The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding

Unit III
The Periodic Table

and
Chemical Bonding
The Periodic Table of Elements is a work of great scientists with unending

curiosity on how elements in the periodic table should be arranged logically.
Chemical bonding is an important part of everyday life. The things that make
life easier are all products of chemical bonding.
Chapter 1
All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa. 1
Order Among Elements in the
Periodic Table
Have you been to a high school chemistry laboratory? If yes, then you might have
noticed a chart with different colors and symbols hanging on the wall. This is called the
Periodic Table of Elements. The Periodic Table is actually a work of great scientists whose
curiosity of arranging the numerous known elements in a logical manner is never-ending.
The Periodic Table could actually be compared with a library. Books in a library are
arranged logically in such a way that books of the same content are in the same division
making it easier for you to find the book that you are looking for.
Do you wonder why the elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in such way?
In this chapter, we will be discussing the bases of such arrangement and we will find the
answer to the following questions:
Why are the elements in the Periodic Table named and given a symbol in such
way?
Who are the great minds behind the Periodic Table?
How can we use the Periodic Table to predict the chemical behavior of an
element?
How is the valence electron of elements related to their group number in the
Periodic Table?
What are the trends and periodic variation of the elements in the Periodic
Table?
What are the properties and uses of each group of elements in the Periodic
Table?
Why is it important for us to know the properties of elements and their
application to the environment and modern technologies? and

What are some elements that are important to the human body?
Lesson 1
Why are the Elements in the Periodic Table
Named and Given a Symbol in Such Way?
Do and Discover
Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below

either by supplying it with the correct name or symbol of the element.
Element Symbol Element Symbol

Arsenic Bk
Gallium Fm
Nickel N
Tin K
Tungsten Y
Whiz Quest
Chemical symbols are used by chemists to represent elements in a

shorter manner. Each element has its own unique symbol. Since chemistry is
an international enterprise, chemical symbols are determined by
international agreement. Applications of this chemical symbols is very visible
in the preceding chapters of this book.
Even early chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements for

these elements to be easier to work with. Below are some of the symbols
that early chemists used.

Figure 3.1 John Daltons chart of elements
At present, chemists use symbols to represent elements. The name of
each element is derived either from the name of a scientist, the country
where it was discovered, or words from early civilization languages. The table
below shows some of the elements, their symbol and the origin of their
name.
Table 3.1 Some elements, their symbol and the origin of their name
______________________________________________________________________________
Element Symbol Origin
______________________________________________________________________________
Argon Ar Greek word argos, inactive
Californium Cf California
Curium Cm Pierre and Marie Curie
Fermium Fm Enrico Fermi
Magnesium Mg Latin word magnesia
Polonium Po Poland
______________________________________________________________________________
As you can observe in the Periodic Table, most of the elements have a
single letter symbol or a double letter symbol where the first letter is
always capitalized. Most of the symbols of elements are derived from their
English names but some others are derived from words from early
civilization languages. Below are some examples of some elements and
their corresponding symbols.
Table 3.3 Some elements and their corresponding symbols

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Boron B Antimony Sb, stibium
Iodine I Copper Cu, cuprum

Potassium K Gold Au, aurum
Radium Rd Lead Pb, plumbum
Selenium Se Mercury Hg, hydrargyrum
Xenon Xe Silver Ag,
argentumsi
____________________________________________________________________________
Application
Are you familiar with the game bingo? What if you replace the numbers
in the bingo card with chemical symbols of elements? Then well have a
chemical symbol bingo! Your task now is to create your own symbo-card and
choose the chemical symbol of your choice then your teacher will facilitate
the chemical symbol bingo. Below is a sample symbo-card.

S Y M B O
Ag F Mn Xe He
W Mg C Cl K
Fre
H Ne Kr Hg
e
Li Cr Na P Sb
Pd Si B Cs O
Science Link
Most of the elements in the periodic table could either consist of a

single letter or a double letter symbol. But there are also elements that are
consist of three letter symbol, these are the elements Ununbium (Uub),
Ununtrium (Uut), Ununquadium (Uuq), Ununpentium (Uup), Ununhexium
(Uuh), Ununseptium (Uus) and Ununoctium (Uuo). On the other hand, these
chemical names and symbols are just temporarily given by the IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) since these elements are
still under study.
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the symbols of the elements,
do the chemical symbol quiz at:
http://www.fordhamprep.org/gcurran/sho/sho/students/classof03/mcenc3.htm
Word Pad
Chemical symbol is a shorthand abbreviation of the names of the known

elements.

Wrap It Up
At the beginning of the lesson, you have explored your Periodic Table
by focusing on the name and symbol of elements. Now, try completing the
table below by supplying it with either the name or symbol of the element
without looking at your Periodic Table.

Os Dysprosium
Kr Rutherfordium
Pb Astatine
Hg Antimony
V Lead
Photo and content credits, lesson 1

(http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt.html)
(http://www.elementsdatabase.com/)
Lesson 2

Who are the Great Minds Behind
the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
While you are reading the Whiz Quest, focus your attention on the
name of the scientist and his contribution to the development of the Periodic
Table. Jot down your notes on the table below.
Scientist Contribution
Hennig Brand
Antoine Lavoisier
John Dalton
Johann Dobereiner
Beguyer De
Chancourtois
John Newlands
Lothar Meyer
Dmitri Mendeleev
Clemens Winkler
Henry Moseley
Glenn Seaborg
Whiz Quest
The Periodic Table you have right now is actually a long time in the
making. It continuously evolves as new ideas arrived. These new ideas
arouse from great minds of scientists.
Before the idea of arranging the elements into a Periodic Table comes
up to, people were aware of some of the elements in the Periodic Table, such
as gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and mercury. In 1649, Hennig Brand, a
German alchemist discovered the element phosphorus through scientific
inquiry. It was the first element ever discovered. Years past, scientists get
interested of discovering more and more elements and thats why the need
to arrange it in a logical manner awakens.
The quest for arranging the elements in a logical manner started with
French chemist-physicist Antoine Lavoisier in 1789 when he arranged the
elements into groups of simple substances which will not decompose by any
means. Following Lavoisiers concept of chemical element, in 1808-1827,
John Dalton, an English chemist-physicist, published his New System of
Chemical Philosophy wherein he calculated the first relative masses of atoms
and compounds. His idea was disputed, but, in the long run atomic masses
would provide the key means of organizing the elements into the Periodic
Table. Between 1817-1829, a German chemist, Johann Dobereiner,
proposes the Law of Triads in arranging the periodic table. He noticed that
the atomic mass of strontium (87.62) was halfway between the masses of
calcium (40.08) and barium (137.33). These elements possessed similar
chemical properties. But his law was not applicable to other elements. In
1862, a French geologist, Beguyer De Chancourtois arranged the
elements by increasing atomic mass. He placed his arrangement in a
cylinder and divided it into 16 parts, which was based on the atomic mass of
oxygen. He called this as telluric screw. It was the first ever geometric
representation of the periodic law. In 1863, an English chemist, John
Newlands proposes the Law of Octaves in arranging the periodic table. He
noticed that when the first 20 elements were arranged in increasing atomic
masses, there will be similarities in the properties of the first and the eighth
element in the period. But this law was no longer applicable after the
element calcium.
In 1869, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, and Dmitri Mendeleev, a

Russian chemist, published their closely identical versions of the Periodic
Table independently. The two chemists are the precursor of the Periodic Table
you have right now. They propose the Periodic Law which states that
properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses. The
periodic table of Meyer and Mendeleev has vacant elements which are yet to
be discovered but Mendeleev had already predicted some physical properties
of these missing elements. One good example of this is the missing element
between silicon and tin, he predicted that the property of this missing
element will be midway between silicon and tin so he named is as eka-
silicon. The element eka-silicon was then renamed into germanium in 1886
because Clemens Winkler, a German chemist, discovered an element
which actually matches the prediction of Mendeleev. In 1913, an English
physicist, Henry Moseley, noticed a connection between the atomic
number of an element and the frequency of X-rays resulting from the
bombardment of an element with a high energy electron. He found out that
atomic number increases in the same manner as the atomic masses with
some few exemptions. He revised the Periodic Law in a new statement
saying that properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic
numbers. To date, the Periodic Table that we have is arranged in increasing
atomic number.
In 1951, an American chemist, Glenn Seaborg, discovered the

transuranium elements with atomic numbers 94-102. The completion of the
actinide series allows Seaborg to redesign the periodic table into it current
form. Both the lanthanide and actinide series of elements were placed under
the rest of the periodic table. These elements technically should be placed
between the alkaline earth metals and the transition metals; however, since
this would make the periodic table too wide, they were placed below the rest
of the elements.

Hennig Brand Antoine Lavoisier John Dalton Johann Dobereiner
Beguyer De Chancourtois John Newlands Lothar Meyer Dmitri Mendeleev
Clemens Winkler Henry Moseley Glenn Seaborg

Figure 3.2 Great minds behind the Periodic Table
Application
Different scientists has hes own model of the Periodic Table. Imagine
you are a scientist and you are part of the great minds behind the Periodic
Table. How would you arrange the elements in the Periodic Table? Draw your
skeletal model of the Periodic Table below and explain.

Science Link
In the history of science, alchemy (from the Arabic al-khmiy' )

refers to both an early form of the investigation of nature and an early
philosophical and spiritual discipline, both combining elements of chemistry,
metallurgy, physics, medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism,
and art all as parts of one greater force. Alchemy has been practiced in
Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Persia, India, Japan, Korea and China, in
Classical Greece and Rome, in the Muslim civilizations, and then in Europe up
to the 19th centuryin a complex network of schools and philosophical
systems spanning at least 2500 years.
In alchemy, there are only four basic elements, namely, earth, water,
fire and air so the idea of arranging the elements doesnt come up to during
these times.
Web Trips
How about testing your knowledge on the historical development of

the Periodic Table? Try this site:
http://www.docbrown.info/page03/3_34ptable/PThistoryQ.htm
Word Pad
History refers to a recorded important fact about the past.

Wrap It Up
Column A are list of contributions of scientists to the development of

the periodic table while column B are the list of scientists who contributed to
the development of the periodic table. Your task is to match column A with
column B. Write your answer on the space before the number
A B
1. Discovered transuranium elements A. Glenn Seaborg

2. Developed telluric screw. B. Henry Moseley
3. Discovered germanium. C. Clemens Winkler
4. Proposed the law of octaves. D. Dmitri Mendeleev & Lothar
Meyer
5. Proposed the law of triads. E. John Newlands
6. Discovered phosphorus. F. Beguyer De Chancourtois
7. Published New System of Chemical G. Johann Dobereiner
Philosophy. H. John Dalton
8. Properties of elements are periodic I. Antoine Lavoisier
function of their atomic numbers. J. Hennig Brand
9. Arranged the elements into groups
of simple substances which will not
decompose by any means.
10. Properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic masses.

http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rprojs/lavoisier2/home.ht
ml
http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry/history_of_the_periodic_table.html
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Dalton.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy
Lesson 3
How Can We Use the Periodic Table to
Predict the Chemical Behavior of an Element?
Do and Discover
Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below by

supplying it with the group number, period and classification (e.g. metal,
nonmetal, metalloid) of the element of the element.
Element Group Period Classification

Rb
Kr
B
Br
K
Whiz Quest
As you look at your Periodic Table, you are actually looking at a lot of
information. We said in lesson 2 that the Periodic Table is arranged in
increasing atomic number. Did you notice that in your Periodic Table? Other
than the atomic number, your Periodic Table also gives you the atomic mass
of the element. Of course, the name and symbol of the elements are
incorporated in the Periodic Table also. Some other Periodic Table provides
you with other information such as its physical properties.
Exploring your Periodic Table again, you could actually notice that
elements are arranged vertically and horizontally. The vertical column
arrangement of the elements is called group or family, while the vertical
row arrangement of the elements is called period or series. Each group of
elements exhibits similarities in physical and chemical properties while each
period of elements exhibits varying physical and chemical properties.
Elements in the Periodic Table are also classified into Representative

Elements, Noble Gases, Transition Metals, Lanthanides and Actinides.
Representative elements are elements belonging to groups IA to VIIA. Noble
gases are the elements belonging to group VIIIA. Transition metals are the
elements belonging to groups IB to VIIIB. Lanthanides are the elements with
atomic numbers 57 to 71. Actinides are the elements with atomic numbers
89 to 103.
Elements belonging to the A families actually has incompletely filled s

or p subshells in their outermost energy level or highest energy level except
for group VIIIA, in general, which has completely filled p subshells. Elements
belonging to B families, however, have incompletely filled d or f subshells.
Elements in the periodic table could also be classified into metals,
nonmetals or metalloids. Metals dominate the Periodic Table. It is about
three-fourths of the total known elements. You can find them at the left side
and at the middle part of the Periodic Table. Nonmetals on the other hand,
are a bit few compared with metals. There are 22 known nonmetals and 11
of it exist as gases, such as, oxygen (O) and chlorine (Cl). You can find them
at the right side of your periodic table. Metalloids or semimetals are the
smallest group of elements. You can find them at the zigzag border line
between metals and nonmetals. Some examples of metalloids are
germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
Figure 3.3 (a) metals, (b) metalloids,

(c) nonmetals, (1,3) representative elements
(2) transition metals, (4) top-lanthanides, bottom-actinides
Application
Graphic organizers are good aid in memorizing things. Figure 3.3

presents a sample graphic organizer of the parts of the Periodic Table. Your
task now is to make your own graphic organizer of the parts of the Periodic
Table artistically. Present your work in the class.
Science Link
Just like Group VIIIA is also called Noble Gases or Inert Gases, some
groups in the Periodic Table are given special names due to its physical and
or chemical properties. Group IA is also called Alkali Metals. Group IIA is also
called Alkaline Earth Metals. Group VIA is also called Chalcogens. Group VIIA
are also called Halogens. Group IB are also called Coinage Group. Some
other groups are named with the top most element in the group, just like
group IIIA is named Boron group, IVA is named Carbon group and VA is
named as Nitrogen group. In the preceding lessons we will be discussing the
properties of each group of elements and why they are named as such.

Web Trips
Try practicing your knowledge about the parts of the Periodic Table on
this site:
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/physical/tillery/tutorialtest/Elements/ElemFra.html
Word Pad
Group or family refers to the vertical column arrangement of the

elements.
Period or series refers to the horizontal row arrangement of the
elements.
Metals are the elements in the left and middle part of the Periodic Table.
Nonmetals are the elements in the right side of the Periodic Table.
Metalloids are the elements at the zigzag border line between metals
and nonmetals.
Wrap It Up
Complete the table below by supplying it with the missing information.
Element Group Period Classification

Ca
IV A 3
F Nonmetal
IA 7
O

http://www.ncusd203.org/central/html/what/science/day/homework/ReviewCh45_files/ima
ge002.jpg

Lesson 4
How is the Valence Electron of Elements Related to their
Group Number in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Complete the table by supplying it with the atomic number, electron

configuration, valence electron and group number of the element.
Element Atomi Electron Configuration Valenc Group

c e Numb
Numb Electr er
er on
S
Mg
Al
I
Na
Whiz Quest
Elements in the Periodic Table are also arranged according to the type
of block they belong. The blocks in the Periodic Table are classified as s-, p-,
d- and f-blocks respectively. Figure 3.4 shows the locations of the blocks in
the Periodic Table.
Figure 3.4 The blocks in the Periodic Table

As you can see from figure 3.4, groups IA and IIA belongs to s-block
and groups IIIA to VIIA belongs to p-block. Groups IIIB to IIB belongs to d-
block while the lanthanides and actinides belong to f-block. Recalling our
lesson on electron configuration, we know that the required number of
electrons to fill the subshell s is 2, p is 6, d is 10 and f is 14. Notice that the
number of groups occupied by each block in the Periodic Table also shows
the required number of electron to fill that subshell. Did you notice it?
The table below shows electron configuration of selected elements

from the representative elements. Examine it carefully.
Table 3.4 Electron configuration of selected elements of the representative

elements
______________________________________________________________________________
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Valence
Group
Number Configuration Electron
Number
______________________________________________________________________________
Potassium K 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 1

IA
Beryllium Be 4 1s2 2s2 2
IIA
Aluminum Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 3 IIIA
2 2 2
Carbon C 6 1s 2s 2p 4 IVA
Phosphorus P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 5 VA
2 2 4
Oxygen O 8 1s 2s 2p 6 VIA
Chlorine Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 7
VIIA
Neon Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6 8 VIIIA
______________________________________________________________________________
Notice that the atomic number of an element signifies its electron

configuration. The underlined part in the electron configuration is called the
valence electrons or the outer electrons. The valence electron of any
element predicts the group number of that element. Elements belonging to
the same group number also has the same valence electron. So therefore we
can have a general formula for the valence electron of elements per group.
The table below shows the general formula for the valence electron per
group. The n symbolizes the principal quantum number or the energy level.
You could also see that the highest principal quantum number of the element
also predicts the period where it belongs.
Table 3.5 General formula for the valence electron of element per group
______________________________________________________________________________
Group Number Valence Electron
_____________________________________________________________________________
IA ns1
IIA ns2
IIIA ns2np1
IVA ns2np2
VA ns2np3
VIA ns2np4
VIIA ns2np5
VIIIA ns2np6
______________________________________________________________________________
We can recall that groups IA and IIA belong to the s-block, where group
IA has incompletely filled s subshells while group IIA has completely filled s
subshells. On the other hand, groups IIIA to VIIIA belong to p-block, where
groups IIIA to VIIA have incompletely filled p subshells while group VIIIA has
completely filled p subshells.
Let us now examine some of the elements from the d-block. Look the
table below.
Table 3.6 Electron configuration of selected elements of the transition

metals
______________________________________________________________________________
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Valence
Group
Number Configuration Electron
Number
______________________________________________________________________________
Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 3

IIIB
Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2 4
IVB
Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3 5
VB
Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 6
VIB
Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 7
VIIB
Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 8
VIIIB
Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10 1
IB
Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 2
IIB
______________________________________________________________________________
As you would see, d-block elements have different way of identifying

their valence electron and they also follow a different pattern in predicting
their group number but nonetheless, let us examine some of them. For
groups IIIB to VIIIB their group number was predicted through the number of
valence electrons on the highest principal quantum number which is 4 and
the valence electron on the highest subshell which is d. Notice that
Chromium and Copper have different electron configuration, it is because
they could have two electron configurations but what is shown in table 3.6 is
the one preferred because of its stability. For groups IB and IIB, their group
number was predicted through the number of valence electrons on the
highest quantum number which is 4.
Let us now examine some of the f-block elements. Cerium, which is an

element belonging to the lanthanide series has an electron configuration of
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s25p64f15d16s2. In addition, protactinium,
which is an element belonging to the actinide series has an electron
configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s24d105p64f14 5d106s26p67s26d15f2. You would
notice that both elements has an incompletely filled f-subshells therefore showing that they
belong to the f-block elements.
Application
Did you see the graphic organizer in figure 3.4? Do you think it will be
a great help if you will be using graphic organizer to memorize the blocks in
the periodic table? Your task now is to cut-out a skeletal framework of the
periodic table and indicate the location of the blocks in the periodic table.
You may use figure 3.4 as your guide in doing your graphic organizer.
Science Link
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the blocks in the Periodic Table,
take the quiz at:
http://www.softschools.com/manage/themes/knowledgetest;jsessionid=awOZ
4n1CJfa4 .
Word Pad
Valence electron refers to the outer electrons.
Wrap It Up
Given the electron configuration of the element, identify the atomic

number, valence electron, group number and also the symbol of the
element.

Element Atomi Electron Configuration Valenc Group
c e Numb
Numb Electr er
er on
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
1s2 2s2 2p6
1s2 2s2 2p4
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

http://www.info-mine.net/images/periodic/structure.jpg
Lesson 5
What are the Trends and Periodic Variation
of the Elements in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Observe your Periodic Table carefully across a period and within a

group and fill up the table below with either increasing or decreasing.
From Top to Bottom From Left to Right

Atomic Number
Atomic Mass
Whiz Quest
We have seen in the previous lessons how the elements in the Periodic
Table are arranged. In this lesson we will be dealing with another set of ideas
on how the elements in the Periodic Table are arranged, that is, with regards
to trends and periodic variation of elements.
Atomic Radius
Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two
adjacent identical atoms and is measured in terms of picometer (pm). Atomic
radius could either be metallic radius or covalent radius. Metallic radius
is a term used for the atomic radius of metallic elements while covalent
radius is a term used for the atomic radius of nonmetallic elements. Figure
3.5 illustrates the concept of atomic radius.
Figure 3.5 Atomic radius (r) of sodium (Na) and

chlorine (Cl) atoms
The atomic radius can be identified by the strength of attraction of the

nucleus of an atom and the outermost or valence electrons. The strength of
attraction is what we called nuclear charge and in general, the larger the
value of the nuclear charges of an atom, the smaller is its atomic radius
because larger nuclear charge indicates that the hold of the nucleus on the
outermost or valence electrons is strong. Table 3.7 illustrates this concept.
Table 3.7 Atomic radius of period 2 elements

______________________________________________________________________________
Element Atomic Radius Nuclear Charge Electron Configuration
(pm)
______________________________________________________________________________
Li 152 +3 1s2 2s1
Be 112 +4 1s2 2s2
B 85 +5 1s2 2s2 2p1
C 77 +6 1s2 2s2 2p2
N 75 +7 1s2 2s2 2p3
O 73 +8 1s2 2s2 2p4
F 72 +9 1s2 2s2 2p5
______________________________________________________________________________
As you can see from table, the larger the value of the valence electron
(the underlined part of the electron configuration), the larger is the nuclear
charge of the atom and the smaller is its atomic radius.
In general, atomic radius increases from top to bottom of the Periodic

Table or down a group and decreases from left to right of the Periodic Table
or across a period. Figure 3.6 illustrate this trend.

Figure 3.6 Trend in atomic radius
Ionic Radius
Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion in an ionic

compound. An atom tends to change in size as it becomes a cation or anion.
Metals normally looses electron and become positively charged. Positively
charged metals are called cations. Nonmetals on the other hand, normally
gain electrons to form a negatively charged atom. Negatively charged atoms
are called anions. An atom looses or gain electrons to be stable. Figure 3.7
illustrates an ionic radius.

Figure 3.7 Ionic radius
As a metal forms a cation, its radius decreases because of the lesser

electron-electron repulsion which is a result of the removal of electron.
Therefore, a cation has a smaller size in comparison with anion.
As nonmetal forms an anion, its radius increases because of the

greater electron-electron repulsion which is a result of the addition of
electrons. Therefore, an anion has a bigger size in comparison with a cation.
Figure 3.8 shows some example cations and anions and their ionic
radius.
Figure 3.8 Some cations and anions

and their corresponding
ionic radius
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an

electron from an isolated atom or ion in its ground state and is usually
measured in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). One electron is removed
from the atom one at a time. When we remove the first electron in an atom,
the energy needed is called first ionization energy.
Metals have low ionization energies compared with nonmetal that is

why metals readily give up electrons forming a cation.
Table 3.8 shows some elements with their corresponding ionization

energies (IE).
Table 3.8 Successive ionization energies for period 3 elements (in kJ/mol)
In general, with some few exceptions, ionization energy increases from

left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period. On the other hand,
ionization energy decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down
a group. Figure 3.9 illustrates this idea.
Figure 3.9 Trend in ionization energy
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity is the energy change when an atom in its ground
state gains an electron forming an anion and is usually measured in terms of
kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). Nonmetals have high electron affinity that is why
nonmetals always form an anion. Table 3.9 shows the electron affinities of
some elements.
Table 3.9 Electron affinities of some elements in kJ/mol
IA VIIIA
H He
-73 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA <0
Li Be B C N O F Ne
-60 0 -27 -122 -7 -141 -328 <0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
-53 0 -44 -134 -72 -200 349 <0
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
-48 -2 -29 -188 -77 -195 -325 <0
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
-47 -5 -29 -121 -101 -190 -295 <0
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
-45 -14 -30 -110 -110 (-) -270 <0
In general, electron affinity increases from left to right of the Periodic

table or across a period and from bottom to top of a Periodic Table or up a
group. Figure 3.10 illustrate this trend.
Figure 3.10 Trend in electron affinity
Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to
attract electrons toward it and is usually measured in terms of electronvolt
(eV). Electronegativity is related to ionization energy and electron affinity.
High electron affinity would mean a greater ability to pick up electrons easily
while high ionization energy would mean a lesser possibility to loose an
electron. Therefore, if an atom has a high ionization energy and high electron
affinity it also has a high electronegativity. Table 3.10 shows some elements
with their corresponding electronegativities.
Table 3.10 Electronegativity of some elements
In general, electronegativity increases from left to right of the Periodic

Table or across a period and it decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic
Table or down a group. Figure 3.11 illustrate this trend.
Figure 3.11
Trend in electronegativity
Metallic and Nonmetallic Character

Metallic character is a chemical property associated with those
elements classed as metals. These are elements which have a tendency to
loose electrons and form positive ion. In the Periodic Table, metallic character
increases down any group and across a period from right to left.
Nonmetallic character is a chemical property associated with those

elements classed as nonmetals. These are elements which have a tendency
to gain electrons and form negative ion. In the Periodic Table, nonmetallic
character increases up any group and across a period from left to right.
Figure 3.12 illustrate the trend in metallic character and nonmetallic

character.
Figure 3.12
Trend in metallic and nonmetallic character
Application
Learning trends and periodic variation in the Periodic Table requires

memorization. On the other hand, graphic organizers are good memory aid.
Your task now is to summarize the lesson by creating your own graphic
organizer on the trends and periodic variation in the Periodic Table. See
example below.
Science Link
Physical and chemical properties of elements are related to the trends
and periodic variation discussed in this lesson. For example, the density,
melting point and boiling point is related to the atomic radius. The larger the
surface area exposed in an element, the higher is its density, melting point
and boiling point. Could cite other physical or chemical property that is
related to the trends and periodic variation of elements?
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the trends and periodic
variation of the elements in the Periodic Table, do the quiz at:
http://www.sciencegeek.net/Chemistry/taters/Unit2PeriodicTrends.htm
Word Pad
Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two
adjacent identical atoms and is measured in terms of picometer (pm).
Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion in an ionic compound.
An atom tends to change in size as it becomes a cation or anion.
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an
electron from an isolated atom or ion in its ground state and is usually
measured in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
Electron Affinity is the energy change when an atom in its ground state
gains an electron forming an anion and is usually measured in terms of
kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract
electrons toward it.
Metallic character is a chemical property associated with those
elements classed as metals.
Nonmetallic character is a chemical property associated with those
elements classed as nonmetals.
Wrap It Up

Supply the trends and periodic variation in the table below with either
increasing or decreasing.
From Left to Right From Top to Bottom

Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
Metallic Character
Nonmetallic Character

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Lesson 6
What are the Properties and Uses of Each
Group of Elements in the Periodic Table?
Do and Discover
Each element in the Periodic Table has its own properties and uses.
Could you identify some elements that you use in daily life? Write it down on
the table below. Describe it physically and give its uses.
Element Description Uses
Whiz Quest
We have been discussing much about the elements in the Periodic

Table but have you ever wonder if these elements have uses to mankind? In
this lesson, you will find out what are the importances of these elements to
mankind.
Metals: Properties and Uses
Much of the elements in the Periodic Table are metals. We can see
metals anywhere, everywhere. We use it in buildings, appliances, jewelries,
and a lot more. Metals therefore are essential component of modernization
and progress. Table 3.11 shows some properties of metals that determine
their uses and some example metals.
Table 3.11 Physical properties of metals

Property Meaning Example Metals
Conductivity enables a metal to carry heat or Cu, Ag, Au
electricity
Density mass per unit volume Pb, Ce, Hg
Ductility ability to be permanently drawn, bent, Cu, Mg, Au
or twisted into various shapes without
breaking
Durability ability of metal to resist corrosion Zn, Al, Sb
Hardness the ability of a metal to resist Mg, Fe, Zn
abrasion, penetration, cutting action,
or permanent distortion
Luster the way light interacts with the Cu, Au, Ag
surface of the metal; shiny
Malleability ability of a metal to exhibit large Cu, Au, Ag
deformation
Melting Point temperature at which it changes state Hg, W, Ba
from solid to liquid
Properties of metals actually determine their uses. Metals such as

copper are used in electrical wirings because of its high conductivity.
Mercury, on the other hand are used in thermometers because of its
expandability when heated and because of its high melting point. Copper is
used is in electrical wirings not only because of its conductivity but because
it is ductile or can be made into wires. Our kitchen utensils such as the fork
and the spoon are usually made up steel alloy (a combination of metals such
as iron, manganese, chromium, vanadium and tungsten) because of its
durability or ability to resist corrosion. Foot bridges nowadays are made up of
metals because of its hardness. Silver and gold, however, are used as
jewelries because of its luster. Most of our cooking pans and other kitchen
utensils are made up of metals because metals are malleable or can be
shaped in different forms. Table 3.12 shows some elements and their
corresponding property that is responsible for their uses.
Table 3.12 Some metals and their uses in technology

Metal Property Uses
light weight, resist aluminum foil, door knobs,
Aluminu
corrosion, and strong kitchen utensils and air
m
planes
malleable and ductile and electrical wiring
Copper has high electrical
conductivity
luster and resist corrosion were used before in the
Gold & (Gold is the most ductile manufacturing of coins and
Silver and malleable while silver in
has the highest electrical jewelry
conductivity of all metals.)
low density, high strength used for structural purposes
Magnesiu
and resist corrosion in the transportation
m
industry
expands significantly and used in thermometers and
Mercury regularly when heated and barometers
it has high density
resist corrosion, malleable, used for packaging food, oil
Tin
ductile and other substances
resist corrosion, ductile and used in making galvanized
Zinc malleable sheets of iron and steel
making
Group IA: Alkali Metals

The most familiar element in this group is sodium. Sodium has many
uses, it combines with chlorine to form sodium chloride, NaCl, or salt, which
is an essential component of foods. Moreover, salt is mixed with crushed ice
to maintain the cold temperature for dirty ice cream or sorbets. Salt is
also combined with 0.01% potassium iodide, KI, to manufacture iodized salt
which is a common treatment for people suffering from iodine deficiency or
commonly known as goiter. Other than that, it is used in the manufacture of
sodium vapor lamps or commonly known as street lamps. Table 3.13 shows
some properties of the alkali metals which is responsible for their uses.
Table 3.13 General properties of alkali metals

______________________________________________________________________________
They are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and
malleable.
They are soft and can be cut by a knife.
They have low density.
They have relatively low melting points and boiling points compared to other
metals in the Periodic Table.
______________________________________________________________________________
Group IIA: Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline earth metals are very useful to mankind. It is usually combined

with other metals to produce alloys or a combination of two or more metals.
Alloys such as magnesium alloy are used in the manufacture of parts of
airplanes and cars. Other than that, magnesium plays a vital role in the
formation of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants that captures the
energy from the sun to facilitate photosynthesis. In the absence of
magnesium in the leaves of plants, the leaves turn yellow. On the other
hand, compounds of barium, strontium and calcium are used extensively in
fireworks because when heated, it turns the flame into different colors such
as pale green, crimson red and brick red. Oxide of calcium is used in tiles and
as a lining in high temperature furnace because of its capability to withstand
high temperature. Aside from that, calcium oxide, CaO, is used to counteract
highly acidic soils so that it can be used for gardening. Calcium in its
cationic form, Ca2+, is very essential to bone health of animals as well. Table
3.14 shows some properties of alkaline earth metals which is responsible for
their uses.
Table 3.14 General properties of alkaline earth metals

______________________________________________________________________________
They are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and
malleable.
They are relatively hard.
They have high density.
They have relatively high melting points and boiling points.
______________________________________________________________________________
Transition Metals

The most common metals in this group are what we called the coinage
family, these are the elements copper, Cu, silver, Ag, and gold, Au. They are
called coinage family because they are once used as a material for coins in
the United States. But because silver and gold are way too expensive, at
present it is only used as jewelries. Other transition metal which has
importance in industry is nickel, Ni, which is responsible for the hardening of
vegetable oil in the manufacture of margarine. Titanium, Ti, in the form of
titanium chloride, TiCl3, is used as catalyst in the manufacture of plastics.
Steel alloy (a combination of metals such as iron, manganese, chromium,
vanadium and tungsten) are commonly used as stainless material. Aside
from the industrial uses of transition metals, it also has biological importance
such as the copper ion, Cu2+, in the blood, it interact with pain relievers such
aspirin to relieve pain and fever. Cobalt, Co, is part of vitamin B 12 which cures
Pernicious anemia because this vitamin has the ability to increase the
number of hemoglobin molecules in the blood. Further discussions on the
biological importance of some other elements will be dealt with in the next
lessons in this chapter. Table 3.15 shows some properties of transition metals
which are responsible for their uses.
Table 3.15 General properties of alkaline earth metals

______________________________________________________________________________
They are good conductors of heat and electricity, ductile and malleable.
They have high tensile strength.
They have high density.
They have relatively high melting points and boiling points.
______________________________________________________________________________
Nonmetals: Properties and Uses
Nonmetals are significantly different from metals in terms of

properties. Nonmetals are usually gaseous in form and are brittle if solid.
They do not exhibit properties such as luster and conductivity. Nevertheless,
these properties dictate the numerous uses of nonmetals.
Group IVA: Carbon Family
Members of the carbon family are carbon, C, a nonmetal, silicon, Si, a

metalloid, germanium, Ge, a metalloid, tin, Sn, a metal, and lead, Pb, a
metal. This shows that the carbon family is far different from each other in
nature.
Carbon exists in two allotropes, namely, diamond and graphite.

Diamond is the hardest material known on earth which is used as abrasive,
drilling and cutting out other hard materials. Other than that, its most
common use is as jewelry. Graphite, in contrast, can conduct electricity that
is why it is used as electrodes in batteries or dry cells.
Silicon, the second most abundant element on earth, and germanium

are widely used as semiconductors in electronic devices such as computer

chips. Additionally, silicon is now being utilized in cosmetic medicine as body
part enhancer.
Tin and lead metals are rare elements. Tin are used in the manufacture
of tin cans which are used in the packaging of canned foods. Lead,
alternatively, is commonly used as the marking material in pencils.
Group VIIA: Halogens
Members of the halogen family are fluorine, F, chlorine, Cl, bromine, Br,
and iodine, I. Halogens are all nonmetal and they exists as diatomic
molecules in gaseous state. Halogens can be branded as counterpart of alkali
metals and alkaline earth metals. If those two groups of metals are said to be
reactive metals, halogens, on the other hand, are reactive nonmetals. These
three groups commonly combine to form salts.
Fluorine, in the form of fluoride, F-, is utilized extensively in the

toothpaste industry. It is used to prevent tooth decay and gingivitis. Other
use of fluorine is that it is utilized to make polytetrafluoroethylene,
commonly known as Teflon, which is usually used as a cooking utensil.
Chlorine is commonly used as a disinfectant for swimming pools.

However, it is also used in industry as a bleaching agent for paper and
textiles. It is also an ingredient in pesticides and insecticides. Chlorine is also
a component of polyvinyl chloride or PVC which is used for pipes and ducts.
Iodine in alcoholic solution or commonly known as tincture of iodine is

widely used as antiseptic for wounds. Moreover, iodine is also being utilized
in the production of photographic films such as silver iodide, AgI.
Halides such as bromide, iodide, fluoride and chloride are also used in
cloud seeding to catalyze the condensation of water vapor in the
atmosphere.
Application
No one in this world can say that he has never used technology in his
lifetime. Technology is a part of our daily routine, from the time we woke up
until the time we fall asleep we, in one way or another, uses technology.
During school days, we are awaken by the buzzing of our alarm clocks, our
parents prepare our breakfast using gas stoves and oven toaster. To get to
school, we ride in buses, jeepneys, tricycles or cars. Inside the classroom, we
use electric fans or air conditioners to keep us cool all day long. Other than
that, in schools, we also use lots of other technologies such as computers,
overhead projector, LCD projector, and a lot more. When we get home we
usually turn on the television to watch our favorite show and before we sleep
we turn on the electric fans or air conditioners again to keep us comfortable
all night long. You see, we just cannot escape from using technology. Why do
you think it is important for us to know the properties of elements and their
application to the environment and modern technologies? Report your
answer to the class.
Science Link
Web Trips
Lets see how well you are familiar with the properties and uses of
some elements, do the quiz at:
http://www.funtrivia.com/flashquiz/index.cfm?qid=135193
Word Pad
Conductivity enables a metal to carry heat or electricity.

Density is mass per unit volume.
Ductility is the ability to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into
various shapes without breaking.
Durability is the ability of metal to resist corrosion.
Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting
action, or permanent distortion.
Luster is the way light interacts with the surface of the metal; shiny.
Malleability is the ability of a metal to exhibit large deformation.
Melting Point is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to
liquid.
Wrap It Up
Enumerate five (5) properties of metals and nonmetals and describe or

define them. Give (5) example of metals and nonmetals together with their
uses.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
content credits, lesson 6

http://www.freewebs.com/sed4c/hoqlen.doc
Lesson 7
What are Some Elements that are
Important to the Human Body?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) elements which are essential to humans? Write
it down on the table below.
Element Function
Whiz Quest
In the previous lesson, we have tackled the importance of these

elements to our daily living. Do you think these elements have any
importance to our health? Lets find out!
The human body is actually composed of essential elements. Table

3.16 shows the list of these essential elements in the human body.
Interesting in the essential elements is what we called trace elements; these
are the elements cobalt, copper, iodine, iron and zinc. They actually
comprises about 0.1 percent of the mass of a human body. The trace
elements are actually necessary for biological functions like defense against
sickness, transport of oxygen for metabolism and growth. The balance of the
trace elements are actually delicate since too much or too little of those
trace elements for a period of time could lead to serious illness, retardation,
and it can even result to death.
Table 3.16 Essential elements in the human body

______________________________________________________________________________
Element Percent by Mass* Element Percent by Mass*
______________________________________________________________________________
Oxygen 65 Sodium 0.1
Carbon 18 Magnesium 0.05
Hydrogen 10 Iron <0.05
Nitrogen 3 Cobalt
<0.05
Calcium 1.6 Copper <0.05
Phosphorus 1.2 Zinc <0.05
Potassium 0.2 Iodine
<0.05
Sulfur 0.2 Selenium <0.01
Chlorine 0.2 Fluorine <0.01
_____________________________________________________________________________
* Percent by mass gives the mass of the element in grams present in a 100-g sample.
Transition metal ions such as cobalt, copper, iron, manganese and

nickel are also present in the human body. These metals aids in the catalytic
activity of a variety of enzymes in the human body. Example enzyme is the
cytochrome oxidase, which is responsible for the burning of foods that we
eat. Cytochrome oxidase contains copper. Another example is the nonprotein
molecule associated with insulin, which is responsible for the regulation of
blood sugar contain the metal chromium. Iron, on the other hand, is essential
to hemoglobin which carries the oxygen and dissolved foods to all parts of
our body.
Application
When buying canned goods or other ready-to-eat foods, do you

actually check the labels or the nutrition facts of the food that you are
buying? The next time you go to the supermarket, try checking the nutrition
facts of the canned goods or ready-to-eat foods before buying it. Its time to
be conscious with your health. Report your observation to the class.
Science Link
Health is wealth, a common notation that we always hear. This is

actually true being healthy is being wealthy because you can do more things
when you are healthy, things that will result to progress of your career. But
where do good health starts? It starts within oneself, health consciousness,
as they call it. Being health conscious is putting everything into balance -
getting enough rest, exercise, and proper diet. Live longer, better, start being
health conscious.
Web Trips
Enhance your knowledge about the essential elements in the human
body. Try answering the quiz at
http://www.health24.com/dietnfood/Whats_in_food/15-47-108.asp
Word Pad
Trace elements are elements present in minute or small amount.

Essential elements are elements vital or important to human body.
Wrap It Up
At the beginning of the lesson, you have given five essential elements
and their functions. These essential elements are familiar to you. Your task
now is to complete the table below by supplying it with the essential
elements you have learned on this lesson and their function to the human
body.
Element Function
content credits, lesson 7

http://users.netconnect.com.au/~astronet/elements/body.htm

All in All
1. Chemical symbols are used by chemists to represent elements in a shorter

manner. Each element has its own unique symbol. The name of each element is
derived either from the name of a scientist, the country where it was discovered,
or words from early civilization languages.
2. The most significant scientists behind the periodic table are actually Lothar Meyer
(1869), Dmitri Mendeleev (1869) and Henry Moseley (1913). Meyer and Mendeleev
formulated the periodic law which says that properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic masses. This law was revised by Moseley by proposing that
properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers. To date, the
Periodic Table that we have is arranged in increasing atomic number.
3. Elements in the Periodic Table are actually arranged in a logical manner where
elements with similar physical and chemical properties can be found in the same
group or family. Another basis of classification is if it is a metal, a nonmetal or a
metalloid. Other than that, elements in the Periodic Table can still be classified as
to representative elements, transition metals, actinides and lanthanides. With
respect to the electron configuration of each element, metals belong to the s-block
and d-block elements except for hydrogen and helium which are nonmetals.
Nonmetals and metalloids, on the other hand, belong to the p-block elements.
4. Other than the blocks in the Periodic Table, the electron configuration also gives us
the group number, period and family of the element. The group number is actually
determined by the valence or outermost electrons. The period is determined by the
highest energy level where the valence or outermost electrons are residing. The
family of the element could either be A or B. It is family A if the last added
electrons fall at s- or p- subshells while if it falls at d- or f- subshells it is now
considered as family B. Moreover, the subshell where the last added electron is
residing determines the block where the element belongs.
5. Atomic Radius is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent
identical atoms and is measured in terms of picometer (pm). Atomic radius
increases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group and decreases
from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period. Ionic radius is the radius
of a cation or an anion in an ionic compound. Ionization energy is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or ion in its ground
state and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). Ionization
energy increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period and
decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group. Electron
Affinity is the energy change when an atom in its ground state gains an electron

forming an anion and is usually measured in terms of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
Electron affinity increases from left to right of the Periodic table or across a period
and from bottom to top of a Periodic Table or up a group. Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward it.
Electronegativity increases from left to right of the Periodic Table or across a period
and it decreases from top to bottom of the Periodic Table or down a group. Metallic
character is a chemical property associated with those elements classed as metals.
Metallic character increases down any group and across a period from right to left.
Nonmetallic character is a chemical property associated with those elements
classed as nonmetals. Nonmetallic character increases up any group and across a
period from left to right.
6. Uses of metals and nonmetals are actually determined by their physical and
chemical properties.
7. Some elements are vital to human body. Transition metal ions such as cobalt,
copper, iron, manganese and nickel are present in the human body. These metals
aids in the catalytic activity of a variety of enzymes in the human body.

Chapter Test
I. Modified True or False

Directions: On the space before the number, write T if the statement is true and F it is
false. If the statement is false, underline the word or phrase that makes it incorrect.
1. As a metal forms a cation, its radius decreases because of the lesser electron-
electron repulsion which is a result of the removal of electron.
2. Members of the carbon family are carbon, C, a nonmetal, silicon, Si, a metalloid,
germanium, Ge, a metal, tin, Sn, a metal, and lead, Pb, a metal.
3. Each group of elements exhibits similarities in physical and chemical properties
while each period of elements exhibits varying physical and chemical properties.
4. Nonmetals have low electron affinity that is why nonmetals form an anion.
5. The telluric screw was the first ever geometric representation of the periodic
law.
II. Multiple Choice

Directions: Choose the letter of the choice that answers the question or completes the
statement. Write your answer on the space before each item.
Use the hypothetical Periodic Table below in answering item numbers 1 to 3.
IA VIIIA
IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
A B C
D IIIB IVB V VIB VIIB VIIB IB IIB E F
B
G H I
J K
1. Which element is the most nonmetallic?

A. J C. F
B. G D. C
2. Which of the following element would you expect to form cation?
A. F C. C
B. D D. B
3. Which element has the largest atomic radius?
A. J C. K
B. A D. H
Use the information given in the table in answering item numbers 4 and 5.
Metal Density Properties Electrical

g/mL Conductivity
Aluminum 2.7 light weight, resist corrosion, and 0.382
strong
Copper 8.9 malleable and ductile 0.593
Gold 19.2 malleable and ductile 0.420
Mercury 13.6 expands significantly and 0.010
regularly when heated
Silver 10.5 malleable and ductile 0.620
4. Which metal will be best in making electrical wirings?

A. Aluminum C. Copper
B. Gold D. Silver
5. Which metal will be material for airplanes?

A. Aluminum C. Copper
B. Gold D. Silver
III. Structured Questions

Directions: Answer the question below.
Determine the following information given this electronic configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
No. of Valence Electrons: ____________ Group: ______________

Highest Energy Level: _____________ Period: ______________
Subshell where the last added electron is residing: ______________
Block: _______________ Family: ______________
Symbol of Element: ______________ Name of Element: ______________
IV. Free Response

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but completely.
1. The element bromine (Br) belongs to group VIIA of the periodic table. Would you
expect it to form an anion? Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Zinc and iron are placed in the same period. Why do you think so?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 2
The Chemical Bond
Look around you. Have you ever asked yourself how do those things exist? Life is
full of mysteries you might say. But did you know that there is actually an explanation for
this? That is chemical bonding. Everything that you see is actually a product of chemical
bonding. The things that make your life easier are all products of chemical bonding.
The things that you can see were made possible because atoms combine. Because
scientists now understand how atoms combine, numerous useful products had been
produced. The force that holds them together is what we called chemical bond. But you
may ask why do atoms combine? In this chapter you will understand the reason why
atoms combine and other occurrences accompanying it. We will find the answer to the
following questions:
How are ionic, covalent and metallic bonds formed?

How is the location of the element in the Periodic Table related to the type of
bond that they will form?
How is the electronegativity values of the element related to the type of bond
that they will produce?
How do we write and name chemical formulas of ionic and covalent
compounds?
How do we distinguish between molecular and empirical formula?
What is the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bond?
What are the forces of attraction that exist between molecules?
What are the shapes of molecules?
What are the types of solids?
What are the properties and uses of some ionic and covalent compounds?
Lesson 1
How is Ionic Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) ionic compounds that are familiar to you? Write
it on the table below.
Chemical Formula Chemical Name
Whiz Quest
We are familiar that metals tend to loose electron to form cation while
nonmetal tends to gain electron to form an anion. The following sections will
explain why metals and nonmetals behave as such.
The Octet Rule
Group VIIIA elements are the most stable atoms in periodic table
because it complies with the octet rule. Examine the electron configuration
of the group VIIIA elements in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1 The group VIIIA elements

______________________________________________________________________________
Element Electron Configuration
______________________________________________________________________________
He 1s2
Ne 1s2 2s22p6
Ar 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6
Kr 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p6
Xe 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14 5s25p6
Rn 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p64d104f14 5s25p65d10
6s26p6
______________________________________________________________________________

As you would notice, except for helium (which follows the duet rule
that needs only two electrons to be stable), all the elements in the group
VIIIA has eight electrons in their valence shells (underlined portion of the
electron configuration). Meaning, their s and p subshells are fully filled. This
electron configuration makes the atoms in the group VIIIA very stable. They
do not form ions and generally they are unreactive under normal conditions.
These gases have very high ionization energies, meaning, much energy is
required to remove an electron from it. The observation that an atom tends
to gain or loose electron until they are surrounded by eight valance electrons
is actually explained by the octet rule, which was proposed by Gilbert
Lewis. The octet rule says that atoms tend to combine in such a way that
they each have eight electrons in their valence shells, giving them the same
electronic configuration as a noble gas. Metals have low ionization energy
that is why it easily lose electron while nonmetals has high electron affinity
that is why it easily gain electron. The reason behind the losing or gaining of
electron is to attain the electron configuration of the noble gas which is
stable. Refer to figure 4.1 for examples.
11Na = 1s2 2s22p6 3s1 Cl = 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p5

17
+ 2 2 6 - 2 2 6 2 6
11Na = 1s 2s 2p (like Ne) 17Cl = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (like Ar)
Figure 4.1 Electron configuration of sodium and chlorine and their ions
Figure 4.1 show that sodium atom loses one electron to achieve the
electron configuration of neon while chlorine gains an extra electron to
achieve the electron configuration of argon.
The Lewis Electron Dot Symbol
The Lewis electron dot symbol is a useful way to illustrate the octet
rule. Lewis electron dot symbol represents the number of electrons in the
outermost shell of the atom using dots. Figure 4.2 shows example of the
Lewis electron dot symbols of some elements.

Figure 4.2 Lewis electron dot symbols of the representative elements
Ionic Bonding
When sodium loses an electron because of its low ionization energy, it

then becomes positively charged ion (cation). On the other hand, when
chlorine gains an electron because of its high electron affinity, it then
becomes negatively charged ion (anion). When these two particles come
closer with one another, there will be an electrostatic attraction between the
positive and the negative charges and will form an ionic bond or
electrovalent bond. The compound formed by ionic or electrovalent
bonding is called ionic compound. See figures 4.3 and 4.4 for the
illustration.
Formation of sodium ion and chloride ion

Ionic bonding between sodium ion and chloride ion
Figure 4.3 Formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl
The formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl, can also be

illustrated using the Lewis electron dot symbol.
Figure 4.4 Formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl
Application
Shown in figures 4.3 and 4.4 is the formation of an ionic bond in

sodium chloride. Sodium loses only one electron and chlorine gains only one
electron. As a research work, find out how ionic bonding occurs if a metal
loses two or three electrons and if a nonmetal gains two or three electrons.
Report your research work in class.
Science Link
Two of the most important elements in the human body are sodium
and potassium. They are the key elements in the sodium-potassium pump,
an enzyme-based mechanism that maintains correct cellular concentrations
of sodium and potassium ions by removing excess ions from inside a cell and
replacing them with ions from outside the cell. The sodium-potassium pump
is the key to functions such as cardiac and renal activity, as well as all
general transport processes into and out of the cell. The pump thus forms
the basis for our ability to absorb a considerable number of nutrients, excrete
waste products from the kidneys and regulate the water balance in the cells.
If this little pump stopped pumping sodium ions out of the cells, the latter
would rapidly swell up because of the infiltration of water and finally burst.
Web Trips
Test your knowledge on ionic bond. Try answering the quiz at
http://www.quia.com/quiz/258607.html
Word Pad

Anion is negatively charged ion.
Cation is a positively charged ion.
Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond is the electrostatic attraction
between positive and negative particles.
Ionic Compound is the compound formed ionic or electrovalent bonding
is called
Octet Rule says that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they
each have eight electrons in their valence shells, giving them the same
electronic configuration as a noble gas.
Wrap It Up
Illustrate the ionic bonding for the formation of the following ionic
compounds using the Lewis electron dot symbol. Use dot notation () for
metal and cross notation (x) for nonmetal.
1. Magnesium oxide, MgO

2. Sodium oxide, Na2O
3. Silver chloride, AlCl3
4. Silver oxide, Al2O3
5. Calcium chloride, CaCl2

http://nanotech.sc.mahidol.ac.th/genchem/bonding1/lewis.jpg
http://www.yenka.com/freecontent/item.action?quick=sn#
http://pages.prodigy.net/sullydog/archives/qm/image6.gif

Lesson 2
How is Covalent Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) covalent compounds that are familiar to you?
Write it on the table below.
Chemical Formula Chemical Name
Whiz Quest
Ionic bond is a bond occurring between ion of metal and nonmetal. If

we have two nonmetals, would they also form a bond? The answer is yes,
and the bond is called covalent bond. Covalent bond is formed by the
sharing of electrons between nonmetals. One pair of shared electrons, or
that is two electrons, is equivalent to one covalent bond. Covalent bonding
also follows the octet rule with an exemption with the hydrogen atom which
follows the duet rule, just like helium. The compound formed by covalent
bond is called covalent compound.
Let us take for example the formation of the gaseous hydrogen

chloride, HCl. Hydrogen chloride is composed of two nonmetals which are
hydrogen and chlorine. Hydrogen has an electron configuration of 1s 1 and
because it only has one subshell, therefore it follows the duet rule. However,
chlorine has an electron configuration of 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p5 and because it has
more than one subshell, therefore it follows the octet rule. During the
formation of covalent bond between hydrogen and chlorine, the two
nonmetals tend to share one pair of electron to become stable, forming a
single bond. You would notice that hydrogen now has two valence electrons
just like helium, therefore it is now stable. Chlorine, on the other hand, now
has eight valence electrons just like argon, therefore it is now stable. The
pair of electron that is shared is what we called bonding electrons. Bonding
electrons are the electrons that actually participated in the formation of
covalent bond. In this case one of the bonding electrons came from hydrogen
and the other one came from chlorine. As you would notice, some of the
valence electrons of chlorine did not participate in the formation of covalent
bond; these electrons are what we called nonbonding electrons or lone
pairs. See figures 4.5 and 4.6 for the illustration.
Figure 4.5 Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl
Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride can also be illustrated using the

Lewis electron dot symbol. As you would see, one pair of electron shared is
equivalent to one covalent bond.
Figure 4.6 Covalent

bonding in hydrogen chloride, HCl
One pair of electron is shared in the covalent bonding of hydrogen

chloride; we call this bond as single bond. Another example of a molecule
that forms a single bond is the diatomic hydrogen molecule, H 2. See figure
4.7 for the illustration.
Figure 4.7 Single bond exhibited by hydrogen molecule, H2
When two pairs of electrons or that is a total of four electrons shared in

a covalent bond, just like the diatomic oxygen molecule, O 2, the bond formed
is a double bond. See figure 4.8 for the illustration.

Figure 4.8 Double bond exhibited by oxygen molecule, O2
When three pairs of electrons or that is a total of six electrons shared

in a covalent bond, just like in diatomic nitrogen molecule, N2, the bond
formed is a triple bond. See figure 4.9 for the illustration.
Figure 4.9 Triple bond exhibited

by nitrogen molecule, N2
During bond formation, certain amount of energy is given off or

released to the environment. Amazingly, it requires the same amount of
energy to break the bond apart. The energy required to break a bond is
called bond energy. Bond energy is usually expressed in unit of kilocalories
per mole (kcal/mol). Table 4.2 shows the bond energies diatomic molecules
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Table 4.2 Bond energies of diatomic molecules hydrogen, oxygen and

nitrogen
______________________________________________________________________________
Molecule Energy (kcal/mol)
______________________________________________________________________________
104
119
227
______________________________________________________________________________
From the table above we see that hydrogen molecule has the lowest
bond energy while nitrogen molecule has the highest bond energy. We can
conclude that, the more electron pairs shared in a covalent bond, the higher
the bond energy and the lesser the electron pair shared in a covalent bond,
the lower the bond energy. This means that, the higher the bond energy, the
more difficult to break the bond and the lower the bond energy, the easier it
is to break the bond. In this case, hydrogen molecule is the easiest bond to
break since it has the low bond energy. Bonds in nitrogen molecule, however,
is the most difficult to break since it has a high bond energy. This explains
why hydrogen molecule is more reactive than nitrogen molecule.
Looking back at our examples again, hydrogen molecule, H 2, oxygen

molecule, O2, and nitrogen molecule, N2, are all made up of the same atom in
a covalent in a covalent bond. Recalling our lesson on electronegativity,
each atom has its own electronegativity value. The higher the
electronegativity, the higher is the power of the atom to attract electrons
toward it. In the case of hydrogen molecule, oxygen molecule and nitrogen
molecule, there is equal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond since the
bonded atoms are of the same kind and therefore have the same
electronegativity value. The bond that exists between these atoms is what
we called nonpolar covalent bond and the molecule they formed is what
we call nonpolar molecule.
On the other hand, hydrogen chloride, HCl, have different atoms in a

covalent bond. It is composed of hydrogen atom and chlorine atom.
Hydrogen has an electronegativity value of 2.1 eV while chlorine has an
electronegativity value of 3.0 eV. Therefore chlorine has more power to
attract the shared electrons toward it forming now a polar covalent bond
due to the unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond. The molecule
that is formed by this kind of bond is called polar molecule. See figure 4.10
for the illustration.
Figure 4.10 Unequal sharing of electrons in hydrogen chloride molecule
Due to the unequal sharing of electrons, the electron cloud is also

unequal. Since the electrons are residing more on the chlorine atom,
therefore, the electron cloud in chlorine is larger than the electron cloud of
hydrogen. The unequal sharing of electrons also forms a partial positive (+)
and a partial negative (-). In this case the partial positive is the hydrogen
atom since the shared electrons are pulled away from it due to its low
electronegativity. On the other hand, chlorine atom is the partial negative
since the shared electrons are residing more on its side due to its high
electronegativity. Therefore, the dipole moment (symbolized by a crossed
arrow) is going toward the chlorine. See figure 4.11 for the illustration.
Figure 4.11 Dipole moment in hydrogen chloride
Application

In this lesson we have just discussed few examples of polar and
nonpolar covalent molecules. Your task now is to research more on polar and
nonpolar covalent molecules and their importance to daily living. Report your
work to the class.
Science Link
Most of the molecules essential to human body are linked together by

covalent bond. Examples are water and oxygen gas. Water is very much
needed by our body to catalyze biological reactions that are essential in
keeping our metabolism in normal rate. Oxygen, on the other hand, is
essential in maintaining the oxyhemoglobin in the blood which delivers
dissolved foods and minerals all over the body. Can you think of other
covalent molecules that are essential to the human body?
Web Trips
Find out if youve already mastered the concepts on covalent bond. Try
answering the quiz at
http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/blbondsquiz.htm
Word Pad
Covalent Bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between

nonmetals.
Covalent Compound The compound formed by covalent bond is called.
Bonding electrons are the electrons that actually participated in the
formation of covalent bond.
Nonbonding Electrons or Lone pairs are valence electrons that did not
participate in the formation of covalent bond.
Single Bond is formed when one pair of electron is shared in the
covalent bond.
Double Bond is formed when two pairs of electrons are shared in a
covalent bond.
Triple Bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are shared in a
covalent bond.
Bond Energy is the energy required to break a covalent bond.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond is formed when there is equal sharing of
electrons in a covalent bond.
Nonpolar Molecule is the molecule formed by nonpolar covalent
bonding.
Polar Covalent Bond is formed due to the unequal sharing of electrons
in a covalent bond.
Polar Molecule is the molecule formed by polar covalent bonding.

Wrap It Up
Illustrate the covalent bonding for the following molecules using the
Lewis electron dot symbol. Indicate whether the molecule is polar or
nonpolar. Draw partial positive ( +), partial negative (-) and dipole moment (
) if applicable.
1. Water, H2O
2. Hydrogen fluoride, HF
3. Chlorine molecule, Cl2
4. Carbon dioxide, CO2
5. Methane, CH4

http://www.yenka.com/freecontent/item.action?quick=tl
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http://www.chem.uiuc.edu/clcwebsite/jpeg/N2.jpg
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VdW_surface.svg/150px-HCl_molecule_model-VdW_surface.svg.png
Lesson 3
How is Metallic Bond Formed?
Do and Discover
Could you give five (5) examples of metal that are familiar to you?
Write it down below. Give the name and symbol of the metal and where do
we usually use it.
Example: Gold (Au) used as jewelry.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
Whiz Quest

We understand that that a metal and a nonmetal form an ionic bond
while two or more nonmetals bonded together forms a covalent bond. Would
there also be bonding if the given atoms are both metal? That is what we are
going to find out in this lesson.
Metals, such as sodium, copper and aluminum, actually exhibit a

special kind of bonding called metallic bond. Metallic bond occurs when the
valence electrons of individual metal atoms are bonded loosely to the
positive kernels of the atom rather than to the individual atoms themselves.
This occurs because metals have low ionization energies and there are
empty spaces in the last shell of the atom. Kernel refers to the nucleus of the
atom and the inner electron shells surrounding the nucleus.
This special bonding occurring in metals give them stability by

attaining a closed configuration or a complete octet due to the delocalization
or hopping of electrons from one metal atom to another forming a sea of
electrons. Consider the metallic bonding occurring in sodium atom in figure
Figure 4.12 Metallic

bonding in sodium atoms
The delocalization of electrons in metallic bond gives metal atoms its

metallic properties such as hardness, malleability, ductility and conductivity.
Metals are hard because of the close packing structure of metal atoms.
Figure 4.13 illustrate this property.

Figure 4.13 Close packing structure in metal atoms
Metals are malleable and ductile because when hammered into sheets,
the loosely bound electrons permit the sliding past of the layers of atomic
kernels with one another and at the same time holding the layers of together
as negative electrons attract the positive kernels. Malleable means can be
shaped into different shapes while ductile means can be drawn into wires
without breaking. Figure 4.14 illustrates these two properties of metals.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.14 Metals are malleable (a) and ductile (b)
Metals are also good conductors of heat and electricity. Applying heat
to the metal would result to acquisition of high vibrational energy by the
kernels of the metal which in turn will be transferred to the delocalized
electrons. By the collision of kernels and electrons, kinetic energy is
transferred rapidly. On the other hand, when you apply electricity on a piece
of wire, electrons coming from the electricity will promote the shifting of
delocalized electrons toward the empty spaces in the valence shell from
atom to atom. Electrons are free to move in that certain metal unless
otherwise a new conductor is present.
Application
In this lesson, we have discussed metallic properties in relation to

metallic bonding. As a follow up activity, cut out pictures that illustrates
metallic property. Present your work artistically and impart it to the class.
Science Link
Aluminum is a metal used in making aircrafts such as air planes,

rocket ships and helicopter. Its unique physical property that makes it
suitable for aircrafts is being light weight and since it is light weight, lesser
energy is needed for aircrafts to float on air. Other than that aluminum
metals are strong and it resists corrosion. Aluminun metal is also used in the
production and manufacture of aluminum foil, door knobs and kitchen
utensils

Web Trips
Want to try your knowledge on metallic bond and metallic properties?

Answer the quiz at
http://www.docbrown.info/page04/4_72bond5.htm#METALLIC
Word Pad
Metallic bond occurs when the valence electrons of individual metal

atoms are bonded loosely to the positive kernels of the atom rather than
to the individual atoms themselves.
Kernel refers to the nucleus of the atom and the inner electron shells
surrounding the nucleus.
Wrap It Up
Identify the property of metal being described by matching column A

with column B.
A B
1. Malleable A. can be drawn into wires without

breaking
2. Conductors of Heat B due to the close packing structure
3. Ductile C. can be shaped into different shapes
4. Hard D. will promote the shifting of delocalized
electrons toward the empty spaces in
the
valence shell
5. Conductor of Electricity E. result to acquisition of high
vibrational
energy by the kernels

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/metallic.html
http://discover.edventures.com/images/termlib/m/metallic_bond/support.gif
http://www.whimsie.com/14%20gauge%20copper%20wire.jpg
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030538.html
Lesson 4
How are the Electronegativity Values of the
Element Related to the Type of Bond that they will
Produce?
Do and Discover
By just looking at the combination of elements, predict whether the

bond that exists between them is ionic, covalent or metallic.
Chemical Formula Type of Bond

HI
Li2O
Fe
NH3
CaBr2
Whiz Quest
By just looking at the elements that combine together and their

location in the periodic table we can now predict whether the bond that
exists between them is ionic, covalent or metallic. When atoms from Group
IA or Group IIA combines with atoms from Group VIA or Group VIIA, we are
certain that the bond that exists between them is ionic. This is because
metals have low ionization energies and they easily give up electrons.
Nonmetals, on the other hand, have high electron affinity and they easily
accept electrons. In an ionic bond, there is a complete transfer of electrons
from a metal to a nonmetal. The same nonmetal can also form bond called
covalent bond. In a covalent bond, there is sharing of electrons between
nonmetals. When there is equal sharing of electrons, we cal this bond as
nonpolar covalent and when there is unequal sharing of electrons, we call
this bond as polar covalent. Moreover, the same metal can also form a
special kind of bonding called metallic bond. It occurs because the positive
kernel of the metal atom is attracted to the valence electrons of the
neighboring metal atom and vice versa therefore resulting to the
delocalization of electrons forming a sea of electrons.
There is actually another way of predicting the type of bond that exists
between atoms that combine together. This is by getting the difference in the
electronegativity values of the atoms that combine together.
electrons toward it and is usually measured in terms of electronvolt (eV). Go
back to table 3.10 for the electronegativity values of some elements or you
may refer to your Periodic Table.
When the difference in electronegativity values (EN) of the element is

equal to or greater than 2.0 eV, the bond formed is ionic. When the
difference in electronegativity values is equal to 0 eV, the bond formed is
nonpolar covalent. However, when the difference in electronegativity values
is greater than 0 eV but is less than 2.0 eV, the bond formed id polar
covalent. See table 4.3 for the summary.
Table 4.3 Electronegativity difference and type of bond

______________________________________________________________________________
Electronegativity Difference (eV) Type of Bond
______________________________________________________________________________
EN 2.0 Ionic
0 < EN 1.9 Polar Covalent
EN = 0 Nonpolar Covalent
______________________________________________________________________________
Let us look at some examples below.
NaCl HCl H2
Cl 3.0 eV Cl 3.0 eV H 2.1
eV
Na 0.9 eV H 2.1 eV H 2.1
eV
EN 2.1 eV - Ionic EN 0.9 eV Polar EN
0 eV Nonpolar
Covalent Covalent
Application
As a way of memorizing the electronegativity difference and the type

of bond that exist among bonded atoms, make a chart that contains the
concepts in table 4.3. Share your work to the class.
Science Link
Just like using the electronegativity difference in predicting the type of

bond, there are also a lot of instruments for predicting different
phenomenon. An example is on the prediction of weather disturbance like
typhoons is predicted by weather instruments used by scientists. Another
example is on the prediction of the gender of the baby inside the mothers
womb using ultrasound technology. Could you give more examples?
Web Trips
Enhance your knowledge on predicting the type of bond using

electronegativity difference. Try answering the quiz at
http://cnx.org/content/m15205/latest/ (Report 5: Bonding 07)
Word Pad

electrons toward it and is usually measured in terms of electronvolt (eV).
Wrap It Up
Determine whether the bond that exists among the following

compounds and molecules is ionic, polar covalent or nonpolar covalent by
computing their electronegativity difference (EN).
1. H2O
2. LiF
3. Cl2
4. CO2
5. CaO

Lesson 5
How Do We Write and Name Chemical Formulas
of Ionic and Covalent Compounds?
Do and Discover
In our discussion of ionic and covalent bonding, you have met some
chemical formulas and their corresponding chemical names. Do you recall
some of them? Write it down on the table below.
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Chemical Chemical Chemical Chemical
Formula Name Formula Name
Whiz Quest

You are familiar with some ionic and covalent compounds with their
corresponding chemical names and chemical formulas, but, do you actually
know how to write chemical formulas of compounds or why they are named
as such? This will be our concern in this lesson.
Chemical formula is shorthand in chemistry to represent chemical

compounds. It actually shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the
smallest representative unit of the substance. Examples of chemical
formulas are H2O, LiF, Cl2, CO2 and CaO. Chemical formulas of ionic
compounds are called formula units. Formula unit represents the smallest
whole number ratio of ions in an ionic compound. From our examples, LiF and
CaO are formula units since they are composed of cations and anions.
Chemical formulas of covalent compounds, on the other hand, are called
molecular formulas. Molecular formula shows the kinds and numbers of
atoms present in a molecule of a compound. From our examples, H 2O, Cl2
and CO2 are molecular formulas since they are covalent compounds.
Molecular formulas are sometimes represented in terms of empirical
formulas. Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the
atoms of the elements in a compound. Take for example hydrogen peroxide
which as a molecular formula of H2O2, its empirical formula would be HO
since if we divide all the subscripts, which represent ratios, with the smallest
whole number subscript, the answer will be equal to 1. Another example is
glucose. Its molecular formula is C 6H12O6. If we get its empirical formula then
it will be CH2O since the smallest whole number subscript is 6 so if we divide
all the subscripts with 6, then we will be arriving at that answer. Could you
think of some other covalent compounds which have an empirical formula?
Writing and Naming Chemical Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of ions. So we will begin our discussion

with naming ions. Ions can be classified further as monoatomic and
polyatomic. Monoatomic ions contain only a single atom which could either
have a positive or a negative charge. Polyatomic ions, on the other hand,
contains two or more atoms that behave as a single unit which could be
positively or negatively charged.
Cations are normally named with the name of the element as the root
name and by adding the word ion. Example is Na +. Na+ is named as
sodium ion. This rule in naming is applicable only to the representative
elements but for the transition elements which has a varying or different
oxidation numbers, which actually represents the total number of electrons
that were lost in the formation of the atoms. Table 4.4 shows some common
transition metals with varying oxidation numbers.
Table 4.4 Common transition metals with varying oxidation numbers

______________________________________________________________________________
Element Cation Stock Name
Classical Name
______________________________________________________________________________
Copper Cu+ Copper (I) ion Cuprous ion
Cu2+ Copper (II) ion Cupric ion
Iron Fe2+ Iron (II) ion Ferrous ion
Fe3+ Iron (III) ion Ferric ion
Mercury *Hg22+ Mercury (I) ion Mercurous
ion
Hg2+ Mercury (II) ion Mercuric ion
Lead Pb2+ Lead (II) ion Plumbous ion
Pb4+ Lead (IV) ion Plumbic ion
Tin Sn2+ Tin (II) ion Stannous ion
Sn4+ Tin (IV) ion Stannic ion
Chromium Cr2+ Chromium (II) ion Chromous ion
Cr3+ Chromium (III) ion Chromic ion
Manganese Mn2+ Manganese (II) ion Manganous
ion
Mn3+ Manganese (III) ion Manganic
ion
Cobalt Co2+ Cobalt (II) ion Cobaltous
ion
Co3+ Cobalt (III) ion Cobaltic ion
______________________________________________________________________________
*A diatomic elemental ion
Anions, on the other hand, are named by getting the root name from
the name of the element and replacing the ending with the suffix ide. For
example we are given the anion N3- . The neutral form of this ion is nitrogen,
so we could name this anion by replacing the ending with ide. Therefore,
the name of this ion is nitride. Another example is O2-, its name would be
oxide. Could you give some more examples?
We are done discussing monoatomic ions; let us now proceed with

polyatomic ions. You can recall that polyatomic ions are tightly bound group
of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a charge. You may notice from table
4.5 that polyatomic ions are named differently from monoatomic ions but
you may also observe that most of them ends with the suffix ite or ate.
Some of the exceptions to this suffix are the ammonium ion (NH4+), the
cyanide ion (CN-) and hydroxide ion (OH-). If the polyatomic ion contains
hydrogen ion (H+), the name of the polyatomic ion will have a hydrogen
name then the name of the remaining polyatomic ion. Example is the
polyatomic ion HCO3-. Its name will be hydrogen carbonate.
Table 4.5 Common polyatomic ions

______________________________________________________________________________
1 charge 2 charge 3 charge
______________________________________________________________________________
H2PO4- HPO42- PO33-
(dihydrogen phosphate) (hydrogen phosphate) (phosphite)
C2H3O2- C2O42- PO43-
(acetate) (oxalate) (phosphate)
HSO3- SO32-
(hydrogen sulfite) (sulfite) ________________________

HSO4- SO42- 1+ charge
(hydrogen sulfate) (sulfate)
________________________
HCO3- CO32- NH4+
(hydrogen carbonate) (carbonate) (ammonium)
- 2-
NO2 CrO4
(nitrite) (chromate)
-
NO3 Cr2O72-
(nitrate) (dichromate)
-
CN SiO32-
(cyanide) (silicate)
-
OH
(hydroxide)
MnO4-
(permanganate)
ClO-
(hypochlorite)
ClO2-
(chlorite)
ClO3-
(chlorate)
ClO4-
(perchlorate)
______________________________________________________________________________
Ionic compounds can be further classified as to binary or ternary

compounds. Binary ionic compounds are compounds composed of two
elements only while ternary ionic compounds are compounds composed
of three different elements.
In writing chemical formula of binary ionic compounds, we just have to
write the formula of the cation first then the anion. After that, crisscross the
charges of the ions wherein the charge of the cation will be the subscript of
the anion and the charge of the anion will be the subscript of the cation. The
net charge should be equal to zero since compounds are neutral. We could
verify this by multiplying the subscript with the charge of the ion and getting
the sum of the two ions. See figure 4.15 for the examples.
K+ S2- K2S Fe3+ O2- Fe2O3
(2)(+1) + (1)(-2) = 0 (2)(+3) + (3)(-2) =

0
Figure 4.15 Writing chemical formulas of binary ionic compounds
In naming chemical formula of binary ionic compounds, write the name

of the cation first followed by the name of the anion. In our examples at
figure 4.15, we have formed two ionic compounds, these are K 2S and Fe2O3.
K2S is named as potassium sulfide while Fe2O3 is named as iron (III) oxide or
ferric oxide.
The same rule is applied in writing and naming chemical formulas of
ternary ionic compounds. See figure 4.16 for the examples.
Al3+ SO42- Al2(SO4)3 Sn2+ CO32- SnCO3
(2)(+3) + (3)(-2) = 0 (2)(+2) + (2)(-2) = 0
Figure 4.16 Writing chemical formulas of ternary ionic compounds
From our examples in figure 4.16, we have formed two ionic

compounds, these are Al2(SO4)3 and SnCO3. Al2(SO4)3 is named as aluminum
sulfate while SnCO3 is named as tin (II) carbonate or stannous carbonate.
Take note that when the charges or oxidation numbers of both cation and
anion are the same, they could cancel, just like in the case of SnCO3.
Writing and Naming Chemical Formulas of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds can be classified as to binary covalent

compounds and acids. Binary covalent compounds are compounds
composing of two nonmetals while acids are special group of covalent
compounds that produce hydrogen ion (H+) when dissolved in water.
In writing and naming binary covalent compounds, we should take note

of the prefixes shown in table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Greek prefixes used in naming binary covalent compounds

______________________________________________________________________________
Prefix Meaning
______________________________________________________________________________
mono- 1
di- 2
tri- 3
tetra- 4
penta- 5
hexa- 6
hepta- 7
octa- 8
nona- 9
deca- 10
_____________________________________________________________________________
In naming binary covalent compounds, write the name of the leftmost

element in the chemical formula first then the name of the second element.
Replace the ending of the second element with the suffix ide. Use the Greek
prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element. Take note that the
prefix mono- is not used in naming the first element. Moreover, if the prefix
ends in a or o, these letters are dropped if the second element begins with a
vowel. For example, when there is only one oxide ion, we name it as
monoxide instead of monooxide. See other examples below.
CO - carbon monoxide
CO2 - carbon dioxide
N2 O - dinitrogen monoxide
PCl3 - phosphorus trichloride
SF6 - sulfur hexafluoride
Acids can be classified as to hydroacids and oxoacids. Hydroacids are

acids formed by halogens. Hydroacids are named by adding the prefix hydro-
plus the name of the halogen wherein its ending is replaced with the suffix
ic. See examples below.
HF - hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid
Oxoacids, on the other hand, is recognized as a polyatomic ion with a

hydrogen at the beginning of the chemical formula. It is commonly named
with ous and ic suffix. The suffix ous is used for acids with more oxygen
atoms while ic is used for acids with less oxygen atoms. Furthermore, the
suffix ous is used to replace the name of the polyatomic ion ending in ite
while the suffix ic is used to replace the name of the polyatomic ion ending
inate. See examples below.
HNO2 is nitrous acid from base polyatomic ion NO2-, nitrite

HNO3 is nitric acid from base polyatomic ion NO3-, nitrate
Application
Shown in tables 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 are important facts in naming ionic
and covalent compounds. Your task now is to make a separate chart for each
table. This will be will be helpful reference sheets in naming ionic and
covalent compounds. Share your work with the class.
Science Link
The binary covalent molecule carbon monoxide, CO, is an ordorless,

colorless, flammable gas used in the manufacture of numerous organic and
inorganic chemical is also very harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide is
usually produced by automobiles. When inhaled by humans, carbon
monoxide binds with hemoglobin molecules replacing oxygen. Carbon
monoxide is more effective in binding with hemoglobin in comparison with
oxygen. When this happen, oxygen supply of the body will be lessened and
could result to serious illness or even death.

Web Trips
Test your knowledge in naming ionic and covalent compounds, try

Cation Anion Formula Name
Magnesium bicarbonate
Fe3+ NO2-
Manganese (II) chlorate
SnBr4
Co2+ PO43-
CuCO3
Lithium nitride
http://www.mp-
docker.demon.co.uk/as_a2/topics/ionic_and_covalent_bonding/quiz_2.html
Word Pad
Binary compounds are compounds composed of two elements only.

Chemical formula is shorthand in chemistry to represent chemical
compounds. It actually shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the
smallest representative unit of the substance.
Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms of
the elements in a compound.
Formula unit represents the smallest whole number ratio of ions in an
ionic compound.
Molecular formula shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a
molecule of a compound.
Monoatomic ions contain only a single atom which could either have a
positive or a negative charge.
Polyatomic ions contains two or more atoms that behave as a single
unit which could be positively or negatively charged.
Ternary compounds are compounds composed of three different
elements.
Wrap It Up
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table:
2. Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Formula Name
Sulfuric acid
H3PO4
Carbonic acid
HNO3
Nitrogen monoxide
NCl3
Dinitrogen tetroxide
P4O6
Lesson 6
What are the Forces of Attraction that
Exist Between Molecules?
Do and Discover
You are already familiar with the three types of chemical bond that we
have discussed. On the space below, describe briefly each type of chemical
bond.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Whiz Quest
We know that a chemical bond or intramolecular force is a force that

holds together two atoms in a molecule. Do you think there will also be
attraction among molecules as they come closer with each other? The
answer is yes, and these forces of attraction among molecules are what we
called intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are forces that hold
molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive. Table 4.7 shows the
intermolecular and interionic forces. These intermolecular forces are
accountable for the properties of substances. Moreover, intermolecular
forces also explain why substances exist as solid, liquid or gas at room
temperature.
Table 4.7 Intermolecular and interionic forces of attraction

______________________________________________________________________________
Type of Interaction Interacting Particles
______________________________________________________________________________
Dispersion Polar and nonpolar molecules
Dipole-dipole Polar molecules
Ion-Dipole Ions and polar molecules
Ion-Ion Ions (cations and anions)
Hydrogen bond N, O or F bonded with H atom
______________________________________________________________________________
Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and dispersion forces are

collectively known as van der Waals forces, after the Dutch physicist
Johannes van der Waals. Ion-dipole forces are not a van der Waals force.
Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
Dipole Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar

molecules, that is, molecules that exhibit dipole moment, such as hydrogen
chloride, HCl. Since there is unequal sharing of electron between H and Cl
atoms, there exists a partial positive and partial negative particles or
referred to as dipole. The more electronegative atom becomes partially
negative and has the most electron density while the least electronegative
atom becomes partially positive and has a lesser electron density. See figure
Figure 4.17 Dipole- dipole interactions in

hydrogen chloride, HCl
Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole forces are the attraction between an ion, which can be

cation or anion, and a polar molecule. A very good example of this is
hydration, or the interaction of water molecules with the cations and anions
of an ionic compound dissolved in water. For example, we dissolve sodium
chloride, NaCl, in water, H2O, the NaCl will dissociate into Na+ and Cl- in the
process of hydration. Since water is a polar molecule and has a partial
negative and a partial positive poles, the Na+ will form an ion-dipole
interaction with the partial negative part of the water molecule while the Cl -
will from an ion-dipole interaction with the partial positive part of the water
molecule. See figure 4.18 for the illustration.
Figure 4.18 Ion-dipole interaction between sodium chloride, NaCl, and

water, H2O
Dispersion Forces or London Forces
Dispersion forces or London forces are attractive forces that are

formed due to the temporary dipoles induced in atoms or molecules.
Dispersion of London forces is known to exist among nonpolar molecules.
Let us take for example an ion or a polar molecule near an atom or a

nonpolar molecule. There will be distortion in the electron clouds of the atom
or the nonpolar molecule due to the force exerted by the ion or the polar
molecule. This distortion will result to temporary dipoles in the nonpolar
molecule called induced dipole. Induced dipole is the separation of the
positive and negative charges in a nonpolar molecule due to the nearness of
an ion or a polar molecule. When the induced dipole is due to the interaction
between an ion and a nonpolar molecule, the interaction is called ion-
induced dipole interaction and when the induced dipole is due to the
interaction between a polar and a nonpolar molecule, the interaction is
called dipole-induced dipole interaction. See figure 4.19 for the
illustration.
Figure 4.19 Formation of (a) ion-induced dipole interaction and (b) dipole-
induced dipole interaction
Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between

the hydrogen atom in a polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms
nitrogen, N, oxygen, O, and fluorine, F. Water molecule is a very good
example of substance that exhibits hydrogen bonding. See figure 4.20 for the
illustration.
Figure 4.20 Hydrogen bonding in

water, H2O
Application
As a group project, make molecular models for each type of interaction

using any material which you think will better represent each type of
interaction. Present your work to the class.

Science Link
Knowledge on the intermolecular forces of attraction is essential in the

pharmaceutical industry for designing drugs. Pharmaceutical chemists must
take into consideration the type of interaction that will exists between the
drug and the human body or the targeted area in the human body. Solubility
or dissolution of drugs is also an important factor which can be explained by
the type of interaction existing between the drug and the targeted area in
the human body.
Web Trips
Test your knowledge on intermolecular forces of attraction. Try

http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_tro_chemistry_1/77/19899/5094337.cw/index.ht
ml
Word Pad
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar

molecules, that is, molecules that exhibit dipole moment.
Dipole-induced dipole interaction term used when the induced dipole
is due to the interaction between a polar and a nonpolar molecule.
Dispersion forces or London forces are attractive forces that are
formed due to the temporary dipoles induced in atoms or
molecules.Intermolecular forces are forces that hold molecules
together which can be attractive or repulsive.
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the
hydrogen atom in a polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms
nitrogen, N, oxygen, O, and fluorine, F.
Induced dipole is the separation of the positive and negative charges in
a nonpolar molecule due to the nearness of an ion or a polar molecule.
Ion-dipole forces are the attraction between an ion, which can be cation
or anion, and a polar molecule.
Ion-induced dipole interaction term used when the induced dipole is
due to the interaction between an ion and a nonpolar molecule.
van der Waals forces is the collective name of Dipole-dipole, dipole-
induced dipole and dispersion forces.
Wrap It Up
Predict the type of interaction that may be existing in the following

compounds and molecules.

1. HF - ______________________
2. Cl2 and HBr - ______________________
3. HI - ______________________
4. MgCl2 and H2O - ______________________
5. H2 and KCl - ______________________

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/dissolNACL.gif
http://www.cofc.edu/~martine/111Lectweek14_files/image002.jpg
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/hydrogen_bonding_in_water.gif
Lesson 7
What are the Shapes of Molecules?

Do and Discover
Bonding electrons are the electrons that actually participated in the

formation of covalent bond. Identify the number of bonding electron pairs in
the following molecules.
Example: SnCl2 has two bonding electrons
1. CH4 - _______________________________
2. NH3 - _______________________________
3. BeCl2 - _______________________________
4. H2O - _______________________________
5. SF6 - _______________________________
Whiz Quest
The shape and the arrangement of atoms in a compound affect the

physical and chemical properties of molecules. This arrangement of atoms in
a molecule is collectively known as molecular geometry.
The geometry of molecules can be simply predicted by identifying how

many electron pairs in the central atom and in the bonded atoms actually
participated in the formation of the covalent bond and how many electron
pairs in the central atom did not participate in the formation of the covalent
bond. As we can recall, electrons that participated in the formation of the
covalent bond is called bonding electrons and the ones that did not
participate is called nonbonding electrons.
Predicting the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron pairs
in a molecule undergone electrostatic repulsion can be clearly be illustrated
using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory. Study
table 4.8 for the list of shapes of simple molecules with their corresponding
description. Note that the symbol A represents the central atom, B
represents the attached atoms and E represents nonbonding electrons or
lone pairs.
Table 4.8 VSEPR models

______________________________________________________________________________
Number of Electron Pairs
Type Bonding Nonbonding Shape
Example
______________________________________________________________________________

Molecules in Which the Central Atom has No Nonbonding Electrons /
Lone Pairs
AB2 2 0 Linear
BeCl2
AB3 3 0 Trigonal
Planar
BF3
AB4 4 0 Tetrahedral
CH4
AB5 5 0 Trigonal
Bipyramidal
PCl5
AB6 6 0 Octahedral
SF6
Molecules in Which the Central Atom has Nonbonding Electrons /
Lone Pairs
AB2E 2 1 Bent

SO2
AB3E 3 1 Trigonal
Pyramidal
NH3
AB2E2 2 2 Bent
H2O
AB4E 4 1 Distorted
Tetrahedron
(Seesaw)
SF4
AB3E2 3 2 T-shaped
ClF3
AB2E3 2 3 Linear

XeF2
AB5E 5 1 Square
Pyramidal
BrF5
AB4E2 4 2 Square
Planar
XeF4
______________________________________________________________________________
The shapes of molecules can be predicted by the following steps.
Step 1. Draw the Lewis Electron Dot Symbol for each atom in the
molecule.
Step 2. Identify the total number of electron pairs in the central atom
and determine which electron pairs are the bonding electrons
and which are the nonbonding electrons or lone pairs.
Step 3. Refer to table 4.8 for the geometry of the molecule.
Example: Predict the molecular geometry of PF3.
Step 1. Lewis Electron Dot Symbol of PF3

Step 2. Bonding and Nonbonding Electrons in PF3
Shown in the red box are the nonbonding electrons in the

central atom while shown in the blue box are the
bonding electrons. Therefore we can say that there is
one nonbonding electron pair and there are three
bonding electron pairs.
Step 3. The general form would be AB 3E and the molecular geometry is

trigonal pyramidal
Application
There are actually a lot of computer applications involving the shape or

geometry of molecules. One of the free computer applications on the
geometry of molecules is the ChemSketch. Download your free
ChemSketch at http://www.acdlabs.com by clicking the button Download
Free ACD/ChemSketch 11 at the bottom part of the website. The application
is user-friendly. Explore it and share it to the class.
Science Link
Molecular geometries of molecules are essential for pharmaceutical

chemists in the design and development of drugs. Because of the
widespread technology of molecular modeling on computer programs,
pharmaceutical chemists were now able to see the three-dimensional
structures of complex molecules in the computer monitor. Chemists can also
control the molecular structure, that is, they can rotate it in any angle they
wish to, they can see the backside of the molecule and they can shrink or cut
it. This is possible because of the computer technology called virtual reality.
There are also technologies in determining molecular geometries

experimentally such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectrometer, combination of gas chromatograph and mass
spectrometer (GC-MS) and the Fourier transform infrared and Roman (FTIR)
spectrometer.
Web Trips
Try answering the quiz on the geometry of molecules at
http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/vrchemistry/vsepr/intro/vsepr_splash.html
Word Pad
Molecular Geometry is the arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory is a theory in
predicting the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron pairs in
a molecule undergone electrostatic repulsion.
Wrap It Up
Predict and draw the shape or molecular geometry of the following

molecules.
1. SH2
2. CO2
3. SnCl2
4. ClF5
5. SBr4

http://www.chemvc.com
Lesson 8
What are the Types of Solids?
Do and Discover
The type of atoms or elements bonded together predicts the type of

chemical bond that they will form. Identify the chemical bond existing in the
following bonded atoms or elements.
1. LiF - ________________________________
2. CO2 - ________________________________
3. Mg - ________________________________
4. CaCO3 - ________________________________
5. SO2 - ________________________________
Whiz Quest
Structure and properties of solids such as melting point, density and

hardness are dependent on the forces of attraction acting on them. Could
you recall these forces of attraction that we have discussed in lesson 6?
Solids can actually be divided into two categories; these are crystalline
and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids are solids that have orderly
arrangement of particles such as atoms, molecules or ions. It also has a unit
cell which is a basic repeating structural unit. Crystalline solids can be
further classified into ionic, covalent, molecular or metallic. We will be
discussing each type as we move further in the lesson. Amorphous solids,
in comparison, lacks a three-dimensional structure of particles. An example
of this is the glass, which is a fusion product of inorganic materials such as
silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (NaO) and boron oxide (B2O3) that has
been cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing.
Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride (NaCl) have an ionic crystal

structure. Ionic crystals have two important properties; it is composed of
anions and cations and the size of these charged particles differ from one
another. The ions form three-dimensional structure or repeating unit cells
called crystal lattice. This explains why sodium chloride and ionic
compounds, in general, have relatively high melting point. Figure 4.21
illustrates the crystal lattice of sodium chloride.

Figure 4.21 Crystal lattice of sodium chloride (NaCl)
A covalent crystal has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms
in the crystal. You can think of a covalent crystal as one big molecule. Many
covalent crystals have extremely high melting points. Examples of covalent
crystals include diamond and silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Diamond is made up of carbon atoms only and is bonded by covalent

bond. Four covalent bonds are formed in diamond crystals forming a
tetrahedron or tetrahedral arrangement of atoms. This repeating tetrahedron
unit cell forms a covalent network structure, this account for the hardness of
diamond, making it suitable in cutting glasses. See figure 4.22 for the
illustration of the covalent network in diamond.
Figure 4.22 Covalent networks in diamond
Molecular crystals contain recognizable molecules within their

structures. A molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions,
like van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding. Molecular crystals tend to be
soft with relatively low melting points. Rock candy, the crystalline form of
table sugar or sucrose, is an example of a molecular crystal. Figure 4.23
illustrates the crystal structure of table sugar or sucrose.
Figure 4.23 Crystal structure of table

sugar or sucrose
Metals can also form crystals called metallic crystals. Individual
metal atoms of metallic crystals sit on lattice sites. This leaves the outer
electrons of these atoms free to float around the lattice. Metallic crystals
tend to be very dense and have high melting points.
Application
As a class activity, make ball-and-stick models for sodium chloride crystal lattice,
diamond covalent networks and sucrose crystal structure. Present your work to the class.
Science Link
The difference between an amorphous and crystalline solid is very

important in drug making. When making a drug in solution, the drug is added
to the other chemicals to prolong the shelf life. When the drug is
crystallizing, if it forms a crystalline solid, there is space in the crystal for the
ice to come out leaving the drug and the components. This process only
takes about two or three days. If the drug forms an amorphous solid during
the crystallizing phase then it takes about seven days. This is because
amorphous solids do not have space for the ice to come out during the
freezing therefore the ice must diffuse out. Therefore it is preferable to have
crystalline solids in drug making. See illustration below.
Web Trips
There are a lot of practice exercises regarding types of solids in the

internet. Try answering one of the quizzes at
http://www.chemistry.nmsu.edu/studntres/chem115/resources/quiz_pha
sediagram.html
Word Pad
Crystalline solids are solids that have orderly arrangement of particles

Type of Force(s) General Examples
Crystal Holding the Properties
Units
Together
Ionic
Covalent
Molecular
Metallic
such as atoms, molecules or ions.
Unit cell is a basic repeating structural unit.
Amorphous solids are solids that lack a three-dimensional structure of
particles.
Ionic crystals have two important properties; it is composed of anions
and cations and the size of these charged particles differ from one
another.
Covalent crystal has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms in
the crystal.
Molecular crystals contain recognizable molecules within their
structures and are held together by non-covalent interactions.
Metallic crystals are crystals formed by metals.
Wrap It Up
Complete the table by supplying it with the needed information.

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/SolidStatePhysics/AtomicBonding/
CrystalStructure/StructuresSolids/nacl.gif
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/15/7515-004-B7F0EB3B.gif
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Sucrose-rodmodel.png
Lesson 9
What are the Properties and Uses of
Some Ionic and Covalent Compounds?
Do and Discover

Surely there are ionic and covalent compounds that you are familiar
with. Give at least five (5) ionic compounds and their uses and five (5)
covalent compounds and their uses.
Ionic Compounds
Chemical Uses
Formula
Covalent Compounds
Chemical Uses
Formula
Whiz Quest
Ionic compounds are formed by a chemical reaction between the

neutral forms of the elements that make it up, in which one or two electrons
jump from the nonmetallic to the metallic element. After the reaction, the
two elements attract one another because of their difference in charge. Ionic
compounds have high melting and boiling points and good electrical
conductivity when they are melted or in solution. Most ionic compounds
dissolve readily in water. When solid, they typically form into crystals.
Ionic compounds have hundreds of different uses. All salts are ionic
compounds, as are many substances that promote life processes. Sodium
chloride is the most common ionic compound. It is very important to diets of
human beings since it aids in the absorption of dissolved foods in blood.
Other than that, it is also used in preservation and flavoring of foods.
Other familiar ionic compounds are magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2)

and sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3), which is
used as antacid or for the relieve of acid indigestion. Potassium bromide
(KBr) is used in medicine and in photography, potassium chlorate (KClO 3) is
used in fireworks and explosives, potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used in
making soft soap and potassium nitrate (KNO 3) is used in meat preservation
and as an ingredient in gunpowder. Ammonium hydroxide (NH 4OH) is used as
a cleaning agent, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) is a component of cement and
copper (II) sulfate pentahydate (CuSO 4 5H2O) is used in making certain
pesticides and in copper plating. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used for
cleaning clogged drains, sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is used in fertilizers and
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is used as a water softener for hard water.
A covalent compound is a compound in which the atoms that are

bonded share electrons rather than transfer electrons from one to the
other. Covalent compounds generally have low melting and boiling points,
are soft and squishy, are flammable compared with ionic compounds, dont
conduct electricity in water and arent usually very soluble in water.
Water is a very familiar covalent molecule; it is very important to

biological processes as a catalytic agent. It is also used by mankind in his
daily life and in the industry.
Other familiar covalent compounds and molecules are carbon in the

form of diamond and carbon in the form of graphite. The former is used as
jewelry and in cutting glasses while the latter is used as lead for pencils.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an ingredient is fire extinguishers, carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) is used for dry cleaning, molecular chlorine (Cl 2) is used
as disinfectant in pools and as a bleaching agent and molecular iodine (I 2) is
used as an antiseptic and in making iodized salt. Molecular nitrogen (N 2) is
used in explosives and in fertilizers, nitrous oxide (N 2O) is used as an
anesthetic in dentistry and molecular oxygen (O 2) is used in welding torches
and oxygen tents and as a rocket fuel in its liquid form.
Application
Mentioned in this lesson are just few applications of ionic and covalent compounds. As a
research work, find as many as you can ionic and covalent compounds and their uses. Report
your research work to the class.
Science Link
Web Trips
Find out how well you are familiar with the uses and properties of ionic
and covalent compounds, try the quiz at
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/145Areview.html
Word Pad
Properties are a characteristic trait or peculiarity.

Uses refer to purposes.
Wrap It Up
Complete the table by supplying it with the needed information.
Type of General Example Use(s)

Compound Properties
Ionic
Covalent
All in All
1. When these two particles come closer with one another, there
will be an electrostatic attraction between the positive and the negative charges and
will form an ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
2. Covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between

nonmetals.
3. Metallic bond occurs when the valence electrons of individual

metal atoms are bonded loosely to the positive kernels of the atom rather than to the
individual atoms themselves.

4. By getting the difference in the electronegativity values of the
atoms that combine together, you can predict the type of bond that formed.
5. In naming chemical formula of binary and ternary ionic

compounds, write the name of the cation first followed by the name of the anion. In
naming binary covalent compounds, write the name of the leftmost element in the
chemical formula first then the name of the second element. Replace the ending of
the second element with the suffix ide.
6. Intermolecular forces are forces that hold molecules together

which can be attractive or repulsive.
7. Predicting the geometry of molecules using the idea that electron

pairs in a molecule undergone electrostatic repulsion can be clearly be illustrated
using the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory.
8. Solids can actually be divided into two categories; these are

crystalline and amorphous solids. Crystalline solids have three-dimensional structure
while amorphous solids dont have.
9. Ionic and covalent compounds has many application and uses to

the industry and to daily living as well.
Chapter Test
I. Modified True or False

Directions: On the space before the number, write T if the statement is true and F it is
false. If the statement is false, underline the word or phrase that makes it incorrect.
1. A molecular crystal is held together by non-covalent interactions,
like van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding.
2. The octet rule says that atoms tend to combine in such a way
that they each have eight electrons in their valence shells, giving them the same
electronic configuration as a noble gas.

3. This special bonding occurring in metals give them stability by
attaining an open configuration or a complete octet due to the delocalization or
hopping of electrons from one metal atom to another forming a sea of electrons.
4. When the difference in electronegativity values (EN) of the
element is equal to or greater than 2.0 eV, the bond formed is polar covalent.
5. Empirical formula gives the lowest whole number ratio of the
atoms of the elements in a compound.
II. Multiple Choice

Directions: Choose the letter of the choice that answers the question or completes the
statement. Write your answer on the space before each item.
1. Refer to the figure below.
Mg B H F
I II III IV
Which pair will form an ionic bond?

A. I and IV C. III and IV
B. II and III D. I and II
2. Refer to the table below.
VSEPR Number of Electrons Predicted

Notation Pairs
Bonding Nonbondin Shape Example
g
AB2 2 0 Linear HgCl2
AB3 3 0 Trigonal BF3
planar
AB4 4 0 Tetrahedral CH4, NH4
AB5 5 0 Trigonal PCl5
bipyramidal
AB6 6 0 Octahedral SF6
What is the predicted shape of Beryllium chloride?

A. Linear C. Trigonal planar
B. Tetrahedral D. Octahedral
3. Which of the following molecules will have a dipole-dipole

interaction and at the same time would exhibit hydrogen bonding?
A. Cl2 C. CO2
B. HCl D. CF4
4. Some of the molecules found in the human body are

NH2CH2COOH (glycine), C6H12O6 (glucose), and CH3(CH2)16COOH (stearic acid). The
bonds they form are
A. Nuclear C. Ionic
B. Metallic D. Covalent

5. Which element is capable of forming stable, extended chains of
atoms through single, double, or triple bonds with itself?
A. Carbon C. Nitrogen
B. Oxygen D. Hydrogen
III. Structured Questions

Directions: Answer the following questions.
An atom of the element X has an electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3.
1. Would element X be a metal or a nonmetal? Explain your

answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. How many hydrogen atoms would combine with one atom of
an element X?
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. What type of bond is formed between hydrogen and element
X?
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. Suggest the chemical formula of the molecule formed
between hydrogen and element X.
____________________________________________________________________________________
IV. Free Response

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but completely.
1. The melting points of magnesium oxide (MgO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) are
2800C and 801C respectively. Explain why MgO has higher melting point
compared with NaCl.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Given the species SF4 and NH4+, which interaction will have greater electron-
electron repulsion? Explain your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES
_________________ (2007). Chemistry Conceptual Learning Level 0. Singapore: GLM Pte Ltd.
Chang, Raymond (2005). Chemistry 8th Edition. Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Deauna, Melecio C., et. al. (2003) The World of Chemistry Laboratory Manual.
Quezon City: SIBS Publishing House.
Mapa, Amelia P. and Trinidad B. Fidelino (1999). Science and Technology III: Chemistry.
Quezon City: SD Publications.
Mapa, Amelia P. and Trinidad B. Fidelino (1999). Science and Technology III: Chemistry
(Teachers Manual). Quezon City: SD Publications.
Mendoza, Estrella E. (2003) Chemistry. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Mendoza, Estrella E. (2003) Chemistry Laboratory Manual. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing
House, Inc.
Nueva Espaa, Rebecca C. and Joy A. Apostol (2008). Science and Technology III: Chemistry.
Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
Nueva Espaa, Rebecca C. and Joy A. Apostol (2004). Science and Technology III: Chemistry
(Teachers Guide). Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.
Padolina, Ma. Cristina D., et. al. (2006) Conceptual and Functional Chemistry Modular
Approach. Metro Manila: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Wilbraham, Antony C., et. al. (2000). Chemistry 5th Edition. Singapore: Pearson Education
(Asia) Pte Ltd.

The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding

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The Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding

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Unit III

The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table of Elements is a work of great scientists with unending

All rights reserved. Copyright 2008 by Allen A. Espinosa. 2

Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Chemical symbols are used by chemists to represent elements in a

Even early chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements for

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Table 3.3 Some elements and their corresponding symbols

Iodine I Copper Cu, cuprum

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Most of the elements in the periodic table could either consist of a

Chemical symbol is a shorthand abbreviation of the names of the known

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Element Symbol Element Symbol

Photo and content credits, lesson 1

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In 1869, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, and Dmitri Mendeleev, a

In 1951, an American chemist, Glenn Seaborg, discovered the

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Beguyer De Chancourtois John Newlands Lothar Meyer Dmitri Mendeleev

Clemens Winkler Henry Moseley Glenn Seaborg

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In the history of science, alchemy (from the Arabic al-khmiy' )

How about testing your knowledge on the historical development of

History refers to a recorded important fact about the past.

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Column A are list of contributions of scientists to the development of

1. Discovered transuranium elements A. Glenn Seaborg

Photo and content credits, lesson 2

Explore your Periodic Table of Elements! Complete the table below by

Element Group Period Classification

Elements in the Periodic Table are also classified into Representative

Elements belonging to the A families actually has incompletely filled s

Figure 3.3 (a) metals, (b) metalloids,

Graphic organizers are good aid in memorizing things. Figure 3.3

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Group or family refers to the vertical column arrangement of the

Complete the table below by supplying it with the missing information.

Element Group Period Classification

Photo and content credits, lesson 3

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Complete the table by supplying it with the atomic number, electron

Element Atomi Electron Configuration Valenc Group

Figure 3.4 The blocks in the Periodic Table

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The table below shows electron configuration of selected elements

Table 3.4 Electron configuration of selected elements of the representative

Potassium K 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 1

Notice that the atomic number of an element signifies its electron

Table 3.6 Electron configuration of selected elements of the transition

Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 3

As you would see, d-block elements have different way of identifying

Let us now examine some of the f-block elements. Cerium, which is an

Valence electron refers to the outer electrons.

Given the electron configuration of the element, identify the atomic

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Photo and content credits, lesson 4

Observe your Periodic Table carefully across a period and within a

From Top to Bottom From Left to Right

Figure 3.5 Atomic radius (r) of sodium (Na) and

The atomic radius can be identified by the strength of attraction of the