MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIN PBLICA DE COSTA RICA

DIVISIN DE DESARROLLO CURRICULAR

DEPARTAMENTO DE PRIMERO Y SEGUNDO CICLOS

Didactic Planning

2008

Al Desarrollo por la Educacin

Autoridades Nacionales

Dr. Leonardo Garnier Rmolo

Ministro de Educacin

MSc. Alejandrina Mata Segrega

Viceministro Acadmica

Dra. Yarith Rivera Snchez

Directora de Desarrollo Curricular

Elaborado por:

Anabelle Venegas Fernndez

Jefa del Departamento de Primero y Segundo Ciclos
Dear teacher: Find as many words as possible, related to Didactic Planning in the
following puzzle. Look in any direction, horizontally or vertically. We include one word as
a clue.

O F L E X I B I L I T Y
D N U A L S A W N F I O
T B R I S H I N E A M F
P J M P E A G Y F B E A
M O T I V A T I O N H O
S I N T P L H P W R G L
E V E V A L U A T I O N
U B T V M K F V C B H O
L F N I E S L L I K S S
A T O B J E C T I V E S
V I C N S K L F E D B E
C I P O T D B M N W J L

How many words did you find? One, four, seven, ten. Dont worry. At this point, the
number of words that you found is not really important. Our intention is to catch you
interest and MOTIVATION.
Objective

The purpose of this module is to provide you with the necessary input and tools to make
didactic planning, in the teaching and learning process of English, useful and meaningful.

In order to achieve this goal, we are going to analyze some specific features related to
Didactic Planning in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language (E.F.L). Basically, we
are going to focus on:

Its concept, importance, and main characteristics.

The different levels, elements and components, according to the National Syllabus.

The process to put it into practice, in order to prepare English lessons.

Framework:

This module deals only with Didactic Planning for the teaching of English lessons in the 1st
and 2nd cycles. This is just one of the levels of planning. We have to take into account that
it is an overall process and that it includes a wide variety of components, phases,
participants, and purposes that interact and depend one from each other. For instance, if our
interest is the National level, we would have to refer to Educational Planning based on the
philosophical foundations that rule Costa Rican Education and The Curricular Policy of the
Government; in this case, the Educational Policy Towards the 21st Century.

As we already mentioned, our purpose is the classroom context. But we should keep in
mind that we cannot isolate this level from the rest, such as the National level. For example,
lesson planning is based on the use of syllabi for the different disciplines, and they are the
instruments by which the Curricular Policy is put into practice. In our case, the English
Syllabus for 1st and 2nd cycles is the official document that leads the teaching and learning
process of English in our public schools, as approved by the National Council of Education.
But at the end, it is the teacher, with the supervision of the principal of the school, the one
in charge of implementing a specific syllabus for each grade. It is important to point this
out, not only to avoid possible misconceptions, but also to understand the purpose of this
module.

Are you familiar with the documents mentioned before? If not, ask the principal of your
school, your regional or national advisor, or a colleague for help and get them. They
constitute basic bibliography that all teachers should have.
The Need to Plan:

Every responsible and professional teacher in our Educational System, should be aware
about the importance of planning the lessons, not only because it is a duty, but also because
it is a good habit and a crucial action that improves quality in education.

Some teachers may reject its importance, thinking that it is just an administrative
procedure. But reality demonstrates that lesson planning is a permanent action that every
dynamic teacher should practice.

Think about some good reasons for planning your lessons. Please, brainstorm some of your
ideas. Take into consideration your role as a teacher, your students, your school, the
teaching of English, and any other aspect you may want to include. Write them around the
following bubble.

Reasons for planning

My lessons
 Compare your notes with the chart that we provide:

Lesson Planning is necessary in order to:

Clarify learning objectives.

Choose the appropriate teaching methods according to the needs of the students.

Prepare the necessary activities and to order sequencing from easy to difficult, from
the known to the unknown.

Take into account time.

See types of students and their needs, which may emerge in class during the process.

Collect and organize the most suitable materials.

Adapted from Teaching English in a World at Peace. Module1 p.16.

Joan White (1991), states that although the organization of the curriculum, the choice of
textbooks and even complementary materials depend on other professionals, usually
pedagogical consultants and administrators, it is at the end, the teacher who adapts the
information to the classroom context. For that reason, it is necessary to provide the teacher
with appropriate tools to make didactic planning successful both in and outside the
classroom. Finally, you should keep in mind that the important thing is to enjoy whatever
task we do. At this respect, we agree with Whites point of view: Lets say, in summary,
that it (planning) enhances our sense of professionalism that increases our control of
teaching and learning and that, last but not least, it allows us greater enjoyment of
teaching.

9 Do you agree with Whites point of view? Write your ideas in the following space.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

9 We hope your answer helped you get to a positive attitude towards lesson planning.
Didactic Planning of Lessons:

Once we have established our set of action, and the need to plan lessons, lets concentrate
now on the definition of this concept.

9 What does Didactic Planning mean to you? Write in the space provided your idea(s).
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

9 We are sure you wrote very interesting ideas. Keep them in mind and try to relate them
with the information that follows.

There are different definitions about didactic planning, in other words, the procedure that
the teacher follows to organize the teaching and learning process through the different
lessons. Because of our practical purposes, we are going to concentrate on just a few of
them. But whatever definition we present, all lead to the same conclusion: planning is
essential. As Jeremy Harmer (1991) says, The best teachers are those who think carefully
about what they are going to do in their classes and who plan how they are going to
organize the teaching and learning.

Mary Underwood (1987) describes lesson plans as a scheme of work or a map which
indicates to the teacher the work that has to be covered in the brief time allowed.

Arnobio Maya (1997), on the other hand, describes it as a guide or summary that
overlaps all the elements and factors of the teaching task in order to obtain more efficient
results in its implementation in terms of time and effort. He points out that didactic
planning should include a series of conditions that we present in the following scheme.
 Realistic: Adequate for the possibilities and limitations of the students,
group, school and community.

Concrete: The objectives and the steps to

achieve them have to show precision and
quality.

United and coherent: It has to reflect the

educational principles of the country.
Didactic
Planning:
Graded: The objectives and goals have to be
Conditions organized in sequential order.

Articulated: Teachers should plan taking into

account correspondence among each group,
grade, and level.

Dynamic and hypothetical: It is not possible to

make a definite plan, not even for the whole
year. Planning is subject to permanent changes
and adaptations.

Flexible: Although planning is based on permanent established endings,

the teacher should adapt it to individual differences among students and
specific situations that are not taken into consideration and may occur
during the teaching and learning process.

From the above information, we can interpret that didactic planning in the classroom
context is a theoretical representation of what the teacher develops in the sequence of
lessons. You may think that this is a hard task, especially if you are beginning English
teaching. That is not exactly true. But in such case, we suggest you that you spend some
time developing the ability of planning you lessons.
According to Harmer, two of the above aspects are considered principles and you should
keep them in mind.

Flexibility; that is, what the teacher plans for the class is not always appropriate for any
single situation. Particular cases can take place when they are not expected. So the teacher
has to be ready to make the required adaptations. For example, if there is an emergency in
your classroom. How would you react? In any case, you have to stop the teaching process
meanwhile the situation is solved.

Variety (dynamism) is also an important feature. All plans should include a wide selection
of activities, techniques, materials, topics and possibilities to make learning interesting and
never monotonous for the students. This aspect is essential to be taken into account
especially when children are in the English class. The teacher has to plan dynamic game-
like activities to keep students attention and interest.

Children, need to do a wide variety of things in the same session, since they are not able to
concentrate on a single activity for more than a few minutes. Then they may become de-
motivated if they are always given the same kind of class activities. For example, if new
language such as vocabulary is always introduced in the same way, for instance a dialogue,
then this part of the class will become less and less challenging for students.

We suggest that you analyze the module on techniques and activities, in order to get ideas.
As Harmer says, Good lesson planning is the art of mixing techniques, activities and
materials in such a way that an ideal balance is created for the class. When planning your
English lessons, you need to have an overall idea of the classroom context.

Getting into the process of Lesson Planning:

Now we know that panning is fundamental to effective teaching. At this stage it is

convenient to examine the procedure to do it. Although some experts consider that there is
not just one way to do it, since we have a National Curricular Policy in Costa Rica, we are
asked to follow the established guidelines for the teaching of English in the 1st and 2nd
cycles.
As any other teacher does, there are some preliminary steps to follow, which give you
general input to make the plan.

The task: It means that you need to know when and how to make the plan. What are the
most appropriate procedures to follow? What are the resources needed?

The students: Their interests, needs, social, economical cultural and cognitive
background. You can get this information from the students, other teachers, parents and
members of the community where you work.

The environment: This refers to the previous requisite. It includes the characteristics of
the school and the community. What services and resources are there available? What is
the social, cultural and economical situation of the community where the school is
located?

Once you have a general view of the context in which you are going to plan your lessons,
we are now going to focus on the English lesson:

White, (1985) considers that there are five aspects every language teacher should take into
account before planning the lessons.

1. What language and behavior students will be able to perform by the end of the lesson?

2. How well will they be able to perform these things?

3. What activities will they do during the lesson?

4. How much time will you spend on each part of the lesson?

5. What materials and aids you will need.

Once you have these aspects clear in mind, it is the moment to make your plan as we
suggest:

It is essential to use the English Syllabus for 1st and 2nd cycles. Identify the cycle and
grade of the plan that you are going to make. The students workbooks made by the
Ministry of Education are also necessary to keep a record of the different activities they
 include. But remember that you should be able to adapt these workbooks according to
the needs, interests and particular characteristics of your students. Support your
bibliography with any other supplementary material you may consider important, such
as a dictionary, any book where you can get ideas of activities, authentic material such
as newspapers, magazines, etc.

Think about the number of sessions that your plan will cover. Is it for the whole school
year, for a month, a week or a day? This aspect is very important because the amount of
time the plan covers will determine whether to state it in general or specific terms.
Although this an administrative decision of each elementary school, most of them
follow this sequence:
9 Yearly Plan: In this plan you are usually asked to establish in general terms, the topics,
objectives, type of activities and methodology that you are going to use for the whole
school year. You can take this information from the Syllabus and the Curricular Guides.
Compare the cycle objectives and the list of topics and choose those for the
corresponding level. The type of methodology and suggested activities are included in
the theoretical framework, that is, in the first part of the syllabus.
9 Monthly Plan: Joan White expresses that one lesson does not exist by itself. It is
related to the aims of the curriculum and to the lessons that precede and follow. She
says that it is more efficient to think in terms of preparing a series of connected lessons,
commonly called a teaching unit. This unit could represent the work covered in the
language class over an extended period, that usually correspond to three weeks or a
month.
9 Daily Plan: According to White, the unit plan is broken into daily lesson plans, which
correspond to individual work sessions that the teacher prepares for the time forty
minutes- it covers.

The National Advisory of English for 1st and 2nd cycles considers suitable to divide the
program for the year into units of one month each, and the unit into daily lessons. It means
that you are asked to prepare the three types of plans explained before. Since the yearly
plan is stated in very general terms, and keeping in mind the purpose of this module, you
will find here, only examples of a unit plan and a daily plan.

Identify the following elements in the syllabus for each specific level or grade:
cognitive target, objectives, language contents, functions, culture and values,
procedures, and evaluation criteria. Organize this information in the corresponding
order.
Analyze very carefully the example of a Unit Plan. It follows the format required by the
Ministry of Education.

9 Are you familiar with the meaning of all the components of this plan? We are going to
explain each one in detail. Since this part is crucial and very practical, you need to get
the syllabi and the students manuals so that you can identify the information included
in the sample and the steps to do it. Please, do it before you continue.

General information: This information constitutes the heading of the page. It includes
the name of your school, the corresponding level, your name and the period of time the
unit is going to last.

As you can notice, there are two separate columns strategically placed above of the rest
of the columns. The reason is that they include essential information for the
development of the plan according to the Curricular Policy and the methodological
approaches used in the teaching of English.

The Cognitive Target:

It is the what the students are going to do in the class; which means content. This
includes the topics or themes to be covered in the four study blocks.

Objectives:

According to the Curricular Policy, the objectives are the where the students will get to
as a result of instruction. They are stated in terms of what the students will do or achieve.
They determine the activities, tasks and language skills that will be used. Objectives in this
Syllabus are skill-based, being the oral and the listening skills, the main focus of this
Curriculum.

Objectives for I cycle in this Syllabus are established basically in terms of the two basic
linguistic skills: listening (list), and speaking (sp).
According to Jeremy Harmer, in his book, The Practice of English Language Teaching
listening involves receiving messages and is referred to as a receptive skill. It means that
information goes from outside to inside of the person. On the other hand, speaking involves
language production and it is often referred to as a productive skill. In this case,
information goes from the inside to outside of the person. Very often, speakers employ a
combination of skills at the same time. Speaking and listening usually happen
simultaneously especially in the early stages of life.

When planning for the I Cycle the teacher should choose at least two objectives for
listening and two for speaking and one for culture and values. For the II Cycle the teacher
should choose at least one objective for each skill and one for culture and values. It is not
necessary to modify the objectives because they are established in terms of operational
elements.
 Language:

This element provides sample structures and vocabulary that serve as the vehicle to achieve
the skill-based objectives. The task of the teacher is to choose the language to present to the
students.
The Syllabus provides some sample language. The teacher can add other linguistic
patterns according to students interests and needs.

Functions:

William Littlewood (1990) states that functional meanings are the skills that learners
develop by means of the learning situations that are given to them to find solutions or to
make decisions. He says that foreign language learners need opportunities to develop skills
to use the language, by being exposed to situations where the emphasis is on using the
language for communicating as efficiently and economically as possible.

Thus, there should be a purpose for using the language. This implies giving children
enough language input and creating appropriate conditions so that learners use the language
meaningfully.

Values and Attitudes:

They embed the formative component of the curriculum. The Educational Policy for the
XXI Century emphasizes the importance of promoting positive attitudes and values during
the teaching and learning process. This is possible through the correspondence between
what is said with what is done among teachers, students and the educational community in
general. Culture as an inherent component of language involves the attitudes, values and
beliefs of a social group. In addition, Costa Rican I and II Cycle English teachers should
provide their students with opportunities to compare their culture with that of the countries
where English is spoken and to reinforce Costa Rican values. The Syllabus lists the cultural
aspects and values that should be practiced in the teaching and learning process.

Procedures:

Procedures deal with the actions that need to be taken in the classroom in order to help
students achieve objectives. The list of procedures that are given in this Syllabus must be
used as a guide to develop tasks with emphasis on the aural and oral skills. This is the
aspect of planning that demands from an elementary English teacher to demonstrate the
highest level of creativity, enthusiasm, imagination, teaching style, hard work, and talent.
Also personal teaching attitudes, methodologies and techniques come into play.

The above is crucial because it will define the final product of the teaching and learning
process.
Planning is based on a process called by Rivers (1978), skill getting or skill using. It
is a set of stages or steps organized in sequence. Joan White explains these steps in her
Module One of the Professional Handbook: Teaching English in a World at Peace as
follows:

Warm up

It is a varied and motivating way of starting the lesson. The warm up can take different
forms. On one hand, it is usually a brief lively session to welcome the students to their
foreign language class. Also it can be used to catch students interest towards the new
cognitive target. It may include games, songs, riddles, and jokes, among others. Students
should be encouraged to participate and have fun.

Presentation

The teacher introduces the class to the new theme and the new language components. Both
the content and the new grammatical and lexical items are emphasized in an integrated
way. Getting meaning across is essential. Students receive considerable input from the
teacher. They are allowed time to assimilate the language, to listen actively and to try to
understand what the teacher is saying. The teacher uses simple, but natural language
through different techniques.

Practice

For the purpose of this Syllabus, both controlled practice and creative practice, stated
by Rivers module are integrated into one single step called practice.

First, students use the new linguistic components in a relatively limited setting by playing
with the language. The teacher should organize sequential tasks, going from basic language
use to more demanding communicative skills on the part of the learners.

Students are asked to incorporate their language acquisitions to their background

knowledge to produce new situations, appropriate to their needs and interests. The materials
must promote meaningful and constant communication among the students while they are
using them. The teacher should encourage students to use the target language as much as
possible, because they will frequently want to use fragments of the foreign language while
doing different tasks.

Consolidation/ Production

In this final step, the teacher points out what has been accomplished successfully and what
remains to be improved through certain review exercises, which were introduced and
practiced before. This is the time to comment on the students performance. Also, the
students are encouraged to find original situations where their new linguistic acquisitions
can be applied, for example dramatizations, original role-playing, simulations, etc.
However, if the previous step was very demanding, the teacher should devote time to
correct and encourage of students output.

Evaluation of Learning Outcomes

The teacher chooses different tasks, which match both the objectives and the tasks from the
plan that will be considered suitable for evaluating the students language skills. The
Syllabus includes a list of the different criteria that can be used to assess students
performance. It is necessary to select at least one criterion for each step or stage.

Curricular Accommodations

It is the adjustment of the teaching and learning process in order to meet the individual
characteristics, differences and needs of those students with special educational needs.
There are three basic types of curricular accommodations: access (modifications of the
physical space), non-significant (those that do not modify substantially the curriculum), and
significant (require the elimination or addition of cognitive targets and/or objectives,
depending on each student special needs).

The plan being discussed here requires only the specification of non-significant adaptations
for those students with special needs.

A different plan is requested for those students with significant accommodations.

Chronicle:

This is an obliged entry only of a daily lesson plan. It is the teachers personal comments of
the students performance and the corresponding suggestions written at the end of each
lesson.

Finally, we are providing an example of a daily or a lesson plan, based on the unit plan we
presented before. It follows similar procedures as the unit plan. Keep in mind that this plan
has to be stated in very specific terms.

In the chronicle, you include personal annotations after the class, for example your
comments about the activities, if you developed the lesson as it was planned and
suggestions for future sessions.

Note: In the example the teacher is a woman.

 Ministerio de Educacin Pblica Programa de Lenguas Extranjeras- Sample of a Unit Plan
School: ________________________________ Teacher: ______________________________
Level: _________________________________ Time from: ______________ to ___________
STUDY BLOCK AND COGNITIVE TARGET: This is the what the students are going to do in the class; which means
content. This includes the topics or themes to be covered in the four study blocks.

Linguistic Functions and Procedures Values and attitudes Evaluation of

Objectives Language learning
outcomes
Objectives in this Functions: Warm up: They embed the formative Include those
Syllabus are skill- The skills that Present activities to component of the curriculum. criteria in order to
based, being the oral learners develop by motivate the students. -Promote positive attitudes assess the
skills, the focus of this means of the Presentation: and values during the students
Curriculum. learning situations Introduce the topic, teaching and learning communicative
that are given to language and process, through the performance.
Choose at least two them to find functions. correspondence between
objectives for each solutions or to It is teacher- what is said with what is done Choose at least
linguistic skill from the make decisions. centered. among teachers, students one criterium for
syllabus. Practice: and the educational each step or stage.
Language It is student -centered community in general.
Listening and Content: and teacher Culture as an inherent
Speaking for the I Refers to the monitoring. component of language
Cycle only. structure of the Ask students to involves the attitudes, values
language, the perform tasks. and beliefs of a social group.
Integration of the linguistic patterns Consolidation or - Provide students with
four linguistic skills and the vocabulary. Production: opportunities to compare
in the II Cycle Prepare tasks in which their culture with that of the
the students integrate countries where English is
the skills. spoken and to reinforce
It is student - Costa Rican values.
centered.

Curricular accommodations:____________________________
 Ministerio de Educacin Pblica Programa de Lenguas Extranjeras- Sample of a Unit Plan
School: ________________________________ Teacher: ______________________________
Level: _________________________________ Time from: ______________ to ___________
STUDY BLOCK AND COGNITIVE TARGET: This is the what the students are going to do in the class; which means
content. This includes the topics or themes to be covered in the four study blocks.

Linguistic Functions and Procedures Values and attitudes Evaluation of

Objectives Language learning
outcomes
Objectives in this Functions: Warm up: They embed the formative Include those
Syllabus are skill- The skills that Present activities to component of the curriculum. criteria in order to
based, being the oral learners develop by motivate the students. -Promote positive attitudes assess the
skills, the focus of this means of the Presentation: and values during the students
Curriculum. learning situations Introduce the topic, teaching and learning communicative
that are given to language and process, through the performance.
Choose at least two them to find functions. correspondence between
objectives for each solutions or to It is teacher- what is said with what is done Choose at least
linguistic skill from the make decisions. centered. among teachers, students one criterium for
syllabus. Practice: and the educational each step or stage.
Language It is student -centered community in general.
Listening and Content: and teacher Culture as an inherent
Speaking for the I Refers to the monitoring. component of language
Cycle only. structure of the Ask students to involves the attitudes, values
language, the perform tasks. and beliefs of a social group.
Integration of the linguistic patterns Consolidation or - Provide students with
four linguistic skills and the vocabulary. Production: opportunities to compare
in the II Cycle Prepare tasks in which their culture with that of the
the students integrate countries where English is
the skills. spoken and to reinforce
It is student - Costa Rican values.
centered.

Curricular accommodations:____________________________
Linguistic Functions Procedures Values Evaluation of
Objective and and learning
s Language attitudes outcomes

How many Consolidation/ Production: Participate in oral -Participate in

fingers do tasks such as poems, songs, riddles and games. oral tasks such
you have? 1. Students participate in role- playing activities in as role playing
I have ten order to express positive feelings and emotions and information
fingers. about appearance. They are asked to participate exchanges.
Colors: in original dramatizations, role- plays and
red, brown, simulations to integrate their linguistics
green, acquisition.
yellow, 2. The teacher observes the process, encourages
blue, and students output and promotes equal treatment
black. for each student.
Shapes:
circle,
round,
square
See you
tomorrow.
I dont
understand.
Can I go to
the
bathroom?
Im hungry.
Ministerio de Educacin Pblica Oficina de Lenguas Extranjeras

Sample of a Daily Plan

School: _______________________________
Teacher: _____________________________ Date: __________ Level: __________________ Time:
___________________

Study Block: My Body

Cognitive Target:Identifying Parts of the body. Body communication: Verbal and non verbal. Numbers
Pre-teaching: Routines, prayer, weather, etc.

Warm up: Through the game Simon says, the teacher reinforces the language and functions related with actions done
with the body learned in previous lessons. In this way she welcomes students into the new English lesson. She uses
TPR to be sure they understand the general meaning of the game. Example: Simon says Touch your nose.

Presentation: She uses TPR and realia (a mirror), in order to present new vocabulary: She describes her face. She uses
the following language patterns: Look what I have. Its a mirror. This is my face. I see my face through the mirror.My face
is round. I like it. This is my hair. It is long and black.I like it These are my two eyes. They are big and black. I dont
like my eyes. She repeats the description. Then she encourages one student to describe his/her face, being honest in the
description. After the presentation, she describes what he/she said, for example: This is Rosita. This is her face. It is little.
She likes it. These are her eyes. They are small and brown. She doesnt like her eyes. etc. She encourages one or two
more students to participate.

Practice: Students are given mirrors to work with a partner performing the same task. Students take turns to participate.
They are encouraged to respect each others physical differences.

Consolidation: The teacher divides the class in two groups.They are encouraged to describe themselves and their
partners face in front of the class. She observes their performance. The teacher congratulates the group that completes
the task and shows respect for each others physical difference.

Chronicle: Teachers comments: Students worked enthusiastically, respecting differences among themselves. All the
activities were done as planned.
We hope you have a clear idea about the importance of planning and the procedure to
do it. Please, make a unit and a daily plan to practice what we have explained in this
module. Follow each step in order to do this final task.

Consulted Bibliography:

Bain, Richard. (1991). Reflections: Talking about Language. St. Edmundsbury Press.
London.

Brumfit, C.J y K. Johnson (eds). (1979). The Communicative Approach to Language

Teaching. Oxford University Press.

Harmer, J.(1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman. London.

Larsen Freemen, Diane. (1986). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford
University Press. Oxford.

Littlewood, W.T. (1990). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge University

Press.

Numan, D. (1992). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge University Press.

England.

Programas de Estudios I y II Ciclos. Ingls. (2005) Ministerio de Educacin Pblica. San

Jos.

Rivers, W.M. (1964). The Psychologist and The Foreign Language Teacher. Chicago
University Press.

Richards, J.C and T.S Rodgers. (2003). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Sierra, R. (1995). Tcnicas de Investigacin Social. Editorial Paraninfo. Madrid.

Ur, Penny. (1981). Discussions that Work. Cambridge University Press.

Ur, Penny. (1993). Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge Press. Cambridge.

Websters II New Riverside Dictionary. 2000. Houghton Miffin.