 8 the ratings and required capabilities can be
seln and compared with corresponding ratings in
Total Current Symmetrical Current Figure 3. As an example, a circuit breaker with the
Standard Standard Subject nJ-irut identification of 138 kV, 10,000 MVA (Line
5C) now has a Rated Maximum Voltage, V, of t4-5 kV
wiit a symmetrical interrupting current rating of 37,000
c31.4 (ctt.ot Definitions amperes at 145 kV. From the Voltage Range Factor,
tc:z.o+ ) Rating Structure K tf t.r the interrupting capability required increased
'C37.04aj to a K x I of 41,000 amperes as the application voltage
dropped to a V/K of 132 kV. In the case of the breaker
*"ntion"d, if it were used at 138 kV its required
c31.5 C37.05 Measurement of
Voltage and symmetrical capabilitY would be:
Current Waves
145 kV
c37.6 37,000 x- = 38,900 amperes symmetrical
c37.06 \ Preferred
Ratings 138 kV
C31.06a)

c37.1 c37.07 Reclosing Factors The required asymmetrical interrupting capability is

related io the symmetrical current through the
C37.8 (included in C37.06) Control Voltages asymmetry ratio S. If the breaker opening time were
1.-i cycles (or more) the S ratio would be 1'2, meaning
c31.s Test Code that the treaker would be required to have the
c37.0e
C37.09art
) capability to interruPt:

c3'7.5 C37.010 Application (iuide 1.2 x 38,900 = 46,500 amperes rms total current
(Section 3) (expansion of
material uncler such conditions where this asymmetrical current
previously in C37.5) could exist at the instant of contact separation on a
138 kV system with a symmetrical fault current up to
38,900 amPeres.
 USAS
C37.06a-1968
Supplement to
c37.06-1966
UDC 621.316. 57 :62L.3.027
Table 3
Schedule of Preferred Ratinga for Outdoor Oil Circuit Breakers
Symmetrical Basie of Rating

Id6ti6atim Capebiliticr
Currot Valus
Clodnr
end
Letchinj
rlDr.
bilitv
Rated t.6 k
Contin- Timcr
uous Rrtcd
Currcnt Short.
et Circuit
60 Cyclcr Currcat
(6) (il) (12)
amDr rrra LA rp"
Cot
l{
38
37
38

76
5C 65
6 5,000 29
7 r0,000 55
I I5,000 8il
9 242trst 425(l3l 39
IO 242lt3l 425{l3t 58

Figure 8. Preferred ratings for outdoor oil circuit breakers

(part of Table 3) from American National Standard C37.06a-1968.

Reference to the rated interrupting current of 42,000
amperes for this "corresponding" breaker on the total
current rating basis, Line 2A of Figure 3, will readily
reveal the practice followed in transferring ratings from
lhe total current to the symmetrical current rating basis
tabulations. The 37,0004 rating for this breaker, Line
-5C of Figure 8, was derived from the previous rating of
42,000A, the ratio of 138 kV /145 kV, and a factor of
l/1.1. This 1.1 represented a compromise between
using the lf 1.2 factot from C37.-5-19-5.) application
practice for 3 cycle breakers and simply transferring the
rating on a "fullu symmetrical basis.
Stated another way, the rated symmetrical basis
interrupting current was determined from the nominal
interrupting MVA and the Rated Maximum Voltage,
divided by 1.1 (rather than 1.2) for 3 cycle breakers:
1.0-5 (rather than 1.1) for -5 cycle breakers; and 1.0 for 8
cycle breakers, which were effectively rated cln a
symmetrical basis previously. It must be realized, of
course, that this procedure defines the method of
derivation of the corresponding numbers for the
sylnmetrical rating and that a number of other factors
also determine total capability of a given circuit breaker
design to be able to meet the requirements of the
symmetrical basis standard. For the breaker
mentioned, the increase in required asymmetrical
capability is approximately lAVo. A circuit breaker
rated and manufactured on the total current basis
cannot be rerated to the symmetrical basis solely by this
number conversion.
C37.09 Test Procedure outlines the tests which are
made on circuit breakers under the symmetrical basis
standard to demonstrate the assigned ratings.
Production Tests and Design Tests are summarized. In
addition to short circuit tests, procedures are included
for continuous current (temperature rise) tests,
mechanical tests and dielectric tests among others.
Short circuit test procedures described include an
extensive series of tests ranging from approximately
llVo to l00Vo of rated short circuit current, and to
maximum short circuit current (K x I) with botlr
symmetrical and asymmetrical interrupting operations,
OPEN, CLOSE-OPEN, and combination duty cycles,
to demonstrate total service capability.
 SYMMETRICAL BASIS APPLICATION GUIDE
An important section of the standard is the
Application Guide C37.010, a revision and extensive
expirrsion of the portion of C37.-5-1953 which dealt with
circuit breaker application. White the greater part of
C37.010 covers short circuit calculation, it also includes
consideration of unusual service conditions such as high
altitudes, ancl high or low ambient temperatures and
their influence on the breaker's rating. Additionally, it
includes application considerations with continuous
current overloads.
For short circuit application, two methods are
clescribed for determination of the necessary
symmetrical current capability of a circuit breaker to be
applied in a given location. These are called the E/X
Simplified Method (C37.010-5.3.1) and the E/X
Method Corrected for ac and dc Decrements (37'010-
5.3.2)" In both methods the maximum symmetrical
short circuit current at the system location in question
is determinecl (3-phase or single-line-to-ground) from
the system voltage and reactance characteristics'
Under the simplified method, if it is known that the
system X/R ratio is 1-5 or less at the location
concerned, the E/X current thus determined may be
used up to IOOVI of the rating of the breaker under
consideration. Other factors stipulated in the
standards, such as relay time, etc., that could influence
circuit breaker choice have been accounted for in the
rating and testing of the breaker. Similarly, if the XIR
radols not known, the E/X current may be used safely
up to S0% of the rating of the breaker under
consideration (or up to 107o of the respective single-
line-to-ground fault capability of the breaker under
consideiation when the single-line-to-ground fault is
supplied predominantly by generators at generator
voltage).
For conditions beyond the timits of those established
tbr the E/X Simplified Method a more exact procedure
is described. This procedure, the E/X Method
Corrected for ac and dc Decrements takes into account
the system X/R ratio (with a procedure for calculating
it), relay time (if longer that112 cycle), and possible ac
clecremlnt, to give multiplying factors for the E/X
current to determine an adjusted EIX current for
consideration of a particular circuit breaker' In the
case, for example, where the X/R ratio is unusually
high, a slower relay time may permit a given breaker
application which would not be permissible otherwise'
tn some cases it may be necessary to be sure also that
the total current at the first half cycle does not exceed
1.6 KI for the breaker under consideration.
Thus, for many system locations the simplified E/X
current is all that need be determined for circuit
breaker application. For other locations, relatively
simple -eihods give application factors for determining
circuit breaker suitability.
The principles and methods developed for Cl37'010
uiro factored into a revision of C37'5-19-53 which
"n.r.
provicled more accurate application practices for circuit
t.eakers still rated on the total current basis' This
revision was C37.5- 1969'
CONTINUED CIRCUIT BREAKER STANDARDS
DEVELOPMENT
The development of standards on various aspects of
circuit breaker rating ancl performance, testing, and
application did not stop with the milestone publication'
in the mid-1960's, of the symmetrical basis of rating
standard series described above. ln all of the power
industry stanclardization groups, work continued on a
variety of subject areas important in switching and
circuit breaker technology and use, many of which were
new subjects, relatively speaking, for the industry'
The particular organizations which developed the new
standard series included the NEMA Switchgear
Section, the IEEE Power Circuit Breaker
Subcommittee (now the High Voltage Circuit Breaker
Subcommittee) and its working groups, of the Power
Engineering Society Switchgear Committee, the AEIC
Committee on Electric Power Apparatus, and the EEI-
AEIC-NEMA Joint Committee (now the Industry
Advisory Committee).
Considerations in these groups resulted in additional
proposals and new or supplemental sections of the
American Standards (subsequently United States
Standards and now American National Standards, or
ANSI) for circuit breakers, or in new sections of
NEMA Standards. tncluded in these subject areas have
heen:
1. of the preferred rating steps for
Simplification
circuit breaker continuous and interrupting
currents. The 1971 revision of C37'06 had rating
steps for Outdoor Circuit Breakers (oil and oilless,
in Table 4a) rated t2LkY and above, chosen frorn
the number series 10, 12.5, L6, 20,31.5,40, -50, 63,
80, 100, etc. (Termed the R-10 number series,
each step was lZ57t, of the previous lower step')
Adtlitionally, the Nominal 3-Phase MVA Class
(Column 2 in Figure 8) was no longer listed since
the interrupting current rating was not directly
related to this MVA value as discussed above' The
breakers in this table also had a change in the
Voltage Range Factor, Fi, to be 1.0. This change
was instituted to considerably simplify the rating
structure, and the test and application procedures'
Subsequently, these general principles were
extended to the preferred rating steps of most
other circuit breakers listed in C31 .06.
 Also, in subsequent revisions of C37.06
preferrcd rating tables were rcvised to be Table 1
Indoor Oilless Circuit Breakers, Table 2 Outdoor
Circuit Breakers 72.5 kV and Below, Including
Circuit Breakers Applied in Gas Isulated
Substations, and Table 3 Outdoor Circuit Breakers
L21 kV and Above, Including Circuit Breakers
Applicd in (ias Insulated Substations. Also revised
were Table 4 Dielectric Test Values and External
Insulation for ACI High Voltage Circuit Breakers,
and Table -5 Dielectric Test Values for Clircuit
Breakers Applied in (ias Insulated Substations.
Figure 9 shows a portion of Table 3 from C3j.06-
l9t-<7 as an examplc of the most recent publication
of this preferred rating table. Now included also
are transient recovery voltage parameters.
the A revision of the Application Guide, issued as
C37.010-1972 (and also published as IEEE Srd.
320). This revision included expanded application
procedures particularly for determining circuit
breaker load current carrying capabilities uncler
prescribed conditions of ambient temperature
andf or for certain periods of overload. Revisions
of some other sections of C137.010 were developcd
which resulted in simplification and clarification of
some of the application procedures and general
updating of examples and terms. A supplement,
issued as C37.010b-198-5, defined a circuit breaker,s
emergency overload current carrying capabilities
and the conditions under which the capabilities
may be utilized.

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD C37,06.1987

Table 3 (See Page I0)

Preferred Ratingp for Outdoor Circuit Breakers 121 kV and Above,
Including Circuit Breakers Applied in Gas Insulated Substations*

Maximum Closing
Symmetrical ard
Rated Transient Recovery Voltage Interrupting Latching
Rated Short{ircuit fl4) rr.5) Capability Capability
Rated Continuous Currentt Rated Rated and 2.7K times
Rated Voltage Current (at Rated Rated Rated Inter- Maximum Rated Rated Short-
Maximum Range at Maximum kV) Time to Rated Delay rupting Voltage Short-Time Circuit
Voltage Factor 60Hz (4) (s) Point P Rate Time Time Divided Current Current
(13)
(1) K (3) (5) (17) T2RTI (7) bvK (4) (5) (8) (4),
kV,rms Q\ Amperes, rms kA, rms p sec kV/p sec lr sec Cycles kV, rms kA, rms kA, Crest
121 1.0 1200' 20 275 1.7 2.9 3 r2t 20 54
tzt 1.0 1600, 2000, 3000 40 260 1.8 2.9 3 t21 40 108
t2t 1.0 2000, 3000 63 260 1.8 2.9 3 121 63 170
145 1.0 1200 20 330 1.7 3.2 3 145 20 54
145 1.0 1600, 2000, 3000 40 310 1.8 3.2 3 145 40 r08
145 1.0 2000, 3000 63 310 1.8 3.2 3 145 63 170
145 1.0 2000, 3000 80 310 1.8 3.2 3 l4s 80 2t6
169 1.0 1200 16 395 1.7 3.4 3 169 16 43
169 1.0 1600 31.s 360 1.8 3,4 3 169 31.5 85
169 1.0 2000 40 350 1.8 3.4 3 159 4A 108
169 1.0 2000 s0 350 1.8 3.4 3 169 s0 13s
169 1.0 2000 63 360 1.8 3.4 3 169 63 170
242 1.0 1600, 2000, 3000 31,5 520 1.8 4.1 J 242 31.5 85
242 1.0 2000, 3000 40 520 1.8 4.1 1 242 40 108
242 1.0 2000 50 520 1.8 4.1 3 242 50
242 1.0 2000, 3000 63 s20 1.8 4.1 3 242 63
135
t70
362 1.0 2000, 3000 40 775 1.8 4.9 2 362 40 108
362 1.0 2000 63 77s 1.8 4.9 2 362 63 170
550 1.0 2000, 3000 40 1325 1.6 5.4 2 5s0 40 108
5s0 1.0 3000 63 t325 1.6 5.4 1 s50 63 170
800 1.0 2000, 3000 40 1530 1.9 1.9 2 800 40 108
800 1.0 3000 63 1530 1.9 ?.9 ) 800 63 l'10

Figure 9. Portion of Table 3 Outdoor Circuit Breakers 121 kY and Above, Including
circuit Breakers Applied in (ias Insulatecl Substations, from C37.06-19g1l.

10
-'t - Requirements for Line-Closing Switching Surge
Voltage Control, C37.071-t969 established a rating
basis and test procedure for a standard level of
tra:rsmission line closing (or re-closing) surge
voltage control for circuit breakers rated 362 kY
and 550 kV. Supplement C37.011a-1914 (IEEE
439) contained the corresponding parameters for
765 kY.
As standards proposals were developed for some
of the newer subject areas, such as this for line
closirrg switching surge control, C31 .07t, they were
issued as complete standards each containing
appropriate definitions, rating performance
criteria, rating numbers, test procedures, and
application procedures. This practice was
instituted to avoid delay in getting these standards
published for general use, with the plan to
consolidate them into the basic standards series at
the time of a complete revision.
4. Requirements for Transient Recovery Voltage,
C37.072-I971 (IEEE Std. 327) established rated
traasient recovery voltage parameters and test
requirements for circuit breakers under conditions
of .terminal fault as well as short-line-fault. TRV
Ratings were in C31.0722-1911, and are now
included ir the appropriate breaker rating table(s)
of C37.06. A TRV application guide was issued as
C37.0721-1971 (IEEE Std. 328) for calculating
system conditions to compare with breaker rated
capabilities. A great deal of eflort and study in the
IEEE working group has gone into the subject of
transient recovery voltage requirernents and the
circuit breaker interaction with the inherent TRV
produced by the power system elements.
5. Requirements for Capacitance Current Switching,
C37.073-1.912 (IEEE Std. 341) established rating
performance criteria and test procedures for circuit
breakers for switching the charging current of
overhead lines and cables and the load current of
shunt capacitor banks. Capacitance Current
Switching Ratings were in C37.0732-1972. These
ratings are now included as Tables 7A,2A, and 3,A
in C37.06. An extensive Application (iuide on the
subject of capacitance current switching was
published as C37.073't-1973 (IEEE Std. 342). A
supplement developed for Application (iuide this
included consideration of the switching of
capacitance currents with fault conditions in the
circuit.
6. Requirements for Switching Impulse Voltage
Insulation Strength (for circuit breakers rated 362
kV and above), C37.074-1912 (IEEE Std. 339)
which established dielectric withstand ratings,
criteria and test procedure for circuit breakers
rated 362 kV and above for switching surge
voltages. Two withstand levels were established,
11
one value to ground with the circuit breaker closed
and a higher value across the contacts with the
breaker open.
1. Requirements for Pressurized Components,
C37.076-t972 (IEEE Std.340) that defined
required capabilities and test procedures for
pressurized components of circuit breakers- A
supplement, C37.076a, included requirements for
pressurized fiberglass reinforced plastic
components.
8. Requirements for External Insulation for Outdoor
Circuit Breakers, C31.078-7912 (IEEE Std. 343).
This defined certain dielectric, mechanical and
physical characteristics and capabilities required
for external insulation of outdoor circuit breakers.
Rated test values were in C37.0781-1972 (now
Table 4 of C37.06).
9. Guide for Testing Circuit Breakers When Rated
for Out-of-Phase Switchirg, C37.079-1973, which
outlined procedures for testing circuit breakers for
operation under conditions of out-of-phase voltage,
when such capabilities are specifically required.
This guide was based on an IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) guide on the
subject.
10. (iuide for Synthetic Fault Testing of High Voltage
Circuit Breakers, C37.0u1-1981. This outlined
procedures for short circuit interruption testing in
synthetic test circuits. In a synthetic test circuit,
(high) current from one source, nominally at
medium voltage, is applied to a circuit breaker
under test, and at the instant of interruption, the
(high) recovery voltage is applied to the circuit
breaker from another source. In testing with a
synthetic circuit a considerable increase in the
effective test power may be realized, compared
with direct tests in which the short circuit currert
and the recovery voltage both come from one
generation, or system source.
11. Standard Methods for Sound Level Measurements
for Circuit Breakers, C37.082-1982. This
established methods of measurement and
allowable sound (noise) levels for circuit breakers
during operation.
t2. Seismic Qualification for Switchgear, C37.lJ1-1990.
This standard establishes capability requirements
for switchgear under conditions of seismic
disturbances.
13. Standard for AC High Voltage (ienerattlr
(ienerator Circuit Breakers, C37.013-1990. This
standard establishes rating capabilities and test
requirements for circuit breakers to be applied
between the generator and step-up transformer
 terminals at a power generating station. These
circuit breakers are characterized by voltage
ratings typically up to 38 kV, a continuous current
rating up to 20 kA, and a symmetrical interrupting
current rating up to 160 kA or more.
14. Standard Requirements for Conversion of Power
Switclrgear Equipment, C37.059-199L This
standard establishes requirements and guidelines
for the conversion of power switchgear from the
original manufacturers' designs to a different
design. This standard applies to any type of
conversion, but typically, the process has involved
converting the interrupting means from air
magnetic, or oil, to vacuum or SF6. Direction and
guidance are provided in these conversions, and
roquired test verification (particularly design tests)
is specified in accordance with applicable related
standards.
STANDARDS CONSOLIDATION
As the proposals were completed and approved on
many of the subjects listed in the previous section, they
were issued as complete separate standards containing
appropriate definitions, rating performance criteria,
rating numbers, test procedures, and application data.
They were given individual identification numbers, such
as C37.071 for the Requirements for Line Closing
Switching Surge Voltage Control as discussed above.
Publication under these numbers allowed them to be
used immediately and avoided the necessity of
reprinting other existing standards as each of these was
completed. The result was a substantial number of
individual supplementary standards each basically on
one topic or area of required capability.
In the mid-1970's work was undertaken in the IEEE
Switchgear Committee to editorially incorporate all of
these standards then available into the proper primary
standards documents (Rating, Test, Application, etc.).
For circuit breakers rated on the symmetrical current
basis, the consolidated standards, with appropriate
portions incorporated from the various standards listed
in the previous section, were approved and published in
1919 in the following surviving primary standards:
C31.04-1979 Rating Structure
C31.06-1979 Preferred Ratings and Related
Required Capabilities
C37.09-1979 Test Procedure
C37.An-1979 Application Guide - General,
(short circuit application, etc.)
C31.011-1919 Application Guide - Transient
Recovery Voltage
C37.012-1919 Application Guide - Capacitance
Current Switching
The existing standard C37.05, Measurement of
Voltage and Current Waves, was incorporated into
12
C37.09, and standard C37.01, Interrupting Capability
Factors for Reclosing Service, was incorporated into
C37.04, C37.06, and C37.09.
Other standards, important to the use and application
of high voltage circuit breakers, available then or
approved (or revised) and published during subsequent
years have included:
C31.06-1981 Preferred Ratings and Related
Required Capabilities
(Revision of C37 .06-7979)
C37.013-1990 AC Generator Circuit Breakers
(Under revision 1992, including
addition of Application (iuide)
C37.081-1981 (iuide for Synthetic Fault Testing
C31 .082-1982 Standard Methods for Measurement
of Sound Pressure Levels
C37.L1-1979 Requirements for Electrical Control
(Under review 1993)
C31.lZ-1981 (iuide for Specifications for AC
High Voltage Circuit Breakers
C37.59-I99tq Requirements for Conversion of
Power Switchgear Equipment
C37.81-1990 Seismic Qualification for Switchgear
C31.700-1992 Definitions for Power Switchgear
(AIl switchgear definitions
including those formerly in C37.03)
(Revision of C37. 100-1980)
Periodic review of all these standards takes place
through the normal ANSI procedure that standards are
reaffirmed, revised, or withdrawn within no more than
five years from original publication date. Many
standards may show a date such as those listed above
and the designation (R19XX), indicating a date of
reaffirmation of the original standard.
The existing original standards for circuit breakers
rated on a total current basis, C37.4, C3'7.5, C31 .6,
C3l.'7, C37.8, and C'.37.9 had been periodically
reaffirmed, supplemented, or even revised (for example
C37.5-1979 Total Current Rating Basis Application
Guide) and continued to be applicable for those circuit
breakers in service. In 1986 this group of standards, for
circuit breakers rated on the total current basis, was
withdrawn. (Although these standards are no longer
published, it is expected that they may be obtained from
the Sales Department, American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY
10036.)
PRES ENT AND FUTURE STANDARDIZATION
ACTTVITY
At the time of this tutorial text revision, circuit breaker
standardization activities continue in the IEEE Power
Engineering Society Switchgear Committee,
Subcommittees and its working groups. Particular
subject areas for which standards proposals are under
consideration for development or revision, or in the
approval balloting process, include:
1. Application (iuide for Shunt Reactor Current
Switching. This guide will be published as C37.01"5
and will cover application conditions of circuit
breakers rated for switching grounded and
ungrounded shunt reactors, as well as reactors
grounded through a neutral reactor. This guide is
unique in that it is the result of a cooperative effort
between groups in the IEEE Switchgear Committee
and the IEC (International Electrotechnical
Commission) Technical Committee 17.
2. (iuide for Synthetic Capacitance Current Switching
Testing. This guide will be published as C37.083. It
will outline procedures for conducting and evaluating
capacitance current switching tests made in a
synthetic testing circuit. Such circuits can impose
corresponding stresses on the high voltage circuit
breaker under test as would occur when switching
the charging current of overhead transmission lines
or underground cable, or the load current of shunt
capacitor banks.
3. Circuit Breakers in gas insulated substations (tiIS).
Supplemental sections for addition to standards
C31.04, C37.09, and C37.010, etc. have been
developed to include specific capability
requirements, test procedures, and application
considerations, respectively, for circuit breakers used
in gas insulated substations. Preferred ratings for
circuit breakers useel in GIS are included in Tables
2,2A,3, and 3A of C37.06-1987. Required dielectric
test capabilities for circuit breakers used in CiIS are
shown in Table 5 of C37.06-1987"
4. Revisions of existing standards. A working group of
the High Voltage Circuit Breaker Subcommittee of
the Switchgear Committee has an ongoing activity of
cleveloping clarifications, corrections as may be
necesary, and a variety of general supplements or
additions to the main standards C3'7.04, C37'09, and
C37.010, etc. Additions may become desirable based
on new circuit breaker designs or components, or
new application practices.
5. Guide for Diagnostic and Failure Investigation. This
guide will be published as C37.016. It will outline
procedures for evaluating the condition of a high
voltage circuit breaker to aid in investigation of
equipment damage and in establishing suitable
maintenance schedules. This working group had
developed a guide to reporting of field problems
designed to provide a uniform method for data
accumulation about such problems, "Circuit Breaker
Field Problem Reporting Guide" [22].
6. Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Power
Switchgear. This guide will define methods of
13
measuring partial discharges that may occur ln
energized. power switchgear apparatus. Such
discharges may occur in flaws, voids, and interfacos
of non-self restoring insulation, and may result in
ultimate dielectric failure of the apparatus.
Guiclance will be included on test methods,
instrumentation, calibration and test evaluation.
7. Format for future circuit breaker standards. A
working group of the High Voltage Circuit Breaker
Subcommittee is developing a revised format for
circuit breaker standards in the future. The present
arrangement of the main C37 standards sections
includes Rating Capability Requirements in C37.04,
Preferred Ratings in C37.06, and Test Procedures in
C37.09 (plus application guides and other sections as
discussed above). The new format for future
consideration will group together appropriate
portions of these main sections (ratings,
requirements, and testing) for specific capabilitites
and application considerations. Notably this will
group together such categories as common clauses;
mechanical requirements; rated voltages, insulation
levels, and currents; making and breaking current
requirements (rated currents, short circuit current,
terminal faults, short line faults, tlut-of-phase
switching); and inductive and capacitive current
switching.
8. Application of insulation materials. A working
group of the Administrative Subcommittee of the
Switchgear Committee is developing a report
"Criteria for Insulation/Conductor/Contact
Temperature Limits". The report will consider
insulation material application in power switchgear
apparatus, and a broad range of aspects of the
effects of contact and current carrying component
temperature rise allowances.
TNTERNATIONAL STANDARDS PARTICI PATION
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
publishes standards in many subject areas, developed by
technical committees with representatives from many
countries throughout the world IEC
Recommendations (Standards) are
correspondingly
used in many countries for specifications in
international trade. Arrangements for competen[
United States representation at IEC meetings on
subjects relating to switchgear, and technical advice to
the United States National Committee of IEC are
provided through the C31 Committee on Power
Switchgear of ANSI (American National Standards
Institute). U.S. delegates from both users and
manufacturers participate in the IEC work and also
provide a channel for technical information hack to
IEEE and other groups on international
standardization activity [21].
 It3l Subcommittee Report on Oil Circuit Breakers,
Switches and Fuses, AIEE Trans. pp. 887-90, 1926.

SUMMARY t9l The Selection and Application of Oil Circuit

Breakers, Pub. 1004-4, Condit Electrical Mfg.
The development of technical standards for high Corp., Boston, Mass., 1926.
voltage circuit breakers and switchgear has paralleled
the groMh of power systems" Activities continue with [10] American National Standards (Formerly United
the goal of providing a firm engineering basis for Stated Standards, Formerly American Standards):
capable equipment for reliable and economical control
of electrical power transmission and distribution. c_"7.4-1953 c37.1-1952 c37.9-1953
c31.6-1955 c37.5-1953 c37.8- 1e-52
c37.12-t952
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
American National Standards Inst. Inc., l1 West 42ncl
The present American National Standards, IEEE Street, New York, NY 10036.
Standards, and NEMA Standards as well as standards
of equipment user organizations covering switchgear [11f American National Standard C.37.04-1964
equipment, are the work of many, many people, all of including addenda C37 .04a- 1964 (Reaffirmed
whom contributed directly or indirectly to this broad 1e69).
view of their efforts through the years [20]. To those
hundreds of people, to whom direct acknowledgement [l2l A New Basis for Rating Power Circuit Breakers,
would take more space than is available, sincere AIEE Committee Report, AIEE Trans. Pt. III-A
appreciation is expressed for their guidance and Vol. 73, pp.353-67, 1954.
contributions.
[13] AIEE Conference Paper -59-186, Presented 19-59
REFERENCES Winter Power Meeting.

tll L.J. Linde, A.E. Kilgour, "Trend in Design and [14] Proposed Revision of American Standards C37.3
Application of Tank-Tupe Power Oil Circuit andC37.4, AIEE Committee Report, AIEE
Breakers", Proceedings, American Power Trans. Yol.79, Pt. III, pp.443-57, (Disc. p.493),
Conference, pp. -504-13, 1954. 1960.

l2l Standards of the AIEE, 1921 Revision, p.p. 1-5-59- [15] Proposed Revisions of American Standards C37.-5
t703, t92t. and C37.9, AIEE Committee Report, AIEE
Trans. Vol. 79, Pt. III, pp.457-76 (Disc. p.493),
t3] Standards for AC Power Circuit Breakers, AIEE 1960.
No. 19, June 1943.

[16f Proposed Revision of American Standards C31 .10,

t4l AIEE Standards Manual, August 1959. AIEE Committee Report, AIEE Trans. Vol.79,
Pr. III, pp.477-93, 1960.
I-51 NEMA Standards for Power Circuit Breakers,
and S(i4- I 968, National Electrical
S( ;4- 1 9-54 [17] American National Standards:
Manufacturers Assoc., Suite 300, 2101 L Street
NW, Washington, DC 20031-1526 c37.03-1964 C37.06-1966 c37.09-1964
C37.04-1964 C37.6a-1968 C31.09a-1964
l6l AIEE Trans. Index for 1911-1921, Vols. 31-40, p 8. C37.04a-7964 C31.07-1969 c31.0t0-t964
(This index includes a number of references c37.05-7964 C31.12-t969
including "Rating and Selection of Oil Circuit
Breakers", E.M. Hewlett, J.N. Mahony, (i.A. (Note: 1964 issues reaffirmed 1969) American
Burnham, p. 123,1918 and "Present Day Practice National Standards Inst. Inc. (ANSI), 11 West 42nd
Limitation of Oil Circuit Breakers", Subcommittee Street, New York, NY 10036. (Note: American
of Protective Devices Committee, H.R. Woodrow, National Standards may be withdrawn or revised at any
Chmn., pp. -5-5-60, 1921. time. Information may be obtained on all standards
from ANSI, from the IEEE Standards Department,445
V) Subcommittee Report on Oil Circuit Breakers, Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 0885-5-1331,
Switches and Fuses, E.C. Stone, Chmn., AIEE or from the National Electrical Manufacturers Assoc.,
Trans. pp. 1094-95, 1924. Suite 300, 2I0l L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20031-
rs26.)
14
[18] Annual Reports for American National Standards
Committee C37 on Power Switchgear, ANSI, 11
West 42nd Street, New York, I'l-Y 10036
(Secretary, C37 Standards Committee, National
Electrical Manufacturers Assoc., Suite 300, 2107 L
Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037-t526)

Ii9l [i.N. Lester, "High Voltage Circuit Breaker

Standards in the U.SA. - Past, Present, and
Future", IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. 93, March/April 197 4, pp -590-600.

[20] C.L. Wagner, discussion of (19).

[21] W.R. Wilson, discussion of (19).

[22] "Circuit Breaker Field Problem Reporting Guide",

IEEE Committee Report, Working Group
Chairman, P.W. Dwyer, IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, May 1981-, pp 2438-41,

15
 REVIEW OF INTERRUPTING MEDIUMS

Ruben Garzon

AEIB Power Distribution Company

Circuit Breaker Division
Florence, SC USA

PREFERRED INTERRUPTING MEDIUMS
AND TI{EIR APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Ever since the time rvhen electrical energy was first
utilized, there has been a need for a switch to initiate or
intemrpt the flow of current.
The methods used to achieve current intemtption have
evolved through the years. from the time lvhen t}te arc was
merely stretched in air until it could no longer maintain
itself, to today, sophisucated interrupters where large
amounts of current are s$.rtched in relatively small devices.
As the system capacin' increased, in voltage and in
current, the need for circuit breakers having higher
intemrpting capabilities led to considerable research aimed
at learning the basic pnnciples govermng current
intemrption.
In this continuing evolution of circuit breaker technology,
different methods have been tried and refined over the years.
Some of the early circuit breaker designs included the use of
compressed air to blon' at the arc, others used oil as the
interrupting medium. and some made use of magnetic blow
out structures.
Some of the early designs have been greatly improved.
Circuit breakers of these fipes are still being used. and in
many applications these are still the preferred method of
intemrption. Air magnetic circuit breakers are dominant in
the lorv voltage field. and in some instances they are widely
applied in medium voltages, generally up to l5kv. Oil
circuit breakers are used in medium and high voltage
applications in the range of 5kV up to about 230kV. Air
blast circuit breakers are also applied like oil circuit
breakers, but to a much lesser degree. Some air blast
breakers have been used at voltages higher than 230kV. But
today their main field of usage is in circuits requrring a very
hrgh intemrpting capacity, as is the case *ith generator
circuit breakers where the ratings are generalir- in the ranges
of 15 to 38kV; 10 to 50kA continuous current and 100 to
350kA short circuit currents.
In the distribution and the transmission ciass of circuit
breakers the older technologies are quickly being replaced by
vacuum and SF6 technologies. Vacuum predomrnantlv in
the medium voltage and SF6 in the high and ultra high
voltage applications. Both of these technologies have
demonstrated their superiority and reliabilit]' in the last ferv
)'ears.
FTINDAMENTALS OF CLIRRENT INTERRUPTION
With today's technology, the electric arc is an
indispensable element in the process of current intemrption.
It is rvell known that circuit breakers accompiish their task of
intemrpting the flow of electrical currents bi. using the arc
and some intemrpting media as the means for dissipating the
energv input.
The interrupting process, for some of the techuologies, is
n'ell understood and can be described reasonablv rvell b1,
mathematical models; for other technologies. such as air
magnetic, intemrption remains an art rather tharr a science.
A mathematical study of the arc physics is bevond the
scope of this presentation, nevertheless a brief descnptive
review of the electric arc is given to aid in the
understanding of the role played by the arc dunng current
intemrption.

ELECTRIC ARCS

The electric arc is a self sustained discharge capable of

supporting large currents and exhibiting a relaut.ely lon,
r-oltage drop. The arc behaves like a nonlinear resistor rith
the arc voltage in phase w.ith the arc current. The magnitude

16
of the arc voltage is primarily a function of the arc cutrenq LOW PRESSURE OR VACULM ARCS
but it is also strongly dependent on the cooling and
deionizing effects of the arc extinguishing method being A vacuum arc greatly differs from other qpes of arcs in
used. that it is produced by ionization of metal vapors that have
been boiled offfrom the electrodes.
For arc currents reaching up to several thousand amperes,
v" the vacuum arc is characterized by a multitude of fast
moving cathode spots, a diffirsed positive column and a
diftrsed collection of current spots at the anode.
I At the current zero of an alternating current, the cathode
spot is extinguished and the residual metal vapor disperses
between a few microseconds and condenses in the first
available cold surfaces. When this has taken place, then
successful current intemrption has taken place.
The magnitude of current conducted by each of the
multiple cathode spots is a function of the electrode material
F__--t_ -- and is related to the normal boiling point and thermal
cachocie drop
l:.eugri: :. I , conductir.iw of the cathode material.
As the total current increases. the plasma gets denser and
-i
4r
- the discharge develops manv characteristics similar to hose

E:*:-!-----r-tt=
anocie
i I
no" i c"e co Iuoo I cachocie
ofa high pressure arc. The arc becomes constricted and gets
aaode rall cathode ! 41!
SCTIS{ATIC DIAGRAI{ OF AN ELECTRIC ARC
Figure I
The arc voltage is equal to the summation of the voltage
drops of three distinct regions: The cathode drop region
where a significant por[ion of the voltage drop is obsen'ed
and which is located at a relatively short distance from the
cathode. This region is one of a very high positive ion
charge. Near the opposite electrode, there is the anode drop
region. The third region is the positive column which is a
region exhibiting a uniform longitudinal voltage gradien!
whose magnitude depends on the medium, pressure, arc
current and the length of the column.
At constant current the arc in its steady state is in thermal
equilibrium. That is the power losses from the arc column
are balanced by the power input to the arc. If the current
decreases. so does the power loss from the arc column. but
due to the thermai storage capacity of the arc, there rvill be a
time lag between the instantaneous power loss and the losses
in the steady state. Thus at any given instant the power
input to the arc, plus the power that is stored in the arc
equals the power loss from the arc.
At the instant rvhen the current zero occurs, and during a
short ttme afterwards, the arc power loss exceeds the input
porver to the residual arc path and thus arc e$inction is
achieved.
stabilized. producing gross melting from nervly created
anode spots.
The creation of anode spots is due to the fact that with
large currents the collision energ)' of the electrons is greatly
increased, and therefore when thel'collide against the anode
metal atoms are released from the anode; thus pady melting
it. The presence of anode spots can adversely affect
dielectric recovery due to the increase in the plasma and the
vapor densities, and to the possibility of continued
evaporation from the hot spot follorving current zero.
Diffirsed arcs generally occur at current values of less than
20kA, and therefore it is possible that, depending on the
current leYel and the contact spacing, the diffrsed arc can
become constricted, and then diffirse again close to current
zeto.
Electric contacts that have a diffirse arc burning between
them for several milliseconds before current zero will have
excellent dielectric recovery properties after current zero.
HIGHPRESSURE ARCS
The primary difference betu'een a low pressure arc and a
high pressure arc is that the arc in a liquid or a gas is
produced by the iomzation of gas vapors; it is characterized
by a highly luminous core completely surrounded by a cooler
region of glowing gases. The core of the arc is at a very high
temperature of approximatell' 25000K, and the gases in the
arc region are considered to be largely disassociated.
In conuast with vacuum arcs. the effects of the contact
material upon the arc column are minimal, and the
characteristics of the arc column is dictated primarily by the
gaseous ambient. The potential gradient of the positive

17
 colurnn is dependent on the arc curent and the energ)' A) The insulated plate type that relies on stretching
exchange with the surroundings. and cooling the arc by means of plates made of
In a high pressure arc, the plasma of the positive column insulating refractory materials, and
can be described by fluid dy.namics equations and the laws of
thermodynamics. However, this does not imply that precise B) The metal or cold cathode type of plate which
calculations cax be made to describe a quantrtative model splits the arc into a series or shorter arcs stretched
that would provide a direct answer for all aspects of the across adjacent plates. Cooling ofthe arc is also
design of a high pressure interrupter. since many other enhanced by the thermal conduction of the plates.
processes also influence the arc behavior
This principle of air break intem_rption is generally used
COMPARISON OF INTERRI]PTING TECHNOLOGIES in low voltage breakers, and still today is the most
economical and practical technology for applications ofup to
The most common or generic intem"rpting mediums and 1000 volts.
their methods of application in circuit breakers are: To erlend this technology to the medium voltage range it
is necessary to provide additional controlling forces that will
I) Air direct and drive the arc into the arc chute and across tle
A) Air Magnetic plates. The natural magnetic and thermal forces of the arc
B) Air Blast are then supplemented by either an external iron circuit
around the arc, which is usually energized by one or more
rr) oil turns of a coil connected to the main path of the current
A) Minimum oil being intemrpted, or by an internal iron circuit made of
B) Bulk oil special plates energizedby the arc itself.
The application of air magnetic techaoiogy offer
rrr) sF6 advantages over other mediums by being free of over voltage
A) Two Pressure problems that can be caused by the switching, on or off, of
B) Puffer inductive loads. Especially during closing operations the
C) Self extinguishing undesirable phenomenon of multiple re-strikes is eliminated,
D) Rotating arc thus preventing possible voltage escalation.

I\| Vacuum AIR I.IAGIIETIC BRIAXER ARC CHUTE

AIRBREAKERS

Arr break switching was probablr the first knou,n

technology, in principle it is simple: the contacts are opened
and the arc is elongated until it is unable to self-sustain.
This very simplistic approach. of course. rvas quite limited
on its intemrpting capabilities.
To increase the capabilities of these originally simple
intemrpting devices either arc chutes t'ere added or air was
blown across the contacts.

AIR MAGNETIC BREAKER

The inclusion of arc chutes provided for a more effrcient

control, and a more effective method for increasing the
resistance ofthe arc; and hence higher arc voltages.
The primary functions of the arc chute. besides controlling
the arc are. to cool the arc, to increase the length ofthe arc.
or to split the arc into a series of shoner arcs. In most arc
CO'TACT CLLSED
chutes at least two of the above functions are included.
There are two basic tlpes of arc chutes. Figure 2

18
 The arr magnetic circuit breaker is capable of intemrpting The minimum oil circuit breaker, as its name implies, is
short circuit clrlrents with more than 100% aqrmmetry and one where for each phase the contacts are mounted into a
thus are specially suited for protection of generators. relatively small oil container. Normally these containers are
Among the disadvantages of air magnetic breakers, is the insulated from ground and therefore they are also classified
fact that they are open to environmental pollution, are bulky, as live tank breakers.
noisy, relatively expensive, require more maintenance than
the more modern techniques. Also air magnetic breakers
should not be the preferred choice for applications requiring
capacitor switchrng duties.

AIR BLAST BREAKERS

The air blast technolory uses a blast of compressed air

directed at the arc preferably in an arial blast. This
technology rvas introduced in the 1930's and led the way in
achievements for many years, it was the preferred technology
for the extra and ultra high voltages until the advent of the
SF6 technology. Since compressed air has better dielectric
strength and thermal properties than air at atmospheric
pressure higher breaker ratings can be obtained.
Today, air blast breakers are used almost exclusively for
the protection of the generators in a power station. They are
uniquely suited for intemrption of very high short circuit
currents and for those applications where there is a greater
than 100% asymmetry and therefore there are exlended
penods of time without current zeroes.
Their higher cost and maintenance, as compared to other
technologies, will most likely limit its use to the specialized
high fault applications.
SCHEHATIC OF AN OIL INTERRUPTER

OIL BREAKERS

Oil intemrpters have been around since the end of the last Figure 3

century. It is knou'n that the first oil circuit breakers rvere

simply a set of contacts immersed in a wooden barrel filled
rvith oil: from these very simple and humble beginnings' the
oil circuit breakers rvere continuously developed dunng the
frrst half of this century to become the leading technologv for
many yqus.
The oil circuit breaker is essentially a hydrogen
intemrpter. The arc that develops across the contacts rvhen
immersed in oil causes this oil to decompose, and thus
releasing a substantial amount ofhydrogen gas. Hydrogen is
known to be an excellent arc extinguishing medium and has
excellent dielectric characteri stics.
Two types of oil circuit breakers are manufactured today,
and they are:
A) Mirumum oil, and
B) Bulk oil
The bulk oil circuit breaker is one where a large volume of
oil is used in the tank where the contacts are mounted. In all
cases, the tanks are grounded and are commonll'knorvn as
dead tank breakers. In the distribution and sub-transmission
class voltages all three phrases are contained rvithin a single
enclosure. For the transmission classes the phases are
contained in individual tanks.
Compared to new technologies, the oil circuit breaker is
becomrng obsolete. This type of breaker is very slow in
operation, its mechanical life is rather short, it requires
frequent maintenance to remove free carbon resulting from
the oil decomposition otherwise it will cause a progressive
deterioration of its insulating properties. But perhaps its
major drawback is that is constitutes a potential fire hazard.
In terms of application, the oil breakers are prone to
generate high overvoltages during normal operations and of
all breakers are the less suited for capacitance switching use.
Oil breakers. however. are the least expensive breakers

19
specially the minimum oil t1pe, also oil breakers have a high limitations imposed by the puffer t)?e. Later advances in the
current and fault rating in most cases being better than SF6 puffer technology have practically negated the necessity of
or vacuum. using two pressure intemrpters and this technology for all
practical purposes can be considered obsolete.
The basic idea for these intemrpters was to use a second
SF6 INTERRI]PTERS high pressure reservoir which was isolated from the iow
pressure reservoir by a blast vaiue. During breaker
The exceptional properties of SF6 gas has been knoun for operation, the opening of the blast value is slnchronized to
over 40 years and yet the first commercial SF6 circuit the opening of t}te contacts and thus a blast of cool gas is
breaker appeared in the market only in the late 1950's. produced to cool the arc.
The first reports of investigations of SF6 zrs an The primary disadvantages of this type of circuit breaker
intemrptrng medium were made by Browne, Strom, and are: Its physical size, the large amounts of SF6 needed, the
Lingal in the early 1950's. These investigators had found additional compressor s_vstem required to pressurize the gas,
that intemrpting capabilities of a plain air break could be and the energy consumption of heaters needed to prevent
greatly improved by blowing along the arc column. liquefaction of the SF6.
The findings were then applied to the design of
intemrptrng devices; the first of which was a load break
switch. A ferv years later, in 1956, the first SF6 power PUFFER TYPE
circuit breaker lvas put into service. These earlier devices
used the puffer and the self generation pnnciples A circuit breaker of this t)?e was the first commercially
respeclively. By the end of the 1950's, the two pressure high available unit. Puffer intemrpters produce a flow of gas
porver circuit breakers were produced. This gpe of across the nozzle by compressing the gas as the contacts
construction dominated the market until the early 1960's, move to the final open position. In most of today's designs,
rvhen the present generation of puffer breakers started to the moving contact acts as a compression rylinder
demonstrate their capability and to gain acceptance among The puffer intemtpter is undoubtedly a simple design that
users. usesfewer moving parts than the two pressure interrupter.
Of particular importance for the use of SF6 in circuit
breakers are its electrical properties, such as a high voltage
rvithstand and its excellent arc quenching capabiliti'. SF6 is
chemically stable below 150 C, so it neither decomposes nor
attacks ordinary construction materials. In the presence of
an arc, it is disassociated rvithin the high temperature
column, but it recombines almost totally any residue left due
to reaction rvith metallic elements is relatively small and it
forms soft insulating powders.
The superior intemrpting performance of SF6 depends
primarily on: 1) A rapid recoverv ofdielectric strength. and
2) A very lugh rate of loss of arc conductance, also knou.n
as a small time constant.
The first characteristic is important for the intemrption of
bus or terminal faults, and the second for the successful
intemrpLion of short line faults.
Todal'. there are four tJpes of SF6 interrupters. and they
are:
A) The trvo pressure
B) The puffer qpe (single pressure)
C) The self blast
D) The magnetic rotary arc O?e. Figure 4

The inherent simplicity of the puffer intemrpter has greatly

TWO PRESSURE CIRCIIIT BREAKER improved the reliability of the circuit breakers. Furthermore.
the need for compressors, high pressure seals and heating
This tlpe of circuit breaker rvas originally developed in elements required to prevent liquefaction of the high
order to overcome some of the interrupting capabilitl, pressure SF6 at low temperatures has been eiiminated.

20
 The main disadvantage of the puffer type circuit breaker is
the need for relatively long strokes and high operating
forces, which translates into powerfirl mechanisms with
large energy output requirements.
SELF BLAST INTERRUPTERS
This type of intemrpter uses the arc enerry to heat the gas
and increase its pressure. the gas is then allorved to expand.
Once this has been accomplished, the arc extinguishing
process takes place in a manner quite similar to that of the
pu-ffer intem-rpters. This qpe of circuit breaker requires a
lorver energy operating mechanism than the puffer
interrupter.
MAGNETIC ROTARY ARC
With all other types of SF6 interrupters, the arc cooling is
accomplished by lening the gas sweep along the arc. In the
magnetic rotary arc interrupter instead of moving the gas,
the arc is set in motion and is rotated through the gas to
effect extinction.
This method requires short strokes and lo*' operating
forces. So far its performance has not been as effective as
other technologies and in most cases it has been necessary to
use a pufftng action to enhance performance at the lorver
levels of fault currents.
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Early attempts to produce a vacuum interrupter lvere made

BLASI IIITERRUPTER
by Millikan and Sorensen starting in the 1920's, but several
SCHEI{AIIC OF SELF
technical problems arose for which there lvere no adequate
solutions.

OUTLINE OF A YACUIJIi TNTERRUPTER

PRESS. GEXERATIOH

BRK OPEX

Figure 5

Self blast intemtption is a relatively new emerging

technology that is beginning to replace puffer breakers in
many applications. Hou'ever. there are still some limitations
on the capacity of these intelrupters; considerable research
and development efforts are being made that are likely to
insure the success ofthis concept. Figure 6

21
 Advances in the knot'ledge of plasma physics and for copper bismuth the chopping circuit is in the range of 3
developments in the areas of contact metallurgy and ceramic to 15 amperes wrth a median of 7 amperes.
welding provided some of the needed answers, allowing the
vacuum intemrpter to become a reality. In the 1950's, the
first commercial devices began to be introduced. These first
devices, consisung of a line of high voltage, low current
intemrpters manufactured b1, the Jennings Company.
Finally, in the 1960's, the first commercial power vacuum
interrupter was marketed. ald since then vacuum bottles
have firmiy established themselves as viable intemtpters of
current.
The success of a vacuum intemrpter depends on whether
or not the inter-electrode insulation recovery after a current
zero is not exceeded by the recovery voltage. As it has been
described the dielectric recovery characteristics of a vacuum
intemrpter is significantlr- influenced by the formation of
anode spots rvhich stronglv depend on the electrode material
and its design: thus contacts of vacuum intemrpters are
constructed to prevent anode spot formation.
To prevent the formation of anode spots, it is important to
minimize the heating of t-he vacuum contacts dunng the
intemrption process. To achieve this objective, it is desirable
to maintain the arc in motion. Many designs have been
proposed to solve this problem, but the two most practical
methods are:

A) B-v the interaction between the arc current and

the tranwerse magnetic field resulting from the I\Q-a,
current florving in the contact, and
'.ti+-J
B) Bl,applying an arial magnetic field. -I.J
l-
I
lr lr o
The design most commonly used is the tranwerse field ao
contact; however, vacuum interrupters rvith an axial f,reld
design are also available.
The contact material choice is relatively limited. The
6
RADIAL FIEL! YACI'I!.I
@
AIIAL FIELO
o
YACIX.$I
material to be used must be a good electrical conductor. have ELECIRME ELECIIfi}E
suffrcient mechanical strength, its vapor pressure must be
neither too high, where it may hinder intemrption by
residual vapor action, nor so lorv as to remain hot and
continue thermionic emissions after current zero, and it
should have a moderate weld strength.
Presently'. there are t$,o Epes of materials being used in Figure 7
the fabricatron of vacuum intemrpter contacts:
Tests have shown that when vacuum interrupters vr"ith
A) A high current interrupting allov called CL\ and copper bismuth contacts interrupt either normal or short
circuit currents. the BIL voltages degradates. This does not
B) A copper bismuth. occur with the CLR contacts.
On high crrrent intemtption, local erosion is quite severe
Of these two tlpes of materials, the CLR has shown to be for copper bismuth contacts and it has been observed thatjets
superior thaa the copper bismuth. Among its advantages of copper are splattered throughout the vacuum intemrpter:
are: Lower chopping current, higher voltage capabiliqv and in comparison tith CLR contacts, the material smoothli'
lorver erosion. Typical leveis of chopping currents for CLR coats the shieids of the vacuum intemrpter. The expected
contacts are I to 4 amperes u'ith a medral value of 2.7 rvhile contact life. therefore, is longer for CLR contacts by as much

22
as three times that of the copper bismuth.
The only disadvantage of CLR contacts is that they have a
weld strenglh that is about 7 times that of the copper bismuth
contacts. However. this can be easily overcome by proper
design of the contact drive and interrupter mountings.
CIRCUIT BREAKER APPLICATIONS
All the circuit breaker tlpes described, must meet the
same basic standards of performance: They must affor- the
same level of protection when utilized under sim..ar
conditions. Nevertheless. there are sufftcient differences in
performance to make a parLicular technology better suited for
same applications. They all have clear advantages and
disadvantages; both economically, and in their operating
characteristics, that should be taken into consideration.
The following revierv of the pros and cons of the different
technologres is made based on what we judge are the most
significant comparison factors. It is not an exhaustive
review that covers every possible attribute of the intem:pters
or the system, but in a broad sense it gives guidance for the
proper selection ofa certain type ofcircuit breaker.
Without a doubt; oil circuit breakers, especially those of
the minimum oil ffi, are the most economical in terms of
their initial cost. Ho*'ever, this initial cost advantage is lost
during the life of the breaker because of the relatively high
maintenance requirements.
Oil circurt breakers are generally applied at voltages
ranging from 5kV up to 345kV and at fault currents as high
as 80kA. In the U.S.. there are practically no oil circuit
breakers used in indoor applications. But in the rvorld
market mirumum oil circuit breakers are still used indoors.
This practice is sometvhat risky because of the potential fire
hazard inherent to oii breakers. A substantial market still
exists for outdoor bulk oil circuit breakers especially ar72kV
up to 145kV.
At low voltages, up to 600 volts, the air magnetic t-rpe
circuit breaker is used exclusive of other technology. The
intemrpter capabilities for high fault currents is unmatched
at those lower voitages and the dielectnc recovery
requirements are modest thus overcoming one of the
disadvantages of unpressurized air interrupters.
At medium voltages. from 5 to 15kV, air magnetic circuit
breakers are still being used; horvever, they are gradually
being replaced by vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
Problems caused by multiple re-strikes or by ovewoltages
generated by current chopping are practically non-existing
rvith air magnetic intemrpters. Also, air circuit breakers are
the only rype capable of intemrpting short circuit currents
lvith more than 100% as.vmmetry.
Presently, vacuum circuit breakers are being applied in the
5 through 38kV and 12 through 50kA range; rvhile SF6
circuit breakers are being applied anlrvhere from 5kV up to
800kV and at fault currents of up to 80kA. Both Spes of
these circuit breakers are being manufactured for
applications as free standing circuit breakers and reclosers or
for use in metal clad switchgear.
The principal obstacle to applying vacuum circuit breakers
at transmission voltage levels of TZkY and above is the
dielectnc capability of a single gap between arcing
electrodes.
From a point of view of economics, it is apparent that the
optimum application of a vacuum circuit breaker is in the
t5kV ctass. At voltages below this level, air magnetic
-ircuit breakers offer better possibilities, rvhile at voltages
above 15kV, SF6 circuit breakers become a better choice; in
fact, at voltages above 345kV, they are the oniy logical
choice. But even at the optimum range of vacuum circuit
breakers, SF6 designs are quite competitive.
A fair comparative assessment of vacuum and SF6 circuit
breakers can only be made in the medium voltage range
rvhere both types are equally suitable.
The long and relatively maintenance free life of a vacuum
circuit breaker is a very desirable attribute for many
applications, and it represents the main advantage ofvacuum
circuit breakers over other S?es of circuit breakers.
The main disadvantages ofvacuum circuit breakers are:
1) The possibilit'of loss of vacuum and the lack of
a simple method for positively monitoring the
condition of the vacuum in the intemlpter.
2) The propensit-v to randomly break down
dielectrically causing delayed restrikes rvhich
usually occur 2 to 25 cycles after current
interruPtion. and
3) The switching surge phenomena associated
with vacuum intemrption including current
chopping and I'irtual current chopping'
Whereas SF6 circuit breakers do not have as long an
intemrpting life wrthout maintenance as vacuum. they do not
have the referenced disadvantages of vacuum circuit
breakers.
When properly selected for dehnite applications. one tfpe
of circuit breaker could offer advantages over the other type'
For example, in industrial applications where an inordinate
number of operations under load and fault conditions is the
primary requirement, vacuum circuit breakers could be the
preferred choice.
On the other hand, when the circuit breaker is to be used
rvith equipment such zls large motors or dry type
transformeis, SF6 circuit breakers should be preferred' but if
vacuum circuit breakers are used. suitable surge protection
measures must be taken to prevent damage to the equipment'
For reactor switching applications, vacuum intemrpters
should be the preferred choice. but for capacitor bank
switching, SF6 is a better solution.
23
 In conciusion then. it can be stated that:

1. In low voltage applicatrons. neither vacuum nor SF6

can be economically competitive rvith air magnedc circuit
breakers.

2. In applications at voltages between 5 and i5kV,

vacuum and SF6 are basically equal and quite competitive
with each other, a choice between one or the other being only
a matter of preference and, in some instances, of
convenience for a specific applicatron.

3. At voltages above i5kV, SF6 circuit breakers begin to

show a margin of superiority in both economics and
performance.

This margin widens as the voltage increases, and at the

higher transmission voltage levels SF6 circuit breakers have
no competition.

REFERENCES

l. Brorvne, Thomas 8., Jr., "Circuit Intemrption Theorv and

Techniques, Marcel Dekker. Inc.", New York and Basel,
1984.

2. Selzer, Amos, "Switching in Vacuum a Revierv',, IEEE

Spectrum. June I971.

3. Campell, W.E., "Vacuum Switch Interrupts 230KKV",

Electrical World, June 8, 1959,p.76.

4. Cobine, J.D., "Research and Development Leading to the

High Power Vacuum Intemrpter; a Historical Rerierv", AIEE
Trans. 82 Gt IiD; April 1963, pp.20l-201.

5. Lingal, H.J., Strom, A.P., and Browne, T.E.. Jr., "An

Investigation of the Arc Quenclung Behavior of Sulfur
Hexaflouride', AIEE Trans.'72 (Pt. II!; 1953, pp. 242-246.

6. Cobine, J.D., "Gaseous Conductors Theory and

Engineering Applications". McGrarv-Hill, Nerv York, I 94 1.

7. Lee, T.H., "Physics and Engineering of High power

Switching Devices", MIT Press, Cambridge, 1975.

8. Swindler, D.L., Square D Co., "SF6 Puffer Tlpe Circuit

Breaker for Applications at 15 RV through 38 RV", CH
1575 - 0/80/0000 - 182 - 1980 IEEE

9. DiMarco, V., Manganaro, S., Santostino, G.. Cornago,

F., "Performances of M.V. Circuit-Breakers Using Different
Quenching", Media, Paper No. 86SM3S4-2, IEEE 1986,
PES Summer Meeting.

24
Ruben D. Garzon has a BSEE degree from the California Sate
University ac Los Angeles and a MESc. degree from the Pennsylvania
State UniversitY.
He has more than 30 years experience in the field of circuit
breaker research and development. He has been involved in the
research of arc interruption and has published several papers on
this subject. His experience covers aI1 the voltage ranges, from
240 volt.s to 800 Kv.
He is a Sr. Member of IEEE, a member of the IEEE Switchgrear
Committ.ee and chairman of several working groups dealing with the
writing of industry standards -

25
 Application Consideration of
Short Circuit Current Interruption
A.K.
American Electric Power Service Corporation
Columbus,
AIJSTRACT
This paper describes basic aoplication
considerations of Short Circuit Current Interruption
using the s)metrical current basis of rating. Short
circuit rating, related required capabilities, fault
cul'rent ealculations and interrupting perforaance are
discus sed.
INTRODUCTION
In L964, ANSI/IEEE changed from a total current
(as],'mmetrical current) basis of rating to a s]metrical
current basis of rating for ac high-voltage circuit
breakers. The reasons for this change were:
f) to harmonize ANSI/IEEE Standards with
International Standards . seconds) is K x rated short-circuit current. The
2) Simplify application where high speed relaying
fast clearing circuit breakers are used.
3) Require that circuit breakers are proven to
demonstrate a definite relationship between
aslmetrical interrupting capability and
symmetrieal ra.tings.
While there are circuit breakers remaining rated
on a total current basis which may need to be reapplied
on systems, a1l new circuit breakers are rated on a
s)metrical basis; therefore, only the s)rmmetrical
rating structure is presented.
BAS]S OF RATING
An understanding of the basics of s1rurmetrical
rating structure are contained in Figures L and 2,
along with the following definitions:
Rated Maximum Voltage:
The rated maximw voltage of a circuit breaker is
the highest rms voltage, above nominal system voltage,
for which the circuit breaker is designed, and is the
upper Iimif for oper-ation.
Rated Voltage Range Eactor:
The rated voltage range factor K is the ratio
rated maximum voltage to the lower limit of the range
of operating voltage in which the required symetrical
and as)[nmetrical interrupting capabilities wary in
inverse proportion to operatint voltage.
Nmerical values of K are found in preferred
ratings i.n C37.06-1981. The value for K is 1 except
for -indoor oiLless circuit breakers.
Rated Short Circlrit Current:
The rated short-circuit curt:ent of a circuit
breaker is the highest value of the symetr-ical
component of the polyphase or phase-to-phase short-
circuit current in rms amperes measured from the
envelope of the current wave at the instant of primary
arcing contact separation rvhich the circuit breaker
shall be required to interrupt at rated maximum voltage
and on the standard operating duty.
McCabe
0H
The rated short-eircuit current also establishes,
try fixed ratios, related required capabilities of the
circuit breaker.
Related Required Capabilities :
The circuit breaker has related required capabili-
ties which are based on a minimm relay time of
one-ha1f cycle, although any permissible tripping
delays may be used. The relationship of rated short
circuit current to the other required capabilities,
illustrated graphically in Figure 1, is as follows:
1. The closing and latching capability of the breaker
is 1.6 x K x rated short-circuit current.
2. The maximum symetrical interrupting capability
and carrying capability (up to a maximm of three
three second current carryLrrg ability does not
and include a requirement for interruption following
this extreme duty until the circuit breaker has
cooled dom to normal temperature limits. The
circuit breakers are, however, required to catry
this value of current in accordance with the
preferred ratings i.n C37.06-1988, and thereafter
interrupt.
For circuit breakers 121kV and above, this current
earrying capability is for one second; below 121kV
the carrying eapability is for two seconds.
Longer permissible tripping times are allowed at
Iower values of current, and can be calculated by
using equations given in the Section in C37.04 on
Rated Permissible Tripping Delay y.
3. Symmetrical current interrupting capatrility varies
inversely with operating voltage for circuit
breakers with K* 1 by the equation:
Required s)rmnetrical interrupting capability :
Rated Short x (Rated maximm voltage)
Circuit Current ( Operat- lng Vol Lage )
In no case, however, shall the required
s)rmmetrical interrupting capability exceed K times
rated short-circuit current.
of
4. As]rmmetrical current interrupting capability of a
circuit breaker is the highest value of the total
short-circuit rms current in amperes at the
instant of prirnary arcing contact separation which
the breaker is required to interrupt at a
specified operating voltage and on the standard.
operating duty. The nuerical value is equal to
the product of a ratio, defined as the S factor,
times the required s)rmmetrical interrupting
capatrility of the circuit breaker determined for
the operating voltage. The values of S,
illustrated in Figure 2, are given in Table f
The values of S for primary arcing contact parting
times between those given above shall be determined by
linear interpolation. The primary arcing contact
parting tirne is considered to be equal to the L/2 cycle
(present practicaf minimum tripping delay) plus the
actual opening time of the circuit breaker or the
opening times given in Table 1.
Fiture 2 graphically defines the S factor ratio of
breaker asyrnmetrical (tota1 current) capability to
sJrrnrnetrical interrupting capability as a function of
contact parting tirne. For example, a circuit breaker
with a rated interrupting time of three cycles, has a
built-in aslmetrical to sJrmetrical current
interrupting capability (S factor) of t.2.
SHORT. CIRCUIT CALCUII'TION PROCEDURES
Of primary importance to any application guide is
the method of determining short circuit currents for
comparison to the above ratings and capabilities to
properly select circuit breakers for short circuit
interruption.
Short- Circuit Current Characteristics
It must be asswed that a short-circuit on any ac
system can produce the maximm offset of the current
wave in accordance with system parameters. The
resulting aslrmnetrical current wave starts on an offset
axis initially equal to the crest value of the
s)rmetrical current and decays to a s)nffnetrical
current; the rate of decay of the dc comPonent
determined by the X/R ratio of the ac system.
Circuit breakers are designed and tested to
interrupt satisfactorily if the aslmmetrical and
sJr[metrical relationships of Figure 2 are not exceeded
by the system supplied currents. For circuit
interruption, the critical current value is at the time
of contact parting of the circuit breaker' Figure 2
specified the required asymmetrical capability of any
circuit breaker based on L/2 eyeLe minimm relay time
plus the circuit breaker opening time. Once this
asJrmetrical capability is established, it remains
fixed for any contact parting time within the
permissible tripping delay period.
For example, if a circuit breaker has an opening
time of I-L/Z cycles, the minimum contact parting time
is 2 cycles. From Figure 2, the circuit breaker has an
asymmetrical current capability of 1.2 at 2 cycles,
where the required s)rmrnetrical capabitity is 1.0.
The calculation multipliers developed in
evaluate the decay in ac and dc comPonents of the
system short-circuit current' When a fault is close,
e1ectrica1ly, to a major generation source, the ac
decay is significant during the first few cycles. The
ac decay is not significant in system loeations that
are electrically remote from generation. This is true
for auxiliary systems fed directly from the Benerator
terninals through a relatively high impedance
trans former . generators, at generat-or voltage, exceeds 70 percent of
In cases where high X/R ratios are encountered and
some tripping delay in excess of L/2 cycle is used,
advantage can be taken of the decay in either or both
the dc or ac components of short-circuit current' Care
must be taken to assure that the circuit breaker
closing and latching capability (1-6K tines rated
short-circuit current) is not exceeded. Also' in the
presence of motor load, closing into a short-circuit
may be critical at the first major curlent crest'
Proper provision for this condition is assured by
naking a closing and latching duty caleulation using
the atpropriate rotating machine reactances that will
be discussed later for the motors.
Tn aI1 eases, the required sl/Tnmetrical or the
required asJrmmetrical interrupting current capability
of a circuit breaker should not be exeeeded at the tine
of primary arcing contact separation.
METHODS FOR CALCUI-ATING SYSTEM SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS
Methods for calculating short circuiL currents are
given in C37.010 Sections 5.3.1 and 5.3'2. The
simplified method in Section 5.3.1 requires only an E/X
calculation up to certain limits, which represents the
limited degree of accuracy of the method.
A more accurate method is given in Section 5 ' 3.2.
This rnethod comPutes an E/X current and adjusts this
value for the ac and dc decay obtained from circuit
conditions. This method also provides for the
possibility of including both ac and dc decays where
relay time delays in excess of l/2 cycle ml'nimum are
utilized. This method provides results nith an
accuracy comensurate with available short-circuit
characteristics of electrical equipment and systems.
The uniwersal appllcation of small digital
computers has essentially eliminated the need to
manually ealculate system short-circuit currents by the
following methods. It is importanL however to
understand how the specific short circuit current
calculation program performs these calculations. For
proper accuracy, tt,e E/X method calculating ac and dc
decrements should be included in the short-circuit
current program.
E/X Simplified Method:
In many cases of short-circuit calculations, a
simple E/X computation (E/X-, for three-phase faults or
3E/(2X. + X^) for single lifie-to-ground faults) will
providd adefiuate accuracy for circuit breaker
application. A later section defines "electrical
quantities used" in the calculation.
Ttre results of the E/X simplified procedure may be
compared with 100 percent of the circuit breaker
s)rmnetrical interrupting capability uhere it is known
that the system X/R ratio (X.,/R., for three-phase faults
or (2X, t x )/(2P.. + R-) for-sirigle line-to-line ground
faultsi is ?5 or t"==.' For simplification,
negatiwe-sequenee reactance X, is assmed equal to
positive-sequence reactance Xi. A similar assmption
is made for resistance values-R, and Rr.
The E/X simplified procedure may be used without
determining R if the three phase fault E/X does not
exceed 80 percent of the symmetrical interrupting
C37.010 capability of the circuit breaker. If a circuit
trreaker is to be used where the current determined by
this method exceeds 80 percent of the circuit breaker's
symetrical interrupting capability, the more exact
method of calculation should be used to check the
adequacy of the circuit breaker.
The more exact procedure should also be used if a
single line-to-ground fault supplied predominantly by
the circuit breaker s;rmmetrical interrupting capability
for single line-to-ground faults.
E/X Mechod Calculating AC and DC Decrements:
For greater accuracy than the "E/X Sinplified
Method, " the following proeedure which applies
rnultiplying factors to the E/X calcrlaxion should be
used. The appropriate multiplying factors depend upon
the point on the system at which the short-circuit
occurs and upon the system X/R ratio seen from that
point.
For determination of the system X/R ratio, it
should be noted that there is no completely accurate
means of combining two parallel circuits with different
values of X/R into a single circuit with one value of
X/P-. the current from the several circuits will be the
sw of several exponentially decaying terms, usually
 with different exponents. Investigation has shom that Positiwe Sequenee
the procedure of reducing the system reactance to a Reactances for Calculating
single value with complete disregard for the CLosing
resistances and reducing the system resistance to a and
single value with complete disregard for the reactances Interrupting Latching
Type of Rotating Duty Dury
gives more conservative results than any other
reasonatrly sirnple procedure. (Note: other methods Machine (Per Unit) (Per Unit)
could give calculated results less than actual system
walues ) .
A11 turbogenerators; all hydrogenerators
wil-h amortisseur windings, and aI1
The factors from Figures 3, 4 or 5 should be condensers (see Note 1) 1.0 Xd, L.0 x d_"
applied to the E/X calculation so that ac and dc
decrements are properly included in the final result Hydrogenerators without mortisseur
for comparison with the s)rmmetrical inEerrupting windings (see Nore 2) 0.75 Xd' 0.75 X.'.d
capability of the circuit breaker being considered. A1l synchronous motors (see Notes
The following procedure is employed:
1 and 4) 1.5 X.. 1.5 X d_"
o

1) The factors of Figures 3 and 4 include the effects Induction Motors (See Notes 3,4 & 5)
of both ac and dc decay. The E/X current should Above 1000 hp at 0 Eo 1800 r/min 1.5 X,"
be multiplied by a factor from Figure 3 for a o
1.0 xd,
three-phase fault and by a factor from Figure 4 Above 250 hp at 3600 r/min
for a line-to-ground fault if Ehe short-circuit From 50 to 1000 hp at 0 ro ,I ?Y il
current is fed predominantly from generators 3.0 Xd,
1800 r/rnin o
through a per-unit reactance external to the
generator which is less than 1.5 times the From 50 xo 260 hp ar 3600 r/nin
generator per-unit subtransient reactance on a
common system MVA base.
Neglect all three-phase induction
motors below 50 hp and al1 single-
2) The factors of Figure 5 include only the effects phase motors.
of dc decay. The E/X curlent should be multiplied
by a factor from Figure 5 for a three-phase or a
line-to-ground fault if the short-circuit current NOTE: Load reactances are neglected since they
is fed predominantly from generators through a are usually large with respect to the series reactance
per-unit reactance external to the generator that and have 1ittIe effect on the magnitude of short-
is equal to or exceeds 1.5 times the generator circuit current.
per-unit subtransient reactance on a coiltmon system
MVA base. X, is the positive-sequence reactance. (Equiva-
lent td X as used in the C37.O1O Standard.)
The resulting product must not exceed the s)metrical
interrupting capability of the circuit breaker under X2 is the negative-sequence reactance.
cons ideration -

X is the zero-sequence reactance which may be

It should be noted that the maximum correction
factor obtained from Figures 3 and 5 in most practical
applications, other than the single line-to-ground
fault at a generator bus 1s approximately L.25. This
1.25 factor is the basis for establishing 80 percent of
the circui"t breaker capability as a limit for
application of the earlier described "Simplified
Method" where a system X/R ratio is not determined.
For circuit breaker applications where the relay
times are known to be in excess of L/2 cycle, and
assming minimum contact parting time, Figures 3, 4,
and 5 include application curves for the longer contact
part times.
Electrical Quantities Used:
E is the line-to-neutral value corresponding to
the highest typical operating voltage which occurs at
the circuit breaker location.
X is the corresponding lowest value of system
reactance (determined with R assumed 0) as viewed from
the fault point with a1l rotating machines represented
by the appropriate reactances later indicated. ft may
be eiEher X., or 2X., + X^ according to whether three-
phase or sifigle 1ifie-to:ground currents are being
obtain3d from design dita, by caleulation, or by l-est'
X-" is the subtransient direct-axis reactance of a
=yr.hr8ror= machine or locked-rotor reactance of an
induction machine.
X.' is the transient direct-axis reactance of a
=y."hr8nous machine.
R is the corresponding lowest value of system
resistance as viewed from the fault point (determined
with X assr:ned 0). R may be- either Rl or 2R1 + Ro
depending on whether Lhree-phase or single
line-to-ground eurrents are being calculated.
R., is the positive-sequence resistance.
R, is the negative-sequence resistance.
R^ is the zero-sequence resistance which may be
obtainEd from design data, by calculation, or by test.
I is the calculated slmetrical short-circuit
current.
Rotating Machine Reactances :

calculated.
Basically, the initial short-circuit current of
rotating machines is determined by the machine
subtransient reactances. For the short-circuit
calculations used in C37.010, the following reactances
are employed:

28

NOTES:
L. X," of synchronous rotating machines is rated
voltage (sHturated) direet-axis subtransient reactance'
2. Xr' of synchronous rotating machines is the
rated voltHge (saturated) direct-axis transient
reactanee.
3. X," of induction motors equals 1.00 divided by
per-unit lScked-rotor current at rated voltage.
4. The current contributed to a short-circuil- by
induction motors and small synchronous motors may
usually be ignored on utility systems except station
service supply systems and at substations supplying
Iarge industrial loads. At these locations, as well as
in industrial distribution systems and other locations
close to large motors, the current ax l/2 cycle will be
increased by the motor contribution to a greater
degree, proportionately, than the symmetrical current
at minimm contact parting time. In these cases, an
additional calculation of the l/2 cycle current shoufd
be made using the appropriate reactance values given
above under the heading "Closing and Latching Duty.rr A
1.6 multiplying factor should be used for asymmetry and
this resuft must not exceed the closing and latching
capability of the circuit breaker under consideration.
5. These rotating machine reactanee multipliers
and the E/X amperes multipliers of Figures 3 and l+
include the effects of ac decay. However, the C37.010
methods for calculation of system short-circuit current
incorporate sufficient conservatism to pernit the
simultaneous use of both multipliers,
Resistanee Values:
For the purpose of determining the equivalent X/R
ratio, it is recommended that the Danufacturer's advice
be obtained coneerning the resistance value to be used
for important electrical devices ' For machines, the
X/R ratio required is a measure of the time constant of
the exponential decay of the dc component of machine
current for a fault at its terminals. In the absence
of manufacturer's recommendations, the approximate
values of resistance from the following table are
suggested. In either case, measured values on rotating
machines should be converted to normal operating
temperature. In setting uP the R netlrork for the
calculation of the equivalent X/R ratio of any system,
rotating machine resistance values obtained from the
manufacturer or through use of the following table
should be adjusted by the applicable rotating machine
reactance multlpliers given below:
stem nents Approximate Resistance
Turbine generators and Effeetive resistance
condensers
Salient pole generators Effective resistance
and motors
Induction motors 1.2 times the dc armature
res istance
Power transforners ac load loss resistance
(not including no-1oad
losses or auxiliary
1os ses )
Reactors ac resistance
Lines and cables ac resistance
Effective resistance X^
-------.la-ly
vhere X^ is the
? f T ^ cycle.
29
rated voltage negative-sequence reactance and Tr, is
the generator armature time constant in seconds' lt 1s
usuaLly about 1.2 tirnes the dc resistance.
SHORT C]RCUIT INTERRUPTING PERFORMANCE
The short circuit interrupting performance affects
the availatrility, reliability and required maintenance
of circuit breakers. The minimm requirements for
interrupting performance in C37.04 include:
1) Oil circuit breakers shal1 perform at or within
their ratings without emitting flarne, and without
emitting oi1 except for minimum quantities through
vent oPenings.
2) Oilless circuit breakers, including compressed air
circuit breakers, shal1 perfom at or within the
respective ratings without enitting injurious
flarne.
3) Each circuit breaker sha11 have the capability of
a number of operations, rated continuous current
and 85 percent of its required asJrmmetrical
interrupting capability at its operating voltage'
in which the sum of the currents interrupted does
not exceed 400 percent of the required
aslmmetrical interrupting capability of the
breaker at its oPerating voltage.
Circuit breakers with hermetically sealed (sealed
for life) interrupters such as vacuum and some SF6
.puffers have the accumulated service capability of
b00 percent of the required asyumetrical
interrupting capability. Present work in the IEEE
Switchgear Cornmittee is directed toward
recognizing the superior service capability of
modern interrupter technologies '
Reclosing DutY Factors
InterruPting eapability factors for reclosing
service are eovered in ANSI Standards C37 '04 fox
circuit trreakers on a s)rmetrical basis of rating'
These capability factors are preserved in standards for
eertain circuit breaker technologies, such as some oi1
circuit breakers, where the time betl{een short circuit
current interruptions is critical to al1ow the
dielectric (oil) to recover strength in the interrupter
of the circuit breaker. In general, these factors are
not required for modern technologies such as SF6 puffer
and vacuum circuit breakers because their dielectric
recovery time is less than the operating time of the
circuit breaker between opening operations' LIhen
reclosing duties i-nvolve either more operations or
shorter time intervals between oPerations than the
standard CO + K sec. + CO duty cyc1e, the manufacturer
should be consulted.
CapabilitY Pactors
When the interrupting eapability of a circuit
breaker needs to be modified trecause the circuit
breaker is applied on a duty cycle having more
operations oi- shorter time intervals than the standard
CO + lS sec. + CO duty cycle, a derating factor is
used. The constraints on the duty eycle are:
1) A duty cycle shal1 not eontain more than five
opening oPerations.
2) AlL operations within a 15 minute period are
considered Part of the sane duty cycle'
3) A period of 15 minutes between oPening operati'ons
is considered sufficient to initiate a new duty
 Procedure: amperes rms slmetrical . This value, 17,800 A,
when multiplied by the S
Ttre procedure for determining a circuit breaker factor, gives the as3nmetrical interrupting
reclosing duty derating factor is given in the capability.
following steps:
SUMMARY
1) Determine the s)mmetrical interrupting capability
of the circuit breaker at the system operating This section of the Tutorial Session on Circuit
voltage for the standard duty cycle (CO + 15 sec. Breakers was prepared to clarify and highlight:
+ CO) which requires no derating. This infor-
mation can be obtained from nameplate data or from f) The s1rmmetrical basis of rating for circuit
c37 .06. breakers.

2) Determine a reduction factor D, by multiplying a 2) Circuii: breaker related capabilities.

d., calculating factor by the number of opening
operations in excess of the two from the standard 3) Methods for calculating system short-circuit
duty cycle (CO + 15 sec. + CO). Add to this an currents.
additional d, derating factor for each reclosure
period less than 15 seconds. This sm gives the 4) The application of reclosing duty factors.
total reduction factor D which, when subtracted
from 100 percent gives a reclosing capability 5) Circuit breaker interrupting performance.
factor R for the proposed non-standard duty cyc1e.
This is expressed by the following formula:
For any specific circuit breaker application,
reference must be made to the latest version of the
D - d,I (n-2) + d.| --T5-
(15-r.) + d, (15-t^) + ....
applicable ANSI Standard(s) for a complete understand-
' 15- ing of the factors involved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
R : 100-D (percent)

where: D : total
The author gratefully acknowledges the excellent
reducti.on in percent. work of H.O. Simmons, Jr. in his paper, "SJnnmetrical
vs. Total Current Rating of Power Circuit Breakers, " as
dl : calculating factor for D in percent as a part of the original IEEE Tutorial Course
- -Cunction of breaker interrupting capabi- 75CH0975-3-PIrrR, "Application of Power Circuit
lity at operating voltage (see Figure Breakers. " Several areas of the original paper were
6). used verbatim in preparing the updated tutorial dealing
n : totaf nwber of openings solely with the s1rmmetrical current basis of rating.

tr : first t-ime inLerval less than 15

- seconds -
REFERENCES

H.O. Simmons, Jr. "Slrmetrical vs. Total Current

t, : second time interval less than 'l
5
Rating of Power Circuit Breakers, fEEE Tutorial Course
seconds.
75CH4915-3-PWR, "Application of Power Circuit
Breakers. "
R : reclosing capability factor in percent.
ANSI Standards:
As an example, a 145kV oil circuit breaker with a C37.04-1989, "Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage
20,000 ampere rms slmetrical rated short circuit Circuit Breakers Rated on a Slmmetrieal Current Basis."
current is to be applied with a duty cycle of O + CO +
l0 sec + CO + 70 sec + CO. C37.06-1988, "Schedules of Preferred Ratings and
Related Capabilities for AC High-Voltage Circuit
1) With K : 1, the slmmetrical interrupting Breakers Rated on a S)rametrical Current Basi-s."
capability is independent of the system voltage
and remains fixed at 20,000 amperes. C37.010-1989, "Application cuide for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers. "
2) The calculated d. factor from Figure 6 for
reducing the symfretrical interrupting capability
for the proposed duty cycle is 3.3 at 20,000 Andrew K McCabc fM
amPeres. was born i-n staten Islai4 Ne(
"6)
Yorkir 1953. He received the
BSEE deeree in 1976 from the
3) The total reduction factor D is then as follows: Polytechqjc Institute of
Brooklw and the MSEE
D : 3.3 x (4-2) + 3.3 x (15-0) + 3.3 x (15-10) + 0 desree'ir 198l&om the Polv-
tectraic Institute of New Yorlc
15 15
In 1976- he ioined Americen
: 6.6 + 3.3 + 1.1 Electric'pow6r s76lking in the
Electric Station Proiects Sec-
: 11 percent. tion. Since 1979. hdhas beeD
responsible for circuit breaker
engrneermg.
The reclosing capability facror R - 100-11 - 89
percent. Mr. McCabe is a member of the Power Ensineerins Societv
and the IEEE Switchgear Committee. He h* been a-membei
and Chairma-n of various Hieh-Voltase Circuit Breaker Stb-
4) Applying the circuit breaker according to C37.O4, committec Workins Grouos.- He is oiesentlv Secretaw of the
the symmetrical interrupting capability for the High-Voltage Circlit Br&ker Suhbmmiuee and Eiecutive
proposed duty cycle becomes 20,000 x 0.89 : 17,800 Vi&-Chairnan of C37 Hish Voltase Standards. He is also
Deputv Teclmical Advisor-of TC17A for the US. National
Coirriittee of the IEC and Tectrnical Advisor to US. CIGRE
30 Working Group 13.
 TABLE 1

Interrupting Trlpping Opening Contact

Time Delay Time Partlng Time
(cycles) (cycles) (cycles) (cycles) S Fr"ro,
1 0.s 0.5 1.0 L.4
2 0.s l.o 1.5 t.J

3 0.5 1.5 2.0 L.2

s 0.5 ,( 3.0 1.1
}iJLTIPLYING FACTORS FOR E/X AIIPERES
8 0.s 3.5 4.O 1.0
Fig. 3, ?hree-Phase Fault Hultiplyj.ng Factors
Which Include Effects of AC and DC
Decrement.

MAXIMUM SYMMETRIC!{- ITIIERRUPTING

AND CARRYIIIG

F RATED $OflT.CIRCUIT
U nroqm Y MIE0JA.!-Y0J4E
G IITAGE
ts
z
Ed
E
G
oE
F
&
t
6
}!
F
o
= MULIIPLYING FACIORS FOR E/X AMPERES

E Fig. 'r. Lj.ne-to-Ground Fault Multip).ying Fac-

tors l,]hich fnclude Effects of AC and
DC Decrenent.

NOMINAL SYSTEM VOLT!68

Fio. l. Relation of Synnetrical Interrupting

C,.itir it". cltsing capabilitv ' Latch-
ilI-c.""uiiitv' aid cirrving capabil-
it] to natea Short-CircuiL Current'
(*Or 2.7K tines rated short-circuit
current if current is neasured in peak
anPere s . ) 9

MJLTIPLYING FACTOfiS FOR E/X I"PERES

t.8 Fig. 5 . Thnee-Phase and Line-to-Ground fault

1.7
Hultiplying Factors Which Incl.ude
Effects of DC Decrement on1y.
t.6
t.5
a 1.4

!r.
n l.z I
t.t OPERATING IOIJAGE
22
H!J dl'l/6 xa
t.0 a
4z KA:18T0

CIRCUIT BREAXER CONTACT PAR'IING

a<
(SUM OF I/2 CrcLE TRIPPING DELAY .]-
PLUS THE OPENII,IG TIME OF THE
INDIVIOUAL BREAKER)
BREAXER INTERRUPTING CAPABILITY
It{ KILOAMPERES AT OPERATINO VOTTAGE
Fig. 2, Ratio of Circuit Breaker Asymetrical
to Symetrical fnterruPting Capabili-
ties. Fig. 6. .gC High-voltage clrcuit Brea(er lnter-
rupting Capability factors for Reclos-
ing Service.

31
 CIRCUM BREAKER TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE
Stephen R. Lambert, Fellow
Power Technologies, Inc.
Schenectady,
Abstract-Following short circuit current interruption by a
circuit breaker, a system generated voltage, known as a TRV or
transient recovery voltage, is impressed across the opening
breaker contacts. This voltage must be withstood if successful
interruption is to occur. The following describes the TRV,
discusses circuit breaker TRV capability and offers example
applications.
I}ITRoDUCTI0N
During the short circuit current intemrption process, at
current zero when current is interrupted, the system oscillates
in accordance with its natural frequency. This system
generated voltage, called the transient recovery voltage or
TRV, is impressed across the opening breaker coniacts and
stresses the gap insulation. The intenupting media following
current extinction, is attempting to return from a state of
good conduction to one having the attributes of a good
insulator. Thus, a race takes place - the intemrpting media
becomes a good insulator while the system is applying
increasing TRV to the gap in an attempt to reignite or
restrike the arc. If the insulation recovers more quickly than
the TRV, then a successful interruption occurs. If not, then
the arc is reestablished, another 112 cycle or loop of current
occurs, and the intemrption process is again attempted. This
process continues until successful intemrption occurs (or until
breaker failure).
Current reignition occurs because the intemrpting medium,
during the flrst few ps following current. interruption, is not.
yet a good insulator - it may still have a relatively high
conductance. If the TRV has a high rate of rise in those first
few ps, it may re-establish a current flow sufficient to heat
the arc column and restore conduction. If I2R heating
exceeds the breakers capability to remove heat and cool the
arc channel, then a re-ignition occurs.
Restrikes are really dielectric breakdowns and can occur
anytime during the TRV cycle, although usually they are
associated with breakdowns later in the cycle (say l0's 10
NY 12301-1058
100's of ps) when the TRV has a sufficiently high magni-
tude. Such an event is akin to a lightning flashover across
an insulator.
It should be clearly understood that while the magninrde
of the short circuit current is important to successful intemrp-
tion (i.e. it should be <= rated), failure to interrupt due to
excessive TRV can occur with low magnitude short circuit
curents as well as with currents at or near full rating.
During short circuit testing of circuit breakers, prospective
TRV's of specified magnitude and waveshape are impressed
across the opening contacts after current zero (and arc
extinction). Assuming a successful completion of the test,
the breaker then has the specified TRV capability. The
approach to proper breaker application is to determine the
prospective TRV (the TRV assuming no modifying action by
the breaker) generated by the electrical system in which the
breaker is operating, and to insure that the prospective TRV
is within the TRV specified by standards [1, 2]. If it is, the
breaker is properly applied.
This tutorial addresses characteristics of prospective TRV
waveforms as well as circuit breaker capabilities as defined
by standards, briefly discusses calculation techniques to
determine prospective TRV's and presents two example
applications. The tutorial is intended only as a preliminary
look at TRV's; the user is encouraged to consult the latest
edition of ANSIIEEE C37.011 [3] entitled "Application
Guide for Transient Recovery Voltage for AC High Voltage
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis" for
a more detailed presentation.
PR0SPECTIVE TRV CHaNaCTERISTICS
For purposes of TRV analyses, faults are categorized as
terminal faults, where the fault is at the breaker's terminal
(i.e. a fault in a substation), and short line faults (SLF) where
the fault is located on a transmission line, some short dis-
tance out from the breaker's terminals. The basis for rating
for terminal faults is the three phase ungrounded fault (first
phase to clear) while for short line faults, the basis is a single
line to ground fault; this tutorial addresses only these fault
types.
TRV's are usually characteiael by three classical wave-
shapes:
l. 1 - cosine fig. la)
2. ex-cosine (a waveshape described by the higher of an
exponential and a 1 - cosine wave, Fig. lb)
3. Saw-toothed (Fig. lc)
32
 The first two are associated with termind faults, while the
third is associated with SLF's.
1 - coslne
Fig. la. I - Cosine Waveshrye
ar - ooalllc
Fig. lb. Ex-cosire Waveshape
+t
Fig. lc. Saw+oothed Waveshape
I - Casine Waveslrape
The 1 - cosirp waveshape results from the parallel
combination of an inductor and capacitor and commonly
occurs when clearing a fault fed through a Eansformer
(FiS.2). For simple cases (infinite system behind the
transformer), the inductance is the leakage inductance of the
fiansformer while the capacitance is the sum of the stray
winding capa.citances, Cr-" and C"o (Cr-r, and Cro for Fig.
2b) plus any capacitance associated with the conductu
between the ransfsmer and tte breaker. Typically trans-
formers will have a capacitances in the order of a few
33
thousand pF, and the I - cosine shaped TRV will crest in the
low tens of ps. Short circuit curent is usually no where near
the breaker's rated short circuit curent capability; levels
from 107o to 5O7o are common.
Fig. 2a. Typical 1 - cosine Waveshape Configurarion
Fig. 2b. Typical I - cosine $faveshape Configuratim
Fig. 2c. Simple Equivalent Circuit of Fig. 2a
Because tte TRV rises slowly during the initial few ps, the
principal breaker stress is associated with dielectric break-
down of ttrc intemrpting medium due to the quicHy occur-
ring high crest voltages.
For the case wtere the source side inductance is small
compared to that of the transformer leakage inductance, and
assuming a three phase ungrounded fault on the transformer
secondary (Fig. 2a), calculation of the prospective TRV is
not difficult. For example, assume a 345-138 kV, 100 MVA
transformer with a ll%o le*age reactance. The TRV
waveform has the characteristic I - cosine shape with the
following parameters:

v*=E'['-'*t#]]
Where I. and C, are the transformer's leakage inductance
and stray capacitance, respectively,
and E, = 1.5 ,fi t a t,
Where I is the short circuit current
For the specific example, L, would be 50.5 mH,
A, and C, would be 4000 pF assuming an Cr-" and Cr_o of
2000 pF each. Thus, the TRV would be:
v* = r6e -'os
[, I J]-"
Ex - Cosine Waveshape
This waveshape is also related to interrupting terminal
faults, but the fault is supplied by bottr transformers (or
generation) and transmission lines fig. 3a). The simple
representation involves a parallel RLC circuit, with the L
associated with transformer leakage reactance, the R with the
transmission line surge impedance(s), and the C with stray
capacitance in the station (e.g. ransformer capacitance,
buswork and other equipment capacitances). In the practical
case, the system is overdamped, and the R and L generate an
exponential waveshape with the C delaying tire initial rise of
the TRV. C is usually neglected for simplihed calculations.
Trans. r
Lines 1
Fig. 3a. Typical Ex-cosine Fault Configuration
The ex-cos waveshape used for testing is defined as the
higher of an exponential and a 1 - cosine waveshape (Fig.
3b). Although there is actually no 1 - cosine contribution ro
the TRV in the practical case, the artifice is used because it
fits in well with the prescribed format for TRV capability
and because the "hump" of the 1 - cosine (that which
exceeds the exponential) represents the more severe or
critical cases where reflections of the exponential wave from
(1) remote transmission line terminals refi.rrn to the station and
are impressed on the interrupting breaker.
I - cosine
I = 4184
Fig. 3b. Ex-cosine Waveshape
Breaker stress results from the initial portion of the
o, exponential wave where the TRV is rising quickly (a few
kV/ps) and reignitions are possible, as well as later in the
TRV where dielecric restrikes are possible if the TRV crest
is too high. Usually tle stresses associated with this TRV
are the most severe when the fault current is at or near rated
(say above 607o).
Saw-toothed Waveshape
Associated with short line faults, the waveshape has a rate
of rise which is a function of the dildt of the short circuit
current and the surge impedance of the transmission line.
The crest of the wave occurs at a time related to the time
required for a wave to travel twice the distance between the
breaker and the fault (5.4 ps/mile for overhead lines). Thus,
if the fault is one mile from the breaker, the time !o crest is
about 10.8 ps.
Breaker stress is related to the rapidly rising TRV (5-10
kV/ps) threatening reignitions. Of course, on the system side
of the operating breaker, a TRV is also being generated,
having either a 1 - cosine or an ex-cosine waveshape, and
this contributes to the lotal TRV experienced by the breaker.
Cnpnsrury ENvEr.opE pnoM Sr,q.NDARps
ANSI standards, specifically C37.06 [4], describe the TRV
envelope to which the circuit breaker was testd. For
breakers rated l2l kV and above, both an ex-cos and a l-cos
waveform apply - the ex-cos for short circuit curents geater
than30?o ofrated and the l-cos for currents equal to 30Vo or
less. For breakers ratel 72.5 kV and below, only a l-cos
envelope is used. The short line fault requirement, a related
requirement, is required of all breakers, regardless of kV
rating.
It
should also be noted that for l-cosine and ex-cos
waveforms, standards require increased TRV capability as the
short circuit current decreases below the rated value - i.e. a
34
breaker has more capability for short circuit curents at say
tlan atl00Vo. (7)
75Vo of rating
v -- 443 , -" -;=] kv
Ex - Cosine Envelope
The I - cosine portion of the envelope is described by:
As an example, the capability envelope for a 345 kV
E.
circuit breaker at 24 kA (60Vo of a 40 kA rating) will be
W =3[ 1 -cos(rort)]
v*.
2L
kV (8)
constructed, neglecting capaci[ance. An ex-cos waveform is
specified, and the exponential portion of the envelope is
characterized by the following: E, is defined by standards (Iable 5 of C37.06) as equal to
1.76 times F -* or 637.1 kV. Noting that the breaker is not
t-_t I tl being applied at full rating, Table 7 indicates a multiplier of
v*=8,Il-e"] kv 1.07 for E, so that E, is set at 681.7 kV.
Standards define T, as the time to crest of the 1 - cosine
where ,=, seconds (3) wave, and for this discussion, Table 5 indicates Trtobe173
Z
ps; including the multiplier from Table 7 of 0.5, T, becomes

and E. =1.5 l"

t;- E 386.5 ps. a5 is related to T, by:
' {3 * TE

.T,
0)^=- rd

Where E*is the breaker's rated maximum voltage or in

this case 362 kV. Thus, E, equals 443.4 kV. L is the =n(9) {
386.5 x 10
inductance yielding the desired short circuit culrent, or in this
instlance: = 8128.3

362 kV - cosine portion of the waveform can be de-

roL= So the I
,fl z+ xe @) scribed by:
L = 23.1 mH
u*w2'= 6:' [, - "or ( srza t) ] (lo)

The derivative Eq. 3 at time zero is the rate of rise of the

recovery voltage, R: The total envelope is the higher of the exponential or the
1 - cosine envelopes as shown in Fig. 4.
E.Z (s)
R= '
L

From standards for a breaker rated 362 kV (Table 5 , C37 .-

06), the rated R is 1.8 kVips, and according to Table 7 of
C37.06, the multiplier for R for a 60Vo fault current. is 2.
Thus,R=3.6. So:

L=-
RL
E1

case
which for rhis (6)
3.6x106 23.1x10-3
=T Fig. 4. Ex-Cos TRV Envelope
362 kV Circuit Breaker - 607o Rared Current
= 187.6 O
Short Line Fauk Envelope
and the exponential waveform is described by:
On the line side of the operating breaker, a saw-toothed
waveform exists. On the source side, either an ex-cos or a
1-cosine waveform exists (rarely another saw-oothed).

35
 The line side SLF envelope is defined as a saw-toothed
wave having a rate of rise, R, as follows:
R" =M I o z to-g kv/ps
where I is the rated symmetrical fault current in kA, M is
the ratio of the actual fault current to the rated, and Z is a
surge impedance defined by standards in Ohms
For a 362 kV circuit breaker, C37.M [l] defines Z
360O. The crest of the envelope is defined by:
e=d(l-M)o.ssv kV
where V is the rated maximum voltage, and d is an ampli-
tude factor defined by standards
CnlcuurroN TECHMeUES
Prospective TRV's are usually determined by the use of a
(11)
digital transients program such as a version of the EMTP
(electromagnetic Eansients program) or by various "hand"
calculations. Hand calculations are useful for verifying
complex simulations which used EMTP or other programs,
and the system can often be sufficiently simplified so that
such calculations yield satisfactory results. In fact, hand
as calculations are also useful for determining the need for more
detailed calculation techniques. For example, if hand
calculations show the breaker to be well within its capability,
02) then furtlrer detailed calculations using EMTP for example,
are unnecessary.
Appt-rcarroNs

For a 362 kV circuit breaker, C37.M delines d as 1.6. As an example compare the capability of a 138 kV breaker
Thus, assuming a SLF having a 36 kA fault current. (907o of against the prospective l-cosine TRV waveform determined
a 40 kA rating), the rate of rise of the envelope will be: in the earlier section for a three phase ungrounded fault. The
prospective TRV is defined by Eq. 2.
R, = ,E .g 40 37:- 360 lo{ kvfus (13) Assume a 40 kA breaker. E* is 145 kV, and from Table
5 of C37.06, T, is 310 ps. As the actual fault current of
= 6.9 kV4s
4184 A is 10.57o of rated short circuit current, from Table 7
(C37.06), the multipliers for E, and T, are l.l& and, .2,
It will have a crest, e, o[: respectively. E, is then 145 x 1.76 x 1.164 or 291kV, and
T, is 62 ps.
e = r.6 ( I -.e ) {i o.ss zez kv (14) Fig. 6 shows the prospective TRV as well as the capability
required by switchgear standards. Note that the prospective
= 47.5 kV
wave exceeds the capability. Thus, were this an actual
The time [o crest, T., is then: condition being considered, one might perform a more
detailed analysis using EMTP for example, and consider all
other stray capacitance between the breaker and the frans-
l. = us former, the source reactance as well as damping associated
"R.- (1s) with the transformer windings. With better model represen-
tations, it could well be that the prospective TRV would fall
= 6.9 ps
within the capability.

The SLF envelope (line side) would have the shape shown
on Fig. 5.
PGp{tjE 2\
\
\
A
Capabry by
SEndards

,
T]re(6)

Fig. 6. Prospective TRV vs Capability

TIME (us)

Fig. 5. SLF Circuit Breaker If a more sophisticated analysis failed to result in the
TRV Envelope (Line Side) prospective TRV being within standard capability, one could
consult with the manufacturer to determine if the breaker had

36
capability in excess of that required by srandards,
could add suffrcient capacitance between the breaker and the
transformer so as to modify the prospective TRV bringing it
within breaker capability.
As anotler example, consider a SLF on a 345 kV trans-
mission line about 0.5 miles out on the line from the operat-
ing breaker. Assume the fault curent is 36 kA, and using
typical parameters for 345 kV lines, the effective surge
impedance as seen by the operating breaker for single line to
ground fault is about 350 O. The rate of rise of the TRV is
given by Eq. 11 (with MI equal to 36 kA and Z equal to 350
Q). Thus, R" is 6.72 kV/ps, and the line side TRV will crest
in about 5.4 ps @ig. 7). The TRV SLF capability is given
on Fig. 5 for these specific conditions and is repeated on
Fig.7.
Tire (us)
Fig. 7. SLF TRV Prospecrive and Capability
As may be seen, the capability curve exceeds the prospec-
tive TRV, and thus the breaker could be successfully applied.
or one RsrERENces
tll IF'EE C31.M-1979 (Reaff 1988), Standard Rating
Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
on a Symmetrical Current Basis (Includes Supplement
C37 .O4c-1985) (ANS VDoD).
tzl IEEE C37.09-1979 (Reaff 1988), Standard Test
Procedure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis (ANSVDoD).
t3l IEEE C37.011-1979 (Reaff 1988), Application Guide
for Transient Recovery Voltage for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmerical Curent
Basis (ANSI).
I4l ANSI C37.06-1987 Standard for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current
Basis-Preferred Ratings and Related Required
Capabilities.
Stephen R. l,ambert (M'69, SM'78, F'91) received both a BSEE and
MS from the University of Illinois in 1969. After teaching at the
Univenity, he joined Commonwealth Associates, Inc. In 1970- He
joined Power Technologies, Inc. n1973 and is prese,ntly a Senoir
Consultant with PTI. IvIr. Lambert is a Registered Professional Engineer
and a fellow of the IEEE. He is past Chairmsr of the IEEE Switchgear
Commitee, the High Voltage Circuit Breaker Subcommiue.e and the
TRV Working Group and is presently Vice-Chairman of the IEEE PES
mernber of the IEEE WG and the IEC
Technical Council. He is also a
28.1 WG dealing with insulation cocdinarim.
37
 TEMPERATURE RISE, CONTINUOUS CURRENT, OVERLOAD CURRENT
RATINGS, AND EMERGENCY OVERLOAD CURRENT RATINGS OF
POWER GIRCUIT BREAKERS AND SWITGHGEAR

David L. Swindler P.E.

Sr. Member IEEE
Square D Company
330 Weakley Road
Smyrna, TN 37167
(615) 459-1311

FORWARD
The following tutorial is based in part on work by Mr.
Noel Reed of Hughes Research Laboratories. Revisions
to Mr. Reed work involve the following: The addition
of discussions concerning the procedure in determining
the continuous current ratings, broadening the discussion
to include switchgear in general, and broadening
the discussion concerning Emergency Overload
applications. Discussions deleted concern differences
associated with breakers rated on a total current basis.
These deletions were made since standards C37.4,
C37.6, and C37.9 have been officially withdrawn and
breakers rated in accordance with these standards are
no longer manufactured.
INTRODUCTION:
An important part of the rating structure of power
circuit breakers and switchgear is the rated continuous
current. This is the current in rms amperes which
the circuit breaker is required to carry continuously
under specified conditions of usage. The intention of
the standards is that the continuous current rating
should not be exceeded in the application and usage of
the switchgear. However, there are some situations
where it is possible to exceed this rated value with
out harmful effects. ln other applications, it is
possible that the Ambient temperature may be unusually
high and it may be necessary to reduce the applied
loading to assure a proper application. The section
on Overload Cunent Ratings will examine the basis for
the Overload Current Ratings will examine the basis
for overloading, considering the ambient, normal load
ing prior to overloading, level of overloading desired
and the duration of the overloading. The section on
Emergency overloading will consider these same factors
plus requirements and consequences due to the
emergency overloading.
BASIS OF CONTINUOUS CURRENT RATING
When a circuit breaker or other forms of Switchgear
carries a continuous current, heat is developed which
causes temperature rises in various parts of the
equipment. The characteristics of materials tend to
be degraded by the long-term application of heat. The
temperature rise of components tend to be proportional
to square of the current magnitude, thus the is an
indication of the magnitude of heating. For a given
preferred continuous current rating, the manufacturer
designs the equipment so that the temperature rise of
the various parts will not exceed the allowable temperature
rise limitations of the various materials used.
Causes of Heatino Resultinq from Continuous Current
The main cause of heating in the equipment is the
electrical resistance with in conductors of the current
carrying path. This is caused by the resistance
of contact surfaces, bolted joints, threaded connections
and ohmic resistance in the conductors them
selves. This resistance is affected by ,,skin-effect',
or the geometric shape of the conductor in relation to
its relative inductance to AC currents. ln other
words the path of current tends to be constricted to
flow in limited paths making ihe AC resistance higher
that it would normally be under DC conditions.
ln addition, nearby magnetic parts within the equipment will
develop heat due to eddy currents induced by
the magnetic field of the current in the main path.
Bushing flanges, parts of tanks, sheet metal enclosures,
and springs in the contact assemblies often are
close enough to the main current path to develop
significant heating if made of magnetic materials.
A third source of heat is current transformers
installed within the circuit breaker or switchgear
structure. The windings and core of each current
transformer develop an amount of heat which also adds
to the total amount developed within the equipment.
lnfluence of Ambient Temoeratrrre
The final temperature of the device is also influenced
by the ambient temperature of the surrounding air.
The final temperature of a device is taken as the sum
of the ambient temperature plus the temperature rise
due to continuous current as determined under laboratory
conditions with tests performed in accordance
with the provisions of Standard for the device in
question.
lndoor and Outdoor ambient temperatures may vary
as a function of the building if installed
significantly
indoors and cyclically on a daily and seasonal basis
if Outdoors. Considering outdoor ambients, a good
summary of temperature conditions is given in t1].
Using data from U.S. Weather Bureau records, this ref-
erence states that in the entire area of the United
States the ambient temperature exceeds B0 Deg. C less
lhan 12"/" of the time, 35 Deg. C less than 3%, 40 Deg.
C less than 0.5% and 45 Deg. C less than 0% of the
time. For all practical purposes, the ambient temperature
almost never exceeds 40 Deg C, thus most
standards uses 40 Deg as a basis for the top limit for
normal applications. There may, however, some unusual
or industrial applications in which electrical may be
placed which would require special application techniques.
Usual Service Conditions
As stated before, the rated continuous current is the
current which is the current which the device is
required to carry continuously under specified condi-
tions. These conditions are called "Usual Service
Conditions" and are listed as example in [2]. Usual
Service Conditions vary slightly among various types
of switchgear and the standard for the product under
consideration must be consulted. Basically the usual
service conditions including a maximum allowable
ambient temperature and maximum allowable installation
altitudes above sea level. The altitude conditions
relates to the decreased cooling effect of the less
dense ambient air above the allowed altitude. The
ambient temperature conditions relates to the allow
able total temperature of the various materials in the
device. As example, a high voltage circuit breaker is
required to operate continuously at its rated continu-
ous current when installed at its maximum allowable
altitude above sea level. The circuit breaker manu-
facturer must design i and use materials in i which
will allow it to be used in such manner.
The usual service conditions for circuit breakers
40 Deg C as the maximum allowable ambient temperature,
-30 Deg C as the minimum allowable ambient tempera-
ture, and 330o feet(1 000 meters) as the maximum allow
able altitude. There are many locations in the Conti-
nental United States where the elevation is signifi-
cantly higher than 3300 feet and it is likely that
this fact typical goes unnoticed and when recognized
leads to a great deal of confusion during the specifi-
cation and commercial processes. lt is not unusual
for a user to specify an altitude above 3300 feet but
is unprepared to properly evaluate bid responses.
Manufactures are simply not going to design and build
a special piece of equipment which woutd require addi-
tional materials to meet a specific bid specification
requiring unusual altitudes and 40 Deg C ambients. lt
must be understood by the user that standardized
equipment is constructed and if the application
requires both 4O Deg C ambients and unusual altitudes
that standard de-rating factors must be applied and
either the loading must be reduced or a larger stan-
dard size piece of equipment must be specified. lt
must also be understood that typical unusual altitudes
will bring lower ambient temperatures and the two tend
to offset each other such that it is likely that the
rated continuous may be applied. There are, however,
high desert areas in the country in which this trade
of may not be true and a de-rating must be accepted.
Unusual Service Conditions
ln most instances standards suggest that any unusual
service conditions be called to the manufacturers
attention. For ambients above 40 Deg C and for alti-
tudes above 33OO feet (or what ever is applicable for
that device), standards usually provide tables of de-
rating factors or formulas for determining the loading
which may be applied to the device. The philosophy of
these factors are such that the device when applied
under the specific conditions defined will not endure
final temperatures above that for which they have been
designed when operated on a continuous basis. This of
course makes the assumption that the device was
designed and tested in accordance with the standard in
which the de-rating factors are provided.
Total Temperature and Temperature Rise Limits
The Standard governing the performance of a product
will establish the limits of temperature. For the
most part, the maximum permissible total temperature
has been well established for most common materials
and construction designs and are listed in [1 ]. Over
the years and from one product to another, there will
be some differences. For most of us, the reasons for
specific temperature limits have been lost in antiqu-
ity. There are pressures to raise some of them in
certain proposed standards. Regardless of their val-
ues, it should be understood their intent and the
realities of their use. The first point that should
be understood that the temperature found with a device
that has been in service for some time under its spe-
cific application conditions, may be significantly
different than those indicated in standards. Typi-
cally Continuous Current Tests are performed on a pro-
totype device in a laboratory. Standards do not spe-
is cify the characteristics of air flow with in the labo-
ratory. Also Standards do not specify the use of air
density correction factors such as are required for
Dielectric Testing. As example, most switchgear manu-
facturing laboratories are located at 500 feet or
below whereas the standards permit products tested in
these laboratories to be applied under standard condi-
tions up to 3300 feet. Then also the air density does
change as a function of current atmospheric condition.
ln addition to this, by the nature of the test and the
physics involved, there can be some error in the eval-
uation of the laboratory continuous current test.
Continuorrs Current Testino
The basis of the Continuous Current Rating, the prod-
ucts application, overloading and emergency overload
ing application depends upon the devices Laboratory
Continuous Current Test. The Standards must be well
understood to perform and evaluate the product for an
application. The attempt to write better Continuous
Current Test standards have left a few engineers con-
cerned relative to present standard requirements and a
full appreciation for present requirements is advis-
able.
Engineers understand well the need of holding the
applied test current and the correct procedures for
installing thermocouples and making proper ambient
temperature measurments. What is not well understood
is when to end the test when all requirements are met
and the implications of this criteria. Early stan-
dards simply stated that the test should be continued
unlil the temperature is essentially stable. Consid-
ering new requirements for third party certification,
it was felt a more definitive statement should be
made. Thus, the "essentially stable', was defined as a
change of one degree C or less. Today most standards
read: "The continuous current test shall be made for
such a period of time that the temperature rise of any
monitored point in the assembly has not increased by
more than 'l .0 Deg. C during each of two successive O0
min. intervals as indicated by three successive read-
ings."
SWITCHGEAR TEMP. RISE DATA
Temp. Rise vs. Time
67
66
65
u 64.4:.
I 63j0+
I az.t63
>oz
p61
500 600 700
360 Time in Minutes
Lr k = '11120
This conditionis illustrated in figure 1 for a single
point of measurement. ln any large switchgear device
there may be in the order of 50 points of measure
ments. Each point may have a slightly different ther-
mal-time constant thus some points may increase more
rapidly than others and stabilize more quickly. Some
point are obviously going to be closer to their
imposed limits than others. Experience has taught us
that typically points which are not close to the limit
are the ones that stabilize more slowly than those
which are close to their limits. lt is simply inter
esting to note that it is usually the lower, slower
poinS which govern when the test is to be terminated
rather than the hotter ones closer to their limits.
Assuming, however, there is only one point
cidentally the fastest point was also the hottest one,
it is noted that the criteria for ending the test does
not assure that the equipment is at its hottest tem
perature. Some application engineers are abhorred
with this thought, however, it must be understood the
fact that the standard never required an absolutely
stable conclusion. The words were always "Essentially
Stable" This is necessary and reasonable from several
view points.
First of all, it is a difficult task for a
technician to
precisely determine when he can call the
test complete. Considering the new wording and new
microprocessor based monitoring equipment, the end of
the test can be precisely determined and even automat-
ically terminated. This means that the temperature is
stable to with in one degree and not that it is abso
lutely stable. Given the fact that switchgear equip-
ment is large and is likely to have a general thermal
time constant of 1 to 2 hours, the thermal over run
can be determined and it is likely to be no greater
than 2 degrees in the worst case. Since the slower
thermal time constant points tend to have lolv tempera-
tures and fast thermal time constant points tend to be
hotter, the amount of over run at the limits tend to
be less than 2 degrees. Considering the fact that the
actual temperature limits are not concretely estab-
lished with eminent peril attached to their violation,
this minimal temperature over run is considered rea-
sonable and acceptable and the results there of should
be used for all practical purposes. lt is likely that
relative air densities would have as much affect yet
this is not considered during the test.
Temperature rise testing and temperature limitsis not
iron clad, highly scientific oriented procedure, how
ever it has given us a good yard stick over the years
to assure good performance of our Switchgear. We do
need these standards, however, to level the playing
field and to achieve a standard level of performance.
Effects of Solar Badiation
For outdoor applications, the effects of solar radia-
tion must be considered. Engineers are well aware of
the fact a metal tool left in direct sunlight may
become too hot to be able to pick up. Also the affect
on our automobiles is well known. Solar radiation has
the same effect on switchgear and can add a signifi-
cant amount of heating to the equipment adding to its
operating temperature. ln many cases equipment must
be de-rated or artificially cooled in an effort to
keep temperatures with in their required limits. Con-
sult C37.24 as a guide for the effects of solar radiation.
OF SWITCHGEAR EQUIPMENT AT
OPERATION
OTHER THAN STANDARD CONDITIONS
Assuming a device has been tested and rated under
standard conditions it may be applied at other than
standard or usual conditions These conditions may as
follows:
'l .
Operations at higher than rated loading at low
ambient temperatures.
or if coin- 2. Operation at higher ambient temperatures with de-
rated loading.
3. Operation at higher than standard altitudes
4. Operation for short periods of time in an over-
loaded condition.
5. Operation for short periods of time in an emergency
overloaded condition.
For the most part, operating conditions 1 thru 4 may
be conducted at the discretion of the user with out
conciliation with the manufacturer. Most of the data
laboratory necessary these applications are provided in the
appropriate standards. The reason for this is that
the guidelines provided in the standard do not stress
the device beyond the limits for which the device was
rated and tested. ln the case of item 5, the emer-
gency overloading adds additional stress to the device
and in this case the manufacture should be consulted.
The parameters for emergency overloading, adds about 15
degrees to the total temperature of operation.
Operation at hiqher than rated loadinq
at low ambient temPerature
ln some cases it may be desirable to add loading to a
device above its continuous current rating. As stated
before, only a very few applications would have an
ambient temperature as high as 40 Deg. C. Within an
air-conditioned building, it might be rare that
ambient temperatures would be above 25 or 30 Deg. C.
Thus in this type of environment an economic advantage
can be enjoyed by adding loading above it rating.
For circuit breakers, ANSIIIEEE C37.01 0 gives the fol-
lowing formula for calculating the allowable current
for ambient temperatures other than 40 Deg. C.
la = lr((Omax - oa)/00 ^111.8
where:
la = allowable loading current
lr = rated continuous current
0 max : allowable hottest spot total temperature
0a = actual ambient temperature
0r : allowable hottest spot temperature rise at rated
continuous current.
As example a circuit breaker having a continuous cur-
rent rating of 12oo amperes operating in a 25 Deg. C
might be loaded to 1346 amperes.
The above equation is obtained by starting with
assumption that temperature rise is proportional to
current to some power. The value of this power has
been found experimentally to lie between 't .6 and 2.0.
For purposes of standardization, the power is chosen
to be an average value of 1.8. For other than High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers power is typically shown as 2
which is considered more conservative and is given on
the basis of calculations rather than experimental
experience.
at Hiqher Ambients Temperatures and
Operation
De-rated Loadino
ln some instances switchgear equipment must be placed
in industrial or in high solar radiation environments
in which the ambient temperature exceeds the 40 Deg. C
rating. In the case of circuit breakers the same for
mula as given above may be used to determine the
allowable loading. As example, if we assume an
ambient of 50 Deg. C and a 1200 amp. rating, the
allowable loading would be 1093 amperes. lf the actual
load is 1 'l 50 amperes, the user is obligated to select
the next standard available size which may be 2000
amperes.
Ooeration at Hiqher than standard altitudes
Product standards will typically proved tables of de-
rating factors for operation above the standard alti-
tude limit. Often, both continuous current de-rating
factors and dielectric de-rating factors are provided
in the same table. Considering High Voltage Circuit
breakers at 10,000 feet, the Continuous Cunent AIti-
tude Correction Factor is 0.96 (reference ANSI/IEEE
C37.04 Table 1). Thus at 10,000 feet and in an
ambient of 40 Deg. C a 1200 ampere rated circuit
breaker should only be loadedto 1152 amperes. This
is not a and it is more than
significant reduction
likely that this would be made up by the fact that
ambient temperatures at 10,000 feet are usually fairly
chilly. Using the formula defined by C37.010 and
stated earlier, the ambient can be as high as 35 Deg.
C without the equipment overheating with rated conti-
nuous current. lt is likely that temperatures at
10,000 ft. are significantly lower than 35 Deg.C.
There are locations in the United States such as White
Sands New Mexico where altitude is above 3300 ft. and
high ambients, and solar radiation tend to align to
negatively impact the loading capability. ln this
case the altitude correction factor may not be as
easily dismissed as one which would be associated with
the top of Pikes Peak. All application factors must
be considered together.
Ooeration for short oeriods of time in an overloaded
condition.
ln some instances, it may be desirable or necessary to
operate a piece of equipment in an overloaded condi-
tion for a rather limited period of time. For equip-
ment having a thermal time constant of in the order of
1 to 2 hours, the practical limit of the overload
period is about equal to one thermal time constant.
This of course will vary as a function of a number of
parameters to be discussed, however, the period of
the this overloading is rather short. For High Voltage
Circuit Breakers, this application procedure is def -
ined by ANSI/IEEE C37.010 Paragraph 4.4.3.3, Short-
Time Load Cunent Capability. This procedure estab-
lishes a duration of time that would be permissible
for an overloaded condition to exist. This time is a
function of a number of factors, namely the ambient
temperature, the loading of the breaker prior to the
application of the overload and the level of overload-
ing desired. The concept determines the present tem
perature prior to overloading under the present
ambient temperature and normal loading. At the point
of application of the desired overload, the tempera-
ture begins to rise from its present state. lf left
with the overloading applied, the breaker would even
tually exceed its temperature limits. The procedure
determines the time required to increase the tempera-
ture form the present state to the temperature limit.
At that point, the load must be reduced to at least a
level equal to the loading permited by its rating and
present ambient temperature as can be determined by
the formula mentioned before. C37.01 0 provides both a
formula and tables to determine the permissible time
duration. One of the more important factors which
must be known is the device Thermal Time Constants
which is not a rating but a parameter which must be
determined by the manufacturer during the performance
of the Continuous Current Test. C37.O1O provides
Table 3 which list a single time constant for all
breakers. The value provided is excessively low and
will produce excessively conservative results. For
metal-clad switchgear, the thermal time constant is in
the order of 'l .6 to 1.8 hours. The formula as given
for High Voltage circuit breakers is as follows:
 Ts = T (-ln(1 -((0max-Y-0a)l(Y((ls/i) ^ 1.8)-1))))
Y : (0max - 40)*(li/lr) ^ 1.8
where:
Omax = allowable hottest spot total temperature Deg. C
0a : actual ambienttemperature Deg. C
li : initial current prior to application of ls in
amperes (which is the highest current carried by
the breaker 4 hours precluding the application of
the overload).
ls : Short-time overload current in amperes.
lr : rated continuous current in amperes.
T : Thermal tlme constant in hours
ts = permissible time for carrying overload current
in hours.
The power (1 .8) as shown in this equation has been
determined experimentally for circuit breakers. For
other switchgear products, the power is often given at
a more conservative value of 2.0.
As an example, a 1200 ampere circuit breaker has oper-
ated for four hours at 11@ amperes in an ambient tem-
perature of 35 Deg. C. The thermal time constant of
the breaker is 1.5 hours. To satisfy a temporary
need, it is desired to load this breaker to 1600
amperes. How long can 16@ amperes be applied and to
what current level must the current be reduced after
the overload period? Using the above equations it can
be shown that the breaker can be loaded to 1600
amperes tor 28 minutes and after that period the cur-
rent must be reduced to at least 1250 amperes.
lf the ambient was 45 Deg. C one might think that the
breaker would not have a overload capability since
ambient is well over the normal rating. As it turns
out, the breaker would be capable of 1600 amperes for
7 minutes but the current would have to be reduced to
at least 1147 amperes after the overloading period.
lf the ambient were 45 Deg. C and the initial current
600 amperes then the allowable time would be 54 min
utes and the at the end of this period be dropped to
at least 1 147 amperes.
These overloading conditions can be best handled by a
simple computer program which are available. The
results can even be graphically displayed which
enables the viewer to clearly visualize the tempera-
ture rise condition as a function of time. Figure 2
illustrates a typical exploration.
4. The breaker must be capable of one full fault
interruption during and after the overload period.
5. The breakers will operate at approximately ib Deg.
C above normal limits and must be inspected and
maintained following this duty.
The time duration of emergency overloading is defined
as either a Four-hour or Eight-hour duty with appro-
priate factors defined for each. The calculation of
the permissible emergency overload condition is
defended in the appendix. Since the application peri-
ods are long, transient conditions are not considered
in the determinations. lt is simply recognized that
the equipment is going to get much hotter than normal
and it may be necessary to maintain the breaker back
to its original condition after the emergency condi-
tion.
REFERENCES
t1l IEEE no. l "General principles for temperature
limits in the rating of electrical equipment"
[2] ANSI/IEEE C37.04 Rating Structure for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Cur
rent Basis
[3] ANSI C37.06 American National Standard for Switch
gear -AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Sym
metrical Current Basis.
[4] ANSI/IEEE C37.09 Test Procedures for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Cur
rent Basis.
[5] ANSI/IEEE C37.010 Application guide for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Cur
rent Basis.
[6] ANSI/IEEE C37.010 Sup. b Standard for Emergency
Load Current-Carring Capability.
[7] ANSI/IEEE C37.N.2 Standard for Metal-Glad and
Station -Type Cubicle Switchgear.
[8] ANSI/EEE C37.24 IEEE Guide for Evaluating the
Etfect of Solar Radiation on Outdoor Metal Enclosed
Switchgear.

Ooeration for short oeriods of time in an emerqency

overloaded condition.

ANSUEEE C37.010 supplement b establishes the rules

for emergency overloading of circuit breakers. The
rules are outlined as follows:
1. Emergency loading applies to only outdoor circuit
breakers.
2. The breaker shall be well maintained and essen
tially new condition.
3. Following the emergency condition the loading of
the breaker shall be reduced to 95% of its permissible
loading for a minimum of 2 hrs.

42
 Application of Power Circuit Breakers for Capacitive
and Small lnductive Current Switching

John H. Brunke, Senior Member

Bonneville Power Administration

lntroduction

Short circuit interruption is often thought of as the
most severe duty for a circuit breaker, but other
duties may impose very severe stresses on the
circuit breaker. Full rated short circuit stresses are
rarely seen by most circuit breakers, but circuit
breakers are f requently called upon to switch
capacitive or small inductive current. Line or
cable charging currents, transformer magnetizing
currents, shunt capacitor or shunt reactor currents
are commonly switched by circuit breakers.
These currents can cause special difficulties for
circuit breakers and must be addressed in their
specification and design.
Shunt capacitor banks (and cable systems) may
be either isolated bank {or cable) or back-to-back
bank (or cable). An isolated bank (or cable) is
where the inrush current is limited by the source
impedance or as defined by ANSI/IEEE C37.O4,
5.13.2. "Cables and shunt capacitor banks shall
be considered isolated if the maximum rate of
change, with respect to time, of the transient
inrush current does not exceed the maximum rate
of change of the symmetrical interrupting current
capability of the circuit breaker at the applied
voltage. "

Capacitive and small inductive currents are low in (q\ :ro1 F"**,
magnitude compared to short circuit currents.
These small currents are easily interrupted at the
\dt )^, I ,-,,-
first current zero after contact parting. The circuit Where:
breaker may not be capable of withstanding the ( ai\
high magnitude recovery voltage which can then I - I = the rate of change of
appear across the contacts. This can result in a \dt )*
reignition, restrike, er failure to i,'lterrupt current. the transient inrush current

ro : the power frequency in radians

Capacitive Current Switching
Capacitive current switching includes both
overhead line and cable charging currents as well
as shunt capacitor banks. The voltage across a
capacitor cannot be changed instantaneously, but
when an attempt is made to change the voltage
very rapidly, such as during energization, very high
transient currents will flow. This can easily be
seen by looking to the basic relationship;
. ldv
Cdt
These high magnitude currents are called transient
inrush currents.
VM*.r*"d= the rated maximum
voltage
V*r,,* = the maximum applied
voltage
.I : rated short circuit current
Back to back switching is where the transient
inrush current has a higher rate of change than
the symmetrical interrupting current. ln simple
terms isolated bank is when only one bank (or
cable) is on one bus, and back-to-back is when
more than one bank (or cable) is on one bus.

43
Tlansient Phenomena the inrush currents. Again the rate of rise of
current is the limiting f actor for oil circuit
lsolated Bank Shr rnt Canacifor and breakers.
Switching

When energizing a large capacitance on a bus

with no other large capacitance connected, a
voltage and current transient is generated. The
voltage across the larger capacitor cannot change v
instantaneously, and the bus voltage drops rapidly
to near zero. The voltage then recovers at a
o
L
T
A
f requency determined by the capacitor bank A
G
capacitance and source inductance (See Figure 1). E
The transient produced is primarily a voltage \ I
transient and the transient currents are as high as 7

for the back to back case. The equivalent circuit 0 \

\ )
is shown in Figure 2. The equations are given in k
Table 1. v
ll n
d
When switching an isolated cable the surge i
impedance replaces the capacitance. The rate of v rlt\
change of current is still the limiting factor for the
breaker and the rated frequency must be
converted to a rate of rise to determine if the U

breaker is applied within its capability (See Table

2t.

Back-to-Back Capacitor Bank and Cable Switching

When a capacitor bank is energized with another c

large capacitance already connected to the bus, U
R i
severe current transients can be generated. The R
voltages on the charged and uncharged E

capacitances cannot be changed instantaneously, N

T
but the attempt is made by very large magnitude \^
currents flowing. The magnitude of the current is
limited only by the impedance between the banks,
\
5
which is usually very low. The frequencies 0
involved are determined by this impedance and 0
the value of the total series capacitance, A
composed of the capacitance being added and the
existing capacitance on the bus (See Figure 3). d
i
The voltage transient for the back-to-back case is
similar to the one for the isolated bank case, but
the voltage does not dip as near to zero due to the
large capacitance already on the bus. The
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 4. The TIl'lE 2'6 ms'/div
equations derived from this circuit are shown in
Table 1. Figr-ire1. The voltage and current transients
created when switching a 230-kV 60 MVAR
For switching back-to-back cables, the surge isolated capacitor bank. Note the high dv/dt and
impedances replacethe capacitances and limits overvoltage created.

44
 Inrush Current and Frequency for Switching
Capacitor Banks

Condition Quantity When Using Currents

Energizing an isolated bank imax pk (amPeres) 1.41\r* X L

f (hertz) ft[;
t/ t,
Energizing a bank with another on fmax pk (amperes) t7 47 (vr,r) (/1 x 12)
the same bus (tr"q) (\ + Izl
f (kilohertz) 9.s fif,Ww UL - Irl
V (L.q) (r1 X 12)

Energizing a bank with an equal imax pk (amperes) 1235 t-frVrrlU)

bank energized on the same bus t/ L"q
f (kilohertz) 13.5 l-,rf") ("r)
V (Zuq ) (Ir )

f5 = System frequency
Zuf = Total equivilent inductance per phase between capaeitor banks, in microhenrys
It, Ii = Currents of bank being switched and of bank already energized, respectively. Capacitor bank being
switched is assumed uncharged, with closing at a voltage crest of the source voltage. The current
used should include the effect of operating the capagitor bank at a voltage above nominal rating of
the capacitors and the effect of a positive tolerance of capacitance. In the absence of specific
information, a multiplier of 1.15 times nominal capacitor current would give cohservative results
f,,,ax pr< = A peak value calculated without damping. In practical circuits it will be about 90 percent of this
value
Va1 = Rated maximum voltage in kilovolts
f* = Symmetrical rms short-cireuit current, in amperes.
Table 1. Equations to calculate peak inrush currents and frequencies for sritcfring capacitor banks and cables
(from C37.012-1979).
Frequency and Current Amplitude Relations

When Using
Condition Quantity Surge lmpedance

Energizing an isolated cable fma* pk E^-Et

z
fuo

^[+""]
E--Et
Energizing a cable with another on im.* pk
the same'bus Zr+Zz
-l
f.q -f Em -Er
r'Lt^l ('1 . E i""l
Energizing a cable with an equal fmax pk E*-Et
cable energized on the same bus 2Z

f.q f,
Em -Et I
[o ( L" + rz) Iun -J

Table 2. Equations to calculate peak inrush c-urrents and frequencies for switching cables (from C37.012-1979r.

45
 6. Stresses on the capacitors. IEC 70
I_U^=2OmH recommends that peak currents be limited
to 1OO times rated current.
Cg=o.ozlF C= Z.BpF 7. lnterference with telephone circuits.

L2=looPH
v
o
L
T
Figure 2. The equivalent circuit for a isolated A
G
I \
capacitor bank. The capacitor bank capacitance is E
much larger than the bus capacitance. The values \ \
7
are for a typical 23O-kV capacitor bank.
0
\ \
k
Switching Overhead Lines v
d
I
When switching overhead lines the surge i
impedances limit the inrush currents. Changes in v
the source impedance, or in the number of lines [,
connected to a bus does effect the energization ,r
transient. The main concern when energizing
overhead lines, especially with EHV lines, is the
switching surge overvoltage.

C
Limiting Transient lnrush Currents U
and Switching Overvoltages R
R
E
Transient inrush currents, especially those N
t,.

produced when switching capacitors or cables T

back-to-back, can produce severe stresses on the

circuit breaker and on other substation equipment.
The effects of these high magnitude currents 1
include: 3
0
0
1. Ground mat potential rise and high
personnel intercept potentials. A

d
2. Flashovers in control and station service i
cables, current transformers etc.

3. Blown fuses.

4. High pressures developed in certain types of

interrupters during closing. Gas breakers
can typically tolerate currents up to their
closing and latching rating.
5. Excessive circuit breaker contact erosion.
TII'IE 2.6 ms,/div
Figure 3. The voltage and current transients
created when two 230-kv 60 MVAR capacitor
banks are switched back-to-back. Note that the
voltage transient is milder than the isolated bank
case and the inrush currents are much higher.

46
 3. Synchronous switching Synchronous
switching has been successfully applied for
switching capacitors, especially with
vacuum circuit breakers (5.9). The
capacitor bank is energized at, or very near,
voltage zeto and little inrush current is
produced (See Figure 6).

EYr 9*it Brqk r EDqgiziag opecitot Beatc I

Clrcuit
{zLS Fre 9t3f.4.1 ***i"ge*&*E"i(r) ro Bu
tndu(tue
Lct, Lcz Crp.citor Baak laductrae
lr,, 12 1r, laduct ne lctwn 6ritcbi4 Dcvie rad Crprcitor BraL
rru. rrductlre of Br Bct?ea gritchiag Deic

Figure 4. The equivalent circuit for back-to-back

capacitor switching from C37.O1 2-1 979.

It may be necessary to limit the magnitudes and

frequencies of inrush currents to mitigate these
effects. There are a number of ways
accomplish this. These include:
1 . Closing resistors or inductors - A resistor or
inductor which is temporarily inserted during
energization for a short period, then
bypassed. Care must be given to the
thermal capability of these preinsertion
devices, especially for repeated duty cycles.
to
Figure 5. The voltage and current transients
produced when switching an 217 MVAR capacitor
bank back-to-back against an identical bank. Both
banks have 2 mH current limiting reactors sized to
allow rapid switching for stability control (13).

2. Fixed reactors - These reactors are always

in the circuit so they do slightly reduce the
effectiveness of the capacitors and incur
system losses. The reactors are sized by
solving an energy balance equation for
inductance (below), by changing the value
of Leq in the appropriate equation in Table
1 , or by digital transient analysis (See Figure
5).

, _cv'
t-

Where: L : inductance (H)

C : total capacitance
: peak voltage Figure 6. A comparison of voltage transients
V generated when a 23O-kV 60 MVAR capacitor
i = peak current which inrush bank is energized near voltage crest (a) or voltage
will be limited to
zero (b).

47
Switching surge overvoltages on EHV lines must
also be controlled. This is usually accomplished
by using closing resistors. Usually, the value of
the closing resistor is near the value of the surge
impedance of the line so that the insertion and
bypass surges are both reduced equally.
Synchronous switching has also been employed to
limit line switching overvoltages. Metal oxide
surge arresters can also be employed to reduce
the switching surges by limiting the overvoltage at
the open end of the line where the traveling wave
usually doubles in value upon reflection. Many
factors influence switching surges such as line
length and configuration, source impedance, etc.
Computer studies are usually required.
lnterruption of Capacitive Currents
When interrupting capacitive currents, because of
the phase relationship of the capacitive current,
current is interrupted when voltage is at crest.
The recovery voltage is a "1 minus cosine" wave
for the case of a grounded capacitor bank {See
Figure 7) . For an ungrounded capacitor bank or
for an overhead line, the recovery voltage depends
upon the ratio of the positive sequence
capacitance to the zero sequence capacitance.
For a grounded capacitor bank the ratio C1lCO :
1. For an ungrounded capacitor bank the ratio
C1lCO: infinity. For an overhead transmission
line, it varies dependent upon line design. See
Table 2. The C1lCO ratio is between 1.5 and 2.O
typically so the value of 2.4 per unit was selected
for the peak value of TRV for IEEE/ANSI
standards.
tr,!
(,
J
o
F Most modern circuit breakers offer restrike free
= performance.
I
G.
t{
o..
o c25 o.5
cYcl F<
Figure 7 . The " 1-cosine" recovery voltage
waveform created when capacitive current is
interrupted; for an uncompensated line or
capacitor bank, a compensated line.
48
Compensated lines (with shunt reactors) have
lower charging currents than uncompensated
lines. The uncompensated charging current is
multiplied by one minus the ratio of the reactance
of the reactor and the lines capacitive reactance
to determine the charging current of the
compensated line. The recovery voltage is also
modified to make it less severe.
The magnitude of the line charging current is
dependent upon voltage and capacitance (line
design) (See Table 4).
Restrikes
A restrike is the resumption of current flow
between the contacts of a switching device durirrg
an opening operation after an interval of zero
current of 114 cycle at power frequency or longer.
The transients generated during a restrike are
similar to those during energization, except that
initial capacitor voltage is trapped before the
restrike at crest line potential. This results in two
per unit voltage rather than one per unit, and the
inrush currents are also doubled. lf successive
restrikes occur, the voltage can built up to very
high magnitudes.
lf multiple restrikes occur, then a phenomena
known as voltage escalation can occur (14). This
can yield very high overvoltages which can cause
damage to substation equipment.
The effects of restrikes are unacceptable in some
applications. Restrikes when switching EHV lines
for example, will almost certainly result in a
flashover and evolving fault. ln back-to-back
capacitor switching effects of restrikes can be
significant and the breaker should be specified as
restrike free (1 1).
Switching Capacitors Through Transformers
The current on the circuit breaker side of the
transformer will be modified by the turns ratio of
the transformer. The impedance of the
transformer can limit current. lower frequencies,
and reduce the effects of a restrike. A restrike can
impose high stresses on a transforrner. Care must
be taken to avoid a resonant condition, either at
 3.0
=C
e8
=
o)
CL Z6

o)
c,r 2.4
G'
=o 2.2
>r
t-
o)
2.0
o
(,
(l)
G

5 7 I0 n 5070100
t,
lgsrtive Sequence Cap
- Zero Sequence Capacitance -= C0
Table 3. The recovery voltage is effected by the C1/C0 ratio for capacitance switching. This table shows the
effects of C1/C0 for the first phase to clear (15).

l,
.J
=4
e. I

a
u,
o- FOUR-CONOUCTOI
U' BUNDLE
lr,
E
l,
o-3
=
-/ ,/
=
F
I
UJ
G,C
(r -/ )NOUCTOR*
f BUNDL
(,
(9
z
6
GI
!
()
SINGLE O }NU.JCTOR

400

SYSTEM VOLTAGE, KILOVOLTS

Table 4. The RMS line charging current versus system voltage for single, two, and four conductor
bundle lines
(from ANSI/I EEE C37.0 12-1979).

49
fundamental or harmonic frequencies. Resonance
can yield.high currents which exceed momentary
or thermal ratings of the circuit breaker and high
over-voltages can occur. Switching capacitors
through a transformer requires analysis for each
application using the parameters of thg
transformer involved. An example of switching
transients dropping a capacitor bank through a
transformer is shown in Figure 8.
CAPACTTOR BANK
CURREiTT
CAPACITOR BANK VOLTAGE
Figure 8. Voltage and current waveforms for
capacitor switching through an interposed
transformer (from C37.O1 2-1 979!,.
Clearing Faults Near Shunt Capacitor Banks
When interrupting faults near capacitor banks it is
important that the out-rush current from
discharging the capacitor banks does not exceed
the momentary rating of the breaker. This
includes the connected line breakers and not just
the capacitor bank breaker. For a bus fault the
capacitor bank breakers should be tripped, and if
they are not the last breaker to open, the line
breakers must switch the capacitors (See Figure
9). This situation and other unplanned conditions
(breaker failures fer example) can result in other
breakers interrupting capacitor bank currents
which exceed their capability, and may cause
circuit breaker failures.
Another interesting phenomena can occur when
clearing faults near shunt capacitor banks (10) A
shunt capacitor bank can significantly modify the
50
recovery voltage during fault interruption. The
slower recovery voltage may result in the short
circuit being interrupted at an earlier current zero
than the breaker can dielectrically withstand,
increasing the probability of a reignition or
restrike. The capacitor bank will then discharge
into the fault at a frequency determined by circuit
parameters. The total current (outrush and fault
current) will have higher frequency components
than power frequency and could have many
current zeros. Some circuit breakers may interrupt
on these high frequency current zeros, effectively
current chopping the short circuit. A very high
overvoltage can result. Other circuit breakers
might not be able to interrupt this combined
current. The apparent solution is the use of fixed
reactors to reduce modification to recovery
voltage and out-rush currents.
l
PCB Z
+
I
Figure 9. A fault on the bus requires that the
capacitor bank breakers are also opened unless
the line breakers are all capable of interrupting the
combined current of all the banks. A fault at
location "A" results in out-rush and fault currents
both in PCB2. PCBl is exposed to inrush currents
during back-to-back switching.
Higher than normal recovery voltages can occur
when switching overhead lines during fault
conditions. The interruption of line charging
currents on the unfaulted phases of a transmission
line for a line to ground transmission line fault
generate higher than normal recovery voltages.
This is a very complex transient phenomena which
is dependent upon f ault location, source
impedance, grounding coefficient, traveling wave
phenomena, line length, line loading and the
sequence which the breaker interrupts the faulted
and unfaulted phases. ln general it effects longer
lines more than shorter ones. The present
ANSI/IEEE standards only require tests up to
recovery voltages of 2.4 per unit ior faulted
conditions. The application guide (ANSI/IEEE
C37.012) includes, if an application guide can,
requirements up to 2.74 tor 242-kV and 550-
kV breakers. Many utilities require 2.8 per unit for
breakers 121-kV and above as it covers many
more cases than the 2.4 per unit required by the
standards and eliminates the need to do studies
except for unusual cases.
The recovery voltage of the compensated lines is
less severe as the oscillatory frequency of the line
causes the crest voltage to occur at a later time.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are grouped as general purpose or
definite purpose for capacitor switching.
The general purpose breaker is rated for overhead
line and isolated (capacitor bank or cable) currents
up to limits in ANSI/IEEE c37.06 and has a
transient overvoltage factor (the ratio of the
transient overvoltage to the closed-switching-
device operating line-to-neutral peak voltage with
the load connected) of 3.O.
The definite purpose capacitor switehing breaker
has higher limits for overhead line and isolated
currents is rated to switch capacitor banks back-
to-back, and has transient overvoltage factors of
2.5 for 72.5-kV and below, and 2.0 for 121-kY
and above (See Table 5).
ln practical terms, these general/definite purpose
ratings are for oif and air magnetic circuit
breakers. Definite propose breakers (oil circuit
breakers) for capacitor switching usually have
opening resistors to reduce or modify recovery
voltages and to prevent restrikes from creating
high overvoltages. Oil breakers can be damaged
by high rates of change of current causing over-
pressure in the interrupters, hence the back-to-
back frequency limits.
Most SF6 breakers can switch capacitive currents
up to their continuous current rating, are restrike
free, and are not limited by inrush frequency.
Vacuum breakers are also well suited to capacitor
switching if they have a high enough contact
speed and suitable contact material. Some
vacuum switches have limitations on the peak
inrush current because of contact welding
51
problems. Contact bounce can yield special
problems while switching (See Figure 6).
Other Application Considerations
ln addition to the above considerations the
following should be considered in the application
of circuit breakers to switch capacitive currents:
Rated maximum voltage. Under certain
conditions (usually outages), circuit breakers,
especially those switching capacitor banks or
long lines, can be exposed to voltages beyond
the rated maximum. To restore the voltage
to normal limits, the capacitor bank or line
may have to be switched during this high
voltage condition. This must be specified.
Rated continuous current (capacitor banks).
The rated continuous current for circuit
breakers switching shunt capacitor banks
must take into account a number of factors:
1. Capacitor banks, because of standard
capacitor "can" sizes, typically have
their reactive rating at some voltage
other than maximum operating voltage.
It can be as much as 1O% below the
maximum operating voltage. ln
addition, capacitor "cans" can have
capacitance tolerances as great as +
15o/o.
2. Harmonic Currents. Capacitor banks
offer low impedance paths for harmonic
currents because of their frequencies.
Typically, a 1Oo/o adder is sufficient for
grounded banks and 5o/o for
ungrounded banks. However, certain
applications, such as aluminum potline
feeders, arc furnaces, etc., can have
harmonic currents which exceed the
f undamental f requency currents in
magnitude.
Frequency of switching. Shunt capacitor
banks are often switching in response to daily
fluctuations in load to control voltage. The
number of capacitor switching operations
which the breaker can perform between
overhauls should be evaluated when
determining if the circuit breaker is
appropriate for the application.
 Table 3A (See Page tf)
Prcferred Capacitance Curent Switching Ratings for
Outdoor Circuit Breakers l2l kV and Above, Including Circuit Breakers Applied
in Gas Insulated Substations

General-Purpose Circutt Breakers

Rated Cepacitance Switching Definite-Purpose Circuit Breakers
Current ( l) (2) Rated Capacitance Switching Cunent (2)
Shunt Capacitot Bank ot Cable
Back-to-Back
Rated Inrush Current (4) (5)
Rated Short- Reted
Maximum Cireuit Continuous Ovethead lsolated Overhead Line Isolated Peak
Voltage Curent Cutrcnt (3) Line Current Current (3) Current Current (3) Current (3) Current Frcquency
kV, rms kA, rms Ampercq rms Ampcrcs, rms Amperes, rms Amperes, rms Ampetes, rms KA Hz

t2l 20 1200 50 50 150 315 315 r6 4750

121 40 1600,2000,3000 50 50 160 315 315 r6 4250
t2l 63 2000,3000 50 50 150 315 315 16 4250

145 20 1200,2000 63 63 160 3ls 315 l6 4250

l4s 40 1600,200p,3000 80 80 r60 3ls 315 l6 4250
l4s 63 2000,3000 80 80 160 315 315 16 4250
145 80 2000,3000 80 80 160 315 315 l6 4250

169 t6 1200 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250

169 3r.5 1600 100 100 r60 400 400 20 4250
159 40 2000 100 100 150 400 400 20 4250
159 so 2000 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
159 63 2000 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250

242 31,5 1600,2000, 3oo0 160 160 200 400 400 2A 4250
242 40 2000,3000 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250
242 50 2000 160 160 200 40q 400 20 4250
63 2000,3000 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250

362 40 2000,3000 250 250 315 500 s00 2S 4250

362 63 2000 250 250 3ls s00 s00 25 42s0
550 40 2000,3000 400 400 s00 500 500
s50 63 3000 400 400 s00 500 500
800 40 2000,3000 500 500 s00 500 500
800 63 3000 500 500 500 500 500

(Numbers in parentheses in the tables refer to the following correspondingly numbered notes)

(l) No ratings for back-to-back shunt capacitor bank or
cable switching applications rue established for general-purpose
circuit breakers. The strunt capacitor bank or cable shall be
electrically isolated as defined in 5.13.2 of ANSI/IEEE C37.M-
L979.
For general-purpose cfucuit breakers exposed to transient
inrush currents from nearby capacitor banks during fault con-
ditions, the capacitance transient innrsh peak current on clos-
ing shaU not exceed the lower of either {2 times K times rated
drort-circuit curent (\r/2'K'I), or 50,000 pak ampere$ The
product of transient inrush current peak and transient inrush
t
cuEent frequency shdl not exceed 2 X l0 . The service capa-
bility and circuit breaker condition for this duty shall be as
specif-red in ANS I/IEEE C37 .0/;lg 1 9, 5. I 0. 3. 3. For reference,
see ANSI/IEEE C37.01 2-l 97 9, 4.L0.2.
(2) The capacitance switching current ratings are the
highest values that the circuit breaker shall be required to
switch at any voltage up to rated maximum voltage.
(3) When applied on shunt capacitor banks, the current
rating strall be selected to include the effects of a positive toler-
ance in capacitance system and capacitor bank groundin& and
additional curent magnitude and heating due to harmonics
(4L The rated tansient innrstr current peak is the highest
magnitude that the circuit breaker shall bc requhed to close at
any voltage up to the rated ma:<imum voltage, and strall be as
determined by the system and unmodified by the circuit
breaker. The tated tralsient innrstr current frequency is the
natural frequency that the circuit breaker shall be required to
close at 100 percent of its rated back-to-back shunt capacitor
bank or cable switching cuEnt.
For application at less than 100% of rating the product of
the inrush current peak an4 nafural frequency shall not exceed
the product of the rated transient c1rrent peak and the rated
transient inrush current frequency. (This product defines a
maximum rate of change of inrush curent and ir minimum
inductance between tfue banks or cables.)
(5) Tables 2A ond iA only, The kansient inrush current in
circuit.breakers applied in GIS substations has a very high
equivalent freguency (up to the MHz range, depending on the
bus length) with an initial peak current of several thousand
amperes (depending on the surge impedance of the bus). For
reference; see ANS I/IEEE C37 .Ol2-197 9, 4.8.4.L.2. Contact
the manufacturer to determine the ability of the circuit
breaker to withstand these inrustr curent stresses.

Table 5. Prefened capacitance sr,vitctring ratings for outdoor circuit breakers (from ANSI/IEEE C37.06-1987).

52
Switching Small inductive Currents
Switching small inductive currents can also
impose severe stresses on a circuit breaker. The
capability to interrupt fault currents, which are
large inductive currents, does not in any way
guarantee the capability to interrupt small
inductive currents. Figure 1O is the reactor side
voltage on a 55O-kV 40 kA SF6 circuit breaker as
it f ails to interrupt 23O amperes of inductive
current.
200 tvroIY
Figure 1O. The reactor voltage as a 55O-kV 40 kA
SF6 CirCuit breaker fails to interrupt the current to
a 225 MVAR shunt reactor.
Small inductive currents discussed here will be
limited to transmission class shunt reactor banks
although medium and low voltage applieations are
similar. These reactors are of gapped iron core
construction and are grounded directly or through
a neutral reactor.
Transient Phenomena/Current Chopping
The most important transient phenomena
associated with interrupting shunt reactor currents
is current chopping. For oil, air-blast and SF6
circuit breakers, current chopping is caused by arc
instability and its interaction with the circuit,
primarily the effective capacitance in parallel with
the circuit breaker. At certain current levels, an
unstable oscillation develops and rapid changes in
arc conductivity occur. This results in arc
interruption before the natural power frequency
current zero occurs (current chopping). The
energy still contained in the reactors magnetic
53
field is transferred to the capacitance of the
reactor and connected equipment. This results. in
an overvoltage and higher circuit breaker recovery
voltages (See Figure 11).
2@ kYrDtv
25 AIOIY
Figure 1 1 . The recovery voltage and current
during interruption of the current to a 5SO-kV 225
MVAR shunt reactor. The arc instability and
increasing aic voltage is apparent before
interruption. The current chopping and resulting
recovery voltage, beginning approximately 2OO kV
below zero, is also shown.
After interruption, the reactor and its own
capacitance, along the capacitance of other
connected equipment, form an oscillatory circuit
which then rings down. The frequencies are
typically from 1 to 4 kHz for transmission voltage
class reactors. Strong interaction between the
phases through coupling and the neutral may
occur. !f a neutral reactor is employed, the
interaction is even stronger and the oscillation
becomes very complex. Because of the high rate
of rise of recovery voltage, dynamic dielectric
withstand capabilities of the circuit breaker may
be exceeded resulting in a reiginition and
additional loop of power frequency current. (See
Figure 12).
The magnitude of the current chopped and hence
the magnitude of the suppression and recovery
peak voltages can be calculated. A measure of
the interrupters ability to chop current is called the
chopping number (I). This number can be
determined by tests.
Typical values for chopping numbers are: The overvoltage factor may also be calculated:

Minimum Oil 7-10 X 104

Air Blast 15-40 X104

1/ 4CL'
SF6 Single Pressure 4-17 X1c.4 o= F*:'ui:
Air blast breakers can chop as much as 80
amperes. To reduce this effect opening resistors
where:
may be employed.

ko: oruruoltage factor (per unit)

i" : choPPed current
YRA
zxl kYrolv % = voltage to ground (kV
"ytt"*
peak)
L : reactor inductance (H)

Cr: effective load side capacitance

to ground

Tiansient Phenomena/Reignitions

When a reignition occurs a number of transients

Figure 12. The reactor voltage and cuirent during
interruption of current to a 225 MVAR, 55O-kV
reactor. A reignition is followed by a successful
interruption. A higher level of current chopping is
apparent at the longer arcing time (the successful
interruption).
The reactor side capacitance is also required to be
known, or must be estimated. Now the chopped
current may be calculated(7):
ic = )'{"CL
are generated. The "first parallel oscillation" is the
fastest. lt is created when the capacitance
parallel to the breaker is discharged. The "second
parallel oscillation" is created when the reactor
voltage moves towards the bus voltage and
overshoots, resulting in an overvoltage. The
frequency of this oscillation depends upon the
physical configuration of the substation and is
typical between 1OO and 5OO kHz (See Figure 13).
After the reignition, most circuit breakers then
interrupt at the next current zero. Some circuit
breakers may reignite at a number of current zeros
before achieving a sustained interruption. This is
illustrated in Figure 12.

Some circuit breakers can interrupt at a high

where i" : current level at the instant frequency current zero created by the second
of chopping (amperes) parallel oscillation. This results in a higher
effective current chopping level and higher
l" - chopping number overvoltages. This process causes voltage
n: number of series interrupters escalation.

CL : load side capacitance (F)

54
 lnterruption of lnductive Current: Because
of the high rates of rise of and magnitudes
of recovery voltage, the circuit breaker may
zn kvrolv not be able to interrupt the inductive
current. Tests are being developed to
determine the performance of the circuit
breaker, but because of the interaction of
the breaker and the circuit this will always
be difficult. The external withstand of the
circuit breaker must also be high enough to
withstand the recovery voltage with
sufficient margin to withstand recovery
voltages reliably. This means that sufficient
margin must also be allowed between the
peak recovery voltage and the external
withstand across the interrupter (wet). The
configuration must be analyzed carefully
and the use of neutral reactors evaluated.

2OO kYl0tv Neutral Reactor: Neutral reactors are

occasionally employed for secondary arc
extinction during single pole fault clearing
(four-reactor scheme). These neutral
reactors complicate the recovery voltage
due to strong inter-phase interaction and
generally increase its severity (See Figure
14!..

Figure 13. Both records are of the second parallel

1.SO
oscillation which occurs when after a reignition. ?gO-O{N NEUTRaL RERCTM
The time scale is faster on the lower record which REACTOR TRIP AT I.O RJ vq.TAGE
shows the traveling wave nature of the
phenomena.
7SO KV tN .\2 nS

Other Application Considerations

o.*
ln applying or specifying power circuit breakers to K

switch shunt reactors, the following should also 1.E 3

be considered:
o.oo
I
Freouencv of Switching: Shunt reactors NILLISECq{OS
may be switched daily in response to
changing load situations. Because of the
long arcing times for reactor switching the
life of certain parts may be reduced. The
circuit breaker selected should be designed Figure 14. The addition of a neutral reactor
for appropriate endurance between modifies the recovery voltage. The first phase can
maintenance intervals. have a higher recovery voltage, and the later
phases have complex frequencies caused by the
interaction of current through the neutral reactor.

55
 Surge Arresters

With few exceptions surge arresters are used to

protect the reactor from lightning and switching 2OO kY/OlY

surges from the system, and from surges

generated by the circuit breaker. As reignitions
cannot be prevented, arrester operations are
common when switching reactors. Because of the
frequent operations, metal oxide surge arresters
(MOSA) are better suited for this type of
IOO A/0tv
application. Arrester energies for these duties are
typically very low.

Recovery voltages can also be limited by using

MOSA across the interrupters (See Figure '15). An
interesting phenomena was recently observed
when testing such an application of surge
arresters(12). The reignition of one interrupter
usually results in the other interrupter(s) cascading
due to the sudden increase in voltage across
them. With MOSA across the interrupters when
one reignited, the other interrupter voltage was
Iimited by the MOSA and did not reignite. Current
flowed through one interrupter and one MOSA
until the next current zero (now a resistive current
zero) (See Figure 16). The amount of energy was
limited and this phenomena did not appear to
effect performance.
AOF datt
200 kYrDlv
Figure 16. When a multi-chamber circuit breaker
is used with parallel metal oxide surge arresters,
an interesting phenomena can occur when one
chamber reignites and the other is prevented from
cascading because the voltage is limited by the
surge arrester. lnterruption was successful on the
next current zeto.
Conclusions
Special consideration must be given to applying
circuit breakers when switching capacitive and
small inductive currents. The stresses upon the
circuit breaker can be severe and result in failures.
Understanding the nature of these stresses, and
care in specification, can provide good circuit
breaker performance in these applications.

References
IRB
25 ArOIY
1. ANSI/IEEE C37.O12-1979, "Application Guide
for Capacitance Current Switching for AC High-
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis."
2OO. u5rdlY
2. ANSI/IEEE C37.O15,1gXX, "Application Guide
Figure 15. Metal oxide arresters have been placed for Shunt Reactor Current Switching for AC High-
in parallel with the circuit breaker to limit recovery Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
voltage. This figure shows the resulting voltage Basis," Draft #8.
and current waveforms.
3. Philips, V.E., "Capacitance Current Switching,
IEEE Tutorial Application of Power Circuit
Breakers," 1 97 5, 75CH0975-3-PWR.

56
4. Browne, T.E., "Circuit lnterruption Theory and
Technique, Marcel Decker lnc.," 1984, pp. 1O5-
122.

5. Brunke, J.H., Schockelt, G.G., "Synchronous

Energization of Shunt Capacitors at 23O-kV," IEEE
PES A 78 148.9.

6. Sarkinen, S.S., Schockelt, G.G., Brunke, J.H.,

"High Frequency Switching Surges in EHV Shunt
Reactor lnstallation with Reduced lnsulation
Levels," IEEE PES F78 659-5.

7. CIGRE Working Group 13.O2, "lnterruption of

Small lnductive Currents," Chapter 4, Part B,
Electra 1987, 1 13, pp. 51-74.

8. Peelo, D.F. et al, "Shunt Reactor Switching

Tests in BC Hydro's SOO-kV System, IEEE
Proceedings," Vol. 135, September 1988.

9. Alexander, R.W., "Synchronous Closing

Control for Shunt Capacitors," IEEE PES 85 WM
221-7.

1O. Janssen, A.L.J., van der Sluis, L.,

"Controlling the Transient Currents and
Overvoltages After the lnterruption of a Fault Near
Shunt Capacitor Banks," CIGRE 1988 Session.

11 . Erikson, R., Kearsley, R.. "Circuit Breaker

Stresses Where Switching Back-to-Back
Capacitors," Electra No. 62, pp.21-62.

12. Suhrbier; R., "BPA Field Test Results, 5OO kV

Reactor Switching Tests", lnternal Document,
Unpublished as of 6/93.

13. Taylor, C.W., 'Dynamic Reactive Support in a

Complex AC/DC Power System: Applications on
the Western North American
lnterconnection/Pacific lntertie", IEEE Tutorial on
Application of Static VAR Systems for System
Perf ormance, B7THO1 B7-5-PWR.

14. Greenwood, Alan, "Electrical Transients in

Power Systents", John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1991 .

15. Johnson, 1.B., etal, "Some Fundamentals on

Capacitance Switching," AEEE 74 lpt. lll, 727'
736)

57
 Insulation Considerations for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers
C. L. Wagner, P.E., Fellow
Consultant
Export, PA 15632
Abstract - Insulation elements and design factors to
handle overvoltages (60 Hz, lightning, and switching surges)
and respective insulation withstand levels are covered in this
paper. Various ANSI, IEEE, and IEC standards are applied
and discussed in relation to studies, test procedures, and
results on insulation design for high voltage circuit breakers.
I. IlrrxoousrroN
The circuit breaker is ttre prime component in the power
system protection system. When directed by the protective
relays, the circuit breaker must operate to clear faults and
isolate the faulted portion of the utility system to prevent.
complete collapse of the system. As a protective device, the
circuit breaker must be extremely reliable and must not fail
due to internally or externally generated overvoltages on the
system. The insulation elements of the breaker must be
designed to withstand all possible system overvoltage.
The importance of insulation in circuit breakers is re-
flected in the high number of ANSI and IEC Standards [i]
to [9]. Although these references to ANSI and IEC Stan-
dardspertain only tobreakers rated on a symmetrical current
basis, comments on insulation apply also to older breakers
rated on a total current basis. Reference will be made
primarily to the ANSI Standards throughout this paper
except for where major differences occur in the IEC Stan-
dards. Differences between the two types standards will be
discussed.
II. INsur-arroN Elrm'vrs
There are many different types of ac, high-voltage circuit
breakers. Some breakers use oil as an interrupting and
insulating medium. Other breakers use sulfur hexafluoride
(SF) gas, air, or a vacuum as the insulating medium.
R. A. York, Member
ABB Power T & D Corporation
Greensburg, PA 15601
Breakers can incorporate either a dead tank (where the
tank enclosing the interrupteris at groundpotential) oralive
tank (where the interrupter chambers are mounted on porce-
lain columns and are at line potential).
Some breakers use bushing-type current transformers or
integrally mounted wound-t)?e current ransformers. Other
breakers use separately mounted wound-type current trans-
formers.
Although breakers may have different insulation ele-
ments, the major paths to ground and across the intemrpting
contacts are similar.
Fig. 1 shows a 362 kV SF6live tank breaker which will be
the reference example cited throughout this paper. With the
breaker in the closed position, the 362 kV breaker tank is at
full line potential. The line-to-ground insulation paths are
therefore the external column porcelain (5) (Fig. 1), the
insulated operating rod (6), the SFu gas internal to the
columns (7), and the current transformer (9), all in parallel.
1 Horizontal Porcelain
') Intemrpter Contacts
3 Pre-Insenion Resistor
4 Grading Capacitor
5 Column Porcelain Chambers
6 Insulated Operating Rod
7 SFu Gas
8 Ground Frame
9 Current Transformer
Fig. 1 Insulation paths for live tank breaker (362 kV)
58
 With the breaker in the open position, the line-to-ground
insulation of the breaker is increased by the horizontal
porcelains (1) (Fig. 1) in series with the vertical line-to-
ground insulations just discussed. The current transformer
still remains a major line-to-ground insulation path for this
breaker open condition.
With the breaker open, the insulation paths across the
paper, the withstand insulation levels of breakers have been
established by industry standards recognizing the maximum
overvoltages that will occur on the systems. In this regard,
neither external nor internal flashovers will occur, which
negates this full coordination requirement.
III. INsul.qrroN Wrrnsr,llro Tssr VAlr,Es-Ovrnvolraces

open intemrpter contacts (2) (Fig. 1) must also be consid- Like ottrer system andequipment insulation, circuitbreaker
ered. One path is the gap of the contacts themselves in an SFu insulation is exposed to three types of system overvoltages:
atmosphere. A second path is the grading capacitors (4). . 60 Hz overvoltages
The open contact gaps and insulating enclosures of the pre- . Lightning impulses
insertion resistor assemblies (3) are additional insulation . Switching surges
elements (if used). All of these elements are in parallel for The proceeding sections of the paper examine each type
each half, i.e. contact break, of the horizontal interrupting of overvoltage separately in the following context:
unit. . Origin of tle overvoltage
Ideally, insulation in a circuit breaker should be designed . Required insulation strength of circuit breakers
to ensure that any flashover due to excessive overvoltages . Reasoning for the standard insulation level (where
occurs externally and line-to-ground rather than across the applicable)
open contacts. However, rying to guarantee that any . Type of protection normally used to limit surges
flashover will always occur externally and line-to-ground is . Testing procedure(s) to demonstrate the breaker's ca-
difficult to implement with live tank breakers because it pability
requires impractical contact design and essentially unrealis- . Considerations for special service conditions.
tic insulation requirements, i.e. excessive length, for the
horizontal porcelains. A.60 Hz Overvoltages
Fig. 1 shows that both the line-to-ground and open gap 1) Origin: In the past, circuit breakers were given a
insulations consist of an external path, through the air and
nominal and a maximum rated voltage with the difference
across the porcelain, in parallel, with an internal path
being 5 percent for voltage classes 362kY and below, and
through SFu gas. The internal path has a relatively flat volt-
10 percent for all classes above 362 kV. With the decision
time characteristic over the range of lightning impulse, of ANSI C92 and other industry bodies to eliminate the
switching impulse and 60 Hz overvoltages. Whereas the
nominal rating, all breakers now have only a maximum rated
external insulation has an extremely inverse characteristic
value as shown in Table I.
being high at the lightning impulse levels and decreasing
markedly at the switching impulse and 60 Hz levels. To TABLE I
60 Hz ilrsu-A'rrox WnssmNo TEsr Volracns
ensure external flashoveratthe 2 and 3 microsecond impulse
levels, the internal contact design would warrant insulations
as much as 50 percent higher than those presently used.
Contact designs of this insulation level would be highly Rated Muimum lnw Fre4uency Tes
Voltage
impractical to implement. (kv) 1-Minute Dry Tsl Io-Smtrd Wet Test
Furthermore, Fig. 1 also shows that each horizontal (kv) (kv)
porcelain (1) is equal to half the open-gap insulation level. 15.5 50 45
The line-to-ground insulation path for the breaker open 25.8 60 50
condition is this same horizontalporcelain in series with the
38.O 80 75
column porcelain (5). To ensure that the breaker would
4E.3
flashover to ground instead ofacross the breaker, a horizon- 105 95

tal porcelain would be required to be equal to or greater than '72.5 td, 140

t}te column porcelain in insulation level, i.e. length; a multi- 121 zdt 230
head design canbetterapproach this requirementbutitis still 145 310 2',75
essentially impractical to achieve full insulation coordina-
169 365 315
tion.
Consequently, because of the required horizontal porce- 242 425 350

lain and higher degree of insulation, industry committees 362 555 NA

have concluded that the ideal offull coordination (external,
550 860 NA
line-to-ground flashover) is not a realistically attainable
800 960 NA
requirement. As will be discussed subsequently in this

59
 The rated maximum voltage is the upper limit for normal TABLE II
ONs-M$rLrrE, Dw Low FnsquExcy TBsr Vorrecss
operation of the breaker. During abnormal conditions the
breaker insulation systems may be subjected to higher line-
to-ground and open gap voltages I I 0], I I 1], and [ 12]. Under
line dropping conditions, the Ferranti effect of the line and
overspeed conditions can cause as much as a 20 to 30 percent lvlaximum Dry,l-ow Frequency Test Voltage
rise at the far end of the open line. A line-to-ground fault on System
the system can cause the unfaulted phase line-to-ground Voltage
(kv) in p.u. of LG
voltage to exceed normal by as much as 73 percent depend- in p.u. of LG in p.u. of
KV Sw. Surge
ing on the system grounding. The voltage across the open Voltage
Voltase
BII-
breaker can be as high as 2.2 times normal if the two systems
tzl zffi 3.72 o.472
connected to the open breaker are operating out ofsynchro-
nism. 145 310 3.70 o.477
2)TestValues: Table I gives the ANSI test voltage levels
169 365 3.74 0.487
for the 1-minute, dry low frequency test. Table II repeats
these values for the higher voltage breakers and expresses 242 4'N 3.04 o.472
these values per unit (p.u.) of system insulation levels. The
362 :5: 2.66 o-573 0.42i
IEC levels are similar but slightly lower than the ANSI
values. 550 860 a1t 0.732 0.478
Table II shows the low frequency test voltage in terms of
800 960 2.08 o.613 0.468
normal line-to-ground system voltage. Note that these
values are higher by a large margin than the 60 Hz overvolt-
ages that can occur on utility sy stem s. Th :' apparently higher
margin can be attributed to the past history of insulation
Table I shows that for breakers rated,24zkY and below,
testing [15]. Before much was known about lightning and
a low frequency, 10-second wettestvoltage somewhatlower
swirching surges, the only testperformed on circuit breakers
than the dry test value should be applied to the breaker when
was the low frequency, l-minute 60 Hz dry test. The test
it is exposed to simulated rainfall. Again the wet test values
values were selected based on experience and were suffi-
are higher than the 60 Hz overvoltages encountered on
cient proof that the breaker w'. id adequately withstand all
systems but were established to demonstrate the switching
the overvoltages, i.e. lightning and switching surges, that
surge withstand of the breakers. At the EHV voltages, 362
would occur on operating systems.
kV and above, separate wet and dry switching surge tests
Table II shows the correlation between the low frequency
were established so that low frequency wet tests are no
test values and the now-established switching surge and
longer required at these ratings. IEC does not specify 10
lighining impulse test values, i.e. basic impulse level (BIL)
second wet tests.
rating. Except for 362 kV, these values are almost constant
3 )Test Procedures: Thelow frequency, 1-minutedry test
over the entire range. The original 362 kV breaker was given
is made by applying a sine wave 60 Hz voltage having a crest
a ll75 kV BIL rating and the 555 kV low frequency test
value of times the values specified in Table I. For the
value was established accordingly. Although the BIL rating ^12
design test [3], this voltage is applied to each phase of the
was later changed to I 300 kV for the 362 kV breaker, the 555
complete breaker in the closed position with all other phases
kV value was not increased due to an oversight. However,
and the frame of the breaker grounded. With the breaker
after 20 years of operating experience, there have been no
open, voltage is applied to each terminal of the breaker
problems with these breakers which suggests that perhaps
individually with all other terminals of the breaker and the
the low frequency, I -minute dry test values on other ratings
frame grounded. The test voltage is applied for a minimum
could be reduced.
of 60 seconds. Damage or flashover should not occur.
Since the 60 Hz overvoltages are much lower than the test
A similarprocedure is followed for the wet test with the
values and the lightning and switching surge performance
time reduced to 10 seconds and the test values reduced to
are verified by their own tests, it is reasonable to consider
eliminating low frequency, l-minute dry testing. The low
those shown in Table I.
During the test, the breaker is
sprayed with water having a resistivity of 178 !15Vo ohm-
frequency, I -minute dry test has been sustained in practice
meters (7 000 11 5 Vo ohm-inch) and at a rate of 5 !10 Vo mml
because it is the only production test performed on breakers
min. (0.2 !10V0 inlmin). Refer to [3] and [7] for additional
or breaker components and serves as a quality control
measure for ttre insulation systems. test details.

60
 4) ProductionTests: For production tests [3], the low In Table III, the minimum creepage distances are given in
frequency, l-minute dry test may be made either on a both inches and mm. By American standards, each listed
completely assembled breaker or only on the major insula- distance in inches divided by the maximum rated voltage,
tion components such as bushings, interrupter assemblies, (expressed as an rms line-to-ground value), equals l. The 1-
insulation braces, and operating rods. In some instances, inch7kV ratio (25 .4 mm&.Y has been proven by experience ro
especially for EHV breakers, production tests are per- be adequate for light to moderate contamination. Some
formed on major insulating components. For the 362 kV transmission lines and stations have operated satisfactorily
breaker, the individual columns with their operating rods for values as low as 0.68 and 0.83 inches perkV (17 mm to 21
are tested as a unit. The contact assemblies are tested mmlkV). For heavily contaminated areas, such as those
separately by applying a proportionately reduced voltage exposed to salt fog or chemical fumes, longer creepage
from the horizontal bushing terminals to the operating head distances are required. Transmission lines having a 2.0 inch
with the contacts open. These component tests verify the per kV (50.8 mm/kV) criteria are in service under these
integrity of the insulation paths withoutrequiring testing of conditions. Special bushings may be required in these areas.
the completely assembled breaker.
5 ) Contamination Testing.' In recent years, contamina-
B. Lightning Impulse Voltages
tion testing has become of increasing interest. To date, no In the preceding section, it was demonsftated that the breaker
uniformly acceptable test procedure has been established. low frequency insulation strength is much greaterthan the 60 Hz
Circuit breaker standards recognize this requirement by overvoltages that can occur. The opposite is true when applied
specifying a minimum creepage distance for all external to lightnfurg impulse voltages. Since the potential overvoltages
insulation paths to ground. These minimum distances are generated by lightning far exceed any practical insulation level
shown in Table III. that could be designed into the circuit breaker, protective
devices, such as surge arresters, are necessary to determine the
M^*'&r Cne*ecp,**Il??H"* INsLra::ou ro Grou.rD required insulation level of the equipment.
1) Origin: Lightning surges can originare in a station by
either a direcc stroke in the station or a stroke to a transmission
Minimum Creepage Minimum Creepage
line feeding the station [10]. In a well designed station, the
Rared Maximum
Distance of Extemal Distance of Extemal former is extremely rare. Therefore, only line strokes are
Voltage
Insulation to Ground Insulation to Ground usually considered in lightning insulation studies.
0(v) (inches) (mm)
Surges originating on the line can be caused by a direct
15.5 o 229 stroke to the conductor (shielding failure) or a stroke to the
ground wire or tower which then flashes over to the conductor
25.8 15 381
(backflashover). Again with a properly shielded line, the
38.0 22 55S latter strokes are of primary concern.
The magnitude and wave shape of the lightning surge
48.3 28 7tt
entering the station depends on the insulation level of the line
72.5 42 1067 and the distance between the point of stroke origin and the
station. Fig. 2 shows typical surge voltages entering a 550 kV
t21 70 1788
station as a function of stroke terminating distance. For a
145 84 zt34 stroke just outside the station (0.0 mile) the wave has a high
short, voltage peak and then drops off at a relatively slower
t69 93 2489
rate. For strokes originating further from the station, this peak
242 140 355(\ is attenuated and distorted by line losses and corona. The 0.5,
1.0, and 2.0 mile curves of Fig. 2 show this attenuation and
362 209 5309
front distortion.
550 318 807'7 When the surge arrives it is modified by the terminating
impedance of the station. Taking the extreme condition of tle
800 442 1t230
stroke terminating at an open breaker, the surge would double
in amplitude. Thus even for the 2.0 mile stroke of Fig, 2, the
surge seon by the breaker would exceed 3000 kV. Since 550
kV equipment insulation levels of this magnitude are imprac-
tical, a means of protection is required.

61
 arrester limits its voltage to less than 500 kY, the voltage 200
feet away at the Eansformer is over 600 kV.
The wave shape of Fig. 3 is typical of these t)'pe surges:
fronts of 1 to 2 microseconds and sharply falling tails. Since
this shape does not agree wittr ttre sandard 1.2 x 50 test wave
shape discussed later in this paper, two methods have been
vt used to analyze the severity of the overvoltage: time point
e comparison and severity index [23].
6
The time point comparison method correlates the peak of
the overvoltage with the magnitude of the standard surge
raken offthe 1.2x 50 timeJag curveatatimeatwhichtheodd-
shaped surge is effecti vely chopped to zero. For example, ttre
wave of Fig. 3 wouldbecompared to a standard 1.2 x 50 wave
chopped at approximately 1.5 microseconds. Since some
judgement is required to select this time value, at least a 15
Timo{Mixosec)
percent margin is used in this evaluation.
Fig. 2 Typical incoming *.t" for stroke terminating on a 550
l"+iff:
2) Protection: The required lightning impulse insulation
levels for substation equipment depends on the protective
characteristics of the voltage-limiting device and the num-
ber and location of the devices that are applied in the
substation t8l, t9l, and [16] toL22l. In the station, surge
arresters are the normal protective device used. Arresters
or rod gaps are used on the line entrance terminals.
2a) Closed Brealcer Protection: While a complete expla-
nation on arrester application is beyond the scope of this
paper, a brief summary of the process is given below. Refer
I
to [8], [9], and [15] to l22l for more information.
The hrst step in the process is to select an arrester rating
which requires a study of the maximum 60 Hz system Voltage [KVl
voltages that can appear across the arrester during faults or
otler system abnormalities. This factor is a function of the
system grounding and depends on the XoX, and Ro/X, ratios
at the arester location during various system operating
conditions t8l, t9l, [10], [19], and [20].
Once the arrester rating is selected and its protective
characteristics specified, the number and location of the
arresters must be determined. Surge arresters are normally
applied directly on the terminals of the power transformers.
Transformer insulation is then determined by adding a suit-
able margin (usually 15 percent) to the arrester protective
characteristics and using this for the Eansformer BIL.
Circuit breakers however must usually rely on surge
arresters located remotely from ttreir terminals forprotection.
Traveling waves areproduced which develop higher voltages
at these remote locations. Refer to [6] to [8] for methods
to determine these voltages. Computerprograms for even the
most complex stations also are available.
Fig. 3 shows a typical output of such a program [21]. The
solid curve is the voltage at the arrester with the dotted curve Fig. 3 Voltage build-up in a 242 kV gas-insulated system with a 192 kV
representing thevoltage atthe terminationpoint, whichin this arrester; the solid curve represents yoltage at the arrestor; rhe dotted
case is a transformer rather ttran a breaker. Note that while the curve represents voltage at the transformer

62
 The second method of analysis is the severity index [23].
This method equates the destructive energy (DE) of the non-
standard wave with thatof the standard 1.2x50 wave to make
the comparison. The DE is the integral of the voltage wave
raised to the K power, whereKdepends on the shapeof the time-
lag curve for the insulation being stressed. A margin of at least
10 percent should be used in this evaluation.
The next step in the investigation depends on the purpose
the particular study. Refer to Ugl and [21] for descriptions
studies performed to determine BIL rating for a new breaker
installation. In this study, the goal was to balance the cost of
additional surge arresters against savings in breaker cost due to
the lower BIL. Fig.4 shows a scheme of arrestor locations and
relative layout for a typical 550 kV substation with two
transformers and nine breakers [19]. Surge arresters were
located on the transformers. The study sought to determine the
numberofand location ofadditional arresters needed to protect
the breakers.
1500 ku EIL
Fig. 4 Typical 550 kV substation layout; arrestors are indicated by an X for
each breaker BIL studied; all distances are in feet (including breaker
positions and bus lengths).
By using the methods previously discussed, voltages
throughout the substation were determined for the worst
breaker-open surgeorigination combination involved. Then
the arrester locations to protect the various breaker BIL's
considered were determined. In this case, the two-trans-
former arresters were all that was needed to protect 1800 kV
BIL breakers. If the breaker's BIL ratings were reduced to
of 1550 kV, two additional arresters would be needed. For the
of I 300 kV B IL rating, a total of five additional arresters would
be required. Balancing the cost of arresters against the
savings in breaker insulation led to the selection of 1550 kV
in this particular case [19].
The more usual application of the method is to start.with
an existing breaker insulation level and simply determine
the number and location of arresters to protect the breakers.
Using Fig.4 again as theexample, sincethe standard550kV
breaker has an 1800 kV BIL, the application study would
show that the two-transformer surge arrester scheme pro-
vides adequate protection.
2b) OpenBreaker Protection [15] and [22] : The preced-
ing discussion showed that the station arresters provide
protection for all closed breakers on the bus and even the bus
side of open breakers. However, if a breaker is open, these
arresters cannot provide protection to the line side of the
breaker.
Three methods of solving this problem are:
. Apply aresters on the line side of all breakers
. Apply rod gaps on the line side of all breakers
. Do nothing.
Selecting a proper method for protecting the line side of
the breaker requires evaluating the economics and the risks
in any given application. Some of the factors to consider
include:
. Surge Arresters
. Rod Gaps
. No Protective Device.
Surge arresters applied to the line side of every circuit
breaker give absolute protection for the circuit breaker
against all lightning and switching surges. The obvious
disadvantage to this scheme is its high cost. The low
probability of breaker flashover, often negates the justifica-
tion of this large expenditure.
Rod gaps can be applied on the line side of the breaker at
abouta 30 to I decrease incostover the useofsurgearresters.
The quality of protection is somewhat poor since a gap
spacing must be selected that will protect the open breaker
but still not flashover when the breaker is closed.
Referto [22] for details on theproblems andcompromises
required to provide protection via rod gaps. The gap spacing
must. be large enough so that the bus arresters will prevent
flashover of the gap due to lightning or switching surges
when the breaker is closed. The gap spacing must be small
enough to provide protection of the breaker in the open
position. Meeting these fwo requirements is often difficult.
63
 The third approach is to do nothing on the line terminals TABLE IV
INsur-errox Wmrsi'eNo Trsr Volracss - L,,rpur-ss Trsr 1.2 x 50 Mre.ossciDNo
and rely on the low probability ttrat surges of high enough W,ws
magnitude to cause damage will impinge on the open
breaker. This low probability can be demonstrated by
examining situations that can occur to cause this condition.
The first situation occurs when the breaker is standing
open on the line. Normal operating practice, however, Rated Chopped Wave
dictates that when a breaker is to be open for a prolonged Full Wave (kv)
Maximum
Withstand
period of time, the breaker disconnecting switches are also Voltage
(kv) 0(v)
opened, so that no surge would reach the breaker. Although at al
departures from this practice are extremely rare, in those few 2 microseconds 3 microseconds
cases where it is normal operating practice, some form of
r5.5 110 t42 126
protection should be employed.
The second situation, which is of primary concern, is 25.8 150 194 t72
caused by the second component of a lightning stroke.
38.0 204 258 230
Consider a lightning stroke hitting a transmission line
causing a flashover to the phase conductor. The resulting 48.3 250 322 288
surge is transmitted to the station, and since the breaker has
72.5 350 452 402
not yet opened, the breaker is protected by the surge arrester
in the station. Should the lightning stroke exhibit a second t2l 550 7LO 632
component, a second surge will be transmitted toward the
145 650 838 748
slation. If the breaker has now opened or is in the process of
opening, the bus side arrester will not now provide protec- t69 750 968 862
tion to the line side ofthe breaker and flashover could occur.
242 900 1 150 1040
Refer to l22l for a discussion of the probabilities of this
occurTence. 362 1 300 1680 1500

Based on a 1800 kV BIL 550 kV breaker, it is estimated

550 1800 2324 2010
that the probability of this second component causing a
flashover is once in 40 to 800 years. For a single breaker, this 800 2050 2640 2360
appears io be a low probability. The counter-argument is
that on a utility system, there are many such breakers, which
increases the probability that a flashover will occur.
TABLE V
3) Test Values: Table IV gives the ANSI full wave Fur Wel,p Lrcrrrr'nc Iwu-e TEsr Vourecn @IL)
lightning impulse test values for circuit breakers. Table V
is a repeat of these values for the high voltage range and also
shows the ratio of BIL to the breaker rated maximum
voltage.
Note that the ratio of BIL io rated maximum voltage is Breaker
constant for l2l through 169 kV and decreases as a function Rated
p.u. of Rated Maximum
Maximum (kv)
ofvoltage above this level. This decrease can be attributed Voltage
Voltage

to the fact that the BIL is based on the surge arrester's (kv)
protective characteristics including allowance for separation
distance. For l2l through 169 kV ratings, there have been a 121 550 4.55
number of ungrounded or high impedance grounded systems
where 1 00 percent surge arresters are required. Practically all t45 650 4.5

242 and,362 kY systems however, are grounded and 80 169 750 4.45
percent surge arresters can be used; thus the reduction in ratio
from 4.5 to 3.7 and 3.58. The 550 kV systems are grounded 242 900 5.t

even better andl5 percent aresters can be used resulting in 362 1300 3.58
further ratio reduction. Better grounding is used at 800 kV so
that 12 percent arresters will generally be used. Newer 550 I 800 3.26

arresters have lower protective characteristics which afford 800 2050 2.56
further reduction of this ratio to2.56. In fact, this latter factor
was instrumental in leading some 550 kV systems to specify
1550 kV BIL's which results in a ratio ot 2.8 }9).
64
 The BIL values given are based on a 1 .2 x 50 impulse wave.
As previously discussed in conjunction with Fig. 3, the surge
applied to the breaker is often shorter in front and tail, so that
different insulation strength test points, th e 2 and3 microsec-
ond chopped wave test values, must be defined.
Table IV shows the 2 and3 microsecond chopped wave
insulation levels associated with these breakers. Note that
these levels represent values of 1.29 afi 1.15 times the BIL
of the breaker. The volt-time curve of Fig. 5 illustrates these
values for a362kY circuit breaker. These numbers were
developedprimarily to reflect the inherent turn-up of the volt-
time curve for external line and equipment insulation and
of the rod gaps that are sometimes used to protect the
breakers [15].
The volt-time curve of SFu equipment is relatively flat.
For this equipment it is often necessary to raise the internal
BIL to meet t}re chopped wave levels.
The IEC lighrning impulse withstand voltages are essen-
tially the same, but slightly lower, than ttre ANSI values.
Chopped wave values are not specified. They do specify that
a bias test be performed on an open breaker. ANSI specifies
that when testing the open breaker, one terminal of the
breaker should be grounded while applying the full wave or
chopped wave test values to the otler terminal. Whereas,
IEC specifies that while the full wave test voltage is applied
to one terminal, a voltage equal to 0.1 x^'l2x i3 times the
rated voltage and of the opposite polarity is applied to the
otler terminal. The net result is that while the net voltage
is higher than the full wave level of the ANSI test, it is still
less than the ANSI chopped wave levels.
l 500
r 250
o
V r@o
o
(J
Line to Ground
' 40 Swirching Surge
Time in Microseconds
Fig. 5 Yolt-time insulation curve for 362 kV circuir breaker
4) Test Procedures: The standard lightning impulse test
wave is defined as a 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave which means
that the voltage rises to a peak in 1.2 microseconds and
decreases ro half value in 50 microseconds. Since it is
impossible to obtain straight line wave slopes, Fig. 6(a) shows
how the actual waves are defined [7].
The equivalent or "virtual" front time, 1.2 microseconds,
is defined as 1.67 times the time interval between the
l
instants when the voltage is 30 percent and 90 percent ofthe
peak value.
Virtual origin O, is obtained by the zero intercept of a
straight line through the 30 and 90 percent points. The tail,
which in this case is 50 microseconds, is defined as the time
interval between the virtual origin and the instant on the tail
when the volmge has decreased to half of the peak value.
Fig. 6(b) also shows the definition of a chopped wave. The
front is defined in a similar manner and r" *re time at which
the wave collapses, is the chopping time. A 3-microsecond
chopped wave therefore has a 1.2 microsecond front and is
chopped att,- 3 microseconds.
(a) Full-impu lse Voltage
V
1.0
0.9
Open Gap
I
lr-
i--- ts --------+l
01
(b) Chopped Wave Voltage
Fig. 6 Standard impulse test voltages; (top) shows full-impulse voltage;
ftottom) shows chopped wave voltage
65
 Present breaker standards specify a 3 - 3 type of test [3]
which means that the breaker is subjected to three applica-
tions of the test voltage. If a flashover does not occur, it has
passed the test. If one flashover should occur, then the
breaker is subjected to three more voltage applications. If
it withstands this second series, then the first flashover shall
be considered a random flashover and the breaker shall be
considered as having successfully passed the tests.
Information in [3] is presently undergoing revision. In the
newrevision,the 3 - 3 test,willbereplacedbya3 - 9 test. This
is similar to the 3 - 3 test except that if a flashover occurs in
the first 3 shots, the breaker must withstand 9 additional
shots without flashover to be considered as successfully
passing the test.
For impulse tests, only dry tests are required. The
procedure includes performing a 3 - 3 (or 3 - 9 in the future)
test series using a positive polarity surge and then a 3 - 3 (or
3 - 9 in the future) test series using a negative polarity surge.
With the breaker closed, the surges shouldbe applied to each
phase with the other phases and frame grounded. With the
breaker open, ANSI requires that each terminal of the
breaker be tested individually with the remaining terminals
and frame grounded. IEC specifies a bias test for the open
breaker test.
For the full wave withstand test, the already defined 1.2
x 50 microsecond wave should be used and any flashover,
whether external orinternal, shouldbe considered abonafide
flashover.
Corrections of the test voltage for temperature, pressure
and humidity and other details on test procedures are given
in [7].
Note that lightning impulse tests are only design tests and
are not required as production tests.
For breakers having isolaring gaps or additional gaps in
series with the grading resistors or capacitor circuits or in
series with the opening and/or closing resistor circuits, the
fully closed or fully open breaker tests just described do not
verify the insulation strength of the resistors or capacitors.
For these components, an additional lightning impulse test
series, using a standard 1.2 x 50 wave having a crest value
of 75 percent of the BIL is required [3 ] and I I 5]. This voltage
is applied across a pole unit to the series connected intemrpt-
ing gaps only, with all isolating gaps and all gaps in the
resistor and capacitor circuits shorted. This test only applies
to breakers rated l2l kV and above.
For breakers utilizing low-ohmic resistors, this wave
shape is unattainable with practical facilities. In this case,
the voltage is defined as an open-circuit voltage equal to 75
percent of rated BIL and is applied through a series resis-
tance not exceeding 500 ohms.
C. Switching Surge Overvoltages
1) Origin: Switching surges are usually caused by the
circuit breaker and occur in many types. Surges can be
66
caused by faults occurring on the system as well as by the
circuitbreaker clearing the faults l24lto [27]. Surges also
can be caused by line dropping and load rejection due to
opening load carrying lines [12]. Out-of-step switching
causes system surges. Although all of these surges cause
problems to lines and certain electrical apparatus, the major
source of switching surges that cause the most concern to
circuit breaker insulation and application are caused by
closingandreclosing transmissionlines [12] to [14] and [28]
to [31].
Fig. 7 is a simplified illusration of how switching surges
are generated. Since the maximum switching surge usually
occurs when reclosing into an uncompensated Eansmission
line, Fig. 7(a) shows a breaker closing into a line having a
-1.0 per unit (p.u.) trapped charge at the instant ttrat ttre bus
voltage is +1.0 p.u.
Figs. 7(b) and (c) show how the surge can be analyzed
from a 60 Hz standpoint. In this case the line is represented
by a capacitor and the system represented by an inductance.
Note that with no damping, when the breaker contact closes,
the line voltage starts from a -1 p.u., approaches the bus
voltage and overshoots to a maximum of +3 p.u. and then
oscillates around the bus voltage.
Figs. 7(d) and (e) show how this same condition can be
analyzed from a traveling wave standpoint. In this case, tie
line is represented by a surge impedance and the voltage
travelling down the line is equal to the voltage across fte
trreakerjustpriorto closing (equal to2 p.u.). When the wave
hits the end of the line, it doubles to a value of 4.0 p.u..
However, since it started from a -1, the net value is +3 p.u.
Thus the two methods give the same value of 3 p.u.
+1 .O +1 .O
,al
H
',/ r:o -T;-orc
(a) (b)
'o
11+s
l1
?.o
f_1.
(d)
#.o
-1.O
-1 .o 3.O P.t.
(e)
Fig. 7 Switching surge generated by reclosing the breaker
 Fig. 7 is an extremely simplified description of the
phenomena and neglects factors such as source impedances,
other lines, coupling, etc. Many computer studies have been
run examining the effects of these factors and many papers
are available on the subject [l3l, t281, and [30] to [36]. It
does illustrate the cause of the problem however and can be
used to describe the methods of protection and control.
2) Protection: Surge arresters are the ultimate protection
for circuit breakers and other apparatus from switching
surges as wellas forlightning impulses, except thatthe wave
fronts of switching surges are usually much longer than
lightning impulses. For example, while the standard light-
ning impulse test uses a 1.2 x 50 wave, the standard
swirching surge test wave is 250 x25AO.
The slower wave front means that the traveling wave
effect of separation distance no longer applies in stations.
Consequently, a lightning arrester located anywhere in a
station holds the switching surge level to essentially a
constant value [19] and [20]. When surge zrrresters are
applied for transformer or breaker lightning protection,
switching surges also are inherently prevented.
However, for transmission lines and the line terminals of
open breakers, surge arresters at the line entrance will protect
the open breaker, but. the voltages out on the line may not be
sufficiently limited [34] and [35]. This is not a probiem for
lines of 242 kY and below. A transmission line of these
voltages, designed to give satisfactory outage performance
from a lightning standpoint, will not experience flashovers
due to switching surges since the switching surge insulation
strength is well above the values of ttre maximum surges that
can occur on the system. For EHV systems, 362 kV and
above, this is not the case. The surges that can occur with
conventional breakers can exceed the line insulation level.
Surge arresters may therefore be required out on the line or
some means of control in the circuitbreakers themselves must
be utilized.
Fig. 7 shows that if the circuitbreaker was reclosed when
the bus voltage was a maximum and of a polarity opposite
to that of the trapped charge, the switching surge magnifude
would be 3 .0 p.u. If there was no trapped charge, the voltage
would be only 2.0 p.u. One means of control therefore would
be to eithernotuse high speedreclosing andallow the charge
to drain off the line before reclosing [37] or to use some
means, such as installing voltage transformers on the line
[38], to drain off the trapped charge. Note that in this latter
case, sufficient thermal capacity must be provided in the
transformer to handle the energy stored on the line.
Also as seen from Fig. 7, if the time of closure of the circuit
breaker was controlled so that the bus voltage was equal and
of the same polarity of the trapped charge (synchronous
closing) orat leastof the samepolarity of the trapped charge
(polarity closing), the vohage across the contacts at the time
of closing would be less than 1 .0 p.u. resulting in a maximum
switching surge voltage less than 2.0 p.u. [33] and [34].
67
These alternatives require very fast-closing circuit breakers
with very repeatable closing times, which until recently
were not available.
Since single pole reclosing also reduces the switching
surge voltages [36], this option with delayed or manual 3-
pole reclosing is sometimes used.
The most common means of control used however con-
sists of one or more steps of resistance inserted in the contact
circuit of the circuit breaker prior to closing of the main
contacts [13], [30], and [31]. Fig. 8 (a) shows schematically
how this is accomplished.
During a closing operation (ail = 0), an auxiliary contact
ofthe breaker closes and inserts a resistorR in series with the
bus and line. After a short d elay (at t = lr), the main contacts
of the breaker close, shorting out the resistor. The breaker
is in its normal closed current-carrying condition. Figs. 8 and
9 show in a manner similar to Fig. 7 how this resistor reduces
the switching surges.
Fig. 8(b) shows the operation of the singleresistorbreaker
using the traveling wave analysis. Figs. 8(b) and (c) show
transients caused by inserting the resistor in the circuit; Figs.
8(d) and (e) show transients caused by shorting out the
resistor.
In Fig. 8(b), the circuit is represented by the resistorR in
the breaker being in series with the surge impedance Zof the
line. The voltage surge traveling down the line E, is
expressed by &e following variables and equation:
Er = Traveling wave voltage on line, kV
R = Pre-insertion resistor value, O
Z = Surge impedance of line, Q
Et=2Zt(R+Z) (1)
The E, value is the 2 p.u. voltage across the breaker
impressed across the voltage divider circuit of R md Z n
series. Note in Fig. 8(c), that this E, surge doubles at the end
of the line and the resultant voltage is this value minus the
1 p.u. trapped charge. This circuit demonstrates that the
higher the value of R, the lower the value of the insertion
transient.
Figs. 8(d) and (e), while not strictly correct, generally
show that the higher the resistor, the higher the transient
when the resistor is shorted. E, in Fig. 8(d) is equal to the
voltage Erir,Fig.8(b) which increases as the resistance R
increases. In Fig. 8(e), the value of E, (eeual to 2 R I ( R + Z)),
doubles at the end of the line and is superimposed on the 60
Hz voltage Erat the particulff instant of closure.
Fig. 9 illustrates a better way of showing the shorting-out
transient effect. Fig. 9 shows the 60 Hz equivalent of the
circuit after the resistor has been inserted and all the tran-
sients due to inserting the resislor have decayed. Note that
the voltage E* is now the driving voltage when the resistor
is shorted out at time //. If the main contact should close at
the time that the voltage across the resistorE^ is equal to zero
(shown as 1,,) there would be no shorting out transient in the
circuit. The maximum surge occurs however when this E^
is a maximum (shown as lrr). In this case, note that the larger
the value of R, the higher the value of E^ and therefore the
higher the maximum shorting out transient.
Since the higher the resistor ohms, the lower the insertion
transient and the higher the shorting out transient, a compro-
mise must be adopted in selecting the resistance value. A
value of 300 to 400 ohms has been found to minimize both
transients.
While Figs. 8 and 9 describe how a single step resistor
breaker functions, other forms of control are possible and
have been used [31], [33], and [34]. Two or three steps of
resistance can further reduce ttre insertion and shorting out

7+-I5;" -22R+Z
-: t42
transients. Controlled closing of the contacts either with or
without resistors has also been used.
For example, if the breaker of Fig. 9 was controlled to
always close the main contacts at th, the shorting out
\ R*z 'ro)
t=O \ transient would be reduced or eliminated, allowing a higher
value of R and thus a lower insertion transient. These and
{c} other schemes have been used to some extent. However, the
single resistor breaker remains the primary method of
Et= 2R
4R
i control.
+ Rr2 R+Z - 'L
3 ) Test Values: Many computer studies have been run to
determine the maximum switching surges that can occur on
(e) systems. Theresults ofonesuch study [31] are given in Table
VI which shows the maximum switching surges with and
withour conEol in the breaker.
Fig. 8 Single resistor breaker using the traveling wave analysts In addition, many field tests havebeen run to measure the
surges that actually occur on power systems [28] and [29].
Fig. 10 shows the results of many switching operations on a
362kV system [29].
t= t1 Comparing Fig. 10 with the 3.9 p.u. uncontrolled level in
Table VI shows that in general, computer studies are conser-
vative. For purposes of insulation coordination studies, a
value of 3.0 p.u. is usually used as the maximum uncon-
trolled switching surge that will be encountered on a system.
Table VII lists the switching impulse withstand levels in
kV for line-to-ground and terminal-to-terminal (or open
gap) insulation in breakers. Table VIII lists the switching
impulse withstand levels in kV and p.u. for line-to-ground
and terminal-to-terminal insulation in breakers rated from
121 kV to 800 kV.

TABLE VI
Ma:mnn.l Swrrcm*c S t tcBs
Cr
'Ri t1b
Marimum Switching Sugre
Means of Control
Voltage (p.u.)

tla /Et
No control 3.9

One Resistor 2.05

Two Resistors 1.7

Three Resistors 1.5

Two Resistors wirh Controlled

1.5
Closing
Fig. 9 60 Hz analysis for single resistor circuit breaker

68
 TABLE VIII
flt0
Swncmvo Imutsp WmrsreND LEvEJ (rV) exo (r.u.) ron Bnr^lrms Remo m.ou
stt 121 ro 800 xV
flt
Percent uf ill
Occurencee GO
*houe per Breaker Switching - Impulse Test Volrage
50
Unit Uoltrge jl0 Rated
sf Ab*eissr Maximum Terminal-to Terminal-to Terminal-to Terminal-to
30 Voltage Ground Ground Terminal Terminal
20 (kv) (kv) (p'u) (kv) (p.u.)
t0
0 tzl 368 3.73 368 3.73
t.[ t.4 {.t 2.2 2.8 3.0
Fer Unit Uoftage 145 440 1;72 440 3.72
Fig. 10 Cumulative frequency distriburion curve for field iest measure-
159 515 3.74 516 3.74
ments of switching surge magnitudes on unterminated transmission lines
242 500 3.04 6m 3.04

TABLE VII 362 825 2.79 900 3.05

Swrrcrmrc Iueuss WrHsraxo Lel,us (xV)
550 1175 2.62 1300 2.90

800 t425 2.18 I 550 2.37

Switching Impule Voltage When comparing Tables VII and VIII, note that switching
Rated
Maximum surges for breakers rated at 242kY andbelow are given in Table
Terminal-to-
Vohage Ground,
Terminal-toTerminal, VIII but not in Table VII. In Table MII, the switching surge
(kv) Breaker Open
Breaker Closed
(kv) withstand level for breakers rated at 242kY and below are
(kv) assumed to be equal to the crest value of the low frequency test
15.5 NA NA voltage and can be seen to be greater than 3.0 p.u. Because the
crest value ofthe low frequency test voltage is greater than the
25.8 NA NA
maximum surge that occurs on these systems, they were not
38.0 NA NA included as part of standard testing in Table VII.
Returning to EHV breakers, Tables VII and VIII show two
48.3 NA NA
switching impulse test voltages that are specified [2]: terminal-
72.5 NA NA to-ground withstand level measured with the breaker in the
closed position. Table VIII shows that all of these values for
121 NA NA
EHV breakers are less than the maximum uncontrolled surge
145 NA NA voltage of 3.0 p. u. that can occur on power systems. This is not
a problem with the breaker closed because the breakers are
t69 NA NA
protected by the bus side surge arresters. These arresters
a^a NA NA provide surge protection well above ttre values given in the
tables.
362 825 900
With the circuit breaker open, the bus arresters are of no
550 1t75 1300 assishnce. In this case, unless line entrance surge arresters are
used, there is no protection for the breaker and the withstand
800 1425 1550
level of the open breaker should be greater than the maximum
surge that can occur on the system.
Table VIII shows that the 362 kV rating has a 3.05 p.u.
withstand terminal-to-terminal which is greater than the maxi-
mum uncontrolled surge. This level was established because
some 362 kV breakers use switching surge control measures
and some do not.
At 550 kV, all breakers or systems use some method of
control. For example [3] specifies a maximum switching surge
facnr of 2.2p.u. for breakers using internal means for limiting
switching surges. Note that this is appreciably less than the 2.9

69
p.u. specified in Table VIII and [2] specifies a maximum
swirching surge of 2.0 p.u. for 800 kV breakers, which is
appreciably less than the 2.37 p.u. of Table VIII.
The IEC terminal-to-ground test values are essentially the
same as the ANSI values. While the IEC open breaker tests are
somewhat different, the results basically agree with ANSI.
Some IEC test values are lower and at some ratings are higher.
4)Test Procedures: Testslnder both wet and dry conditions
are made on circuit breakers to determine the breaker's ability
to withstand their respective rated switching impulse withstand
voltages to ground and across the open circuit breaker. The
ANSI test method is identical to that discussed for lightning
impulse tests except that instead of using al.2 x 50 microsec-
ond surge wave, a 250 x 2500 microsecond wave is specified.
A t 50 microsecond tolerance is allowed on the front of the
wave and a t 1 500 microsecond tolerance is allowed on the tail.
This wave shape is felt to be representative of the most severe
switching surges that occur in practice.
Like the lightning impulse tests, the ANSI open breaker test
specifies that all terminals other than the surged terminal be
grounded during the test. IEC specifies two alternative tests:
one alternative is the same as the ANSI test with all unsurged
terminals grounded and the other alternate testapplies full line-
to-ground voltage dZt..lZ times the rated voltage) on one
terminal and a reduced switching surge test voltage to the
opposite terminal. Both tests yield essentially the same results
and for the most part agree with ANSI.
The reason that ANSI does not specify a 60 Hz bias of
opposite polarity to the unsurged terminal is that the maximum
switching surge occurs when the bus voltage at the far end of
the line from the open breaker in question is at a maximum
value (as was discussed in regards to Fig. 7). To obtain a
maximum bias voltage of the opposite polarity would require
that the two supply buses at either end of the line tre 180' out
of phase which is an unreasonable assumption. Grounding the
bus side of the test breaker is equivalent to a 90' phase
difference between the two supply buses which in itself is a
rather extreme condition.
When testing the open breaker on the 3 - 3 (or 3 - 9 in the
future) test series, any external flashover to ground at the
energized terminal will be considered as a withstand on the
open breaker. One flashover, either external or internal across
theopen contacts, is allowed within the first three tests provided
there is no reoccurence in the tests and no damage was caused
by the flashover. When testing the closed breaker on the 3 - 3
(or 3 - 9 in ttre future) test series, the one permissible flashover
shall be external to the breaker. Atmospheric corrections for
temperature, pressure and humidity are listed in [7].
EHV breakers that use some means of switching surge
control are assignedaLineClosing Switching Surge Factor [1].
This factor designates that the circuit breaker is capable of
controlling line closing switching surges so that the probability
of not exceeding the rated factor is 98 percent or higher when
switching the standard reference line and system as defined in
the standard. Furthermore, all of the surges mustbe less than 1.2
times the rated factor for these reference switching conditions.
As discussedpreviously, theserated switching surge factors are
2.4, 2.2, and 2.0 for 362, 5 50, and 800 kV breakers respectively
tz).
Unlike the previous tests, design tests for this factor are
performed on a computer by conducting a series of tests on a
simulated standard reference power system as defined in [3].
This method of testing recognizes the fact that actual fransmis-
sion test facilities of the typerequired to demonstrate this rating
are often unattainable.
A purchaser may perform a field test to demonstrate that the
breaker conforms to the Line Closing Switching Surge Factor
[4] . The breaker is con sidered to have passed the test if the rated
switching surge factor is not exceeded in 20 random closing
operations. The breaker also passes the test if it exceeds the
factor as follows:
. Only once in 34 tests
. Twice out of 48 tests
. Three out of 62 tests.
The breaker fails the test if it exceeds the factor four or more
times or if any surge exceeds l 2 times the factor. If such a
failure occurs and the actual system is significantly different
than the standard reference system, the manufacturer may
repeat the computer study simulating the actual system to
ascertain whether the system or the breaker was the cause ofthe
test failure.
IV. Spectal- CoNsIleRATIoNs
The previous sections have discussed the usual insulation
factors that must be considered as applied to circuit breakers.
Other factors that mustbe considered in special applications of
certain breakers are:
. Altitude correction factors
. Gas loss
. Probability concept of insulation coordination.
A. Akitude Correction Factors
Standard breakers are designed to operate at altitudes of up
to 1000 meters (3300 fee0. For higher altitudes, the following
de-rating factors on the rated maximum voltage and the basic
impulse insulation level must be applied [1]:
. 1.0 for up to 1000 meters (3300 feeQ
. 0.95 for1500 meters (5000 feet)
. 0.8 for 3000 meters (10,000 feet).
These factors are to be interpolated for intermediate alti-
tudes.
B. Gas Loss
For breakers ttrat use high pressure air or gas as the insulating
medium, the possible loss of insulation strength should gas
pressure decrease must. be considered. In some older, two-
pressure breakers, a stuck blast will cause the high pressure air
or gas to be exhausted to atmosphere resulting in little or no
insulation strength. With some other breakers, this particular
70
 malfunction wouldnotbe aproblem since the high-pressure gas
flows into the low pressure system causing an increase in
insulation srength. However should a rupture in this low
pressure system or in the gas system of the single pressure
breakers occur, the gas would escape and insulation strength
would be reduced.
Gas andair breakers are provided with low pressurealarm and
tripping or blocking contacts to provide protection against low
pressure conditions. When the pressure reaches a low enough
level, where the insulation strength is impaired, the breaker can
be tripped and motor-operated disconnect switches opened to
isolate the faulty breaker. Since these switches can cause
switching surges as high as 1.7 5 n 2.0 p.t, they must operate fast
enough to clear the breaker before the insulation strengttr of the
air or gas falls below this level.
C. Probability Concept of Insulation Coordination
Present day insulation coordination studies for equipment
have used a "least likely-to occur" or "non-probabilistic"
approach. Examples in this paper cited insulation levels greater
by a suitable margin than the maximum overvoltage tian can
impinge on it. This conceptual approach is sound for non-self-
restoring insulation; i.e. insulation that once it is punctured will
not repair itself and must therefore be taken out of service for
repair.
In the case of self-restoring insulation, such as transmission
lines and external insulation of circuit breakers and other
equipment, this insulation does not need to be repaired after a
flashover. The resulting system fault is cleared by the circuit
breaker and following a suitable arc deionization time, the
insulation strength of the flashover path is restored. When the
breaker is reclosed, the system is back in service.
Since the likelihood of self-restoring insulation failing is so
much reduced, the industry trend is towards using probabilistic
techniques in insulation coordination studies; especially in the
studies of UHV systems rated 1000 kV and above [32] and t391.
Fig. 1 1 illustrates how ttris technique can be applied to switching
surge flashovers.
r,u
o
, vI.
E,
f Charles L. Wagner is a consulting, Professional Engineer and is the former
o
(J
o poration. He received his B.S.E.E. from Bucknell and M.S. degree in Electrical
lr
o Engineering from rhe University of Picsburgh. He is a Fellow in the IEEE.
t-
!
.D
Probability of Flashover
co
CE
o-
VOLTAGE
Fig. 1 I Probability of switching surge flashover
71
The stress curve in Fig. 1 I represenrs the probability distribu-
tion of the magnitude of switching surges occruring on the
system. The strength curve represents the probability function
of the insulation strength of the line insulation or external
equipment insulation under consideration. The area of the
products ofthese two curves where they overlap represents the
probability of flashover. With ttre old non-probabilistic method,
where the withstand level of the insulation is greater than the
maximum surge, these two curves would not overlap resulting
in zeroprobability offlashover. In somecases, however, such
as UHV, this non-probabilisric method may be too severe and
some small probability of flashover may be acceptable.
V. Suurany
Three types of overvoltages and respective insulation with-
stand levels were covered in this paper.
. 6A Hz overvoltages
. Lightning impulses
. Switching surges
Lightning and switching surges are similar in nature but are
greater than 60 Hz overvoltages. In almost all instances, surge
arresters have proven to provide adequate protection against
lightning and switching surges. In the case of lightning
impulses, rod gaps (in lieu of surge arresters) can be applied to
the line side of the breaker. However, in the case of switching
surgeovervoltages on lines on circuitbreakers rated 362kV and
above, surges can exceed the normal line insulation strength.
Surge arresters on the line will help alleviate this problem.
Inserting a resistance into the circuit prior to closing the main
contacts of a circuit breaker also reduce switching surge
transients.
Other factors to consider when designing insulation include:
. Altitude correction factors should be applied at altitudes
greater than 1000 meters (3300 feet)
. Switches in conjunction with low pressure alarms, trip-
ping contacts, and other sensing devices should be used to
avert gas loss
. A "probabilistic" approach for insulation coordination
may be required in the future for UHV breakers between
stress and strength curves in predicting the probability of
flashover'
Brocnnpsy
Manager of Transmission Systems Engineering at Westinghouse Electric Cor-
Richard A. York graduared from the University of Pirisburgh wirh a Bachelor
of Science in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed as a Development
Engineer at ABB Power T & D since 1 987. Prior to working at ABB, he was an
Electrical Engineer for Stone and Webster Engineering.
 VII. Rr'r'eneucss
lll Rating Stucture for AC HighVoltage Circuit Break-
ers Rated on a Symmetricql Current Basis, ANSII
IEEE, C37.M - 1979 (R-1988) and Supplements'
12) Sched.ulesofPreferuedRatingsandRelatedRequired
Capabilities for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers t15l
Ra,ted on a Symmetrical Current Basis, ANSI C37'06
- 1987.
t3l TestProced'ureforACHighVokageCircuitBreakcrs
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basjs, ANSIAEEE
C31.09 - 1979 (R-1988) and Supplements'
l4l ApplicationGuideforACHighVoltageCircuitBreak'
ers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, ANSII
IEEE C37.010 - lg'79 (R-1938) and Supplements'
t5l Common Causes for High-Voltage Switchgear and
Control Standards,IEC Publication 694 - 1980'
t6l High-Voltage Alternating Current Circuit Breakers'
IEC Publication 56 - 1987.
lll StandardTechniquesforHighVoltageTesring,ANSl/
rEEE4 -1978.
t8l Guide for Application of Gapped Silicon-Carbide
Surge Arresters for AC Systems, ANSIAEEE C62'2 -
1981.
t9l GuideforApplicationofMetalOxideSurgeAnesters
for AC Systems, ANSI^EEE C62.22 - 1991'
tl0l Central station Engin eers,ElecticalTransmission &
Distribution Reference Book, East Pittsburgh, PA, 2l
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 1950.
t11l R. E. Kane, R. C. Newsome, and C. L. Wagner "New
generation of oilless circuit breakers 1 I 5 kV - 345 kV
- Pafi I - System requirements," IEEE Trans. Power -,21
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-90, March/April
197r,pp.628-635.
t12) I. B. Johnson, V. E. Phillips, and H. O. Simmons, Jr'
"switching of extra-high-voltage circuits, I - System g3l
requirements forcircuitbre akers," I EEE Trans. P ow er
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-83, December 1964,
pp.1 187-1 196.
t13l D. E. Hedman,I. B. Johnson, C' H. Titus, and D' D'
Wilson "switching of extra-high-voltage circuits, II -
Surge reduction with circuit breaker resistors," IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-83,
December 1964, PP.I196-12A5'
tr41 R. B. Shores, J. W. Beatty, andV. E. Phillips"Switch-
ing of extra-high-voltage circuits, III
- Design of air
blast circuitbreakers,"/EE E Trans. P ower Apparatus
and Systems, vol. PAS-83, December 1964,pp'1205-
t213.
O. Naef, and C. E. Asbury "Power circuit breaker
insulation coordination: required minimum volt-time
characteristics for circuit br eakets," AI EE T r an s., v ol.
79,196A,pp 1129-45.
tl6l R. L. Witzke andT. J. Bliss "Coordination of lightning
arrester location with transformer insulation level"
AIEE Trans. Pt. II, val.69,1950,pp 964-915.
tnl J. M. Clayton and R. W. Powell "Application of
zrrresters for complete lightning protection of substa-
tions" NEE Trans. Pt.lil Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems vol.17,February 1959, pp 1608-14.
t18l J.M. Clayton and F. S . Young "Application of arrest-
ers for lightning protection of multiline substations"
N EE T r ans. P t. I I I P ow er App aratus and Sy s tems v ol'
79, August 1960, PP 566-75.
tlgl C. L. Wagner, J. M. Clayton, F. S. Young and C' L'
Rudasill "Insulation levels for VEPCO 500-kV sub-
station equipment" IEEE Trans- Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. PAS-83, March 19&,pp.236-41.
t20l A. R. Hileman, W. G. Guyker, R. W. Powell' W. a'
Richter, and J. M. Desalvo "Insulation coordination
in APS 500 kV stations" I E EE Tr ans' P ow er Appar a'
tws and Sy ste ms, v ol. PAS -86, June 1 967, pp.655-65'
H. W. Anderl, C. L..Wagner and T. H. Dodds "Insu-
lation coordination for gas-insulated substatiots" I EEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and. Systems, vol' PAS-92,
September/October 1973, pp.L622-634.
A. R. Hileman, C. L. Wagner and R' B. Kisner, Jr.
"Open breaker pr otection" I E EE T r ans . P ow e r Ap pa -
ratus and Systems, vol. PAS-88, July 1969, pp.1005-
14.
A. R. Jones "Evaluatron of the integration method for
analysis of non-stan dard sur ge v oltages" N E E T r ans.
Pt.IIIB, vol. 73, August 1954,pp 984-90.
l24l R. G. Colclaser, Jr., C. L. Wagner and D. E. Buettner
"Transient overvoltages caused by the initiation and
clearance of faults on a 1 100 kV system" IEEETrans.
Power Apparatus and Systent"l, vol.PAS-89, Novem-
berlDecember 197 0, PP.l7 44-51.
72
t25l E. W. Kimbark and A. C. Legate "Fault surge versus
switching surge: A study of transient overvoltages
caused by line-to-ground faults"IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus andSystems, vol. PAS-87, September 1968,
pp.1762-69.
t26l A. Clerici and A. Taschini "Overvoltages due to line
energization and re-energization versus overvoltages
caused by faults and fault clearing in EHV systems"
IEEETrans. Power Apparatus andSystems, vol. PAS-
89, Mayfiune 197 0, pp.932-941.
l27l A. Clerici, G. Santagostine and A. Magagnoli "Influ-
ence offault initiation and fault clearing overvoltages
on t}re insulation of UHV lines" IEEE Trans. Power
Ap parat us and Sy s t e ms, v ol. PAS -94, M ay I J une 197 5,
pp.802-809.
t28l IEEE Committee Report "Switching surges I - Phase-
to-ground voltages" NEETrans. Pt.lll Power Appa-
ratus and Systems vol. 80, June 1961, pp 240-61.
l29l A. J. McElroy, H.M. Smith, W. S. Price and D. F.
Shankle "Field measurement of switching surges on
unterminated 345 kV transmission lines"IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-82, August
1963, pp.465-87.
t3sl J. R. Rubeiro and J. R. McCallum "An application of
metal oxide arresters in the elimination of the need for
closing resistors in EHV breakers" IEEE Trans. P ower
Delivery, vol. 4, no. 1, January 1989, pp. 282-291.
t36l S. R. Lambert, V. Koschik, C. E. Wood, G. Worner
and R. G. Rocamora "Long line single-phase switch-
ing transients and ther effect on station equipment"
I EEE Trans. P ow er Apparatus and Sy stems, vol. PAS-
97, ro. 3, Mayfiune 1978, pp.857-865.
t37l J. E. Beehler "Weather, Corona and the decay of
trapped energy on transmission lines" IEEE Trans.
Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-83, May
1964,pp.512-20.
t38l S. Csida and L. I. Kromer "An improved method for
determining line discharge through potential trans-
former s" I E E E Tr ans. P o w er Ap p ar at us an d S y s t ems,
vol. PAS-97, no. 1, January/February 1978,pp.79-89.
t3el G. Carrara, E. Occhini, L. Paris and F. Reggiani
"Contribution to the study of insulation coordination
from the probabilistic point of view" C I GRE, no. 421
1966

t30l C. L. Wagner and J. W. Bankoske "Evaluation of

surge suppression resistors in high-voltage circuit
breakers" I EEE Trans. Pow er Apparatus and Systems,
vol. PAS-86, Jlne 1967, pp.698-7A7 .

t3ll R. G. Colclaser, C. L. Wagner and E. P. Donohue

"Multi-step resistor control of switching surges"lEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-88,
July 1969, pp.r022-28.

l32l A. R. Hileman, P. R. Leblanc and G. W. Brown

"Estimating the switching surge performance of trans-
mission lines" IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-89, September/October 1970,
pp.1455-69.

t33l H. E. Konkel, A. C. Legate and H. C. Ramberg

"Limiting switching surge overvoltages with conven-
tional power circuit breakers" IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-96, no.2,Muchl
Apm D77,pp.535-42.

134) A. C. Legate, J. H. Brunke, J. J. Ray and E. J. Yasuda

"Elimination of closing resistors on EHV circuit
breakers" IEEETrans.Power Delivery, vol.3, no. 1,
January 1988, pp. 223-231.

73
 HIGH POWER TEST PROCEDURES
FOR
POWER CIRCUTT BREAKERS
I. T. Slkkanen
KEMA-Powertest, Inc.
L INTRODUCTION
Circuit breaker is a unique device as compared to
other devices in an electrical transmission system. It
may stay closed or open for extended periods of time
and then be asked to operate under anyone of a wide
variety of circuit conditions. These circuit conditions
include operating voltage, transient system voltages,
lightning impulses, transient recovery voltage and
thermal and magnetic affects of the power system fault
current. The application of the breaker is such that it
must clear high-power faults, load currents, capacitor
and reactor currents and be able to close on all of the
above circuit conditions.
To cover the above duties and other performance
requirements, circuit breakers are evaluated based on
standard tests. These tests have been developed by
ANSI and IEC and are covered in the standards listed
in l, 2, 3, and 4. It should be noted that these
standards are in a constant process of development as
a better understanding of circuit and interrupter
phenomena are obtained, and as the circuit breaker
technology changes. Although there are a wide range of
tests used to establish the proof of performance of a
circuit breaker, this discussion will focus on short-circuit
interruption tests which is the most difficult part of a
test program.
74
A General
Basically, testing is a vehicle for assurance that
the breaker will properly function under full stress
in the power system. The importance of this
assurance should be judged from the fact that the
breaker provides protection for the rest of the
system. Consequences of failure not only include
damage to the breaker itself, but also to other
system components and system performance.
During breaker operation, it is subiected to
the combination of high electrical, mechanical and
thermal stresses. These stresses attain very high
values (e.g., local temperatures in the range of 103
- 104"C. They influence each other and have the
nature of fast transients including the effect of an
electric arc. The phenomena are so complicated
that the breaker design must be based more on
experimental findings than on engineering
calculations. In many other cases, equipment
design is based on calculation and only the final
performance is checked by testing. In contrast,
testing is a basic tool in the development and
design of circuit breakers.
Srvitching phenomena depend to a large extent
on circuit configuration and the whole switching
process should be seen as the interaction between
breaker and circuit variables. For example, arc
voltagr: is a function of the current in the circuit,
but the shape of the current is in turn influenced
by the arc voltage. The non-linear relationship
between the two quantities requires good
representation of the system parameters. Thus, in
testing the characteristics ofthe breaker, the power
systems have to be specified.
 The difficult technical nature of the circuit breaking TI. DESIGN TESTS
problem calls for sophisticated resting procedures. The
speed and transient character of the switching process Design tests cover all the tests which
are incompatible with direct human action. Both the substantiate the rating assigned to breakers
control and performanre measuring systems must be essentially of the same design. Thus, only
appropriately automated using high-speed timers and representative breakers are subject to the design
data acquisition systems. tests and usually represent the culmination of
development tests.
The main reason for the complexity of test
procedures is the wide variety of test conditions. For The design tests consist of the fcrllowing types of
example, the same type of breaker is required to tests:
interrupt a full range of currents from the charging
current of no-loaded lines to the highest fault currents a) C.ontinuous current carrying tests.
under different fault conditions. It is, of course,
impossible that testing would cover all of the possible b) Shorticircuittests.
system conditions. Even the selection of testing
conditions for only the most severe stresses which may Symmetrical interrupting capability
occur under usual service conditions leads to a (polyphase and line-to-line).
considerable number of parameters and results in Asymmetrical interrupting capability
complicated testing procedures. (polyphase and line-to-line).
Interrupting capability for single line-to-
Complicated testing procedures in turn lead to ground fault.
costly testing programs. The cost of the test equipment Closing, latching, carrying and interrupting
can be appreciated when one realizes that the test capability.
laboratory should provide the same short-circuit Short-time current carrying capability.
capacity as the power system for which the breaker is Reclosing capability.
designed. The destructive character of testing stems Standard operating duty.
from the facL that finding a limit of breaker Tripping delay.
performance implies reaching some failure mode that Interrupting time.
may destroy the expensive test piece. Moreover, even Reclosing time.
without reaching the limit of performance, the wear of
some parts (e.g., contact burning by high-current arc) c) Dielectricstrength.
may require refurbishing the breaker after a limited
number of tests. Low frequency withstand, dry and wet.
Impulse withstand.
The tests performed on circuit breakers are classified as:
d) Load current swirching capability.
1) Design Tests
2) Production Tests Shunt reactor switching.
3) Tests after Delivery
4) Field Test Capacitor switching.
5) Conformance Tests Line charging current switching.

The description of rhese tesrs is given in Ref. 1. e) Mechanical life.

75
 the whole
The above list of tests offers a survey of CLOSING AND LAICHING CAPABTLTTY

as mentioned earlier' this

tasting itiucture. However,
discusiion focusses on the short-circuit tests' ffiilitHli#pili'l',"rff i[f llil',#t]

The demonstration of short-circuit capabilities

is :::1'-:::"J;S:,rUr+e++
X iiFEfiiiTFE-VOLTIGE
done by different test duties as specified Ref' 1'
.in of
These iest duties consist of various combinations
;;;;irg and closing operations in the prescribed time SYMMETRICAL

intervals.

to
The test procedures should subject the breaker
themostSeveretestconditions.oneimportanttesting
condition is the arcing time during which energy
is
depends on
released in the interrupter. The arcing time
between contact separation and the
the time interval
current reaches zero' With a
instant the short-circuit
particular contact separation the breaker may not
clear
atthefirstcurrentzeroandthearcingtimemayinclude
may
another half cycle. Advancing the tripping impulse
may be true
lead to longeiarcing time but the opposite
if the contact gap or gas pressure is sufficient for Fig. 1 Relation of Symmetriel InJerruPtrng
to Capability, Closing Capability, Iarching
ctearing at the iitit curr"nt 'ero' Another factor
of Capability and Carrying Capability to
considir is the influence of the degree current
Rated Short-Circuit CurrenL
,ry**",.y. Switching conditions will be.different if the
breaker clears on u muior or on a minor loop'
Thus the
time should
instant of contact sepaiation and the arcing
with respect to the current asymmetry' The test duties also differ depending on
be considered
whether the whole three-pole breaker is tested or
whether the test of a single-pole is performed'
The most severe test conditions depend on the
to As the breaker is normally intended for
breaker design and several tesm may be needed circuit, the three-phase
operation in a three-phase
ascertain that theY have been met.
test is considered the basic test' However, it is
generally uneconomical and sometimes even
i-mpossiUte to make the complete three-pole test
The test voltages and currents with the test duties
be&use of the high short circuit MVA required'
differ mainly in dependence on the voltage range factor
Therefore, different test methods are devised to
fC fnit facior specifies the voltage range within which
represent the full test. The single-pole testing is
ih" in,"..upting UVa are constant' This and the
are one of the special testing methods which are
mutual retaiion of the tests for different capabilities
treated separately in the next section'
shown in Fig.1.

76
 IIL Methods of Testing Intemrpting Capabilities
Test methods can be divided into two basic groups:
1. Direct Tests
Z. Indirect Tests
A Direct Tests
Direct test methods are those where the applied
current and voltage is obtained from a single power
source which may be comprised of generators,
transformer network or a combination of these. The
characteristics of the direct test circuit is that its short-
circuit MVA equals that used in the test. Basically, the
direct test is a test of a three-pole breaker in a three-
phase circuit with full current and full voltage. The
direct tests can be performed as field tests or laboratory
tests.
B. Field Tests
Field tests are those tests performed in the actual
power system. It is a valuable method for checking the
performance of the breaker under actual conditions as
they occur in the system. This is an advantage because
simulating field conditions may lead to questionable
simplifications. However, this advantage is offset by a
number of drawbacks. The main drawback is the
limited possibility of varying test parameters. Safety
becomes also a major concern because of limited means
of protecting the breaker under test and adjacent
equipment.
M - making switch which closes the short circuit
with synchronous point-on-wave control
independent in the three-poles to achieve
the required degree of asymmetry.
X - current limiting reactors to limit the short-
circuit current to the desired value.
T - transformers with variable transformation
ratios.
C - capacitance for controlling the transient
recovery voltage.
B - circuit breaker under test.
V - voltage divider for measuring purposes.
I - current shunt.
GPMXT
)
6F</*-{-trrrFi,
\-./
)
Fig.2 - Basic diagram of high-power test circuit
There are a number of high-power laboratories of
various capacities scattered throughout the world.
As the laboratories are designed for the specific
purpose of direct testing, their main advantage as
opposed to field testing is the constant readiness
and great flexibiliry in test parameters. The
disadvantage is high cost of equipment which puts
a limitation on installed capacity. Thus, capacities
of even the biggest laboratories fall far short of
that required for new present day transmission
breakers. To meet those requirements, indirect
test methods have to be used.

C I:boratory Tests
D. Indirea Tests
Laboratory tests are performed in special test
stations build exclusively for this purpose. All the The indirect testing methods are those which
power control and measuring equipment is quite permit evaluation of the capacity of three-pole
specialized. The single line diagram of a typical high- breakers by means other than tests on a three-
power laboratory is given in Figure 2. The main phase circuit with fulI short-circuit MVA
equipment of the test circuit is:
The most important indirect test methods are:
G - the source of short-circuit power
which can be either special short- 1) Single-pole tests
circuit generators or a supply network. Z) Ttvo-part tests
P - generator breaker which clears the current in 3) Unit tests
certain tests or in case of failure of the test 4) Synthetic tests
piece.

77
E. Single-Pole Tests
The relationship between three-pole tests and single-
pole tests can be illustrated by Figure 3 which shows the
iurrents through and voltages across the three-poles
during interruption of a three-phase circuit. The figure
applies either to an isolated fault on a grounded system
oi to a fault on a system with isolated neutral. The
poles can interrupt only when their respective currents
pass through zero. Because the natural current zeros
occur 60' apart in a balanced three-phase circuit, the
poles cannot interrupt simultaneously. The first pole in
which a current zero occurs after contact parting and
which interrupts (pole a at the time t1) changes the
three-phase fault to line-to-line fault. It can be seen
from Figure 3 that the voltage which appears across the
first pole to open is v, = 1'5 ul'/3 = where u is the
system line-to-line voltage. The first pole clears the full
short circuit current I, = I but at the moment of
interruption, the currents in the other two phases will
by *30" and change their amplitudes to Io
- -I" shift
phase
,n IfZ. The currents will reach their zeros 90o
=
later (time tr. They interrupt at the time t, and are
stressed by the line-to-line voltage' Assuming that the
voltage is equally distributed each of the last nwo poles
is stress by U2.
From the viewpoint of short-circuit power, it can be
seen that with the total three-phase short-circuit power
MVA =y'3xIxU
the first pole clears
MVA (1st pole) =]_^irlr"*:riLt t xrJt {3
or 12 MVA
3 Phase
tt
lt t?
Fig. 3 - Sequence of internrpting three-phase isolated
fault on three-phase grounded qNtelns
78
each of the last two Poles clears
MVA (2nd Pole) = MVA (3rd Pole)
= Iu x lju = ,/3|ZIUD
or 1/4 MVA
3 phase
As can be. seen, the poles are not equally
sressed during the interruption. Instead the first
pole interrupts 50Vo of the total power and the
other two poles clear the remaining 50Vo together
in series - even if the voltage is not equally
distributed between them.
To represent the most severe stress, the
conditions for the first pole to open are simulated
in a single-pole test. The pole should then be
tested with full current and 87Vo of line-to-line
voltage (1.5 x phase to neutral voltage) for an
isolated fault on a grounded system. If in an
effectively grounded system the fault is grounded,
then instead of the above voltage coefficient of 1.5,
the coefficient 1.3 should be used and the test
voltage should be accordingly lower (1).
For single-pole testing, one should deteimine
the suitability of the breaker itself for such a test.
The interrupting process can be affected by action
of the electrodynamic forces from the adjacent
poles, the speed of contacts, the pressure of the
extinguishing medium, etc. In other words, the
design of the breaker and the degree of
independence in the function of individual poles is
particularly important if the three poles operate
with a common mechanism and are in a common
enclosure.
F- Unit Tests
The modular concept is used in the design of
high-voltage circuit breakers, i.e., the breaker is
built of identical units in series, each unit
consisting of one, two or even more interrupters'
The unit then represents a basic building block and
as such can be tested separately. Performance of
a complete pole and eventually of the whole
breaker can be evaluated from the performance of
its unit.
 For unit testing to be valid. the units must be
identical or very similar in construction, they must
operate simultaneously, the supply of the arc
extinguishing medium be the same to each unit and they
must not influence each other in performance,
particularly by exhaust of arc products, etc.
The test current must be the same as for the
single-pole test and the test voltage should be the
appropriate portion of the single-pole test voltage. This
portion depends on the number of series units in the
pole and on the voltage distribution across the unirs.
Unless special means are applied in the design of the
breaker for equal voltage distribution, such as grading
resistors or capacitors, the voltage stress of identical
units will be different depending on stray capacitances.
The influence of circuit grounds, proximity of other
objects, adjacent units and poles should be considered
in investigating the voltage distribution. The voltage
distribution should be determined both for normal
frequency and transient recovery voltage by calculations
and/or experimentally.
The test voltage for a unit test should then
correspond to the voltage share which would appear
across the highest stressed unit in the complete breaker.
With the transient recovery voltage, the natural
frequencies of the test circuit remain the same as in the
full circuit. Due to the lower portion of the test
voltage, the rate of rise will be proportionally lower.
This results also in proportional decrease of surge
impedance (not the length) of the line used for short-
line fault testing.
G- Thro-Part Tests
This method consists of two separate tests when
the available test capacity is lower than required. First,
the test is made with the full voltage and the highest
available current. Second, another test is made with the
full current and the highest available voltage. Thus the
voltage interrupting capability and current interrupting
capability are demonstrated separately. The results can
be meaningfully interpreted only if the arcing time of
the breaker does not depend either on voltage or
current. AIso, the arc energy released in the
interrupters during the breaking process is of concern.
The evaluation of actual performance of the breaker
with full current and full voltage is based on an
extrapolation of results thus such test results represent
only an indication of the true breaker capabilities.
79
FL Synthetic Tests
Synthetic testing methods are based on the
observation that, during the switching operation,
a) when high-current flows through the
breaker, there is only a relatively small
arc voltage befween the open contacts
and
b) when high voltage appears across the
open contacts, there is only a very small
current through the breaker.
The above t'wo phenomena occur in two
separate time periods. The interruption process
can, therefore, be divided into the hieh-current
interval before final current zero and the high-
voltage interval after current zero. Making use of
this fact, synthetic testing methods use two energy
sources for simulating the electrical stresses on a
breaker:
a) high-current circuit which supplies the
high current at low-voltage during the
high-current interval.
b) high-voltaee circuit which supplies the
high voltage with relatively small iower
during the high-voltage interval.
During a synthetic test, a suitable
commutation between the two circuits must be
made at the appropriate time. Therefore, a
synthetic testirg circuit would generally comprise
some commutating equipment which may include
an isolation breaker. The isolation breaker will
isolate the current circuit from the high voltage
circuit.
With this approach, the testing capability of
a laboratory can be increased at a cost which is
considerably less than that for an equivalent direct
testing capability.
The decisive processes of interruption occur
in the close proximity to the final current zero. In
this time period, the interaction of the circuit
breaker and circuit parameters takes place,
therefore, this time period is called the interaction
interval. Since synthetic test methods achieve the
commutation from the high-current circuit to the high-
voltage circuit within the interaction interval, it is of
crucial importance that this commutation does not aid
the interruption process in the tested breaker' It should
be emphasized that the breaker-circuit interaction
depencli on the interrupting principle of the breaker
anh, therefore, the equivalence of a synthetic method
must be considered in relation to a specific breaker' In
other words, a synthetic method can be applicable to a
certain group of circuit breakers while the same method
muy not be suitable for other types of breakers'
Typically, circuit breakers which generate low arc
voltages can be tested synthetically'
The use of synthetic testing procedures to meet
the present and future requirements of power systems
became a necessity. This is because the requirements
exceed the direct testing capabilities of even the largest
testing laboratories. However, the synthetic methods
need not be seen only as mere substitutes for direct
tests. When properly applied, they bring their own
advantages into testing' One of the advantages is that
synthetic tests are non-destructive.
A number of different synthetic methods are
currently in use but only the principles of the most
widely used methods are treated here. The test guides
and bibliographies are given in References 5, 6, 7, 8
and 9.
L Current Injection Methods
The basic diagram of the current injection method
is given in Figure 4a. The current circuit source G
(generators, transformers) supplies the current i, limited
by series inductance ! through the isolation breaker B
unO th" breaker under Test A' The main capacitor
bank C, is precharged to dc voltage uo. The bank C, is
discharged into the circuit by triggering the gap TG at
the time 1 which precedes the natural current zero. If
80
the polarity of the precharged voltage un is the
same as the instantaneous voltage of the current
source u, at the moment of gap triggering, then the
currents from the current circuit i' and the
discharge current from the high voltage circuit i.
add together in the breaker A, as it is
shown in Fig. 4b. The current i, reaches zero aI
the time 2 and the isolation breaker B clears at
that moment. The total current i, in the breaker
under test reaches zero al the time 3 and the
breaker interrupts. The voltage across its
terminals recovers by a transient process of
charging the capacitor CrRv through the inductance
L from the energy available at the main bank.
In the described case, when voltages u and uo
had the same polarity, the breaker B was the
isolation breaker and breaker A the tested breaker.
For convenience of measurement, the circuit is
grounded at the point a. From the viewpoint of
the breaker, under test the high-current and high-
voltage circuits are in parallel, therefore, this
particular arrangement is called the parallel
current injection method.
If the relative polarity of u, and un would be
reversed, then the currents would be as given in
Figure 4c. The injected current i, from the high-
voltage circuit will subtract from the current i in
the breaker A and would teach zero and be
interrupted at the time 2. The breaker B would
interrupt the injected current later at the time 3.
The voltage across the breaker B would recover to
a total value given by th9 sum of uo and u', the
current and voltage circuits would act in series.
Obviously, the role of breakers A and B is
interchanged in this application' The breaker B
becomes the breaker under test and breaker A the
isolation breaker. For convenience purposes' the
circuit would be grounded at the point b. As the
high voltage and high-current circuits impose the
voltage in series across the tested breaker, this
application is knows as the series current injection
method.
 o
Fig,1a

Fig,tb. Fig 4c

Frgure 4 - Current Injection Method

High-Curetrt Circdt: High-Voltage Cirqft:

G Current circuit source C, Main caPacitor bank

L Inductance ofcurrent circuit Q*, Capacitor for TRV control
q Capacitance of current circuit L Inductance of hig[-voltage
AB Tested & isolation breaker TG Triggered gaP

81
 Both variations of the current injection method
the
have common advantages. First, the interruption of
isolation breaker precedes the interruption of the tested
breaker by the time 2-3 (Figures 4b and 4c)' Thus, the
breaker under test can interrupt the high-voltage test
circuit without any interference from the isolation
breaker. Moreover, the parameters of the high-voltage
circuit can be adjusted so the rate of change of the
injected current is the same as that of the power
current, that is
dim=dii=uh
dtdtL
The voltage utr should be the same as the
maximum crest test uoltage, therefore' the value of L
equals the inductance of the direct test circuit' With
thl inductance L and a large capacitor bank Cm, the
capacitance Co, is the same as the capacitance of the
diiect test circuit at the required transient recovery
voltage frequency. The above is true for the parallel
injection mithod. With the series injection method, the
urgu."nt must be modified but the conclusions are the
same.
The disadvantage of current injection methods is
the large capacitance needed for the main bank' This
togeth; wiitr ttre lowest obtainable frequency of the
,"Iou.ry voltage sets the practical limits for the use of
current injection methods.
Using the current injection synthetic test circuit,
we have shown that the breaker under test must clear a
circuit with the same parameters as the direct circuit'
It follows then that the interaction of the test breaker
with the circuit relative to arc voltage, post arc current,
TRV are the same as that of a test on a direct circuit'
Hence, the current injection circuit can be used to
reliabty test circuit breakers as long as proper attention
is paid to the test circuit performance requirements and
opiration as described in References 5 and 6'
J. Voltage Injection Methods
The diagram of one of the early synthetic voltage
injection methods by W. F. Skeats is presented in
Figure 5. The tested breaker TB in series with the
isolation breaker IB interrupts the current I from the
high-current circuit. At the moment of interruption,
the gag TG is triggered and thus the voltage V from the
high-voltage circuit (auto transformer AT) is applied
across the tested breaker.
82
ll
tr
AT II l(,
tl
Ir
Fig 5. Voltage Injection Method
The method has several drawbacks, one of
them is the timing precision required for the
trigger gap. The test is not acceptable if there is
any t*rtt-time lapse between the interruption of
thi current and application of the voltage' The
other problem is the role of the isolation breaker
and iti possible interference with the interrupting
process. The problem of series action of the
isolation breaker and the tested breaker may not
be important for breakers with certain arc
interruption media. Late firing of the gap TG may
be compensated for by utilizing the voltage from
the current circuit and imposing a substantial part
of it across the tested breaker by means of a
voltage divider C, and Cr. This provides a rising
voltage at the initial part of the transient recovery
voltage that is developed once the trigger gap is
fireO. Ttris is one variation of the method utilized
in the voltage injection test circuit.
Other variations of the basic method come
from replacing the triggered gaP by. some
impedancn Z. If this impedance is capacitive, a
useful synthetic method is obtained for capacitive
current switching tests (6, 10). The impedance can
be made inductive or ohmic. The use of a high
ohmic resistance in place of the triggered gap does
provide a method for high power synthetic testing'
i{o*eu"r, the high ohmic resistance may limit the
supply of energy into the post arc current
irnmediately after interruption and ease the
interrupting process such that the switching
phenomena at current zero may not be sufficiently
severe. Thus, this method does not have general
validify. Its use for some breakers may be highly
questionable (i.e., gas blast breakers) while it might be
useful for other types of breakers. Therefore, the
applicability of the method should be examined from
the viewpoint of the tested breaker and its specific
behavior at current zero.
direct circuit test parameters. This presents the
problem of interaction of the test breaker and the
test circuit. Because of this, the voltage injection
methods do not have general applicability. If a
particular breaker is tested by voltage injection, it
must be shown that the conditions for equivalence
are met for the effect of breaker arc voltage on the
test circuit employed is necessary so that the
correct test procedure can be established.

A more common voltage injection circuit as

proposed by E. Slamecka and E. Pflaum (13) employs
a charged capacitor bank instead of the transformer to
provide the transient recovery voltage. The basic
diagram for this voltage injection method is
fundamentally the same as that given in Fig. 4a for the
current injection method. The main difference is in the
values of the high-voltage circuit parameters and the
timing of trigger gap TG. The gap triggering to carry
out commutation for the high current circuit to the
high-voltage circuit represents the principal difference.

The power frequency current is supplied from the l1

high-current circuit and is interrupted by the isolation Ir
and tested breaker at the time 1 in Fig. 6. The high-
of ii
current circuit also provides the first part the ii=i1 il
transient recovery voltage. This transient voltage must,
therefore, meet the test specifications and is adjusted
accordingly to the capacitance C,. It appears across tt
both breakers in series and the proper share of the
voltage across the tested breaker (v in Fig. 6) is
l2
achieved by a voltage divider C,, Q as pictured in Fig.5.
After current zeto, when the current source transient
recovery voltage is close to peak, the gap TG is
triggered and the capacitance Cr*.,, is charged by a
transient process from the precharged C,. This results Eig.6 - Voltage and Current Shapes with Voltage
in further increase of the total voltage V, across the Injection Testing
tested breaker as shown in Figure 6. There is no delay
between the current and voltage stresses. i, - Current from the current circuit

The high-voltage circuit can be connected in i - Test current

parallel or in series with the tested breaker. This gives
two methods for either parallel or the series voltage v, - Transient recovery voltage supplied
injection. from from the current circuit

The main bank capacitance can be much lower vr - Total voltage across the test
than that of the current injection scheme because it breaker
does not supply the injected current. The low frequency
TRV can be achieved by a high inductance L in the 1 - Instant of interruption
high voltage circuit. Thus, the parameters of the
voltage injection test circuit do not correspond to the 2 - Instant of gap triggering

83
 UL CONCLUSION
The previous paragraphs discussed the basic test
procedures used to substantiate and demonstrate the
iating of power circuit breakers. Moreover, with high-
power interrupting breakers, assurance has to be
obtained that both the basic design and manufacture of
the product, quality of material and workmanship is
maintained. The outlined design and production tests
serve this purpose. The implementation of different
types of design and production tests as specified in
Reference 1 thus provide assurance of the proper
function of individual breakers.
The role of testing in circuit breaker development
can hardly be over-emphasized. The insufficient
theoretical knowledge of the switching processes and
their interaction with the switched circuits dictates the
design and application of the breaker be based on
experimental results rather than on engineering
caiculations. Also, high-power test facilities do not have
the power capability of the actual power systems. This
situition dictates the use of sophisticated testing
procedures employing synthetic test methods.
With the growing application of synthetic test
methods they have achieved wide acceptance. Key to
the proper application of synthetic test circuits is the
relationship of the current source driving voltage to the
arcing voltages of the tested and isolation breakers, the
different ways of TRV control, prolongation of arc
duration, multiloop testing, etc. Here the reader is
referred to the extensive literature to obtain proper
understanding of the employed testing procedure to the
specific type of breaker to be tested- This
understanding is essential so that the test results and
their bearing on the field performance are properly
interpreted.
Note: This paper has been modified from
presented earlier by J. Panek and E. F. Veverka'
84
TV. BIOGRAPTIY
Ilkka T. Pylktanen was born in Mikkeli, Finland, in 1938.
He obtained a BSEE degree from the Technical College in
Helsinki, Finland in 1963, -and an MBA from Drexel
Universiry in Philadelphia, P'A" in 1975.
After graduation in 1963, he was employed by BBC Brown
Boveri in Switzerland, and subsequently held positions
with Siemens in Sweden and AEG in Finland. In 1969 he
came to the United States joining I-T-E Imperial
Corporation as a member of the project team charged with
the construction of the high-power test laboratory in
Chalfont, PA In 1975 he was promoted to laboratory
Manager and directed a major expansion of this laboratory
from 1976-1979. During his employment with ITE
Imperial Corporation and is successor companies, Mr.
Pylkkanen has held a number of positions with increasing
responsibility. Upon the purchase of the test laboratory
and the systems engineering operations by KEMA" he was
nominated President of KEMA-Powertest, Inc., the
position he holds todaY.
V.,REFERENCES
11] ANSI C37.09 - 1979; Test Procedure for AC High
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on A Symmetrical
Current Basis.
l2l ANSI C37.o9c & e 1979: Supplement To
ANSIAEEE C37.W.
l3l ANSI C37.54 - 1987 Indoor Alternating Current
High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Applied as Removable
Elements in Metal-Enclosed Switchgear Assemblies -
Conformance Test Procedures.
t4l IEC Publication 56-4, 1987: High Voltage A.C.
Circuit Breakers
tsI ANSI C37.081 - 1981: Guide for Synthetic Fault
Testing of AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
On A Symmetrical Current Basis.
t6I IEC Publication 427 Second Edition (1989): Report
on synthetic testing of high-voltage A.C. Circuit
Breakers.

a7l J. B. Roberts, W. A Carter, J. F. Szablya:

Bibliography on high power testing by synthetic
methods (up to 1966) IEEE Transactions. Vol. PAS-
88, No. 4, April L969, pp- 501-504.

t8I J. L.A Jansen, B. I-ageman: Bibliography on high

power testing by synthetic methods (1966-1971) IFFE
conference record - supplement 71C57-PWR (sup.)
pp. aLaZ (July 1971) International Symposium on
High Power Testing.

[10] Bibliography of Switchgear Literature IEEE

Committee Report, 1989.

[1 1] Y.7-ajic, J. Panek, R. Gert, J. Jirku: Switching of a

large shunt capacitor bank for reactive power
compensation. CIGRE 1962, Rep. 140.

I12] W. R. Wilson, C. J. Harders: Improved reliability

from statistical redundancy of three phase operation
of high voltage circuit breakers - IEEE Transactions
PAS 90, No. 2, Mar.iApr. 1971pp.670-681.

[13] Equivalence Between Direct and Synthetic

Short
Circuit Interruption Tests on HV Circuit Breakers,
St. - Jean, G; Ren Fu Wang, IEEE Trans. Power
Appar. and Syst. (USA Vol. PAS-L02, No. 7, pp.
2215 - 23, July 1983.

85
 Review of Seismic Qualification Methods for Circuit Breakers
A. J. Molnar, P.E.
President
EAD Corporation
Trafford, PA 15085
Abstract - Circuit breakers can be seismically quali-
fied either by calculations or testing or a combination of both'
Several approaches to qualifying circuit breakers and other
electrical equipment for their seismic withstand capabilities
are: 1) modal analysis using the seismic response spectrum' 2)
time history calculations, 3) shaker table earthquake simula-
tions to measure critical stresses and check operational integ-
rity, and 4) sine beat overtesting to further improve the
structural performance beyond earthquake requirements. This
paper presents a brief summary of each of these approaches
and the respective advantages, disadvantages, and economics
of each approach.
I. IxrnooucttoN
The paper will examine the methods and processes for
seismically qualifying cirqut breakers and illustrate how
they are applied
A. Applicable Standards
The ANSI C37.04 standard requires that power circuit
breakers be capable of withstanding a0.2 g (static) earth-
quake acceleration or a 90 MPH wind force, whichever is
greater. In addition, line pull, short circuit forces, ice and
operating loads are added to the seismic or wind load.
The NEMA S G-4, High-Voltage Circuit Breaker standard
defines both general and definite purpose breakers as being
designed for the 0.2 g (static) and 0.5 g (dynamic) earth-
quakes, respectively. The 0.5 g is further defined in this
standard with the eaflhquake response spectrum shown in
Fig. 1. This response spectrum characterizes the frequency
response of the breaker to a design eaflhquake with a 0.5 g
(horizontal) zero period acceleration (ZPA).
Willie Freeman, P.E.
ABB Power T & D Company, Inc.
Greensburg, PA 15601
From Fig. l, design response spectrum, we see that the
eraximum horizontal response to the 0.5 g eaflhquake may
be over 2 g's, depending on the equipment natural frequen-
cies and damping. Therefore, the 0.5 g earthquake may be
over ten times as severe as the 0.2 g static response earth-
quake. Design response spectra are scaled and shaped to
reflect the inherent seismic characteristic for particular
locations. They have received wide acceptance as a speci-
fications tool which can be used to define analytical as well
as test requirements.
The IEEE Recommended Practices for Seismic Design of
Substations (ANSIAEEE Standard 693-1984) provides the
basic definitions, guidelines, and allowable stresses which
are directly applicable to power circuit breaker design and
testing. This standard also references and applies several
other impofiant standards. Two of these are the ANSIIEEE
Standard 344 which covers seismic qualification methods
and the Uniform Building Code which divides the United
States into seismic intensity zones.
II. Salsrrtc Cgcu-anoNs Vs. TesrrNc
Although calculations allow for essentially unlimited
readouts, stress, strain, loads, and motions, calculations are
limited by the accuacy of the models as well as the
structural integrity of the model.
Testing is limitedby thenumberof accelerometers, strain
gages, etc. that can be practically mounted and monitored.
Also the height and size of the equipment being tested make
controlling table input motion difficult as in the case of tall,
live tank circuit breakers. However, testing does allow
monitoring the integrity of control functions; switch posi-
tions and control relay pickup before, during, and after a
seismic test, e.g. O-CO operations of a circuitbreaker during
a seismic test. If schedules and costs permit, "overtesting"
can be performed to determine the limits of equipment
capabilities beyond requted specifications and afford ensu-
ing design improvements to improve seismic withstand
capabilities to exceed present requirements.
86
 6
o
o
a
6

{
6
E
o
o
c-

o

9r '0r '9 'z 'r '0 slN3cuf d 9r.ltdr{vo

sw3.l-s^s hrooffEJ Jo 138930 ft9Nrs EVf Nll Jo
SSNOdS3U "IVLNOZIBOH nnnlxvn OfH1OO|,1S

87
 III. Sersuc Zorws aNo DesrcN RpspoNsr SpEsrna period response acceleration. Equipmentwhich has primary
natural frequencies, i.e. modes of vibration, from a 1 to 20
The magnitude of seismic inputs (usually in g's) is deter-
Hz are in the range of earthquake vibrations. Here ground
mined by the geographical location and local soil condi-
motions may be amplified as shown in t}re response spec-
tions. Fig. 2 shows a seismic zone map of the United States
trum in Fig. I to produce over 2 g response accelerations in
based on the Uniform Building Code. Table I shows the g
the equipment. Note that the lower modes have much
levels for the various seismic zones. The seismic zones are
higher motions. Also, the response accelerations decrease
used to determine the appropriate design g's for a particular
as damping increases. The response spectrum in Fig. I is
location with 0.5 g's being the highest. To give some
typical of the West coast.
perspective, the 0.5 g earthquake is a major event and would
Seismic response spectraarederived eitherbycalculating
measure over 7 in Richter magnitude. However, depending
the peak acceleration of response of modal oscillators with
on the local site conditions, such as when a substation is built
various amounts of damping (A,1,2,5, 10, and 15 percent)
on 20 feet or more of soft fill, it may be necessary to increase
from a single earthquake time history from the geogaphical
the g level by site factors of 1.5 to 2 times.
area or by averaging the modal oscillator responses from
Rigid equipment (i.e. all natural frequencies are abovethe
many different earthquake time histories from ttre particular
32 Hz seismic range) and higher modes of vibration for region.
flexible equipment are subjected to the g levels in Table I.
The seismic response spectrum method is probably the
In other words, equipment which have response frequencies
most widely accepted method of qualifying equipment,
at the high end of the response spectrum will have the zero
regartlless of whether or not. testing or calculation is used.
TABLE I Reasons for the popularity of this method will be discussed
Snsrac Zour g Levers
later in this paper.
Tnne I 7nne2A 7nne2B 7nne3 Zone 4
IV. Rrvmw or Seisrvrc CeLcur-arroN Mernons
1.0 g o-z e 0.25 g 0.375 s 0.5 g
Fourtypes of seismic calculation methods arereviewed in
proceeding sections:
Site Factor Sr = 1.25 . Static calculations
The g levels can increase or decrease depending on site soil
. Simple dynamic calculations
conditions as defined by the Uniform Building Code. . Modal analysis
. Time history calculations.

Fig.2 Seismic zone map of the United States (from the Uniform Building Code)

88
A. Static Calculations procedure is the most overall acceptable mettrod for summing
modes.
Static calculations are generally applicable to simple, Fig. 3 shows the first and second modes of a live tank breaker
rigidequipmentwhereall modes areabove32Hz. A g level from the finite element analysis.
load is applied at the center of gravity depending upon the
seismic zone (Fig. 2) or other more detailed information for
the site. Forces are applied in each of the two major lateral
axes of the equipment along with 213 of the g levels in the
vertical direction. The resulting stresses and foundation
loads are then calculated.

B. Simple Dynamic Calculations

A simple dynamic calculation can be made by taking the
peak acceleration value from the response spectrum at a low
damping value and multiplying it by 1.5 to account for multi-
mode rcsponses and then applying this value (approximately
2.5 g's) times the weight as a horizontal force at the center of
gravity of the equipment. Next, apply 2/3 of this acceleration
times the weight vertically at the center of gravity. These
forces are then used to calculate sEesses and foundation
reactions.
This method gives approximate results for single column
live tank breakers which have a heavy interrupter head on top
of an insulator with the primary flexibility being cantilever
bending in the column and column base. The resulting
dynamic system approximates ttre single degree of freedom
oscillators from which theresponse spectrum is derived. The
method is not appropriate for more complex systems and
should only be used for conservative estimates. Modal
analysis or time history analysis is preferred.

C. Modal Analysis

Dynamic calculiations are made from lumped ..'{ameter

"spring mass" anddamping models usrrally employing finite
element techniques which can require considerable engineer-
ing judgement. These models generally are either linear or
linearized so that. the normal mode methods (modal analysis)
can be used. These methods allow various reduction tech-
niques to be applied which, in turn, allow analysis of the more
complex equipment.
In complex equipment with many degrees of freedom,
there are generally only a fmited number of significant
modes of vibration below 32 Hz. Thus, only the significant
modes are considered when calculating stresses and loads.
The response spectrum acceleration for each modal fre-
quency is applied to the mass associated wittr that mode to
calculate the sfresses and loads for each mode.
The contributions (motion/sressfload) of the significant
modes at a particular liiation are statistically summed usu-
ally by taking the square root of the sum ofthe squares of the
significant modes. For closely spaced modes, their contribu-
tions (motion/stressfload) may be added directly, then the
square root of *re sum of the squares of the remaining modes
are added. Although other methods are available, this Fig. 3 Finite elemert/modal analysis.

89
D. Time H istory Calculations synthesized input designed to produce the broad band re-
sponse shaped to envelop a design response spectrum. As
Finite element models can be seismically analyzed by with the analytical techniques, the simulated earthquake
applying representative time history inputs (acceleration vs. motion of the response spectrum provides a more general
time records of actual earthquakes) to the models. However, testcovering abroaderrange of conditions than a single time
these methods are time-consuming and costly. An additional history input. It is also easier to adjust to meet the varying
disadvantage is the equipment modelled may withstand a load conditions thatdifferent testobjects place on the shaker
particular earthquake but may not withstand another earth- table and to confirm that the design test levels were achieved.
quake from the same region w ith different soil condition s and/
or frequency content. Therefore, the seismic response spec- B. Response Spectum Method of Testing
trum, with its broad band frequency response (derived from
Seismic testing is performed by mounting the equipment
many earthquakes) is generally a better criteria for seismic
as described previously on a shaker table which can be
design and qualification of equipment.
driven at, a prescribed motion which envelopes the required
Time history calculations provide the advantage of calcu-
response spectrum comparable to the paflicular location or
lating &e precise, instantaneous stlesses and loads (all the
customer specifications. The seismic response spectrum of
significant modes are automatically included). A composite
the table motion must be calculated to assure that the table
broad band synthesized earthquake record such as those used
motion meets the required seismic response spectrum.
to envelope the required shock response spectrums during
Fig. 5 (on the next page) shows the required response and
testing is the best input when performing time history analysis
calculated test response spectrum (including the table accel-
and .riould give results comparable to the modal analysis.
eration history input from which the calculation is made) for
V. Sslslvac TPsrrNc a seismic testperformed on an ABB 145PM circuitbreaker.
This response spectrum is a composite of standard spectra
Seismic testing is certainly the best means of qualifying plus that of several specific locations combined to give one
a breaker or other piece of equipment to withstand a design test criteria to meet all requirements. In this test, the shaker
earthquake. A certain amount of test data such as natural
rable is mounted on rails at a 35 degree inclined plane Gig.
frequency determination and damping is vital in developing 4) to give both vertical and horizontal inputs simultaneously.
andvalidatingacomputer model to be used in modal or time
history analysis. The best test setup installs the entire
breaker with controls on a shaker table using strain bolts at
the foundation bolt localions. The critical structural element
should be instrumented with strain gages and accelerom-
eters. The breaker may be mounted on the table to excite one
or more directions simultaneously. All three principal
directions of the equipment should be tested.
The breaker should be operational and may be operated
during the test. Therefore, it shouldbe fully pressurizedwith
the controls energized and monitored for malfunction. Tim-
ing and interrupter continuity checks should be made before
and after the seismic test to demonstrate that the mechanical
condition of the breaker is unchanged. Dielectric tests
should be performed before and after the seismic tests to
demonstrate that electrical integrity is not reduced.

A. Test Inputs

Several types of shaker table input. accelerations may be

used to simulate earthquake motions. The most basic test is
a low amplitude (0.1 g) sine sweep from 1 to 33 HerLz to
determine resonant frequencies. Damping may be deter-
mined from snap back tests or step input test motions to allow
the breaker to oscillate and ring down at its natural fre-
quency. These tests are needed to provide data for the
analytical model.
The earthquake qualification tests may be done with time
history input records from actual earthquakes or with a Fig. 4 145PM circuit breaker mounted on shaker table

90
 ASEA BRO OVERI I 45P$4A

TRANsDucER -at-- RUH Ho.1--L-'Xil'::i]-tliL tllro- FrLT. rzo D^lrp*{c zz

t. I

l.c
aa
sio

{*a

-1. !

-li I

SECOND6

Fig. 5 Test response spectra

91
The shaker table motion (Fig.5) is syntiesized from a series of
sine beats at different frequencies and amplitudes which meet
the required response spectrum and provides at least 20 seconds
of strong motion. Prior to testing, the input wave is derived by
placing a solid mass (approximately equal to the weight of the
ilrcuit breaker to be tested) on the shaker table. Various sine
beat components are added until the required specEum is met'
As a bi-axial test table, the shaker table provides motion in
both thehorizontal andvertical direction simultaneously' In the
seismic test, the vertical motion of the table is approximately 70
percent of the horizontal motion which is standard for a typical
earthquake and therefore closely simulates an earthquake.
Tests may also be done with the breaker rotated 45 degrees
on the bi-axial rable such ttrat both principal horizonul direc-
tions plus the vertical direction are driven simultaneously, in
phase with the same input magnitude.
Although the vertical and horizontal motions are dependent,
this procedure is considered more conservative than if the
motions were independent since they are adding in phase rather
than possibly cancelling each other.
In the seismic test on ttre 145PM circuit breaker, the breaker
was outfitted with 12 accelerometers, 15 strain gages, and hold-
down bolts (affixed with suain gages) (Fig. 6). The breaker was
tested while in the closed position in two different horizontal
positions (two principal axis of the equipment). Open-close-
open operations were performed during the high motion por-
tions of the test. while monitoring main contacts, trip and close
coil currents, density switch, mechanism spring charge con-
tacts, and other relays during the test.
C. Sine Beat Overtesting
A sine beat test consists of an integer number of cycles, n,
at a particular resonant frequency and the amplitude is deter-
mined by a sine pulse envelope (beat) whose width is n
multiplied by the period of one of the r cycles. Fig. 7 shows
a 5-cycle per beat wave response factors of various input as a
function of damping []. Sine beats are applied at each
equipment, resonance below 32 Hz in the test directions of the
equipment.
The resonant frequencies, fn, ue determined by sweep
testing the equipment at a very low g level. For example, 0.1
g at a sweep rate, h,which limits build up to a low acceptable
g level in the equipment. The conservative amplification
factor Q during a resonant sweep is determined by the equation
show below;
0 = amplification factor i.e. response/input signal
,fn = resonant frequencies (cycle/sec)
h = acceleration/deceleration rate (Hz/sec)
Q = 3.67 (1)
-fu
^ln

Note: Accelerometers are designated by 41-12; strain gages are designated by S 1-15'

3 FXlt
I Ktn
5 F,*r
6 E)e 2 E/R
sr.

n-der?@L
?-EFrlAL
l'.lN ,Z-A-/r
.a'.]il tz-Rlt

Fig.6 Placementofacceleromelersandstraingagesonl45PMcircuitbreakerduringseismictesring

92
 while the complex earthquake input is a broad band excitation
acting on all modes of the equipment. In actual tests, the stress
levels with 0.5 g sine beats have typically been abouttwice that
of the 0.5 g response spectrum
If time and economics permit, overtesting the equipment by
E
E increasing the magnitude of sine beats in small increments at
o
o
U
the natural frequencies can be used to locate the weakest
structual link in the design. Sometimes minor structural
o
: component changes can increase the seismic withstand capa-
bilities considerably. To demonstrate their exceptional seismic
T resistance, the l45PM in Fig. 4 and the 550PM in Fig. 8 were
E
zf overtested to 1 g and 3/4 g sine beal levels, respectively.
E

D. Single vs. Multi-Axis Testing

cgI , 3 Cvcles/ Beal

}--7--_--_. Bi-axial tsst machines (where the table is mounted on

=
j parallel guide rails, inclined at an angle of 35 degrees) are
considered the most practical, giving 100 percent horizontal
o motion and 70 percent vertical motion. Also, this table will give
each of the three principal directions the same input accelera-
tion when the test object is mounted at 45 de$ees to the drive
direction. In this case, the three input motions will be the same
magnitude and in phase.
(, percant ol critical damging Tri-axial test machines with independent motions in three
orthogonal axes also are available. Once the equipment is
mounted on the tri-axial machine, it does not need to be re-
Fig. 7 Vibration magnification at sine beat; 5-cycle per beat wave

This value is conservative since it does not account for

damping. More detailed amplification factors which account
for damping are in [2].
After finding the resonance s (Q>2),fn, ineach test direction,
the desired sine beat is applied at each resonance. A series of
5 sine beats are generally applied at each resonance with
enough time between beats that previous vibrations have
decayed to very low levels. In complex structures, it may be
necessary to try sine beats at several frequencies around the
suspected resonant points to ensure that the highest response is
achieved.
Sine beats atresonancecan excite the equipmentto very high
g levels. For example, if a 10 cycle/beat 0.5 g peak amplitude
sine beat is applied with 2 percent of critical damping, the
response per Fig. 7 is l2 times the 0.5 g input or 6 g's. Looking
back at the seismic spectrum in Fig. 1, the peak response with
2 percent damping to this design earthquake is about 1.3 g's. In
Section IA, the 0.5 g dynamic earthquake was shown to be
much greater than the 0,2 g static eaflhquake. Now we see that
the 0.5 g sine beat is theoretically much greater than the 0.5 g
earthquake.
Although the sine beat test can be very severe for a particular
mode, it is possible that the 0.5 g seismic response spectrum
input may be more severe because of the simultaneous excita-
tion of many modes. The sine beat is a narrow band excitation
Fig. 8 550 PM Circuit breaker

93
positioned. The disadvantage of the machine, however, is in If thebreaker is on a shakertable, damping can be determined
difficulty controlling the three indepcndent motions -- espe- most accurately and easily with sine beats and the Q-curves
cially fortall, top heavy circuitbreakers. Also, the cancellation from Fig. 7. Apply the sine beat input accelerations at each
effects from the independent motions makes this test less rssonance to obtain the response representative of the earth-
conservativs. quake. The curves yield damping directly from the magnifica-
tion ^. o-Factor. Look at damping calculations critically if
E. Structural Damping they *,:viate from Table II values significantly.
A good guide to structural damping is found in Table II. F. Foundation Design
However, the best method for determining the damping factors
are by testing. There are several methods: Another area which requires experience and judgement is in
. Ratio of input g to response g during low level sweep tests determining the foundations required to resist the seismic loads
through each resonant frequencY and overtuming moments. A single foundation pad should
. Width of resonant curve at U2pawet points from sweep encompass and support the entire pole unit of breakers like the
testing 550PM inFig. 8 orthe entirebreaker forcommon frame designs
. Decsy (og decrement) after bump or snap back like the 145PM (Fig. ).
. Q-curves from high level sine beat tests The pad weight and supporting soil shouldresist the dynamic
. Combination of the items listed above. and static overturning moments due to the line pull, weight,
The most popular method is the log decrement calculations operation, and seismic oscillations. Wittr some breaker de-
of a decaying amplitude as a snap back or bump input to signs, such as oil breakers, there may also be a large, long
equipment rings down. The test may be done without shaker duration, foundation uplift due to the oil motion during inter-
tables or elaborate set-ups. Simply holdthebreaker down, push ruption. Gas breaker operational loads are generally low
or pull, and then monitor the amplitude of the decaying inertia, very short duration and do not affect the foundation
oscillations. design. In fact, factory test operations on gas breakers are
The enor with this method is generally in the low g level usually done without resEaints on wheeled carts.
response, notrepresentative ofdamping at the 0.5 g earthquake. Breaker drawings give foundation reactions from the com-
Also, there may be interference bet'''oen the modes such that bined breaker loadings as specified in ANSI C37.M. It may be
the amplitude drops too quickly and then increases again on necessary for the manufacturerto give these loads andmoments
successive oscillations. In this case, a rough mean of the decay to the foundation designer as dynamic and static components to
curve mustbe sketchedin an attemptto determine the damping. ensure proper foundation size and weight.
In [4], a least squares curve fit is used to draw in the damping The breaker drawings give conservative loads for foundation
decay when modes are combined. bolts combining the peak seismic and static loads in the most
severe way. Itis importantthattheboltsbe torquedortensioned
TABLE II
D,c.l"FsrcFasroRs
to resist loosening during an earthquake and keep the breaker
secured to the foundation. In some installations, the breaker
frame is welded to steel plates embedded in the foundation to
Percent Critical Damping [3]
ensure tightness.
Type of A final important consideration is the line connections to the
Below
Construction At 112 At Beyond
U4 Yield Yield breaker bushing terminals. These should always have flexibil-
Yield
Yield ity to allow for thermal expansion and must provide additional
Welded Joints
flexibility (slack) for seismic motions. The prefened terminal
0.5-1.0 2 5 7-10 connections are cables with plenty of slack to allow free
vibrations between the bus supports and breaker bushings.
Torqued Bolted
Joints (Assume VI. Suuuanv
0.5- 1.0 5-7 10-15 20
Hi-Strength
Circuit breakers can be seismically qualified either by
Bolts)
calculation or testing. Generally:
Reinforced . The seismic response specftum has been a proven, general
Concrete with 0.5-1.0 3-5 7-10 r 0-15 means of defining and qualifying seismic performance
Cracking . Calculation approaches to seismic qualification are re-
Pre-Stressed viewed with their respective limitations presented
Concrete
0.1-1,0 2 7 10-15 . Seismic test methods and procedures are applied to dem-
onstrate the structural and functional integrity of the
Brittle circuit breaker
Components 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 7-rc 10-i5
(Failing at Yield)

94
 VII. Brocn.rnrv
A. J, Molnar, P,E. is currently President of EAD Corporation. He has 22 years
of experience as a Fellow Engineer ar Westinghouse Research Laboratories. He
graduated from the University of Pittsburgh with a B.S.E.E. degree in 1959. He
is a licensed, professional engineer.

Willie Freeman, P.E, received his Bachelor of Engineering Degree from

Georgia Institute of Technology in 1970 and his MSME from the University of
Pittsburgh in I 975. He is a registered professional engineer and has worked as
a Circuit Breaker Development Engineer at Westinghouse Electric Corporation
from 1970 to 1984. He was an engineering consultant to the U.S. Navy from
1984 to 1989. Hehas been aFellow Engineer with ABB Power T& D Company
since 1989.

VIII. ReFERpr.rcEs

tll E. G. Fischer, "Seismic Qualifications of Systems,

Structures, Equipment, and Componenls" Nuclear
Engineering andDesign, Vol. 46, 1978,pp. L51-167 .

I2l F. H. Wolff, A. J. Molnar, A. C. Hagg "Acceleration

through Resonance of Multi-Degree of Freedom Sys-
tems," T he S ho c k and V ib rat i o n B ull e t in, Vol. 47 Part
2, The Shock and Vibration Information Center, Na-
val Research Laboratory, Washington D.C., Septem-
hr 1977.

t3l N. W. Newmark and E. Rosenblueth,Fundamentals

of Earthqaalee Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 1971, p.
422.

f4) A. H. Hadjian "An Extension of the Log-Decrement

Method," Seismic Engineering ASME l99l,PI/P-
Yol. 220, 1991, pp. 3-8..

95