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IN
SOIL MECHANICS
AI{D
FOT]NDATION ENGINEERING
A'M'LE'(ndia);
[ForB.E.(Civil);M'E'(Civil);
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DEBASHIS MOITRA
Departmentof civil Engineerilq
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BengalEngineeringCollege DeemedUniversity
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OTHERUSEFT'LBOOKS

1. AdvanceTheoryofStuctures N.C. Sinha

2. Concrete Testing Manual MI. Gambhir
3. Fundamentalsof Limit Analysis of Structures
4. Modern method of Structural Analvsis
V.K. Manicka Selvam
V.K. Manicka Selvam
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Analvsis of Slabs V.K. Manicka Selvam Engineering. However, it will be helpful also to the diploma-level students,
6. Energy Methods in Structural Mechanics V.K. Maniclca Selvam A.M.I.E. students,and, in some cases,even to the post-graduatestudentsof
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
7. Analysis of Skucture in Earth Quake Region V.K. Manbka Selvam
A thorough understandingof the basic principles of a subject like Soil
8. Dock and Harbour Engineering S.P. Bindra Mechanics calls for lhe solution of a large number of numerical problems. In
9. Foundation Design Manual the presentbook a briefinfoduction to the contentsofeach chapterhas been
N.V.Nayak
given, which is followed by a number of worked-out examples and quite a
few practice problems. For a better understandingof the topics and students
are required to solve all the problems by themselves.Effort hasbeenmade to
explain the basic principles underlying the solution of the problems so tlat
FirstEdition1993 the students may develop the habit of having a logical insight into the
( numerical problems while solving them.
Reprint : 1998
Commentsand 5rrggestionsregardingthe book, from the studentsaswell
as the teachers,will be highly appreciated.
Price:Rs.60.00
Calcutta,
9, March 1993 DEBASHISMOITRA

Ptfulishedby Ish Kapur for Dhanpat Rai Publications (p) Ltd.

Prittted at : A.P. Of1.sc.t.
Navecn Shahdara.Delhi- | t(X)32.
 1
WEIGHT.VOLUME REI.ATIONSHIPS
CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction: Matter may exist in naturein threedifferent states,viz.,
solid, liquid and gaseous.A soil massin its naturalstatemay consistof all '
three phases.The basic ingredient is the solid grains which form the soil
Clwpter Page skeleton,while the intermittent void spacesare filled up by either air, or water,
or both. Thus, a soil massin its natural statemay be considereda three-phase
"{ Weight-VolumeRelationships 1 system.
,/, Index Propertiesand Soil Classification 24 1.2 Soil Mass as a Three-phase System : In a soil mass in its natural
,/. I Capillarity and Permeability . state,tle three phases,viz., solid, liquid andgas,are completely intermingled
. 49
'g..r' Seepageand Flow-nets 81
with one another. However, if one can determine the individual volumes of
solid grains, liquid (i.e., water) and gas (i.e., air) presentin a certain volume

lz, StessDistribution to7

/J
,. Consolidation 133
o Compaction 165
: -----Water- ----:
Nr Shcar Strength 181
'9J/ Earth Pressure 2r3
10. Stability of Slopes ?54
L1. Bearing Capacity ?33
12. Deep Foundations 310
Fis.1.1
ofa soil, the entire soil mass can be represelted by a schematicdiagram, as
shown in Fig. 1.1, where the volume of each constituent part is shown as a
fraction of the total volume. The cross-scctional area of the soil mass fo taken
to be unity, so ttat, the volume of each constituent part is numerically equal

I
to ib beight shown in the diagram. Again, the mass of each part may be
obtained by multiplying its volume by the corresponding density.
t
I
Thenotations used inthe diagram are defined below:
I

t V = total volume of the soil mass

I
'.

\
 Weight-Vofume s
RelationshiP
2 Problems in SoilMechonics and Fonndation Engineering
v ...(1.4)
% = volume of solid
particlegin the soil i.e., t=ixrWva
V, = volume of voids in the soii
dry soils) to 1007o(for fully
V- = vslspe of water presentin the voids The value of s may vary from oVo (for
saturatedsoils).
"---
V, = volurne of air presentin the voids is defined as the ratio of the
("tSp"t it'rc gravity of sotids(G".or G) : It
17 = total mass of the soil to the mass of an equal volume of
mass of a given lrotume of solicl grains
!7" = rnassofthe solid Particles water, measuredat the sametemperarure'
W- = mass of water presentin the voids'
The massof air presentin the voids is negligible' 1.c.,
G =Mny : -
Thus, Vu=V"+Vn grains
where, M" = massof anyvolurneVofsolid
V =V r+V,
and, M. = massof water of volume V'
then in the C'G'S' systen
0r, V=Vr+Vo+Vn If this volume V is arbitrarily taken as unity'
Lqu't to the dersity of solid grains (y') and
The fundamental physical properties which M" and M. become **..i".iry
1.3 Basic Defrnitions :
govern the engineeringperformanceofa soil are defined
below : density of water (1.) respectively' Thus'

(i)Voidratio(e):Thevoidratioofasoilisdefinedastheratioofvolurne massolunitvolunggllglids- Ts
O -
of voids to the volume of solids' massof unitvolumeof water Y-
vu ...(1.s)
"=v, ...(1.1) or' T"= G'Y'
i.e.,
as the ratio of the mass of
(vi) Mass spectftcgravity (G,,) : It is defined
volume of water' measuredat
Thevoidratioisadimensionlessparameter,thenumericalvalueofwhich a siven volume of soil to theLiti'of tn equal
decreases
-- with increasing degree of compactnessof the soil' the sametemPerafure.
aefineAas the ratio of the volume of voids to the
1i4 f-rsity (n): ttis M Y ...(1.6)
as a percentage'
total volume of the soil mass.It is generallyexpressed
I ;
i.e., M* \n

i.e., fu= + x rooe,o ...(r.2) " --'(vit\ Y= unitweightof thesoilmass'

where of,thetotal
Butka"nrityl, unit weight(v): It is ogrineo15n;-ratio
1' However' as lhe gm/ccor t^n- or KN/m '
The void ratio of a soil may be greateror less than ,o.,, of u soil to its totalr olume.Its unit is
a soi| mass,its porosity
volume ofvoids is alwayslessthalrthe totalvolume of w ...(1.7)
is always lessthan 100%. l.e.r, \=T
is defined as
(ili) Water content(w) : The water content of a soil mass as the massof soil solids per
tne ratlo of the rnassof *.i"t to the massof solids' It
is always expressedas (viii) Unit weiglt of solids(Yr):It is defined
a percentage. unit volume of solids.
w... w, ...(1.8)
i.e., ,/ *=frxlooVo "'(1'3) 1.e., Y " =%
,/ a soil mass is defiried as the
(s) : The degreeof saturation of a soil mass is (ix) Dry density (17) : The dry density of
4i{ O"gr"" of saturation
of voids. It is always volume of ttre soil mass
defin-eias tf,e ratio of volume'of water ro tbe volume massof soil solids per unit of the total
expressedas a Percntage'
4 Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering 5
Weight -Volume Relat ionslriPs

ws
i.e., \d=V ...(1.e) ...(1.11)
. " n =
L + e
The difference between 1" and y7 should be clearly understood.The dry Alternative prool: The samerelationshipsmay alsobe deduced
consider-
density of a fufly or partly saturatedsoil is nothing but its bulk density in the shown in Fig' 1'2 (a) and (b)'
ing the schematicdiagrarnof a soil massas
dry state.The dry density ofa soil dependson its degreeofcompactness, and
hence, on its.void ratio. But $e gnit weight of solids depends only on the
properties of iie minerals presentin it and is independentof the statein which
the soil exists.
(x) Saturated unit'weight (y.",) : When a soil mass is fully saturated,its
(1+e)
bulk density is tenrred as the saturatedunit weight of the soil.
(xi) Submergeddensity (y.u6): The submergeddensity of a soil massis
clefinecl as the subnerged weight of the soil per unit of its total volume.
1.4 Functional Relationships : In order to assessthe engineering
performanceandbehaviourofa soil, itis requiredto evaluatethefundamental (b)
(o)
properties enumeratedin fut' 1.3.While some of theseproperties (e'g', w, G,
y etc.) can be easily determinedfrom laboratorytests,someothers(e'g', q s, Fig.1.2
y" etc.) cannot be evaluated directly. However, all of these properties are
vv
interdependent.Hence, if mathematical relationships between two or mor
We know that,
such properties can be developedthen the direct determination of a few of ys

them will lead to the indirect detenninationof the others.Thus, the functional V r ,= e . V r .
relationships have an important role to play in Soil Mechanics.
The most important relationshipsare establishedbelow : Let us considera soil masshavingtrnitvolume of solids'

(i) Relation betweene and n : . ' .% = l , o t , V r = ' I = '

vu .'. Totalvolumeofthesoil, V = V, r V" = | 1 s
By definitnn, "= v" V u e
Now, " = i = 1 . "
But, = Vv + V " , o r , V "- V -Vr.

vu
"' e = v - v"= (v:W
vr/v
= v,/v
r-i
n
v . =r - " [ . =
+l Again, n = =
+, or vu n'v
=
Cqnsideringa soil masshavir:ga totalvolume V l,
- n'
V . .= l ' n = n , o r , % = V - V , = |
.'.e= ...(1.10)
L - n v, n
V, ...e=Vs
l - n
Again, by definition, n = T

= T ? ; t'"J
-,5 newion betweene, G, w ands :
vu vr/v, With referenceto Fig 1.1'
o r ' ng v J v " = e =
Wm= u, = w% ' t "
* *
Vn'\n
 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Weight -Vo htmeRelationshtps .f

G + e
G=!, Of, Y" = G'Y. of' Ysar= ...(1.14)
ln l-Jl'Yw
Vn'ln vn vJV, (v) Expression for y1 :
= =
vr.Gr" y" .G (vr/v,) ' c Ws %'y" V".G\n
By definition, tu V Vr+V, Vr,+V"
= VJV"
c = s ,9e
G/e G G.Vs,/Vv G/e
V"/V" (V, + V")/V, 'w | + l/e Iw

s.e = w.G G^tn

(iii) Relatian between y, G, s and e :
0f, \d = TTe ...(1.ls)
The bulk density ofa three-phasesoil systernis given by, Eqns.(1.14) and (1.15) may also be derivedfrom,eqn.(1.13) as follows :
Wn+W, Vn.\n + %.y" Forasaturatedsoils=1.
W
v = - = - = -
'
V Vr+V, Vr+V" (1.13) = .u
From
eqn. weBet,Tsar u = fi|
Vn.yn + V".Gyn Vn + G.V"
+#
= _ E _ t v
tw Foradrysoil,s=0
Vr+V" Vu+V"

Dividing fle numeratoranddenominator

by V, ,we get, (1.13)we get,fd =
From.eqn. = -GTn
l;"
#.r*
VJV, + G.V"/V, s + G/e
' Iw t\r (vi) Retation between y and y4 :
1+V"/V, l+l/e
W Wn+W"
_ (s.e + G)/e ., = G r s .., We know that, '
V = - v v
ttt'
(l+e)/e tw
l+e
G+se Wn+W"
ot, v' = - . v t | 9 ...(1.13) Olt Y = - - ...(i)
l + e Y
(iv) Expressionfor y.", : Again,
w" w"
l a = 1 |i , o r , V = j ,ld ...(ii)
W n + W " vn"(n + %'Y"
= W=
Bydefinition,ysar From (i) and (ii) we gel,
i ffi Vr+V,
For a safurat'edsoil, V,n= l/, wnr w'
=w'
Vy.y- r V"'G^ln V, + G.V" l I a
Tsar - -------i7- = --------------;=-'Y.
Wn+W, (. Wr\
,rlV, Vu+1, -
or, Y=
(V, + GV')/V, W " - ' t , = l t * W . " /l ' r o - ( l + w ) . y a
- -F;T-q4 \
tn v
or, Yd = ...(1.16)
T;-;
l+G.(I/el (G+e)/e G+e
4 . r , - . r t
-
tw r
(l+e\/e tw tw (vii) Relation between y*5 and y* :
t+l/e l+e
A soil is said to be submergedwhen it lies below the ground water table.
Such a soil is firlly saturated.Now, accordingto Archimcdes' principlc, when
8 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Weight-Volume Relationships 9

an object is submergedin a liquid, it undergoesan apparentreductionin mass, Solution: From theconsiderationof degreeof saturation,a soil sample
the amount of such reduction being equal to the rnassof the liquid displaced may be :
by the object.
(i) Completely dry (s = 0)
Consider a soil mass, having a volume V and mass I,Iz,which is fully
submerged in water.
-t (ii) firlly saturated(s = 1)

Volume of water displacedby the soil = V (iii) partially saturated(0 < s < 1)

Mass of displacedwater = V . \n Unless otherwisementionedin the problem, a soil sampleshould always

be taken to be partially saturated.
Apparentmassofthesoil, W' = W - V -,{n = V.ysat - V.,{n Methpd 12'Given ' lT,w, C I ==+Required
' t : [Ta,
' .s,A;l' l
= V(Y."r - Y-)
As e and z are mutually dependent on each other, effectively three
The apparentdensity or submergeddensity of the soil is given by, unknown parametershave to be determinedfrom the given data. Select the
appropriate equationswhich may servethis purpose.
W' V(Y."r - Y,r)
Ysub=V = V
The value of y7 can be determinedfrom :

or, Ysub=Ysat-Yw ...(r.r7) .,. - Y

' d - l + w

Here, y = unitweightof thesoil = 1.9gm/cc

Two differentmetlods :ru ""t"Toyedto solvethe numerical lr = water content = l2%o = 0.t2
problems in this chapter. They are :
Method I : Solution using mathematical relationships : \d = T#n= r'6e6gm/cc
This process is somewhat mechanical, one has to mernorise all the
equations deduced in fut. 1.4 and should select the appropriate equation/s In order to solve for the other two unknowns,viz., s and e; two equations
while solving a given problem. However, in most of the casesthis method are required. Evidently, the following equationswill serve the purpose :
can yield the desiredresult fairly quickly. vrG = st or re = (0.12)(2.65) = 0.318 ...(t
Method II : Solutionfrom first principles : G+se
Again, v' = _ . l n
In this method the solution is obtained using only the basic definitions l + e
with referenceto a three-phasediagram of the soil massunder consideration.
This method always allows the student to have an insight into the problem. or, r.n= f41l@)tr.ol
l * e
However, in some casesthe solution becomesa little complicated and more | . ) '
time-consuming than method I. or, l+e= 1.56,or,e=0.56
After going tlrough lhe worked out examples, quite a few of which The expressionof y7 may also be used.
r'llustratethe use of both of tlese methods,one should be able to realise as to G'tn
which method of solution suits better to a particular type of problem. It may '{a=
y-l s,
be pointed out that, the methods may also be used in conjunction with one
another. of' =(f?P,
1.6s6
Problem 1.1. A soil sample has a unit weight of 1.9 gm/cc and a water
content of l2%.If the specific gravity of solids be 2.65, determinethe dry OT, 1.696+1.696e=2.65
density, degree ofsaturation, void ratio and porosity ofthe soil.
or, "=ffi=o'56
 11
10 Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineermg Weight-Vol umeReIat ionshiPs

From (i), -. = 9 ! 1 9 = 0 . 5 6 8= 5 6 . 8 v o
0.56 Void ratio, "=2=ffi=os6
e 0.56 = n0.36= 36vo
" = Ti; = =36vo
, . ;s. Porosity, " =+ =ffi x roovo
Answer. Dry density = 1'696 gm/cc' void ratio = 0'56
Degree of saturation = 56'87o,Porosity = 36Vo Dry densitY, ,, =+ =#F = r'6nsm'/cc
Method II: volume of 300
Letusconsidera'specimenofthegivensoilinwhichthemassofsolid Problem It2-'F'nundisturbed specimenof soil has a
1'3' drying in oven at 105'C for 24 hours' its weight
grains = 1 gm. The tnree-phasediagrari of the soil is shown in Fig' "" tJ*.igh. +66got' After
wn wn reducedto-+sog*.oeterrninethevoidratio,porosity,degreeofsaturation
Now, w=-- ; = rrr,
r'n and water conteut. Assume G = 2'70'
w s l
Solution: Methodl:
0r, Wn = o.lZgm '1"'n't' t I
cir"n,fr wg5 cf+ Required
= l'I2gm ' " and the soil
Totalmassofthesample, W = Wo + W4 After drying itt oven,thewater presentln m' soti"ffitatts
W" I becomescomPletelYdrY.
rYr " = -W'
= - ,, =- 0" .' -3"7 7* c r
Volume of solids, c\"= (2f5)(l) Now, weight of the moist sample, W = 498 gln
T
fuid, weight of the dry sample, Wa = 456 gn'
wn
Volume of water, v' t ' = = o'12 - 0.12cc W-='W -Wa= 498 -456 = 42gm'
1 Weight ofwaterevaporated,
l*

v' =Yl! t- l'rz Watercontent,w - Y = 0'0921= 9'21%

Total volurne of soil, . 9 = 0.589cc wd +-
456
Vo=V-(%+V)=0.092cc G'r'u
.'. Volume of air,
Dry densitY, \d=T;e
=
.'. Volume of voids, V, = Vo t Vn = 0.12+ 0'fp.2 0'2l2cc
wa -456
vn o.r2 \d =
= r.szpm/cc
Degree of saturation, t= == r o o % 5o 6 . 6 7 o But v 300
fr ffix
G'tn
= L5z
l + e
\h or, 1.s2(r + e) = (2.7)(r)
(0.092cc1
or' L.S?z +1.52=2.7
Vw
(0'12ccl :--------
Woter-- : ----:
- -_:_-_-_-_-_-_-_- of, e -- 0.78
----_-
V VJ Void ratio= 0.78
( 0 . 5E 9 c c ) (1'12gml 0.78 = 0.438= 43'8vo
e =
Vs Again,porosity , -
TT; ,ft
(0.377rc)
From eqn. (1.12), t+G= st or, , = I9

F i g .1 . 3 .
,
LZ Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Weight-VolumeRelationships 13
A
(o.oe2r\
(2.7\ Problem !J. A saturatedsoil sample,weighing 178 gm, has a volume
Ort "=ff=0.319=3l.9flo of 96 cc. If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.67, determinethe void ratio,
water content and unit weight of the soil.
Method II : With referenceto the three-phasediagrarn shown in Fig' 1.4,
Solution: Given,W, VEe+ Required
:
Weight of water, wn=498-456=42gm
Unit weight of the soil,
w...
Volume of water, V-=--:==42cc y,",={ =y9 =1.854gm/cr
yw
v 9 6
Volume of solids, v' s - w " - w ' But, tu, = l]|.u
Y" Gln
AS6' 2'67-+ | x e\(1'o) =
= = 168'8e
cc 1'954
,?in r + e
)
Total volume, V=300cc 0r, 1.854+L,854e=2.67+e
' 0f' 0.85k = 0.816
Volume of voids, V'=V-V'
Vu = 3N - 168.89= 131.11cc Ot, e = 0.955
of'

vu 131.11
" = = = o'78 (0L0255)
," 16s, Again, * =-X - - 0.358= 35,.8vo
..u
vu 131.11= O . 4 3 7 = 4 3 | 7 V o t
,=T= Prcblery{. A ftrlly saturatedsoil samplehas d volume of 28 cc. The
3Of
sample was drled in oven and tle weight of the dry soil pat was found to be
Vn 42 48.86 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, saturateddensity and
s= = = o32= 327o
fi trfu dry densityof the soil mass.Given G =2,68.

Wo 42 . Solution: Given' F % e;l=+ Required

:
w= =9'2lc/o
W= ^5t=0'0921 A schematicrepresentationof the given soil is shown in Fig. 1,5.
Here, total volume V=?3cc

Volumeofdrysoil, % =
T#"c=18.23cn
{ 1 3 1 . 1c1
)c
Assuming that there was no changein void ratio during ovcn-drying,
volumeofwaterevaporated,Vn= V - % = QA - L8.23)cc 7,'9.77cc

w (4 9 8 g m l Void ratio,
v,
- v " v ,
Vn
l r = - = -
l'.'v"=vnT
Sotid Ws{ 4 5 6 9 m )
o11
= = o'536
ffi
Fig.r.4
t4 Problems in Soil Mechnnics and Foundation Engineering Weiglx -Volume Relatians hiPs 15

Weightofwater, Wn = V*'\* = (9.77)(1.0, Wt )Cs

'td=i=,"5 =1.7889n/cr
= 9.77 grn
wn g'77
Moisture eontent, |v=fi=ffi=0.2=20%b But. tu, = l]].t*
i rral weightof thesoil, 2.127 = q, t" ,
i
W = Wn + 17" = (9.77 + 48.86)gm = 58.63grn
or, 2.127+2.127e=G+e
density, t*, =
Saturated = = 2.09 gm/cE or, G=l.l27e+2.127 ...(i)
{ #
-
G'tn
V r
Again, I a=
Drydensity, ro =Y= # = r.745sm/cc l + e
G , 1
1.788 = - ----:-
r + e
or, G = 1.788e+ 1.788 ...(ii)
V v= 9 ' 7 7 c c h(a=9.779m
FromQ) and(ii) we get,
1.788e+ 1.788= L.127 e + 2.127
W= 5 S ' 6 3 9 m O.66te= 0.339
or,
Ws=4E.869m or, e = 0.51
Vs=18'23cc
From(i)we get,G = (1.27)(0.51)+ 2.127= 2-r
Now, l+G = s

oI' - = E = gr'}lu -*0.18e

= r8.evo
FiB.1.5
. Method II : A thlee-phasediagrarn of the given soil is shown in Fig' 1'6'
Problem l.rf,. An undisturbed sample of saturatedclay has a volume
of 16.5 cc and weighs 35.1 gm. On oven-drying,the weight of the sample Here, wet weight of the sample, W = 35-t gm
reduces to 29.5 gm. Determine the void ratio, moisture content, dry density Dry weight of the samPle, Wd = 29.5 gm
and the specificgravity of solids.
Weightofwater, Wn = W - Wa = (35"1 - 29'5)gm = 5.6gm
Solution : Method I:
tF,*l,d, c-l Volume of water Vn = V, = 5.6 cc
: Vn we+
Given Required
Weight of thesaturated
sample, W = 35.1gm Total volurne V = 16.5cc
Weightof thedry sample, Wa = 29.5gm V, = V - Vu = (16.5- 5.6)cc = 10'9cc
Volumeofsolids,

Wn - W - Wa = (35.1- 29.5\gm
.'. Weightofwalcrevaporated,
Void ratio, " = ? =# = o s l ,
= 5.6grn

Nou,, tu,={-i# -2.ryism/* Moisture content, * = V = # = o . r 8 e- r 8 . e %

 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering Weig ht -Vo lame Relat ionship s r7
was 0.54,dc&rminethc moisturccontent,dry density,bulk density,degree
Vy15
=. 5 c c of saturrtionrnd specificgrrvityof solids.
sotriior: GiveE
,W@+ ,F yr,r, ", c I
Required
Totalvolume V * 1&5cc
Totalweigh! W - 3629m
Dry wcfhl Wa - 3%gm

Fig. 1.6
Bulk density, t -V -# - Le6gm/cn
wd
Ws 29.5 Dry density, lo-i - 326 - I . 7 6 g m / c c
Dry density, \a = V = ,rj = l.19gm/cc 1g5
Weightof watercvaporated,Wn = W - W"
Unitweightof
solids, y" = =ffi = Z.7ogm,/v = (362 - 326)gm - 36gm
f
Specificgravity of solids, c = ='# = 2.70 Moisturecontent, w - f wn
r= 36 =llVo
*
326=0.11
/
Problen i!/ m. initial void ratio of an inorganicclay is foundto be Now, yd =
0.65,while the specificgravity of solidsis 2.68.Determinethe dry density *
andsaturateddensityof thesoil.AIsodetermineitsbulk densityandmoisture G'=l=,
content,if thesoil is 5A%saturated. 1 . 7 6- ,
1 + 0.54
Solution: Given' |TZJ + Required: 0f' G * (1.76)(1.54)= 2.71
I+G - S,
densityof thesoil,
Saturated lu, = f]f.U Again,

or, "-I9 -(o'll-)!?'7r) -0.55 =55c,o

= ('iltH]]) (t) = 2'o,gm/cc ,/
e 0.54
Probleqgf. A sample of silty clay has a void ratio of 0.8. The soil is
Dry density, to'=9o- = ff#i = L62sm/cc allowed to absorbwater and its saturateddensity was found to be 1.92gmlcc.
Determine the water content of the saturated sample.
Whenthesoil is 50%saturated,
its bulk density Solution : Method I:
G + se 2.68 + (0.5)(0.65)
- = 1'82gm/cc It is assumed &at the void ratio of the soil did not change due to
Y - ffi'Y- ffiff(l) absorption of water.
The saturateddensity is given by, I
Moisture contenl at SOVosaturation,
.te (0.5) (0.65) G + e
Ysat-
, w'e;W=0.12=127o [J'Yr
/
Problem \1 The volume and weight of a partially saturatedclay 9*trl _ r.v2
sampleare 185cc and362gmrespectively. After drying in an ovenat 105'C 1+u.o
for 24iho!rs,its weightreducedto 326gm.If thenaturalvcid ratioof thesoil or, G-(1.92r(1.8)-0.8 - 2.656
 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering
Weight -Vo lume Relat ionships

Now, using the relation ttG = s, we, gt,

| + w = 1q,
se (1) (0.8)
w=A=ffi=0-30 2.Ew
ort 4.32w=l+w
Required water contenl = 30Vo
or, w=0.30=3OVo
Method II : Fig. 1.7 shows the three-phasediagram of the given soil.
/ the problem assumingthe volume of solids to be unity.
Note : Try' to solvq
Let the weight rf solids be unity. kt lr be the moisture contellt of the
Problern L/. The bulk density and dry density of a partially saturated
saturatedsoil.
soil are 1.9{gm/cc and 1.80gm/cc respectively.The specific gravity of solids
W is 2.68. Determine the void ratio, moisture coirtent and degreeof saturation
Now, ru = ot, Wn = w'W" = w'l = w gm
#, of the soil.

Volnrne 0f waler, Vw = wcc Solution:

v
Now, void ratio e = 0.8 We have, t d -
l + w

*Y = o.t Here, ya = 1.80gm/cc, y = 1.95gm/cr

s
105
1.80 = ;L
0(, %-*=#=fr=r.x,.. l + w
Or' | + w = 1.95/1.80= L.0833
Total volume of the soil,
of' w = 0 . 0 8 3 3= 8 . 3 3 9 / o
V=Vs+Vn
G^t*
=1.?5w+w=2.?5wcc Again, we have, yd=
I + e

=q?9
1.80
of, r+e=ffi=r.cl
2'25wcc Ort e = 0.49
Now, vtG =se
1 2 5 v er r
r,,C = f(0.0833)
f (2.68)
O f , J = - -0.456=45.69o
"
/
Problem l$.The density of a partially saturatedsoil was found to be
Fig.1.7 1.88 gm/cc. If t[e moisture @ntent and void ratio of the soil be 24.8Voand
0.76 respectively, determine the specific gravity of solids, and the degrec of
Totalweightofthesoil,=
WW n + W d = (1 + w)gm
saturation.
. W l + w Solution:
ysar=f =
LZS*
G+se
But, yot = 1.92 gm/cc We have T= 1*.:'Y," ...(i)

rnd, ttfr = Se ...(ii)

 Weight-Volune Reht ionships
Problemsin SoilMeclunics ard Founfution Engineering

Substitutingfor se in eqn(i), we get 397.58gmof drysoilis obtained

from
##*
G+t*G
- -laz-'ln = 247.71 cc of moist soil
Y
Volume ofmoistsoil tobeused = 247.'ll cc.
G(l + w)
0r' Y ' 1-97-'rn Now, bulk density ,l = yd(1 + w)
= (1.605)(1+ 0.105)= I.773gm/w
1.88={fffirtl Totalweightofmoistsoilrequired= y x V
( 1 . S 8 )( 1 . 7 6 ) = (1.773)(247.71)
gm = 439.19gm
ol' .t -_W - 2 . 6 5 - , ;
(ii) Weight of water presentin this soil
/
Problcn 1.{( A given soil masshasa moishrre contcnt of 10.SVoand = (439.19- 397.58)sn = 41.6tgm
a void ratio of 0.67. Thc specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. It is required Weight of water finally required - 59.64 gm
to conslruct three cylindrical test specimens of diameter 3.75 cm and height
.'. Weight of water to be added = (59.64 - a1.61)gm
7.5 cm from this soil mass.Each specimenshould have a moisrure content of
l57o and a dry dcnsity of 1.6 gm/cc. Determine : = 19.03gm
(i) the quantity of the given soil to be uscd for this purpose Volume of water to be added = 18.03 cc
(ii) quantity of water to be mixed with iL Ans : 439.19gm of given soil is to be taken and 18.03 cc of water is
Solution : (i) Volume of each specimen - olh to be added to it.

=_f.#:rf (7.s)cc
E)(ERCISEI
f
Total volume of three specimens,V - (3) (82.83) = 248.49 cc J.l. A soil sample has a porosity of.35Vo.Thesoil is 7SVosafiiratedand
the specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine its void ratio, dry density,
Weightofdry soilrequired, Wa = V x ld bulk dercity and moisture content.
"-*"]
[ [Ans : e = 0.54,ld - L.74gm/cc,l = 2.0 gm,/cc,w -'l57ol
= (248.4e)(1.6) 1.2. The mass specific gravity of a soil is 1.95, while the specific
= 397.588ln gravity of soil solids is 2.7. If the moisture content of the soil be 22To,
determine the following :
Moisturecontentof finishedspecimens, w a lSVo
(i) Void ratio (ii) porosity {iii) degreeof saturarion(iv) dry density (v)
w saturateddensity.
But, 6r=], or, Wn-w ,Wd
wd , [Aor : (i) 0.69 (ii) 4leb (iii) f]6% (iv) r.597 gmlcc (v) 2.00 gm/w I
Weight of water in the specimens,W. = (0.15) (397.58) Vl. The saturatedand dry densitiesof a soil are 1.93 gm/cc and 1.47
gm/cc respectively. Determine the porosity and the specific gravity of the
- 59'64 8m solidSris. [Ans : n = 45.9Vo,G=z^721
Now, dry density of the given soil mass, l\9, A partially saturatedsoil samplehas a natural moisture content of )
Grn (2.68) (1) l7%band a bulk density of 2.05 gro/cn.If the specific gravity of soil solids be
ta = 1fi = = I1'605
sft/cn 2.66, detennine the void ratio, degreeofsaturationand dry density ofthe soil.
ffi#
What will be the bulk densiw of the soil if it is :
i.e., 1.605 grn of dry soil is obtained from 1 cc of moist soil (i) Fully saturated

,t
A
 Problemsin SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering Weight -Volume Rela t ion slips 23

(ii) 6O%saturated? 1.12. In problem 1.11,what will be thewater contentand bulk density
[Ans : Part | 1s = O.52,s = 8'77o,\ a = 1.75 gm/@Part2 : (i) 2.09 gmlcc of the soil if, without undergoingany change in the void ratio, the soil
(ii) 1'9s gm/cc l becornes:
/
/ (i) Fully saturated
l"/. An undisturbedsoil samplehas a volume of 50 cc and weighs 96'5
gm. On oven-drying, the weight reduces to 83.2 gm' Determine the water (ii)807o saturated [Ans : (i) 2270;2.04gm/cc,(ii) 17.7Vo,L97gnlccl
content, void ratio and degreeof saturationof the soil. Given, G = 2.65' 1.13. A 4 m high embankrnent, with a top width of 5 m and side slopes
=72%7
[Ans:w =l6Vo'e =O'59,s of 1 : 1, has to be constructedby compactingsoil froln a nearbybqrrow pit.
I
Lfr. The bulk density and dry density of a soil are 1.95 gm/cc and 1.58 The unit weight and naturalmoisturecontentof the soil are 1.8 tlmr ancl8%,
gtn/&'..spectively. Assuming G" = 2'68, determine the porosity, water respectively.Detenninethevolume of earthto be excavatedfrorn the borrow
content and degreeof saturation of the soil. pit and the quantity of water to be added to it tbr every krn of finished
=89.2o/ol
[Ans: n =4l7o,w =23Vo,s embankment, if the required dry density and moisture content of the
1.7. A cylindrical sampleof saturatedclay,7.6 cm high and 3'8 cm in etnbarrkrnent soil be 1.82grn/cc and l87a respeclively. Given, G = 2.j0.
diameter,weighs 149.6gm. The samplewas dried in an oven at 105"C for 24 [Ans : Vol. of excuvation= 39304m3 ; Vol. of water = 6552 m3]
hours, and its weight reduced by 16.9 gm. Determine the dry delsity, void
ratio, moisture content and specific gravity of solids.
= = =
[Ans : 1a = 1.54 gml cc, e 0.74, w 12.7Vo,G 7'68]
1.8. Thc moisture contelt a-ndbulk density of a partially saturatedsilt
'
sample werc l87o and 19.6 ttft respectively. The sample was kept in an
oven at 105' C for 15 minutes, resulting in a partial evaporatiou of the pore
water. The bulk density of the sample reducedto 18.3 kN/m'. Assuming the
void ratio to rernain unchanged, determine the final water content of the
sample. what would have been its bulk density if the sample was kept in the
oven for 24hours ? [Ans : 107o,16.6 kN/m3]
1.9. An embankment was constructedwith a clayey soil at a moisture
content of 127o.Just after construction, the degree of saturation of the soil
was found tobe 55To,The soil absorbedwater during the monsoon and its
degreeof saturationincreasedto9O7a Determine the water content of the soil
at this stage. What will be the degree of saturation if the moisture content
reducestoSVo mthe dry season? Given, G =2.68. lAns:19.67o,27'9%ol
1.10. The natural moisture content of a soil massis 117o,while its void I
ratio is 0.63. Assuming thc void ratio to remain unchanged, determine the
quantity ofwater to be addedto 1 m' of this soil in order to double its moisture
ContenL Given, specificgravity of solids =2.72. [Ans : 183.3 kg]
1.11. The in-situ density of a soil mass is to be determined by the

I,
cote-cutter method. The height and diameter of the core are 13 cm and 10 cm
respectively. The core, wien full of soil, weighs 3155 gm, while the
self-weight of the empty core is 150 gm. The natural moisture content and
the specific gravity of solids are IZlp and 2.66 respectively. Detennine the
bulk density, dry density and void ratio ofthe soil.
=
[Ans : y= 1.87 gmlcc,ya = 1.67gm/cc, e 0.591

,4t)
 Index Properties and Soil Classificatian 25

Wr = empty weight of PYcnometer.

2 Now, weight of soil solids = Wz -Wt
INDEX PROPERTIES,ANDSOIL
CI.ASSIFICATION
2.1 Introduction: Various physical and engineeringpropertieswitb the
help of which a soil can be properly identified and classifiedare called the
index properties.Such propertiescan be broadly divided into the following
two categories:
(a) Soi/ grain properties: These are the properties pertaining to
individual solidgrainsandremainunaffectedbythe stateinwhich a particular
soil exists in nature. The most important soil grain properties are the specific
gravity and the particle size distribution.
(b) SoiI aggregate propertis: These properties control the behaviour
of the soil in actual field. The most important aggragateproperties are:
(i) for cohesionlesssoils: the relative density
(ii) for cohesivesoils: the consistency,which dependson the moisfure
content and which can be measured by either tie Atterberg limits or tht:
unconfined compressivestrength.
Wz = weight of pycnometerand dry soil'
% = weight of pycnometer,soil and water'
I4/c= weight of pycnometer filled with water.
and, weight of an equal volume of water = (Wa - W) - (Ws * Wz)
Wc-Wt-W3+W2
G = ...(2.r)
wz-wr
2.3 Particle Size Distribution: This is determinedin the laboratory by the
rnechanicalanalysis,which consistsot
(a) Dry mechanical analysis or sieve analysis: In this method the
sample is sieved through a set of sievesof gradually diminishing opening
sizes. The percent finer correspondingto each sieve size is determined and
thc resulls are plotted on a semilog graph paper to obtain the particle size
distribution curye. However, tlis method is applicable only to lhe coarser
fractionsofsoils and not to the silt and clay frictions as sieveshaving open
sizesless than 0.075 mm are practicallyimpossibleto manufacture.
(b) Wet mechanical analysisor lrydrometer analysis:- The percentage
of tiner tiactions (i.e.,silt and clay) in a soil canbe analysedindirectly using
a hydrometer.The rnethod is basedon Stokes' law which statesthat the
terminal velocity of a falling spherein a liquid is given by
, = t"irut' ,t ...(2.2)

2.2 Specific Gravity: The specificgravity of a soil can be detcrtninedby
a pycnomter(i.e., a specificgravity bottle of 500 ml capacity).Fig. 2.1 givcs
a schematic representationof the process.Irt,
nl,l
where, y" andy- arethe unit weightsof the sphereandtheliquid respectively
D = diameterof the sphere
p = absoluleviscosity of the liquid
Fig. 2.2 shows the sketch of a hydrorneter. After irnrnersing the
hydrorneterin the rneasuringcylinder containingthe soil-watersuspension;
I
readingsaretakenat ;, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,30, 60, 120,and 1440minutes.Lrt 11
a

bc thereadingofhydrometerat time r. The particlesizeand thecorresponding

value of percentfiner are obtainedfrom the foilowing equations:

WT YIZ W3 Wt
D =\@. ...(2.3)

( EmptY
Bot) (
lBot.*DrySoit) B o t . * S o i l + W q i e r )
{ Bot + Woter)
liig ) |

(A
26 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 27

Y s V analysis, then the percent finer, N , of the particle size D rrun, with respect
and, /v= (r1 + C^ - rn) x IA}a/o ...(2.4)
*-'' W"'y- to the total quantity of sarnple,is given by'
where, D = particlesize in mm w. ...(2.7)
.|y'' = N "
= unit weiglrt of soil solids = G" . y_ w
Is

V
tu,
= unit weight of distilled water at the room temperature

t = time interval in sec

995 -T
r1 = reading of hydrometer in suspensionat time t 1000 I
p = viscosity of water al room temperaturein gm-sec,/cm2
10 0 5 I
L
Z, = distancefrom the surfaceofsuspensionto the centreofgravity W . LL. e v e l -
Immersion
of hydrometer bulb at time /, which can be determined from :
r(, ya\ I n i i i a tW . L l
Z,=Hr+;lh-;l * ...(2.s)
^ /
where, V1 = volume
or lyoroor.t.'),n
." j l+l lz r
A = areaof cross-sectionof measuringcylinder in cm2
Hr = distancebetweenthe surfaceofsuspensionand the neck of t
t l
l, -L
'i
bulb, in cm -T
V h /2A
lr = length of the bulb in crn I
I
The distance fl rnay be rneasuredby a scale. However, a better
proposition is to determine.F/1
from the following e.quation:
(ra+I)-11
Hr= x L ...(2.6)
r4
Fig.2.2
where, r,t = differencebetweenthe maximum and minimum calibration
markson lhe stemof hydrometer 2.3.1 Particte sizeDistribution curv& Fig. 2.3 showstypical particle size
= lengtb of calibration( - length of stem) distribution curyesfor varioustypesof soils.CurvesA, B and C represeuta
L
uniform soil, a well gradedsoil and a gap gradedsoil respectively'
In eqn.(2.4),
With referenceto the particlesize distributioncurve of a given soil, the
f{ = percent finer.
following two factorsare helpful tbr defining tbe gradatiottof the soil:
V = Volume of suspensionin'cc (i) Uniformity Co-efficient:
I7, = weight of dry soil takenin gm
.^u D
= g ...(2.8)
r- = readingof hydrometerin distilledwaler at roorn temperature Dto
Cm = Ireniscus correction (ii) Co-efficientof Curvature:
If t{2,be the weight of dry soil passing through the 75 p sieve during (Dro)2
sieve analysis,which is subsequentlyused for bydrometeranalysis,and if "=Dto"Doo ...(2.e)
I{2,be the total weight of sample taken for combined dry and wet mechanical
28 Problemsin Soil Mechnni.csand FoundatianEngineering
IndexPropertiesand SoilClassificatian 29
100
90 Yd = in-situ dry densitYof the soil.
A On thebasisof thc relative density,coarse-grrinedsoils areclassifiedasloose,
80
t
70 I medium or denseas follows:
I

60 I
If OsRes tn" soitis loose
E f ,
50 1!'
z
u- is mcdium
f . n p . J, o" *il
aul
(s) 30 s
20
(r t0
t . n o 1' , thesoilis dense.
J 0 2.5. Aficrbcrg Limits: If the water content of a thick soil-water mixture
o.oot0.002o.oo5o.0l 0.02 0.0s0'l 02 05 o'El r0 is gradually reduced,the mixture passesfrom a liquid stateto a plastic state,
then to a semi-solid state and finally to a solid state. The water contents
E I Z E( m m ) - - *
P A R T I I LS corresponding to the transition from onestate to another are called Attefterg
F8,2.3 limits or consistency limits. These limits are determined by arbitrary but
sbndardised tests.
where, Dfi, Dpand D6grepresenttheparticlesizesin mm,corresponding
to l0%o,307o and 6O7ofrnet respectively' In order to classify fine-grained soils on the basis of their consistency
When Cu 15, the soil is uniform limits, the following indices are used:
(D PlasticitYIndex, Io = w1 - wo ...(2.12)
Cu = 5 to 15, the soil is medium graded.
Cu > 15, the soil is well graded. wn-wP wr-wP
, ...(2.13)
Index, t i = T
'
Again, for a well gradedsoil, the value of C" should lie between I' and d\ptiditY Ip wl-wp

3. Wl-Wn |9l-Wn
2.4. Relative l)ensity: It is a measureof the degree of compactnessof a Index, I"
(iiD Consistency ...(2.14)
Ip wI-wp
cobesionlesssoil in the state in which it exists in the field. It is defined as,
whete, w1 t wO and ltz stand for the liquid limit, plastic limit end the
"t*
o - e
na0ral water content of the soil.
R., = ...(2.10)
max - min
(iv) Flow Index (I): It is defincd as the slopeof the w vs. loglg JVcurve
where, emax = void ratio of the soil in its loosest slate obtained from the liquid limit test.
min = void ratio at the denseststate wl -r=w7=
i.e., 'II, - , ...(215)
e = natural void ratio in the field. lqls N2/N1

The relative density of a soil may also be determined from: wbere, N1 and N2 are the number of blows corresponding to the water
contents w1 and ul.
Ydmax Ya - Yddn
n^ o = - Ydmin
..(2.rr)
u Ydmax
,r -
(v) Toughnessindex, ...(2.16)
where, Ydmax = maximum dry density of the soil ?
Ydmin = minimum dry density of the soil -
(vi)ActivityNumber,, ...(2.17)
ffi
Soils can be classified accordingto various indices, as follows:
30 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 31

In order to detennine the shrinkagelirnit, a sampleof soil having a high

rnoisture content is filled up in a mould of known volume. The mould
a) Clqssification according to tle plasticity index:
containingthe sampleis then kept in the oven at 105'C for 24 hours.After
Plasticin Index Degreeof Plasticity Typeof Soil taking it out from the oven, the weight of the dry soil pat is taken and its
volume is rneasuredby the mercurydisplacementmethod.
0 Nou - plastic Sand Fig.2.a@)an<[2.4(c)representthe schematicdiagramsof the initial and
final statesof the samplewhile Fig. 2.4(b)representsthat conespondingto
<7 Inw plastic silr

I
7-17 Medium plastic Silty clay or
clayey silt

>17 Highly plastic Clay

(b) Classilication according to tlrc liquidity index: A soil for which
the liquidit
Vo
i-solid or solid state.

l_
The soil is very stiff if { = 0 (i.e., w, = wp) and very soft if .I1= I (i.e. wn =
w) Soils having I1> | arein the liquid state.For most soils, bowever,I lies
between 0 and 1. Accordingly, the soils are classified as follows:

I1 Consistency o) Iniiiot Slste b} Af S,L c) Drystste

0.0 - 0.25 stiff Fig.2.4
the shrinkage limit. With referenceto thesefigures, the shrinkage limit can
0.25- 0.50 Medium to soft
be determinedby the following two methods:
0.50- 0.75 Soft Method I: Wrcn G is unbwwn :
LetVs andV1be the initial and final volumes of the sample and Wg andW6
0.75- 1.00 Very soft
be its corresponding weights. By definition, the volume of the soil at
(") Clottrft"ofion orrordiog ,, The activity shrinkagelimit is equal to its final volume. I*tWnbe the weight of water at
nurnber of a soil representsthe tendency of a soil to swell or shrink due to this stage.The shrinkagelimit is then given by,
absorption or evaporationof water. The classification is as follows: wn
!. -u s = -

Activity Number Wd
Typeof Soil
At the initial stage, weight of water = Wo -Wa,
< 0.75 Inactive
Weight of water evaporatedupto shrinkagelimit = (Vg - V)yn
0.75- r.25 Normal
W*=(Wo-Wi-(Vo-Viy*
> 7.25 Active - Wi - (Vo- V) t*
*^" _(Wo w d ...(2.18)
2.5.1 Determimtion of Shrinktge Limit: The shrinkage limit of a soil is
defined as the water content below which a reduction in the water content Method II: WhenG is lotown:
does not result in a decreasein the total volume of the soil. This is the
Let % = volume of solids
minimum water content at which a soil can still be saturated.
 Problcms k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering hdex Properties ond Soil Classification

V,-+ -
wd
c4*
A

But, w n - ( v a - % ) r - (n' - b*)'" EO o

- Vd.ln -
wd \uu 10
o

o^^*
G
o< 40 o e
Va'ln - wd/G v1'
l?s .\" 50 so
lYa
ws - VTa ' l n 1
G
...(z.re)
l w 1
ws- ...(2.20)
olt
t-e
2.5. Cbsslficetlot Bercd on Prrticlc Sizc : Soilsrrc classifiedas clay,
silt sandend gnvcl on thc brsis of tteir particlc sizes.IS:1498 - 1970
recommendstbc following clessification: "/" OF S I L T

Soil Type Particle sbe (mm)

/
Clay < 0.002 Fig.2.s

silt 0.002ro 0.075 the soil is then detenninedaccordingto the narneof the segrnentin which the
inleisectionpoint lies.
Sand:
2.?. Plasticity chart: This chart is usetul for identifying and classifying
(i) Fine sand 0.075 ta 0.425
fine-grained soils. In this chart the ordinateand abscissarepresentthe values
(ii) Mediumsand 0.425 to 2.0
t-rfplasticity index and liquid li[rit respectively.A straightline called A-line,
(iii) Coanesand 2.0 tCI 4.75
representedby the equation I p= a'73 (wr- 20), is drawn and the areaunder
Gravel 4.75 ro 80 the chart is divided into a number of segmen8. ou the chart any fine-grained
soil can be representedby a single point if its consistencylimits are known.
2.6,1. Tcfrtral Cbssiftution Systamz Any soil, in its natural state, The segrnentin which this point lies determinesthe name of the soil.
consistsofparticlcs ofverious sizes.Onthebasis ofthe percentagesofparticle
sizes, and following ccrtain definite principles, broad classification bf such Fig.2.6shows a plasticitychart.The meaningof thesymbolsusedinthe
mixed soil is possiblc. chart are as follows:

Fig. 25 shows thc triangular classification chart of the Mississippi River M Silty soils.
Comrnission, USA" It essentiallyconsistsof an equilareraltriangle ABC. The C Clayey soils.
percentagesof sand,silt and clay (ranging from0%ota L0O7o)ate plotted along o Organic soils.
the sides AB, BC and CA respectively. The area of the tiangle is divided into L l,ow plasticity
a number of segments and each segment is given a name. In order to find out T h{edium or intermediateplasticity
the group to which a given soil belongs, three lines are required to be drawn H High plasticity
from the appropriate points on tbe three sides along the directions shown by Main groups of fine-grained soils are
the arrnws. These thrcc lines intcrscct at a single point. The nomenclatureof ML, MI, MH - Silty soils

G
34 Problems in Soil Mecfuinics and Foundation Engineering
Indet Properties and Soil Clossiftcation 35

I.S, Sieue Diameter Weight % Cumu- Vo

of Grains Retained R.etaincd lative To Finer
(mm) Gm) Retained
50
:; a.75mT 4.75 9.36 1.87 1.87 98.13
o\

- 4 0 2.40mm 2.& 53.75 10.75 12.62 87.38

OJ

C 1.20mm t.2n 78.10 t5.62 28.24 71.76 t

- 3 0
>. 29
--+-I
!: 500 p 0.600 83.22 \6.64 44.88 55.r2
M H /O H 425tt 0.425 85.79 t7.16 62.04 37.96
ii
I
ro 300p 0.300 76.82 15.36 77.4) 22.60
7
I 150p 0.150 6't.02 13.40 90.80 9.20
0
30 40 50 54 60 70 75w 0.075 33.88 6.78 97.58 2.42
Liquid Limlt ("hl * The particle size distribution curve is shown in Fig.2.7.
Fig.2.6 (ii) The required percentagesobtained from the curve are as follows:
CL, CI, CH * Clayey soils Gravel: - 1.97o
1.8770
OL, OI, OH - Organ-icsoils.
Coarsesand: 98.lVo -927o = 6.lVo
Mediurn sand: 92Vo-38/o = 549'o
EXAMPLES Fine sand : -2.4%o
38%b = 35.60/o
/
Piroblem*l. The results of a sieve analysis performed on a dry soil SiIt: 2.42%;2.4%
sample weighing 500 gm are given below: Fi n e Mediumj [oqr
Sond
t00
90
to
70

(i) Plot the particlq size distribution curve of the soil'

,osf% L
l e t
(ii) Find out the percentageof gravel, coarsesand, medium sand, fine sol .E
I u -
sand and silt presentin the soil,
(iii) Determine the uniformity co-efticient and the co-efficient of
rg_f s
3 o l r
curvature. Hence comment on the type of soil.
Solution: (i) The computationsnecessaryfor plotting the particle size
torl'r* t
distribution curve are shown below:
lo-{,*r.
0.010,020.040.060.t0e 04 0.6 | 2 s ro-T
P q r t i r l e S i z e( m m l +
Fig.2.7
 Index Properties and Soil Classificatian
36 Problems in SoilMeclutnics and Fortntlation Engineering

in a sieveanalysis'
Problem 2,/. 500 grn of dry soil samplewas used
''as collcctcd i' the steel
178.;;;;;;i#i1 p.ssed firough tie T5 p sieve.and
*u,-ttktn and a 1 litre suspension was rnadeby
fun, ouTof which 50 grn measuring cylirrder
agent-to it in a
^OOiogdistilled water and dispersing
'il" uoiuoit of the hydrometcr was 50 cc' the
navinl a diam,eler-of'6-15-crn' i/L
e'Jll,:Thc
of calibrarion^9L+.*:i" ()r, D -- 0'09e1 Y ; ...(i)
fi;d?;iilt, is.s.t atrdthelength
-steln
rni'iururn a*d rnaximurn rnarksiii-ft s wc ri 090 a*d l 040 icspectivel y'
Usingeqn.(2.5),
Ahvdrorueter{estwasthenperforrnedattberoomlenperaturtlof25"Cand
r(. Yr \
the tbllowirrg readittgswere recorded: Z,=Ht+ -
t\" o)
Elcused time (min) I I
2 4 8 l5 30 60
;L = =
f,rs'tsl' 2elo6cnz
I

Hcre,

Hydrometer reading tB24 1023 1t)201 A l 7 101310i{i ic06 1 C 8 i

Z, = Ht + - so/zs.7o6)
containing the
lot.t
Whrrn the hydrometerwas immerse<lin distiiled *'atcr
prt:serrtin tilt: susptnsiorr, thereading or, Z,=Ht+6'908 ...(ii)
sanrequarrtityof dispersing age-ntas thal
ggg.5. lt-?s;C,the unitweight of *'ater is$.99' /l grn/ccand
*as found tobe Using eqn.(2.6),
solids 2'67 'The
is
i1svfs6:osit!is 8.95 millipoises.The specificgravity of soil
meniscus correclion rnay be taken as 0'5' H1 _ ( r a + 1 ) - r r ,L
to each r4
Find out the diameter of particles settied corresponding
ck fir{letv:+ltrcs. Negiccl volumetrir':
hydroincter reading and the respcctive Here, r a = t ' 0 4 0 - 0 ' 9 9 = 0'05,
expansiondue to temperaturcchange'
L = 9.7 crn,
Solijtion: The terrrperaturot:orrectioll al-lrjil:r: *isittlrsiriii agent
neecl-notbe applicd here' f 1 + 0 ' 0 5 -r1
correction
' t/o using eqn' H . ' = \l (e'7)= 194(1.05- rt) ...(iii)
. The diameier ald ccnesponding tiner rnay be <ieiermined 0.05
as repetitive calculations are int'olve'd' it will
12.:; tnrougn (2.?). Howevei, Agairr, o/ofiner on 50 grn of soil
forms by sul-)stituting
t" uarrunt"!"ous to reducetheseequationsto simplified
the values of the factors wbich rernain col$tant " =,,k + c . - r - )x l o o
Using eqn. (2.3) ir,lc(rt
2.61 + 0'0005- 0'eee5)
x0'ee71(r1 x 100
o = V t s o o P" { z : or, ly' = "
2'67 - 0.9971 +f
Y"-Y* t
" ()r, N = ? , 1 8 2 ' 8 ( 1 1- 0 . 9 9 9 ) ...(iu)
x i0'-"'
8.95' --- -- .j
p = 8.95 rnillipoises= ---- llili- :ir'-/ ctn
Here Vofiner on 500 gm of soil takeninitially

* i,i}ti 'r l{}-1i i;l:-i-.s'r:r:ict{!2 N'=N.#=0.3s77N ...(v)

^!s=2'67gitt/cc''
As G =7.67, Eqn. (i) through (v) rnay now be usedfor the computations'The results
A.1 ?-5"f, 1o = 0,9971En/cc, are tatrulatedbelow.

/ .. ,-2.
38 Problems in Soil Mech.anics and Fottndation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification 39

Time Hydro- I{r = Zr= p = ff=' Total weigbt of unit volume of suspension
1y'=
metef 195x H t + t- 3182.8 0.3s77 W = W" t W- = 0.0599+ 0.9778= 1.0377grn'
reoding (1.0s- 6.908 L
0.0ss1v x(yr- xlV Density of the suspension= 1.0377gm/cc o 1.038gm/cc.
n ri I 0.eee)
Therefore,readingof the bydrometer= 1038"
(sec) (cm) (cm) (mm) (%) g")
Problem W Asample of dry soil (G, = 2.68) weighing 125 gm is
30 r.024 5.O4 r1.952 0.0625 79.57 ?3.6 unitbrrnly disp6rsedin water to tbnn a L litre suspeusionat a temperatureof
28"C.
60 r.023 5.238 tz.16 0.oM 76.39 27.32
(!)&etermi[e the unit weigbt of the suspensionirnrnediatelyatler its
120 r.020 5.820 12.728 o.0323 66.84 23:9L prcparation.
24 L.Ol7 6.402 13,310 0.0233 57.29 20.49 (ii)!*cc of the suspeusionwas retnovedfrorn a depthof 20 cm beneath
tbe t6-psurfaceafterthe suspension was allowedto settle for 2.5 min. The dry
480 1.013 7.\78 14.086 0.1697 44.56 t5.94
wt:ight of the sample in the suspensiondrawn was found to be 0.398 gm.
900 1.010 7.1ffi 14.668 0.0126 35.01 t2.52 Determinea singlepoint on the particlesizedistributioncuryecorresponding
1800 1.006 8.536 t5.444 0.0092 22.28 7.97 to tbis observatiott. Giveu,at 28"C,viscosityof water= 8'36 millipoisesand
unit weightof water = 0.9963gmkc
3600 1.001 9.506 16.4L4 0.0067 6.37 2.28
/ Solution: (i) Volume of solidsin the suspenrion= = 46.64 cc.
Problem 2./. Distilledwaterwasaddedto 60 gm of dry soil to prepare #
I suspensionYf t litre. What will be the readingof a hydrometerin the Consideringunit weight of suspensiotl,
susperuionat t = 0 sec,if the hydrometercould be immersedat that tirne?
Assume,densityof water= | gmlccandspecificgravity of solids=2.70. Volunreof solids present = ffi=o.o466cc
Solution: At t = 0 sec,the solid grainshavenot startedto settle.The = 1 - 0'0466 = 0'9534 cc
havingconstantdensityat any point Volumc of water presenl
suspension, tberefore,is homogeneous,
in it. Weight of 0.466 cc of solids = (O.04ffi)(2,68) = 0.1249 gm
As G = 2.7o,\" = 2.70Emlcc. Weight of 0.9534cc of water at 28oC= (0.9534)(0.9963)= 0.9499gm'

Total volumesf solidsin the suspension weight

rotar ":T.I;'fiffi
=1.0248
sm.
= 22'22cc'
#= Theretbre,unit weight of suspension = 1..0748
grn/cc.

.'. Volumeof solidsin unit volumeof suspension, (ii) We have, frotn Stokes' law,

,, = ffi=0.0222cc. " =t'i*J".d

Volume of waterin unit volumeof suspension, 18p x G
ol' p =
Vn = |' O'O222 = O'9778cc'
Y"-T.
Wightof solidsin unit volumeof suspension,
Let D be the diameter of the particles settled to a depth of 20 cm at r =
W" = (0.O222)(2m) = 0.0599gm. 2.5 min. with a uniform velocitY v.
Weight of water in unit volume of suspension, = o.133cmlsec
, = 1=
W*= (A.W78)(1) = 0.9778gm' ,r#*
 Index Properties and Soil Classificotion 41.
40 Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering

8.36 x L0'3 = 55
F = 8.36 millipoises = 8,522 x 10-6 gm-sec-,/c-m2
981
= \
Ys = 2'68 gfit/c'.c, y,,, 0.9963 gm,/cc ^ 5 0
o\

(18)(8.522x 10-6) x fi133 crn E 4 s \tlU=Ir3"h I

D =
2.68 - 0.9963
o
L, \ {
= 3.48 x 10-3 crn = 0.035 mm L l O I
.J t
= +
Agaiu, at tirne t = 0, weight of solids present in 1 cc of suspension CJ
= \
0.1249 gm. 35
Weight of solids presentin l0 cc of suspension= l'249 gn' \
=
At time t = 2.5 min., weight of solids presentin 10 cc of suspension 30
/'o 50 60
lo zo 25 30
0.398 gm
0.398 No.of Blows --r'
7, Irner = x 100= 31.86%' Fig'2'8
LZ4g
Hence the co-ordinates of the requiredpoint on the particle size As the plasticrityindex is greater than17Vo,the soil is higltly plaslic itt
distribution curye are: nafure.
D = 0.035mm As the toughness indexis lessthan1, the soil is friableat liquid lirnit'
Protrlem 2S--Y^brr^tory testson a soil sarnpleyielded the followittg
results:
Liquid linit = 547o
Plasticlimit =25%

Natural moisturecoutent = 29o/t,

Water content (7o) | 32'l
o/ofiner than 0.002 rnm = l8o/t,
(a) Determine the lkluid limit of the soilt- (a) Determine the liquidity index of the soil aild courntenton its
soil be 23To,find out the Plasticity index,
iUj ff 1tr" plastic limit ot the consistency.
flow'index anJ toughnessindex. Hence comment on the nature of the soil.
(b) Find out the activity nurnberand comrnenton the natureof the soil.
Solution:(a)Fromthegivendata,acrrrvebetweenthewatercorrtent (c) Classify tlre soil with the help of a plasticitychart'
shows
and the number oiblows is plotted on a semi-log graph paper' Fig' 2'8 w_ - v'P
curve. The watr content corresponding to 25-blows' as Solution: indcx'11=
(a) Liquidity
this w vs. loglg.lV -,i
the sotT is 437o'
obtained from the curve, is 43%o.Hencnthe liquid limit of
- ?-5
(b) Plasticity index, Io= w1-wo= 43Vo
-237o =20Va = 29 = o'138
54 - ,s
Flowindex, ,, = ffi = = 38'687o andis stiff'
As 0 < I1<0.25, thesoilis in theplasticstate

t,=If,=ft = o'sz' (b) Activitynumber,A =

Toughnessindex, % i.00, ^^
I
42 Problems in Soil Meclmnics andFoundation Engineering Index Properties and Soil Classification
43

of'
s4-)s
o=--=1.611 . w =
w* el
w" 2.67
A s A > |..25, the soil is an activesoil. w=ffiVa=0'6.
But,atII,
(c) The plasticity chart is given in Fig.2.6. The point correspondingto
wt 540/oand 1, = 29Vois tnarkedin the figure as P. As this point lies irr the
= +2.67 = 0.6 , or, es= (0.6)(2.67)= L6Az
segrnentrnarkd Cl{"the soil belongs to the ClJgroup.
Similarly, at SI, e" = (0.?5)(2.67)= 0'668
Probfern {/; The Atterberglirnits of a given soil are,LL = 60aio,PL
= 457oand SI =25a/0.The specificgravity of soil solids is2.67. A sampleof Changein volutne per unit of original volume'
this soil at liquid limit has a volume of 20 cc. What will be its final volume t - , _ 1.602- 0.668
Av = 0.359
if the sarnpleis broughtto its shrinkagelimit?
v l+et 1+1.602
Solution: Thc three-phasediagramsof the sample at ils liquid litrlit
and shrinftagelimir are shown in Fig. 2.9(a)and (b) respectivcly.
AY = 0.359V = (0.359)(20)= 7.18cc
Hence,final volume at SL = 20 - 7'18
Let e1and e" be the void ratio of the soil at LL andSI respcctively.tct
the volume of solids be 1 cc. = 12.82cc

Probfem 2.V'' T\econsistencylimits of a soil sampleare:

../ LL = 52c/o,PL=357o,5L = l7%
---J-
to 6. 1 cc
{eL-e5) I f a spcimen of this soil shrinks from a volume 10 cc at liquid limit

,$,re
-n------n- at plasticlimit, determinethe specificgravity of solids'
l e i :-Woter--:: F- --- - --I
l 1 '
( 1 + e 1|) | .t F=-wJ;-= Solution:I-rrelandesbelhevoidratioconespondingtotheliquid
r f linrit and plasticlimit.
l r Let volume of solids be 1 cc.
lI 1 '
t l .'. At liquid limit, volutne of water = l cc
-t_-+_ = e/ grn
Weight of water

I
Ai L.L AI S.L Weightofsolids =Vr'G\n=1'G'L=Gce:
(Voidrotlo = el) ( V o r dr o i i o = e s )
wn
ts) tbl * =
* = " t

wehave,
Atliquid limit,
Fig.2.9

" = +Y,s o r , v r = e . v ,
Vu = et'l = er cc
But at liquid limit,

Similarly we obtain,
w= 527o=A.52

| = o . s zor,, et
= 0-52G

e s = 0 ' 1 7G
I
.'. Volume of water present = el cc Now, changein volumeperunitof originalvolunie,
LV t - , -:T;
O.52G- 0-17G = 0'35G
Weigbtofthiswatcr = t x | = et Em = = 1 . o52G
i t *o csrd-
W e i g h t c . fs o l i d s = V r ' G \ n = 0 ) Q . 6 7 ) = L 6 l gm

But, +-{]dq=o'3e

)
144 Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering ('tmsolidotion 145

I'robleu-5r3:- A 3 rn thick layer of silty clay is sandwitchedbetween

lwo Iayersof densesand.The^effectiveoverburdenpressureat the ceutreof
thc silty clay layer is 2 kg/cm" . Howver,due to the constructionof a raft
lirurrdation,this pressureirtcreasesto 4 kg/on' .
Laboratorycousolidationtestwas performedon a 2.5 cm thick sarnple
ol' thc silty c:lay.Under applied stressesof 2 kglcnrz and 4 kg/c,m2 the
conrpressionsof the sample were found to be 0.26 cm and 0.38 cm
rcspcctively.Cornputethe probableconsolidationsettlernentof the raft.
Solution : Using eqn.{6.20),
S, = frr'Ho'LP
wltt'rc, IlO = ittitial thickness
--iltA-p-l-- Su b- toyer = 2.5 cm for the soil sampleand 300 cm for the soil in-siru.
I
4p = changein effective pressure
3m 1 m - - - LlJ e.z-- -{ ILA!3.- S u b - t o y e r =4-2=Zk,/cnz.
II
mu = co-etficieut of volume changefor the pressurerangeof
1m *--illo:--JrL^-P;- Sub-toyer
2kglcm'to 4 kg/cm'
III
l'or lht:laboratorytest:
Rock
lrritialthicknessof the sarnple = 2.5cm
Fig.6.4
Tlricknessundera pressureof 2kglctnz =2.5 -0.26 = 2.24sn.
. (100)(0.387)'to8to 0.781+ 0.471 =
- -l-] Thicknessuudera pressureof 4 kg/on2 = 2.5- 0.38= 2.12crn.
,s =
r", 4.81cm.
gq66 -tt
.'. Changein thicknesswh"enthe pressu.re
Sub-layerII: Depthof middle = 5.5m' irrt'reasesfrorn 2 kg/cm" to 4 kg/on" =2.24-2J2= 0.l2c.lrn.
pm = (4) (1.72) + (1.5)(1.85) = 9.655t/t# = O.965kg/artz Frorn cqn. (6.20)

(3) (200) -
0.t2 = (m")(2.s)(2.0)
Mc = = 3.157t/ri = o.3l6kg/cnl
(2)(3.14)
(s.sr or, m, = 0.024. z/kg.

" =
J", - (100)(0.387).loglo --
0.965+ 0.316 -
2.89cm Again, using eqn. (6.2q, ilre consolidationsetflernentof the silty clay
1 + 05,5 0.965 Inyt'r,
Sub-layerIII: Depthof rniddle = 6.5 m sc = @.024)(300) (2)

pw = (41(1.72)+ (2.5)(1.35)= 11'5t/m2 = r-lllq/cmz = 14.4cm

l'nrble4a$,4,.-' Due to the constructionof a new strucfure the average
ar._i@\=2.26cm vcrfit'a"lpressureat.the centreof a2.5 m thick clay layer increasesfrom 1
(6.sr
(2)(3.14) kg/r'rn" to 2 kg/cm". A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a 2
setllement = 4'81 + 2,89 + 2.26
.'. Totalcstimated crrrthit:k undisturbedsampleof the clay. Under appliedstressesof 1 kglon'
= 9.96cm. l rrd 2 kg/cm" the equil ibrium thicknessesof the samplewere found to be 1.76
r'ru lrrd 1.63crn respectively.On reinovingthe stresscompletely,the thick-
 ('on.rolido lion t47
t46 Problems in SoilMeclmnics snd Fottndation Engineertng
.'. Rcquired cousolidatiou settlemeutof the clay layer in the field
nessinc--reased to 1.88c:m.Tht: final moisturecontentand the spec-ificgravity
,5. = rn,,llg Ao
of solids of the samplewere found lo be297o and2.7l respectively.Conlpute
the probable settlementof the structure'
consolidatiott = (0.08)(2s0) (2 - 1) = 20 cm.
solution: Irt e; and Il;be the tinal void ratio and thicknessof the llcnct:, lhc rt:quiredsettlementof tlie structure = 20 cm
sarnple. l)rrrblenr *Y In a laboratoryconsolidationtest,the void ratio of the
wG -= -(0.29)(2.71) silnrlllc rcducedtiorn 0.85 to 0.73 as the pressurewas increasedfrom 1 to 2
Then, "- t _
= (1)
= o.786
, kg/t'rnr. If the co-efficientof penneabilityof tbe soil be 3.3 x 10{ crn/sec,
LH Le r l cl cr r ni n c :
Again, (i) co-efficicntof volume change
H l = l + e r
(ii) co-elficicnt of coruolidation.
Solution : Usingeqn.(6.2),
where, AH = changein thicluressdue a giveu stress
Ae = correspondingchangein void ratio' L,e 1.
and, frv=
l+es L,p
AH
ol, A e = ( t + e 7 ) . u . I lcrr', eo = 0.85,
"I

ef = O.lgO, and H1 = 1.88cm. Ae = 0.85 - 0.73= 0.r2

Here,
N t = z - | = Ilf./cmz
Ae= (1 + 0.786)
#t mv .1=0.065"*z/kg
of, Ae = 0.95AH "'(i)
Agrin, usingequ.(6.7),
when o = 2.okg/cn? , NI = 1.88 - 1.63 = 0'25crn
6s = (0.95)(0.25) = 9.239 c '. , = k
frr\n
Hence,void ratio at o = Z.}kg/cm" = ef - Le
lf trc, m , - 0 . 0 6 5" n 2 / k g
= 0.786 - 0'238 = 0'548'
- 0.065 t 10-3 "rn2/grn
Again,when o= l'0kg/cn?' NI = 1'88- 136= 0'12trm
' = 6.5 x l}-s anz/gn
Le = (0.95)(0.12) = 9'114
o = 1.0kg/cm2 = 0'786 - 0'114 k - 3.3 x 10-4 cmlsec.
Hence,void ratio at
= 0.672. y- - 1 gm/cc.

Letm,,betheaveragevalueoftheco-efficientofvolunrechangeinthe 3.3 x 10-a

cr= = 5.07" 2/""".
pressurerange of 1'0 to 2.0 kg/on-. (6.sx to-5)(t)
We have frorn eqn. (6'2), f'nrblcnr d' g6 rn thick clay layeris drainedat botq lop and bottom.
Le 1 'f'lrc
rrr clli<'icnt of consolidationof the soil is 5 x 1oe cn(/sec. Determine
mv
l+eg Ao llrr tirrrr rcquircd for 507oconsolidationof the layer due to an externalload.
(0.672- 0.548) . Solullon : Usingequ.(6.9),
_
- = = J- ^1.0)= o . o 8 r 2 / k g '
(2.0
(1 + 0.548)
148 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 149

T -
cr't
- a ,,=sffq=
375crn
If
a
T,' h2 (0.197)(375)'
Tr.t? '= = ---0.0246 - mtn
ot, I =
C,
c,

n(u\2 r u / 5 0 \ 2=
= ffi0^' "
For 50% consolidation, Tr, =
Al-trrl a[.'*/ 0.197.
= 782 days = 2 years 1 month and 22 days.
H 600
For double drainagecondition, h = 300 cm . Problem QV't"a laboratory consolidationtest, a 2.5 crn thick sample
2 2 of'<'lay reached60% cnnsolidatiron in 17 minutes under double drainage
and, 5 x 10-a"nl2,/r.". corrdition. Determine the time required for 6OVoconsolidation of a layer of
lhis soil in the field under the following conditions:
(0.197)(300)2 (i) when a 3 m thick layer of the given soil is sandwitched between
, s e c =3.546 x 107sec lwo sandlayers.
5 x l0-'
(ii) when a 5 m thick layer of the soil is overlainby a sandlayer and
3.546x 107 . rundt:rlainby a deeplayer of intact shale.
oays = 410 days.
s6400 Solution : Using eqn. (6.11), the time factor for 60% consolidation
Problem fy Araft footing is to be constructedon a 7.5 qrn thick clay
T, = 1.781 - 0.933 logls (100 - 60)
layer which lie3 betweentwo sandlayers.In order to predict the time rate of
settlernentof the building , a 2.5 crn thick undisturbed sarnpleof the soil was = 0.?a6
tested in the laboratory under double drainagecondition. The sample was Again, using eqn. (6.9)
found to have undergone5O%corsolidation in 12.5 minutes.Determinethe
time required for 5O%settlernentof the building. Tr,' h2
,'r' -- c ' ' t ' or, C, =
Solution : We hdve from eqn. (6.9), It2
In thr: laboratory test,
C r x t Tr-t?
T,, = a t of, C, = t = 17min.
h'
h = 2.5/2 = 1.25cm
In thelaboratorytest,
(0.2s6)(r.?52=
7, = time factor for 50% consolidation = 0.197 vv = ---di-
a
0.A263cm'/min
t = 12.5min.
( i ) Here the soil layer is drained at both top and bottom
H 2.5 =
h = l.?5 cm
2 2 H _ ( 3 )(2)
(1oo)=15ocm

(0'285X150f
,' - = z44nxamin= r70 days
0.0263
In case of the actual building,
( i i ) In this casethe soil layer is drained at top only
T' = 0'197
H=5m=500cm
 Consolidation 151
150 Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundotion Engineering
*rfl
(0'4q)-L5-00)z -L = 0'0974'
', - = 2 1 l 8 6 3 n n i r t = 1 t t 8 8 r l a y s= 5 . 1 7 y e a r s .
0.0263
,/
Problem Q/ The consolidatiottsettletnentof a new structuretbunded ()f, ,,
u == v&q*e-e.ozo
t = 35.22o/o
on a 5 m thick layer is estimatedas 6.5 cm. The structurewas found to have 3.14
settledby 1.6 cm in 6 monthsafter the completionof couslruction.If the c{ay ll x be the amouutof settlernent.then
layer is underlainby rock and overlainby a layer ofcoarse sattd,detennine:
(D tle timc required for 50% consolidationto occut U=4;xr00
o.)
(ii) the amount of settlementwhich will take place in the next six
montls. or, '=T# =z.z()cn
Solution : Degreeof consolidationoc:curredin the first six months
1..6 Problem &J${ndisturbed sampleswere collec-.tedfrom a 3 m thick
= x Lo07o = 24.627a t'lay stratumwhich lies betweentwo sandstrata.A laboratoryconsolidation
;;
It:sl was performed on a 2.5 crn thick sarnpleof the clay. During the test,water
Time factor for U = 24.62Vo
was allowedto drain out only throughthe top of the sample.The time required
T, = (x/4) (24.62/10q2 = 0.048. t<tr 50Voconsolidationwas found Io be 35 minutes. Determine the time
rtquirt:d for 60% and907oconsolidationin the field.
As single drainagecondition is prevailing, lt = 5 tn.
Solution : As the samplewas testedunder single drainagecondition,
Using eqn. (6.9),
h=H=2.5crn
(o#8,)(t2)
tu = -1o;1ru,1 = 6.67x 1o-3^z/d^y. Again, for U = SUVo,wehave Tr= 0.t97.
Usingeqn.(6.9),
(i)For50%consolidation, time factor, 7,,= O.197.
Using eqn. (6.9), '' = gfft = o'o3s
"'n2'l*i"'
T,x h2 (0.1e7)(s2)
= 738.4days Now, tbr 607oconsolidation, = 1.781- 0.933 logls (100- 60)
C, 6.67 x lO-' = 0.286
= 2yearsand8.4days.
For a double drainagecondition,
(ii) L,et U be the degree of consolidation that will take place in the next
six rnonths, i.e. at the end of 1 year since the completion of construction. We t,t = H = ; 3n = l50cm.
have already found that the time required for 5O% consolidation is 2 years i
and 8.4 days. Thus, degreeofconsolidation occurredin 1 year must be less Tu*'h'
than 50Vo. t6o = -7:
The corresponding time factor may be determined using eqn. (6.10),
"r.P (0.286)
(1so)2
T" = (n/4)(U/LOC)' = (0.03s)
40000
Again, using eqn. (6.9),
= 183857min
= 127.7days o 128days
(6.67x 1g-3)(36s)=
Tr= o.oe74. For 90% consolidation, T,x = l'781- 0.933 logls (100- 90)
(5")
= 0.848.
r52 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fottndation Engineering Consolidotion 153

,u*.* at 2 rn below the ground lev-el.The unit weight of sandabove and below water
tco = iable are 1.90 and 2.10 t/m'. Tbe propertiesof tbe clay are as follows;
C,
Initial void r'atio= 0.72
= 545143
min specificgravity of solids = 2.71
*"*tP
f iquid limit = 427o
= 379 days.
co-efficient of consolidat ion = 2.2 x I 0-3 cm2/sec.
Pnoblem 6.1I. A flexible footing of 2 m x 2msize carries a total load
of 490 kN, inclusive of its self-weighlThe footing restson a sandlayer having Dclennine:
a modulus of elasticity of 400fi) kN/m' and a Poisson'sratio of 0.38. Estimate (i) Probablesettlemenrof the raft.
the probable settlement below the cenlre and below any orie corner of the (ii) The time required to undergo a settlementof 5 cm.
footing. Solution : (i) The soil profile is shown in Fig. 6.5. The clay layer is
Solution: We have, from eqn. (6.19), divided into three sub-layersof thickness 2 m each. The settlement of each
rub-layer rnay now be computed using eqn. (6.21),
- t') r-
s ; =- R 0 E
'I'
.,*, Pt
L , H = H- n ' r Q -'opo'
l+e6
Here, intensity of loading
The computation of settlementfor the first sub-layer is shown below :
= g99]- = 02.5kN./m2 q = (0.00e)(42 - 10) = 0.288
(2) (2)
B = 2 m eo = A'72
p = 0.38, E = 40000kN./m2 Ho = 2m = 2l)0cm.
The influencefactor//may be obtainedfrom table6.1., Dcpthofmiddleofthe sub.layerbelowG.L. = 8 + 2D =9 m
/y(corner) = 0.56
/1(centre)= L.12.
11.6m_J
Roft
Immediatesettlementbelowthecentre,
(I=1'90
t/ m3)
- @#
si(centre) '0.r2)
t Y =2 . ' t 0 t / m 3 )
* 0.59 crn Sond
Immediate settlement below the corner

S;1--e4- = o.295crn. Ctoy

ff 6m ( e e =g , 7,26 = 2 . 7 1 ,
Problen 6.12. A 6 m thick clay stratumis overlainby a 8 m thick r o L = L 2 a /Cov = 2 . 2 x t 0 - 3 c r l l s e c l
sua$m of coarsesandand is underlainby an impermeableshale.A raft I
> zlzz> >7 t>>7>rr>zt> r2l=t>z>7ztz ,>z ,2
footing, supportingthe columnsof a building, is to be foundedat a depthof
1.2 rn below groundlevel. The sizeof the raft f 8.5 m x 13.6m, and it is I m p er v i o u s S h o l e
loadcduniformlywith a stressintensityof 9.ztlm' . Thewatertableis located
Fig.6.5
 154 Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundqtian Engineering
Consolitlalion 155
Initial effective overburden stressat a depth of 9 rn below G.L.
= 0.317
= stressdue to sand above water table + stressdue
to sand below water table + stressdue to clav As single drainagecondition prevailsat site,
h = H = 6m = 600crn.
/b = y ft1 + yru6h2 + y.1^,h3.
Here, ulit weights of sand are : tlsing eqn.(6.9),

y = I'g t/m3
7,,-fi
t=
c,
and, 'kat = 2.1t/m3
- (0.317)(6od-) = 51872327
sec
Ysub= Ysar- Y. = 2.1 - | = l'lt/m3 (2.2 x l0-'\
G + e = 60,0days
Again, Iclay
-
t w
l + e l'

Problem 613. The constructionof a rnultistoreyedbuildittg startedin

(2.7r + 0.72) January 1989t'andwas cornpletedin June 1990. The total consolidation
(l) = 2.0 t/m3
scttlcmentof the building was estimatedto be 8 cn. The averagesettlement
- 2) + (2.o - 1.0) (1) of tlrebuilding was lneasuredin Decernber1991andwas found to be 2.2 cm.
Cornputethe probablesettletnentof the building in January2001.
= !L.4t/rn2 = l.l4kg/cmz
Solution : Lrt C, be the cs'efficient of consolidationof the soil in the
Again, depth of middle of this sub-layer below the base of footing appropriate pressurerange, and Il be the effective length ofdrainage path.
=9-1.5=7.5m. Time elapsedfrom June 1990 to December l99I = 1.5 years
Using the 2 : 1 dispersion method, Degreeofconsolidationoccurredin 1.5 years.

' = ----9
6o !!- - (e'2) (8's) (13.6) - - Q'2)iroo)vo= z7.5vo
u
(B + z)(L + z) (8.5 + 7.5)(13.6+ 7.5) (8)
= 3.15t/m2 = A31^5kg/cnl2 T, = (x/4) (27.5/rm)2 = 0.059
pr = po + Lp = 1.14 + 0.315 = 1.455kg/ctn2
But, T, = _F
Cu't

^ _) ( r . 4 s s \= r'55cm'
8, 8
A r / _ ( 2 q g ) . ( 0 . 2'rogro ^-,
(r + oJD r-14 C, T, 0.059
I ,J O l t
Similarly, settlementsof the secondand third sub-layers are found to be H'
. =
7= ls
2.54 cm and 1.86 cm respectively.Hence,the total settlementof the raft
C,,
= (3.55 + 2.54 + 1.86)cm ort .= 0.039 ...(D
H'
= 7.95 cm.
Again, time elapsedfrom June1990to January2O0l = 10.5 years.
(ii) The degree of consolidation correspondingto a settlementof 5 cm,
Let U be the correspondingdegreeofconsolidation.
(5)(lm)
f f ='6 .^
u = 62'8970 Assuming U > 53Vo, T, = 1.78I- 0.933logls (f 00 - Lr)
c.. I
Using eqn. (6.11), the correspondingtime factor is,
But, r, = (10.s) '..; = o.o3el
(o.o3e)
T, = 1.78t - 0.933 togls (100 - 62.89) ?;= H ' l
= 0.4095.
 t55 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Consolidation t57
1.781- 0.933 lo916(100 - U) = 0.40995
(1'781-: -q'-4095) or, NI=H #a
of' fog16(100 - u) = = 1.47
(0.e33)
Taking antilog of both sides we get, - (2)(1oo)(q.g9s)
= 8.44crn
(1 + 1.25)
100-U=29.51 (iii) In the pressurerangeof 2to 4kg/crr2.
or, U= 100-29.51=70.497o
Amoult of consolidation settJementin January 2001 ^"=#^.b
(8) (70.49) _ < ai
_ -(1oo)
= = )'o4 cm' = = o.o2tcm2lkg.
(1 + 1.25) +
(2)
Probtem {a! e/ e,2 m thick layer of saturatedclay lies in between two
penneable lEdrt'The clay has the following properties : Usingcqn.(6.7), C,' = J-
frr\n
liquid lifrit = 45Vo
co-efficient of permeability = 2.8x 10-7 crn/scc Hcrc, k = 2.8 x 10-7cm,/sec.
initial void latio = 1.25 m v = 0 . 0 2" 1z / u ' g
The iqitial effective overburden pressureat the middle of the clay layer
is 2kg/at ,and is likety to increasei axg',t.2 due ro rhe "o*t,u"iilo or,
ln = lgm/cc = I x 1o-3t'g/cc.
new building. Determine : (2'8 x 1o-')- =
a.. - 0.0133orr2/r""
(i) the final void ratio of the clay. "
(0.021x 10-')
(ii) settlementof the proposedbuilding.
(iii) time required for SOVoconsolidation. w have, Tu= O.197
consolidation,
For 5OVo .
Solution : (i) Compressionindex, C, = (0.009) (45 -10) = 0.315. Usingeqn.(6.9),
But, by definition, T,,.h2 (0.197)QN/z)z
k
' = -T = -afi133; sec'
cr=
, Po+Lp = 1.71days.
loglo -
po-
Problem 6.L5. A laboratoryconsolidation testwas performedon a 2
ps + L,P cm thicksampleof a siltyclay,andthefollowingresultswcreobtained;
0ft A e = L" fo$19
p,
Pressure Final dial gauge Pressure Final dial gauge
L e = (0.31s)rogls{(2 + 2)/(2)} (kglcm2) reading (mm) (kslcnl) reading (mm)
= 0.095 o 5.590 2.00 3.9U
.'. Final void ratio = e6 - L,e 0.25 5.234 4.00 3.515
= l.?5 - 0.095 = 1.155 0.50 4.gffi 8.00 2.785
(ii) Let A/1be theconsolidationsettlementof the clay layer. 1.00 4.6M 0 5;224
LH- _
_ Le
The final moisture content of the sample after swelling was fouttd to be
H 1+tu
32.57o.The specificgravity of solids = 2!lO.
 159
158 Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineering Consolidation

table',"t Ot:t
(i) Plotthee vs. logP curue' Note that, in column5 of the above.
* noiff"T:;ilJl""ail t""i-'*"a*':ri''tiEdetermined
::t1"1tt:^?:::rT":
(ii) Detennile the cornpressiolindex and the co-eft'icientof volutuc : 9,tl2 I:bvsubtracting
:ll. l:1"::
changeof the soil. :il":ffiffi ffi;;;;;"*'1ry:
ofAeo:*':l1 Tri
solution: Inordertoplotthe e vs. logp curve,thefinalvoidratios ;;i;il.6roPriaie values ratiocorrespondi'g
to8kg/crn
;:ffi i'ipd;il;;il ;"id
at the end of eachpressureincrementare to be deterrnine.d'
= ef - Ae = 0'878 - 0'233 = 0'645'
The final void ratio of the sampleat the end of swelling )
.
to 4 kg/on-
andthatcorresponding
e=*G _ ( 0 . 3 2 5 ) ( 2 . 7 0=
, )0 . 8 7 t .
s (1) = 0'645 - (-0'070) =0'715
The thicknessof the sarnpleat this stage, c' and the co-effic:ient of volume
The co-efficient of compressibility' ' in col'
eachpressurerauge' and are slrowr
H = H o - M l change,tz, are then comput;d for in c'ol' 8'
values of Ct are siven
6 and 7 rcspectively' fn"'"o'nput"d scale).hav:
= 2.A - (0.5590 - O'5224)cm ."0 lp (in log
Thevaluesor rc 1lo"i'ritirr.tvt".r"j Ttn
= 1..9634cm. tneY ana i-axis respectively on a semi-loggraphpaper'to
dr;;;"; Tnf ls sbown in Fig' 6'6
Now, we have, obtain the e vs. loglg P curve'
N] Le
H l + e
. MI ,. 0.90
or, O" = + e)
T(1
0.Es
Substitutingthe final valuesof e andH, we gel,
Le = tH tt iO:#t' = 0.e565
Ar/ ...(i)
lo.
I
The c.hangein void ratio, and hencethe final void ratio after each load o
incrernent,arellow detenninedby puttingthe correspondingvaluesof AH itt ;0.
o
eqn. (i). The cornputedvalues are showttbelow in a tabular form : L
E'

mv C, 6 0
Pressure
ranSe
Pressure
itrcre-
I ncrease
in
Change
in void
Equili-
brium
'f/ Ae\
4oJ a u \ L e l
= 1 . -
ment ratto void '"g. k/ |
& NT Le ratio

(kglcm2) (cm) 1c^2/k91 (cn2/kg) 7 8910

(kg/cn2)

(1) /t\ (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (8) toglgp*

0 to 0.25 +0 .25 -o.0356 -o.034 0.879 0.136 o.072

Fig' 6'6
0.25to 0.50 +0.25 4.O274 -o.026 0.863 0.104 0.055 0.086
befoundedin a 3 m thick layerof
0.50to 1.0O +0.50 -o.0356 4.034 0.829 0.068 0.036 0.113 Problem 6.16. A raft footingis to
underlainiV t nign-vpermeable sandlayel' The initial over
1.0Olo 2.00 +1.00 4.0640 -o.061 0.768 0.061 0.019 0.203 "lry;;;;l; is likely
0.t76 burdenpressure orilt "fty layeris 2'0 kg/cmrandthis
at thece-nire
2.00 to 4.fi) +2.00 -{.0549 -o.0s3 0.715 0.027 0.014 of the raft' A 2'5 cm thick
+4.00 -{.0730 -o.070 0.645 0.015 0.008 0.199 to increaseto 4.0 kg/cm?'l;t to 'ht construction underdoubledrainage
4.00 to 8.00
-8.00
sarnpleof this soit is iesteain a consolidometet
8.0Oto 0 +0.2439 +O.233 0.878
i
l
 160 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 161

conditio.. The followi'g data.wereobtainedwhe'the pressure

on the sampre
2000
was increasedfrom 2to 4kglan" :
1900

1800
0 I972 16.00 t727
0.25 L92L 36.00 1642 1700
1.00 1870 64.00 1555
1600
2.25 1848 100.00 I49r
4.00 1813 144.N L449 1500
9.00 1769
1400
The dial gaugeconstantis, L division = 0.002 rnin.
(a) Determine the co-efficient of consoridationof the soir by 13C0
the square
root of time fitting method. tr 6 I 10 12 1L 16 18
(b) Estirnate the time required for 50vo and g}Toconsolidatironto Fig' 6'7
occur
in the field.
From Fig.6.7, y'tco= 1l'o
Solution: (a) The procedurefor obtaining the value of C,,by the
square
root of time fitting method is explained below I /so = 134'56min
1. The valucs of the squareroots of various time intervarsat which T,(n).hz
the
dial readingswere taken are plotted along thex-axis while the corresponding Now, .-u= _6_
dial readings are plotted along the y-axis ofan ordinary g.aph paper.
Here, Ir (m) = 0.84[t, h = 2.5/2 = l.?-Scrrr
2' A number of points, each represe'ting a certain dial reading a'd the
corresponding value of vl are obtained. A smooth curve is drawrithrough
(- - (0.848)(1.25)2-
them. " = llffiI&r = L64 x 10-a.,.,2./r..
3._ The straight portion of the curve is projected to intersect the y-axis (b) The time required for 507oand90Voconsolidationto occur in the field
_
at R". This is taken as the initial reading. may be obtained using eqn. (6.9).
4. A point P is arbitrarily chosenon the curve.
5. Frorn P, a horizontal rine pe is drawn to intersect the y-axis ar
e.
, r o = W =(0.1971
(3oo)2
1.64x 10-
= 1.081x tossec
Lx.l, PQ = 4.
= L?Sldays = 3 years 5 months and 6 days.
6. The point R is chosenon projecredpe, such thal, pR = 0.15a.
7, R6 and R are joined. The line R6 is then projected to intenect the T,(gq-xh2
curve al S. t* = = (p.q{8)(iqql2
= 4.654x r'ssec
C, 1.64 x l}-a
The dial reading corresponding to s representsx)vo consoridation. Let
5386days 14years9 monthsand6 days.
t96be the corresponding time required.
162 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering
EXERCISE6
6.1. Estirnate the consolidation settlement of a 2 rn thick clay layer
which is overlain by a layer of sandand underlainby a deep layer of intact
shale, ifthe construction ofa new footing itrcreasesthe averageover-burden
pressure by 50o/o.Tlre initial overburden pressure was 2 kg,/on'. Giveu,
co-efficient of volume c-hange= 0.023 cm'/kg. [4.6 cml
6.2. An 8 rn thick clay stralurn lies between a 10 m thick sand stJatum
at top and a reck layer at bottom. The unit weight of sand is 1.75 t/m3. The
clay stratum has the following properties:
L.L. = 42c/o, w = 28.5o/o, G = 2.72
A raft footing of 15 rn x L5 rn area and carrying a unifonnly distributed
load of 20 Vm" is proposed to be constructedat the site. Determine the prob-
able consolidation settlementof the footing. The clay layer should be divided
into four sub.layers of cqual tlickness and the stress increments may be
computedby 2: I dispersionmethod.
6 . 3 . A 3 m x 3 m s q u a r cf o o t i n g , c a r r y i n g a g r o s s l o a d o 1f 2 5 t , h a s
been constructed over a 5 rn thick sand layer whicb is underlain tirst by a 6
m thick layer of soft clay and then a layer of irnpermeableshale. Compute the
consolidation settlement of the footing by considering the clay layer (i) as a
whole (ii) divided into three layers of equal thickness. Given,
unit weight of sand = 1.8 gm/cc
compression index of clay = O.42
water content of clay =32Vo
specificgravity of clay particles=2.7 KD 3.6 an (ii) a.29 cml
6.4. During a laboratory consolidation test, the void ratio of a soil
sample decreasedfrom 1,2 to 1.05 when the pressureon it increasedfrom 2
to 4kglcn' . Determine the co-efficient of compressibility and tbe co-efficient
of volurne change of the soil. Will thesevalues remain the sarne if pressure
increasesfrom ito 8 kg/crn2. [0.075 .t?/rg;o.o:+ cm2ltg]
6.5. A consolidation test was performed on a samplc of saturatcd clay
in the laboratory. Thc liquid limit and the initial void ratio of thc soil were
487o ard 0.96 respectively. What will be the final vo^idratio of the soil if the
pressur is increased from 0.25 kg/*rz to 1.0 kg/cnr2 ? [0.721
6.6. Sample of a silty clay wassubjected to a laboratory oedometertest.
Under a veitical pressureof Zkglun'the equilibrium void ratio was found to
be 1.05. On increasing the pressureto 3 kg/crn2, the final cquilibrium void
ratiq reduced to 0.93. If the co-efficient of permeability of the soil be 1.2 x
104 cm/sec, detennine the co-efficient of consolidation in t# rc^y.
[r.Ttx toa rt/aay1
Consolidation 163
6J. Estimate the immediate settlement below the centre of a
15 m x 25 m flexible raft footing carrying a gross pressureof t}t/r*.The
raft rests on a sand stratum having a modulus of elasticity of 4080 t/m' ard a
Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The influence factors are as follows :
when LlB = 15, If = 1.36
when LlB = 2.A, If = 1.52 [5.8acm]
6.8. A footing is to be constructedin 3 homogeneousbed of clay having
an overall thickness of 3 m. Thc clay layer is underlain by rock and overlain
by a sand layer. If the co-efficient of consolidation of clay be 9.5 x 10-a
cm-/sec, find out the time required for 907oconsolidation. [930 days]
6.9. The total consolidation settlernentof a building founded on a 5 rn
thick silty clay layer, drained at both ends, is estimated to be 6.8 cm. The
building is tbund to have undergonea sefilementof 2.5 cm in 3 months. The
initial void ratio and the co-efficicnt of permeability of tlie soil are 0.88 and
L2x lAa crn/secrespectively.Determinethe co-efiicient of compressibility
of the soil. [0.265 cm"/kgl
6.10. A building is to be supportedby a raft footing laid in a 3 m thick
bed of clay, which lies betueen two penneablelayers.A 2.5 cm thick sarnple
of the soil is found to have undergone50% c<lnsolidationin 3 minutes under
double drainage condition. Determine the time required for 907o consoli-
dation of the building. [129.1days]
6.11. In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2 cm thick clay specimen
reached 507a consolidation in 12 minutes. The sample was drained at both
top and bottom. A 2 m thick layer of this soil lies below a sandlayer and above
an impermeable layer of very stiff clay. Find out the degreeof consolidation
of theclay layerswhichwill takeplacein 1 year. [2?.SVol
6.12. An isolatedfootingof 2 rn x 2 m plan areais constructed overa
saturatedsandyclay sfiatumof 5 m thicftness.The soil has the following
properties. .
E=3WkN/m', p=0.36, Cc=0.3, w=35Vo, G=2.69.
Estimatcthc probablesettlcmentof the footingif it carriesa grossload
of 225kN. 112.57clnl
6.13. A 5 m thick layer of normally consolidatedclay supportsa newly
@nstru,ctedbuilding. The weight of sand overlying the clay layer is 660
grn/cm' while the new construction increasesthe stressat the middle of the
ilay layer by 450 grn/r:n2. Compute rheprobableconsotidafionsettlementof
rhe building. Given,
LL =397a, G =2,7, w=457o. [439 cm]
t64 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
6.14. The total consolidation seftlement of a.clay layer due to an
imposed load is estimated to be 8.5 cm. A setflement'of 2 crtr tooL place in
15 days. Determine the time required tor 5O7oandgUVoconsolidation.
[68 days; 292 daysl
6.15. The results of a consolidation test are shown below :
(kglcm2)
Pressure
The sample had an initial height of 2 cm and an initial mass of ll2,.O4
gm. After the completion of the test the oven-driedsample was found io weigh
81.39 grn. The specific gravity of solids was 2.71 and the dial gauge consrant
was: 1 divn. = 0.02 mm.
(a) Determine the equilibrium void ratio of the sample after each toad
incremeut.
(b) Determine the values of co-efficient of compressibility and
co-efficient ofvolume change for various pressureranges.
6.16, An undisturbed sample of saturatedclay, collected from a depth
of 5 m below G,L., was subjectedto a laboratory consolidation test. The initial
diarneter and thickness of the sample were 7.5 crn and 2 cm respectively. The
mass of the sarnple in the wet and dry s[ateswcre L75.2 gm and 138.8 gm
respectively. The final cornpressions under various pressures are shown
below:
Plot the e vs logl6 p curve and check whether the soil is over-
consolidated.
If so,determinethepreconsolidation Given,G = 2.67.
pressure.
? i
7
COMPACTION
7.1 Introduction: Constuction of structureson weak soils (e.g., soft clay,
loose sand, etc) sometimesrequires "stabilisation" of the soil mass, i.e., an
artificial improvement of ib engineer.ingproperties,
There are various methods of soil stabilisation, the most common one
being the mechanical stabilisation,and the simplest technique of mechanical
stabilisation is compaction
A soil mass can be compacted by cither a dynamic process or a static
one. In the dynamic metlod the soil is compactedby repeatedapplications of
a dead load, while in tbe static method compaction is done by a steadily
increasing static load. Generally, the dynamic merlod gives better results in
coarse-grainedsoils and tle static compaction is suitable for less permeable
fine-graincd soils.
72 Moisture-densityRelationships: Whilecompactinga soil inthe field,
it is always desirableto compact the soil in such a way tlat its dly density is
maximum. If a given soil is compactedunder a specified compactive effort,
its dry dcnsity will be the maximum at a certain moisture content, known as
the optimum moisture contenL Hence, before compacting a soil in the field,
its optimum moisture content and the corresponding dry density must be
determined in the laboratory. The test employed for this purpose is called
StandardProctor Test.
73 Standard koctor Test In this test, samples of the given soil are
prepared at various moisture contents and are compacted in t cylindrical
mould, 127.3 mm high and having an internal diameter of 100 mm. The
eample is compacted in tfuee layers of equal height, each layer being
oubjectedto 25 blows of a compaction rammer having a self-weight of.2600
gm and a heigbt of free fall of 310 mm.
Samples are cornpacted in the mould at increasing moisture contents.
After each test, weight of the sample compacted is detcrmined and ie bulk
and dry densitiesare cornputed.
A curve is then plotted to show the variation ofdry density with moisture
content (Fig. 7.1). The curve is usually parabolic in shape.Initially thc dry
166 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foutdation Engineering 167
Compaction

2.O At any given moisture content, the dry density of a soil in the fully
I
A A S H 0T e t saturatedcondition can be derived as follows:
l l
t.9 G,{n

U
ry I
(
We have, 'ld -
l + e
: t'8
E S t o n tl ord Pr octer and wG=se
3 I Test
F o r a f u l l y s a t u r a t e d s o i ls, = 1 , wG = e
> l 7 -)
IA

3 rs
/ rd= ##c "'(7'1)
L
\ From eqn (7.1) it is evident that, for a given soil, an increasein moisture
o
r.5 content will always result in a decreasein y4. Hence the zero air voids line is
always a steadily descendfurgline.

t0 15 20 25
W o t e rt o n t e n t( 7 " ) 2'0

Fig.7.1
1.9
,\ - Z er r i o i r v ' o i d sl i n e I
U
(
density increaseswith increasingmoisture content, until a certain peak value \ 10.0cl' SoturotionlineI
U
^
I.E

N
is reached. Further increase in moisture content results in a decreasein the E
I 807' Soturation
dry dersity. The moisture content representedby the peak of the cune is the |t ,l [i n e
optimum moisture content (OMC) and the corresponding dry density is the = 1,7
maximum dry density of the soil under that particular compactive efforl c
q,
For heavier field compaction, the moisture-density relationship can be \
investigated by the modified AASHO test. The test procedure is similar to ?'..
L
that of Proctor test except tbat a heavier rammer (weight = 4900 gm, free fall o \
= 450 mm)ris used and the soil is compactedin 5 layers. t.5
Under heaviercompaction,the moisture-densitycurve (FigJ.l.) is shifted
upwards and simultaneously moves to the left, resulting in a lower OMC but 1.4
a greater y;.o. . l0 l2 l4 l5 l8 20 22

7.4 Zero Air Voids Line: Compaction is achievedby the expulsionbf air WuterContent
{7")
from the voids. However, as the external load acts for a very short time, it is
Fig.1.2
nearly impossible to drive out all the air from the voids. Thus, during
compaction, a soil is not fully saturated.If the remaining air could be driven
out, its void ratio would have been reducedand consequently,its dry density 75 Califomia Bearing Ratio (CBR): The California bearing ratio test is
would have increased.The zero air voids line (FigJ.2) is a theoretical curve of immense importance in the field of highway engineering.The CBR value_
which representsthe relationship between water content and dry density of n8{fg3i!s1-prob&le
the soil when it is l00To saturated.
The California bearing ratio is defined as the ratio of the force per unit
area required to drive a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter at.the rate of
168 Probiemsin SoilMeclnnics and FoundationEngineering Compaction 169

1.25 mm/min into a soil massto that required to drive the same plunger at the
same rate into a standardsarnpleof crushedstone.
or
Thus, cBR=###" xroovo ...(7.2) Y C u r v eB
L
o 600
gr
The test is performed by first compacting the given soil in tle AASHO c
=
mould at the specified compactive effort as stated in Art. 7.3. The sample is CL 400
compacted upto a height of. 127 rnm at the particular moisture content and c orrected5mm
o
density at which the CBR value is required. The plunger is then driven into t Penefrotion
t
the soil under a steadily increasingstatic load. The settlement of the plunger ct
o 200
is measured wifl the help of a dial gauge while the corresponding load is J cfed2.5mm
Corre
obtained fron the proving ring, From the results a load-settlement curve is
plotted and the test loads for 25 mm and 5.0 mm penetrationare determined.
The values of unit standardloads coresponding to thesetwo penetrationsare (mm)
Penetrqtion
\F\
70 kgcr# and 105 kg*? respectively. Therefore, the CBR-values at 2.5 Shift of origin
mm and 5.0 mm penetrationscan be determined.
Fig.7.3
Generally, the CBR valu e at 2.5 mrn penetation should be greater than
that at 5.0 mm penetration. In that case,the former value is acceptedas the
CBR value for design purposcs.
If the CBR value correspondingto 5 rnm penetrationexceedsthat for 2.5 EXAMPL'ES
mm penetation, tle test should be repeated,However, if identical results are Proctortestareshownbelow-:
Problem7.1.Theresultsof a laboratorv
obtained once again, the CBR value for 5 mm penebation should be used.
7.5,1 Correction to the cume : The load-penetrationcurve should always No. ofTesl I a
.' 4 5 6
be convex upwards (curve A in Fig.7.3). However, tiue to surface Wt. of mouldandsoil (kg.) 3.526 3.711 3.797 3.906 3.924 3.882
irregularities, tlre initial portion of the curve is sometimes concave upwards
(curve B in Fig.7.3). The cuwe lhen. must be corrected in the following Water content (%) 8.33 10.40 12.23 L6.20 \7.92 20.39
manner:
(i) The straigbt portion of curve I is projected backwarclsto meet the The mould is 12.7cm high andhasan internaldiameterof 10 cm. The
X-axis at O'. weightof the emptymouldis 1.89kg.
(ii) The origin O is shifted to O'. (i) Plot the moisturecontentvs. dry densitycurve and determinethe
(iii) Subsequently,all penetrationsare measuredfrom the new origin O'. optimummoisturecontentandthemaximumdry density.
Thus, the points corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penelration (ii) Plot tbezeroair void curveandtheL0Voair void curve.
should be shifted towards the right by an amount equal to the shift of Given,G =2.68.
origin.
Solution: Volumeof themould= (x/4) (12.7)(L02)cc
In order to simulate the worst possible field conditions, the CBR test is = 997 cr
sometimes performed on seakedsamples.After compacting the sample in the
mould" the sample is kept submergedin water for a period of 4 days, after In the first test, weight of soil = 3.526 - 1.89
which the sample becomesalmost saturated.The CBR test is then performed = L.636k.g = 16369m
on this soakedsample.
w 1636 =
Bulk density,y = l.64gm/cc,
v= 9n
 l7O Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 17l

2-2
\d - *-
and,drydensity,
f#*S::
= 1.515
gm/cc. {--
9-
I
z Z e r oa i r v o i d s
)-- -o ,/ I
The dry density y2"of the soil correspondingto the zero a ir void condition 2.O
.--q-:< -
may be obtained from eqn. (7.1). U 1 0/o
: oir voids z \
U );---
>E 1 . 8
G ' b -, , , ! ? 1 % l : 9 1
Y* " GG
I * (0.0833) = .= Z . r e g m / c c
(2.68)
g
>\
d6or= 1.752
qm/cc *F- I h.
=t
ta
Again, when the soil has IO% ait void, its degree of saturation isgOVo. c
o,
o /
1.1
"_g_-(%|fa@ _0.248 I

1.2 louc='ts.z.
(2.69)(t nt 1s ro 15 zo 22
, 4 e o= t + 0 . 2 f r = z l 4 7 g m / c n
v,
Wotertontent {7.)
similarly, the dry densitiescorresponding
to theactualproctortest,the Frg.7.4
zero air void condition,andthe lovo afuvoidconditionarecomputedfor the
remainingfive tests.Table7.1 showstheresultsin a tabularform.
Problem T.|/.-=T,\eoptimum moisture content of a soil is 16.5% and its
maximum dry density is 157 gnlec. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65.
Table 7.1
Determine:
No. of test 1 a
a 5 4 ) 6 (i) the degreeof saturation and percentageof air voids of the soil at OMC.
(ii) the theoretical dry density at OMC correspondingto zero air voids.
Wt. of mould and soil (kg.) 3.526 3.7t1 3.797 3.906 3.v24 3.882
Water content (7o) 8.33 10.40 12.23 16.20 L7.92 20.39 Solution: (i) When the sorl is at OMC, it hasa moisturc content of 16.57o
and a dry densityof 1.57Bm/cc.
Wt. of soil (gm) 1636 t82t t907 2016 ?n34 1992
Bulk density (gm/c-c) 1.641 1.826 1 . 9 1 3 2.V22 2.UO 1.998
Now,we have, fd = *

Dry density,ya(gm/cc) 1 . 5 1 5 t.654 r.705 t.740 1.730 1.660 (2'65)(1'0)

!'5't =
l + e
Dry density for zero air 2.I90 2.86 2.018 1.869 1.810 t.733
void, p, (gmlcc)
0r' r + e= f f i = t . e a
Dry density for lOVo air 2.I47 2.M6 1.964 1.808 L.747 t.67
void, y9o (gm/cc) oft e = 0.688

Again, se = w G, or, ,f = n G
The compaction curve is shown in Fig. 7.4. From the curve we find, e
(0.16s)(2.6s)=
optimum rnoisture content = l5.2Vo 0.635 = 63.5Vo
(0.68s)
and rnaximum dry density = 1.76 gm/c.c
Hence,therequireddegreeof saturationis 63.5%o andthepercentage
of
The zero air void line and the lovo air void line also are shown in Fig. air void is (100-63.5)Vo= 36.5Vo
7.4. i.e.,s = 1.
(ii) At zeroair void thesoil is fully saturated,
I7Z Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 173

(2.6s)=
- (0.165) existing soil is less than its OMC. Hence,a certainamountof water is to be
" = 8- 0.437
s l added to the soil prior to compaction'
(2.6s:" ^' Now, 14*= 1.66 gnlec = l -66t/n3
ta=ffi, =1.844gm/cc
Wt
Therefore, the theoretical dry density at OMC for zero air void = 1.844 B u t , 1 =7 i , o r , W 4 = \ d . V
gmlcc.
Probten.@. During tie construction of an embankment, the density Thus,for every1fi) rn3of finishedembankmen!the weightof dry soil
attained by field compaction was investigatedby the sandjar method. A test requiredis,
pit was excavatedin the newly compactedsoil and was filled up by pouring
W7 = "tit*, 'V = (1.66)(100)t = 1661.
sand. The following were the observations:
Weight of soil excavatedfrom pit = 2883 gm And theweightof wateris,
'w*\
W n = w . W|| d * = ' f r' J; t
Weight of sand required to fill the pit = 2356 gm
Bulk density of sand = t.52gm/cc l-
Moisture content of embankmentsoil = 167o = (0.22s)(166) = 37.35t
Detennine tle dry density of the compactedsoil. of theexisting
Thebulkdensity content
soilis 1'78t/# anditsmoisture
is9%6.
sorurion:
to"'";'="i: thepit,
Dry densityoftheexistingsoil, y4 = #;
ffr J::
\ L)z
Volume of the pit = 1550 cc. or' Yr=1|fu -r'633t/nf
But, weight of the soil excavatedfrom the pit = 2883 gm The volume of soil, V6 to be obtainedfrom borrow areain order to obtain
166 t ofdry soil is,
thesoil, t =
.'. In-situbulkdensityof = 1.86gm/cc
#i
And, in-situ dry densitv of the soil,
, r = Y - #l.oJJ = 1 0 1 . 6 5 m 3
ld
Weight of water availablefrom tbis soit,
,a
'P=tfl=I-#G=r'66gm/*'
Wnr= Wd. w5 = (166)(0.0) = 14.94t
Prcblerudl It is required to construct an embankmentby compacting a soil
excavatedfroln nearby borrow arcas.The optimum moisfure content and the
.'. Quantity of water to be added=(37.35 -t4.94>t
corresponding dry density of this soil were determined in the laboratory and
vrere found ta be 22.57oand 1.66 gm/cc respectively. However, the natural tobeadded=
ofwater
Volume
moisture content and bulk density of the soil were 9Vo and 1.78 gm/cr ##Hi#
respectively. But,densitYofwater,Y,o = 1 gm/cc
Find out the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water to
be added to it, for every !.00 m'of finished embankment. = 10-6 t/cc
Solution: The embankrnentshouid be constructedby compacting the soil = (1000)
1ro-6;tzfit
cbtained from borrow area at the optimum moisfure content and the
corresponding rnaximum dry density. But the natural moisture content of the = l0-3 tlir
 174 Problemsin SoitMechanicsandFoundationEngineering
Compaction t75

.'. Volumeofwarertobeadded= {22.4}) - 2L4l|litre.

(10-') =udffiul cc=e43.8ecc
Thus,101.65m3of soil is to beexcavated from theborrowpi ta,.dz24ra
litre ofwater is to be addedto it. In the loosest state,

Pnoblem?F. ett embankmentwas constructedby compacting ( 3 3 6 3 . 6 - 2 1 -i

00)_12
a soir at a bulk densitY =
(r43^3r) l'J39 gm/cc
moisturecontentof ISSVo^and a dry densityof t.ilTgmTcc.ti"tn. ,p."ln"
gravityofsoil solidsbe2.d8,derenninethevoid ratioan-cl
degreeof saturation dry density, yd_, = = =(t''?n)r. = 1.2o6gm/cc.
of the embankment soil- ------Y-
l+w ( 1+ 0 . 1 1 )
ln the denseststate,
Solution: We have,p =
8857.4-2100I
b u l k d esni.t V - f t * f f = l . f i 6 2 g m / c c
Here, la=l.72gm/cc,G=2.68
y,r* =
drydensity, = r.677gm/cc
_ (a*ga
1.72 #Tfrb
In-situ bulk densityof the soil = 181 gm/ccand its naturalmoisture
ort t+"-ffi cortent = 7%b

ot, e = 0.558. Va= ffi

ln-sirudrydensity,
- 1.505gm/cc
Again, se = wG, or " = Ag
e Y/* ld - ld^o
Relativedeusiw. R^ = . x l00vo
(9.155)-g{s} -
" = - 0.744 = 74.4vo Yd Y/r"" Ydro
(0.55u1
={i#i{i#+#i 0oo)'/.
= 70.74 7o
Problem7.6.rnorderto determine thererativedensityof a sandsampre, its
naturalmoistureconte.ntandburk densityweredetermined /
in the fiero and Problernl]l It is required to construct an embankment having a total
were found tobe 770and1.61grn/ccrespectivery. Sampresof this soirwere
thencornpactedin a procror'smourdof i/30 cft capaciiy, volume of 64000 cu.m. The required soil is to be collected from borrow pits.
at the toosestand It was found that tbe cxisting soil has a moisture content of l4Vo, void ratio
thedenseststates.
The followingdatawereobtained:
of 0.63 and specific gravity of solids of 268. I-aboratory tests indicate that
Weightofemprymould= 2100gm the OMC and maximum dry density of the soil arc l9.5Vo and 1.72 gm/cc
Weightof mould+ soil in thelooseststate= 3363.6grn respectively. The soil is to be carried from the borrow pit to the construction
site by trucks having averagenet canying capacity of 5.5 t. Determine the
Weigbtof mould+ soil in rhedensest
state= 3g57.4gm total number of trips the trucks havc to rnake for constructing the entire
Moisturecontentof thesarnpleusedin lests= llo/a embankment.Also find out the quantity of water to be addedto the borrowed
soil before compaction.
Determinetherelativedensityof thesandandcommenton
its type.
Solution:
Solution: Volunreof thc mould =
$"n of thesoil, ,u = fP
In-sirudrydensity
l + e
 176 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Compaction 177

= g'6CIi1'P= L64sm/cr Solutiron: When the rock presentin the fill is compactedto the densest
(1 + 0.63)
state, its dry unit weight is given by,
= 1.64t/m3
G'{n -i-;
(2.s6)
(t.o) _
.'. In-situbulk density,\ = \a(1 + w) = (1.64,(1 + 0.1a) = L87 t/m3 Y/.- = | . " _
=
o;i
= 1.48gm/cc.

Now, in 1 n3 of borrowedsoil, quantityof dry soil presentis 1.64t, and For the soil. 1d^, = l-63 gm/cc.
quantityof waterpresent= (0.14)(1.64) Wn = w . W6l
t... Let us now consider 1 gm of the given fill. According to the question,
= O.23t the weight of rock and soil present in the fill are 0.8 gm and 0.2 gm
while constructingrheembankment, this soil hasto be comDacted respectively.
at a \_
moisturecontentof l9,5Voandat a dry densityof 172 t/m3.
Now.volumeof0.8gmofrock = = 0.54cc.
For I m3of finishedembankrnent, dry soil required= 1.72t, #cc
andwaterrequired = (0.195)(1.72\t and, volume of 0.2 gm of dry soil = = 0.123 cc:.
= 0.335t. #

.'. For the entireembankmentof 64000m3 Total volurne of 1 gm of fill = 0.54 + 0.123 = 0.663 cc.

quantityof dry soil required= (1.72)(6.t000)= 1,10,0g0t Dry unitweight of rhe filt =
W
and, quantityof waterreguired= (0.335)(64000)= ll,llg 1
L
= - 1.508gm/cc.
- As the in-situdry densityof existingsoil is 1.64t/m3,everycubicmetre 0J63
of excavationwill produce1.64t of dry soil.
Problem 7.9. The results of a laboratorv CBR test are shown below :
.'. Total volurneof excavationrequiredto be made= = 6-7,122
n3
*P No. of tesl 3 4 5 6 8 9 t0 II L:

Grossweightof thissoil = (1.84 (67,lZZ\t = 1,25*51g

r 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 )n ?.5 3.0 4.0 't.5
Penetratron 5.0 10.0 L?.5
(-.)
.'. No. of trip to be made- l'2!'!L8 = 22.812.5- 22,g22
5.5 Lmd (kg) 0 19.8 < t < 93.7 t3zl 171"9 20"t.o288.8 a)7 ) 401.7431.8458.3

Weight of waterobtainedfran 67,122m3of borrowedsoil

= (67,122)(0.23)r = 15,438r Determine the CBR value of the soil. Given, unit standardloads for 2.5
'Weight of water mm and 5.0 mm penefafions are 70 and 105 kg/cm" respectively.
finatly required= 2!,4N L
""Quantitv'
*".:il;,#'_',o,:HrTlffiX'l Solution: Fig.7.5 shows the load vs. penetraiioncurve. As the curve is
initially concaveupwards, an initial zero correction is required.
The shaight portion of the curve is projectedbackwardsto intersect the
X-axis at O , which then becomesthe new origin. Consequently,all points on
Problem 7.8. The rock content in a filr is 8TToby dry weight. The rock can the penetration axis are shifted to the nght by an equal amounl
be compactedto a rninimumvoid ratio of 0.73.The maximum dry unit weight From Fig. 7.5 we obtain,
to whic.h the soil fraction can be compacted is 1.63 gm/cc. wbat is the
maximurn dry density to which the fill can be compactid ? Given, specific test load for corrected2.5 mm penetration= 200 kg.
gravity of the rock = 2.56. and, test load for corrected5.0 mm penetration= 332k9.

Area of CBR plunger = * fS.Ol'"*2 - 19.635cmz

4 '
 178 Problems k Soil Mechanics andFoundation Engineering
Compaction 179

.'.Unittestload
forL|mmpeneftarion
= = 10.19
kg/cn| (i) Plot the water content vs. dry density relationshipand determine the
ffi.
optimum moisture content and the correspondingmaximum dry density of
and,unittestloadfor 5.0mmpenetrat the soii.
ion- I = 16.91ks7cm|
lv.oJJ (ii) If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.70, pl<rtthe zero afuvoid line.
[Ans. OMC = 17.6%,Y,rmax = 1,74 gmlccl
CBR value for 2.5 mm penetration = 10.19 -t6.- * 1.007o= 14.6% 7.2.The resultsof a standardProctortest are shownbelow.

CBRvalue for5.0mm penetration=

' I x l(fi%o = 16.lLo 7.8 11.6 14.9 t7.7 20.r 22.s
Water C-ontent(%)
105
Thus, CBR value for 5.0 mm penetrationis greaterthan that for 2.5 mm Wt. of soil and mould (gm) 3263.4 3523.28 3734.8 3852.9 3832.7 3765.1
penetration"Therefore, the cBR test has to be repeatedand if similar
results
are obtained once again, then the cBR value of ie.tvo should be accepted. The height and intemal diameterof the mould are 12.6cm and 10.1 cm
respectively. The ernpty mould weighs 1950 grn. Plot the compaction curve
500 and determine ttre optimum moisture contentand the correspondingdry and
bulk densitiesof the soil.
AIso plot the zcro air void line and tbe SOqosaturationline.
400
Given, specific gravity of solids = 2.69. [Ans: OMC = l7Vo,y7 ='1.6gm/cc,
ET
)< y = 1.87gm/ccl
L
c, 7.3. Tlre in-situ dBnsity of a soil mass is being determined by the'''ifure
EN
cutter method. The height and internal diameterof the core are 12.7 cm and
=
cr- L0 cm respectively and is weight, wheu empty, is 1847 gm. When the core
c is filled with soil, it weighs 3674 gm.If the specificgravity of solids be 2.67
o
EI and the degree of saturation of the soil be 63%, determine the in-situ dry
E
CI densityof the soil. The in-situvoid ratio of the soil is found to be 0.85.[Atts.
-, 1.526gm/ccl
7.4. An embankmentof hapezoidalcross-scctionis to bc constructed for
a 2 knr long highway. The embankmentshould have a height af 2.2 m and a
P e n e t r o t i o(nm m l top width of 10 rn. The sides of the embankmerttare to be sloped at 2H : 1'
V. The soil obtained from the borrow area is tested in the laboratory and is !
Fig.7.5 i
found to have the following properties:
Natural moisture content = l2Vo

In-situbulk density = 1.8{./m3

E)GRCISET Optirnummoisturecontent= 19%
i
I
7.1. The following are the results of a proctor compaction test performed
Drv derrsitvat OMC = t.65thf I
on a soil sample" l1
Determine the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water i1
WaterContent(%) 9.2 L2.7 15:5 to-beaddedto it beforec<mstructing the embankment.[Ans:65055 m'; 7318 ,l
18.3 2A.2
.31 jt
Bulk Density (gm/cc) I.524 1.749 1.949 2.U9 2.4t9 7.5, Determine the magnitudesof compactive effort imparted to a soil
during:
(i) StandardProctor Test
';
Il
)
180 Problems in Soil Meclunics ond Fottndatian Eng,ineering

(ii)Modified AASHO Test'

x no' of
[Hina: Compactive effort = Wt. of rammer x height of fall
blowslayer x no. oflayersl
7.6.The speciticgravity of solidsof a soil is 2'65. Detenninetbe quantity
of dry soil audwater requiredto c0lnpactthe soil iu a Proctor rnould having
D = 10 cm and H = 12j cm, at a void ratit'rof 0.6 and at a moisture content
8
of 207o.[Ans: 1652 gm; 330 crc]
7.7.T\ree identical triaxial test samplesof 7.5 cm height and 3.75 cm SHEAR STRENGTH
cliameterare to be preparedat a moisture content of 15Voand a dry density of
1.48 gm/cc. Determine the total quantity of oven-dried soil and volume of
8.1 Introduction: When an external load is applied on a soil mass,
water requiredfor the purpose. [Ans: 367.8grn, 55.2 cc]
sbearing stressesafe induced in it. Ii the shearstressdeveloped on any plane
7.t. Determine the CBR value of a given soil from the following data
in the soil exceedsa certain limiting value, failure of the soil occurs. The
obtained from a laboratory CBR test :
maxirnurn shear stresswhich a given soil can withstand is called its shear
0 50.1 81.8 120.0 170.1 421.7 605.9 699.3 662.8 strength.
Load (kg) 19.8

o 0.5 1,0 r.5 2.O 2.5 5.0

'7.5 lo.0 r2.5 The factors goveming the shearstrengthof a soil are :
Penetration
(mm) (i) internal frit:tion, i.e., the resistancedue to particle interlocking
(ii) cohesion, i.e., the resistancedue to the internal structural bond
which tends to hold the particles together.
Plot the load-penetration curve and determine the CBR value of the soil'
According to Coulomb's law, the shearstrength,r, of a soil is given by:
Conrment on the test results. fAns.23.7%l
'E = c + otan ...(8.1)
0
where, o = normal stressacting on the soil
c = cohesion
0 = angle ofinternal friction
The factors c and S are called the shearparametersof a soil.
When expressedgraphically, eqn. (8'1) can be representedby a straight
line called the failure envelope;The general form of failure envelope for a
cohesionless,a cohesiveand a c - 0 soil are shown in Fig. 8.1 (o.),(b) and (c)
respectively.
T
{
I
T
c
J-
(bt
Fig.8.1.
L82 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Shear Stength 183

The shearpararnetersofany soil dependuot only on the nature ofthe soil
but also on such factors like rnoisturecontent and loading conditions. At very
low moi_sfurecontent a cohesivesoil may developa certain amount of internal
friction. Likewise at high rnoisture conlentsa cohesionlesssoil may show the
signs ofhaving an apparentcohesion.
8.2 Mohr's circle of stress: This is a graphical representationof tle stress
conditions in a soil masswhich enablesone to find out the stressesdeveloped
on any plane within the soil due to an external loading system.
In a stressedmaterial, a plane which is subjectedto only a normal stress,
but no shear stress, is called a principal plane. Through any point in the
material, two such planes exist. These planes are called the major and the
miror principal planes, and are ortlogonal to each other. If lhe principal
stresses,01 and g,3,?te known, the normal.stess o and shear stressr on a
plane inclined at an angle 0 to the major principal plane is given by,
"=Y.rycos2o ...(8.2)
" = 9l-:-or
and, ,in 29 ...(8.3)
z intersect the circle at tle samepoint P" This is the pole of Mohr's circle.
Equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be represented by a Mohr Circle, as
illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The co'ordinates of any point on the circumference of
the circle give the stressconditions on a particular plane representedby that
point
^ ^ -
+?
8.3 Pole: The conceptof the pole, or the origin of the planes,is very usefrtl
in such problems where the locations of the principal planes are not known.
Consider the soil element subjectedto a system ofexternal stressesas
shown in Fig. 8.3. It is required to determine the normal and shear stresses
acting on the planeAA, inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal.
Considering the free body diagram of the element it can be proved that
the element can be in equilibrium only if, T, = ayx.
The procedure for drawing the Mohr Circle and locating the pole are as
follows:
(i) Choose tle co-ordinate axesand selecta vector scale.
(ii) Locate the points A and B such that they representthe stresseson
tbe horizontal and vertical boundariesrspectively,of the element.
(iii) JoinAB. It intersectsthe o-axis at C.
(iv) With C as centre and CA = CB as radius, draw the Mohr circle.
(") The point A representsthe stress conditions on the horizontal
plane. From A, draw a straight line parallel to this plane. It intersects the
circumference at P. Again, if from .B a line is drawn parallel to the vertical
plane (since the point B representsthe stressesacting on this plane), it will
T
(-r rTtyl
!y, .'A

QlqT)
A
xv'
Try

(0,0)L/
M c\

Txy a,
(-,Tl \ Io vlrv

cr ,- "i-"3
"i+"3 T
-t- llqjor hincipol
2 Fig.8.3
Shess
-t- FliRorhincipol (uD From the pole P draw a line parallelto the planeon which the
shessesarerequired.This line intersectsthecircleatQ.T\e co-ordinates of
Strrss e
give
Q the nonnal and shear
stresseson the givenplaneAA.
Thus,thepolemay be definedasa particularpoint on thc Mohr's circte
-T suchthat, if a line is drawnfrom this point makingit parallelto any given
Fi8.8.2
 184 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
ShearStength 185

plane within the soil mass,lhen, the co-ordinatesof the point of intersection
such that coulomb's equation is satisfied as the point P lies on the failure
of this line with the circle will representthe stressesacting on that plane.
envelope. In order to determine the location of this plane,join PA and PC.
8.3.1 Sign convention' The following sign conventions are rormallv
Now, LPCB=LPAC+/-APC
followed for plotting the stressco-ordinates:
As AC = PC, LAPC = LPAC = a
Normal stress: Compressive stressesar taken as positive and tensile
stressesas negative. LrcB=ct+ q = 2 a ,

However, soils can with stand only compression and Again,since DF llOB , LPGF = LPCB = 2c.
not tension. Hence the normal stresson any plane of a InAPDG. LPGF = LPDG + LDPG
soil element which is in static equilibriurn is always
positive. or, 2 a = Q + 9 0 " [ ,. . P G L DE, .'. LDPG = 90" I
Shcirrstrcss: The sign of a shearstressis determinedon the basis of or, a = 45' + g/2 ...(8.4)
the direction of its moment about any arbitrary point In Fig. 8.4, the planeBB, drawn at (45' + Q/2) to the majorprincipal
inside the soil mass. If tbe moment acts in the anti- plane,representsthe failure plane.
clockrvisedirection, the shearstressis positive, whereas It r:anbe proved that, at failure the relationshipbetweenthe two principal
if it acts in the clockwise direction. the shear stress is stressesis given by,
negative.
or = 03 :filoz 145" + Q /2) +'zr'tan@s" + g /2) ...(8.5)
8.3.2 Ltrcation oJ the failure plane : Fig. 8.4 representsa soil sample
subjected toa rnajor principal stresso1 and a minor principal stress03. As or, o1 = o3.f{6 + \ctlfia ...(8.6)
the sample is on the verge of failure, the Mohr circle has touched the failure "
envelope at P. Evidently, the pole of the Mohr circle is at A. where, ffO = flo'w value = tan (45" + 0 /2) ...(8.7)
The highest point on the circumference of the Mohr circle is the crown 8.4 Determination of Shear Strength: The following testsare employed
R. The lineAR is inclined to the o-axis at 45'. The corresponding plane in tbr the evaluationofthe shearstrengthofa soil :
the soil is MN, which is the plane subjected to the maximum shear stress,
A. l:boratory tests :
r,no. Howev er, theIntential failure plane in the soil is not MN, but theplane
1. Direcl ShearTest
represented by the poiru P, becausethe stressco-ordinates given by P are 2. Triaxial CompressionTest
,B 3. UnconfinedCompressionTest.
/ , N B. Field Test :
1. Vane ShearTest
For a detaileddescriptionof the testprocedures,the readeris refened to
-3 any standardtextbook of Soil Mer:hanics.Only the essentialpoinf,sregarding
the computationof shearstrengthwill be highlightedhere.
8.4.1 Direct Shcar Test: In this test,soil samplcscornpactedat known
H, ,r8/ densitiesand rnoisturecoutentsin a shearbox of 6 crn x 6 cm size,which can
be split inlo two halvcs,is shcareCby applyinga graduallyincreasing!ateral
load. Three identical sarnplesof a soil are testedunder ditferent vertical
compressive stressesand the corresponding shear stressesat failure are
A determined.A graph is then plotted betweennormal stressand shear qtess.
J Resultsof eachtest are represented
e by a singlepoint. Three points obtained
from the lhree testsarejoined by a straightline which is thc failure envelope
for the given soil. The siope of this line gives the angle of internal friction,
Fig.B.;
while the interceptfrom the r-axis gives the vaiue of cohesionof the soil.
186 Problemsk SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering Shear Strength 187

8,4.2 Triaxial Cunpressian Test: In lhis test, cylindrical soil specimens V r t L V

of 3.8 cm diameterand 7.6 cm height,enclosedin an impermeablerubber A'= - nt ...(8.10)
rnembrane,areplacedinsidetheniaxial cell.An all-roundcell pressure,o3, i
is appliedon the sample.Simultaneously, a gradually increasingvertical where, Vt = initial volume of the specimen
stressis applieduntil eithertle samplefails, or its axial stain exceeds2A%. A 7 = changein volume due to drainage.
Stressvs. straincurvesareplottedto determinethe normalstressat failure. Ir = initial length of the sPecimen
This stressis calledthedeviatorstress,od. The majorprincipalstress,o1, is AI = changein length of the specimen
obtainedfrom the following relation(referFig. 8.5) : 8.4.3 I) nconJircedCompression Test : This is a special caseof triaxial test in
O1=O3*O4 ...(8.8) which o3 = 0. We have, from eqn. (8.5)
oi= "3*-d ar = o3vn4 (45' + 6/21 + ktang," + Q/Z)
As 03 = 0, for an unconfined cotnpressiontest,
or = 2c tan(45' + Q/2) ...(8.11)

A number of tests on identical specimenswill give the same value of

o1. Thus, only one equation is availablewhile two unknowns, viz., c and f ,
are involved. Hence, eqn. (8.11) cannot be solved without having a prior
knowledge ofany one ofthe unknowns.
P
Due to this reason,the unconfined com-
r1 =
q3ta6 pression test is employed to determine
the shearparametersof purely cohesive
[o) (b) (c] soils only. For such soils, S = 0", and
hence,
Fig.8.5
ol=2clan45" =2c
Three samplesofa soil are testedunder different cell pressures.From the The vertical stress o1 at failure, TorqueRod
results, three Mohr circles are construcied, and a common tangent is drawn known as the unconfined compressive-
to them. This is the failure envelope. strength and denoted by q* is obtained
The normal stressat any point during the test is determined by dividing by dividing the normal load at failure by Vones
the normal load obtained from the reading of the proving ring by the the correctedarea,asgiven by eqn. (8.9)
cross-sectionalarea of the sample. Due to the bulging of the sample during
Tlus, qu = 2c
shear, the cross-sectional area should be modified using the following
equation : eu
Ac = As/(t - e) ...(8.e) or, c=T ...(8.12)
where, Ac = coffected area 8.4.4 Vane Sheqr Test.' This is a field
A0 = initial area test used for the direct deterrninationof
e = axial sf]ain = M/L the shear strength of a soil. Generally
where, A L = axial compression this test is conductedin soft clav situated I. f Vanes
L = initial length at a lreat deoth- samolFdrEf,ich are r/
airfi.ffil
In the drained tiaxial tests,the volume of the sample may changeduring
the test due to expulsion or absorption of water. In that case, fhe corrected
The apparatusconsistsof fourmetal I
area should be detennined from :
blades, called vanes,mounted on a steel
rod, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The device is l- o-l
pushed slowly upto the desired depth Fig.8.6
 188 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Stength 189
and is rotated at a uniform speedby applying a torque through the torque rod.
The amount of torque applied is recorded on a dial fitted to the rod. Failure ol-('3
and, a = sin 20
occurswhen the vane can be rotatedwithout any further increasein the torque. z
For a cohesive soil, Q = 0. Hence coulomb's equation reducesto :
S = C
Here, ot = 2?,g/crf and o3 - t,lkq./cri
Thus, for a cohesive soil, the shearsrrengthis equal to its cohesion.In a vane The givenplaneis inclinedat 30' to the majorprincipalstress.But the
shear
test,
thecohesion,
r"I:y *.ryry*n bederermined
from: directiouof major principalstressis perpendicular to the major principal
plane.Hencetheangleof inclination between the given planeandfte major
:,"=.d4{A \ "(sr3) principalplaneis,
I t2 6l I 0=90'-30"=60P
' + - l
_ i . - -
where, I : torqueapplied (= p.a) (2 + t.l') (2 - l.l)
ar - * --T-.cos(2 , /^ .x 60")
i/ = heightofthevane T
D = diameterof tlle vane.
= 1.55 + (0.45)(cos120')
:
t.5 sensitivity: when the shear stressesdeveloped in a soil exceeds its = 1.55 + (0.45)(-l/2)
.shearstrength, the soil fails by shear and loses its strength. However, if rhe = l.32skg/cmz
soil is left in that state for some time, it regains some of its original strength.
Q - r.r\ .^ x 60')
The sensitivity of a soil is a measureof its capabilify of regaining strength and r = #sin (2
after a disturbance has been causedin the soil. It is expressedas,

o shear stength in the undisturbed sute - (0.45)(sin120') = 0.39kg/arr2

' shear strength in the remoulded state
...(8.14)
on the basisof the sensitivity,clayey soils are divided in the followine TlKglcnz]r
categories:
Sensitivity 0.75
Nature of clay
I Insensitive
t-2 f,owsensitive 0.50 0 t1.33,0.39)
2-4 Medium sensitive I
4-8 Sensitive I
0.25
8-L6 Extra sensitive 0'39K9
>16 Quick clay 0
f.5 c t-75 2.5 {
( K g/ c m 2 l
EXA.MPLES
.
Pnoblern
V. A soil sample is subjectedto a major principal stressof 2
kglon- and a rninor principal stressof 1.1 kg/r-' . Determinethe uonnal and
shear stressesacting on a plane inclined at 30o to the nrajor principal stress.
Fig.8:7
sclution: (a) Analytical method: The normal stress,o and the shear
stress,r on any plane inclined at 0 to the major principal plane is given by : (b) Grophicalmethad:Thegraphicalsolutionis shownin Fig 8.7'The
procedureis statedbelow:
o ==0--?
1 * o 3 '* 0 -T
1 - o 3 cos2o (i) TheMohr circleis drawnwith at = 2'0kg/cmz andcr3= 1.1kg,/cm2

L_--
190 Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Fottndation Engineering Shear Strengtlt

(ii) From the centre C of tlris circle, CD is drawn at atr augle of 120o l m2 y
( = 2 0) to the o-axis. This line intersectsthe circle at D.
Altenratively, frorn the pointA correspondingto s3, a straight lineAD is
drawn at an angle of 600 1= 0) to the o-axis.AD also intenects tbe circle at N(40,'t0)
the samepohrt D. :16'5kN/m?--+1
(iii) The co-ordinatesof D give the normal and shearstressesacting on
the given plane.From Fig. 8.7 we obtain, t
T = 3 ' 6k N /
o = 1.33kg/cmz
30 19. LS S
r = 0.39kg/crnz

Problem m. stressesactingon a soil elementdre shown in Fig. 8.8 (a).

Y.
10kN/m2 M
(20,-10)
2 0 k Nm
/
iot<Nl#
_T(kN/m2) tDr
to)
Fig.8.8(b)

6. From P, FQ ll ,ttr is drawn to intersectthe circle at p.

D The solutions to tle three giveu questionsare now obtained as follows :
Fig.8-8(a)
(i) The points of intersection,R and $ between the circle and the o-axis
(i) Detennine the magnitudeand direction of the principal stresses.
give the principal stresses.Here,
(ii) Find out the stressesacting on the plaue XX.
ol = 48 kN,/rn2
(iii) If the soil hasa colresionof 5 kN/m2 and an angleof intemal friction
of 25o,find out whelher a shearfailure is likely to occur along the planeXX. and ot = l6.2kN/m2
Solution:The graphicalsolutionof the problem is presentedin Fig. 8.8 In order to locate the directions of the principal planes,the points R and
(b). The procedureis as follows: S arejoined to the pole P. Through any pontZ in the soil elelnent, Z -lllPS
1. Two orthogonal c'o-ordinateaxes and an appropriatevector scale and Z - 3 ll PR are drawn.
(1 cm = S *NZm2) are chosen. The planes Z - t andZ - 3 give the directions of the major and minor
principal planes respecrivcly.
2" Tbe points M (20, -10) and l{ (40, 10) are chosen to represent the
(ii) The strcsseson,lXare given by the co-ordinatesof Q. From the figure
slresseson the planesAB and8C respectively.
we obtain.
3. M andif arejoined and the mid-point O of MN islocated. = 16.5kN/m2 andrps=3.6kN/rn2
on
4. Witlr O as cenlre and M]{as diameter, the Mohr circle is drawn.
(iii) The normal stresson.lXis 16.6kN/#. Frsm coulomb's equation,
5. The pointilf representsthe stresseson the planeA.B.FromM, a straight the shear strength of a soil is given by,
line ifP is drawn parallel to AB, to intersectthe circle at P. P is the pole.
s - c + otano

l
 t92 Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering
193
Slrcor Strengtlt
Here, c =5 kN/rn2,o = 16.6 kN/m2, 6 = ?5"
(ii) FromA (representingthe stressconditionson the plane bc) d:,awAP
.'; s = 5 + (16.6)(ran25')
ll bc, to intersect the circle at P. This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
= 12.74kN,/m2 > 3.6 kN,zmz Alternatively, if frorn B, BP ll bc is drawn, it alsowill intersectthe circle at
Asr < s, ^failure along)Q( isnotpossible. P.

Problern si.]r4he stressesactingon an elementof erasticsoil mass'areshown (iii) FrornP, drawPQll ,XX.It intenectsthe circle at Q. The co-ordinates
in Fig. 8.9 (a). Determinethe nonnal and shearstresseson the planeXX. of Q give the stresseson the planeXX. From the figure w'eob'.ain,
oxx = 2'35t/mz
5Kg/cm2
artd rnr = 0'95t/n2
ZKglcnz Problem S;&;The stressconditionson a soil elementare shown in Fig. 8.i0
(a). r
(i) Find out graphicallythe stresseson the plane,4,4.

5Kglc nz (ii) Draw a freeboclydiagramof thesoil elementandshow thesestresses.

(iii) Prove ihat the free body is in equilibriurn.
X

50kN/m2
(o)
5 5k N / m 2
(a)
Fig.8.e
solution.'Fig. 8'9 (b) slrows the graphical solution. The solution is 40kN/m2
8.61
obtainedin thc lbllowiug stcps: kN/m2
a?
(i) Locate the pointsA (2, 0) a^d ^B(5, 0) which represe^trhe pri^cipal T ( k N/ m 2 ) I

stressesacting on the soil element.with AB as diameter.draw the Mohr's A 50k N/m2

circle. 60kN/m2
a 7 ( K g/ c m 2 )
55kN/m2 q__-L
8.57k N/m2
cr
30 40 ( k N/ m 2 )

+ 2
0.95

Fig.3'it-'-
P. solution: (i) The graphicalsolutiouof the problernis shown in Fig. 8.10
-T(Kglcnzl (b), from which we get,
tb) ,\
o = 55 kli/m-
Fig.8.e(b)
t94 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Stength 195

r = 8.67 kN/m2 G + e
(ii) The free body diagram of the soil element pqr, bounded by the
Now, Ysar= ll;.Yw
vertical plaile, the horizontal plane and tbe given plane AA, is shown in 2.68+ 0.654,. ^,
= -l-a
Fig. 8.10 (c). g654 tr'ut
_
(iii) The free body will be in equilibrium if the sum of the components
ofall forces acting on it along any two orthogonal axcs separatelybe zero. Z.OTgm/cc= 2.02Vm3
(i) The normalstresson thegivenplane.,
Let, P4 = 1unit,
p o l a = ld, 21 + l*6. 22
pr=ffi=6;=2units
= (r.62,(2) + (r.02)(3\ = 6.3t/m2
| -
g r'e'
and- ' 7 'o -PQ
ar 1'732unia ..'. Sbearstrengthof tbesoil at thisplane,
tanh=m-{3n
., = c + otano
Consideringunit thicknessof theelement,
- 0 + (6.3)(tan35') - 4,41t/n?
2 Fx = (- 40) (1) - (8.67)(cos30) (2) + (s5) (cos60")(2)
(ii) In this casetheentiresoil massis submerged.
=-40-15+55-0.
x Y (- 60)(r.732, + (&67)(sin30")(2) + (5s) (sin60")(2)
- o - ysub.z= (1.02\(5,- 5.tt/m2
- -103.92 + 8.67 + 95.25 - 0.
and, = (5.1)(ran35) - 3.57t/mZ
Hencethe freebody is in equilibriurn. -/,, s
Problen-td Specimens of a silty sandweresubjectedto the directshear
Probbm ffie subsoitata siteconsistsof a 10m thick homogeneous
layer testin thelaboratory,in a shearboxof 6 cm x 6 cm size.Thc normalloadand
ofdense sandhaving the follouring properties: theconesponding shearforcesat failureareshownbelow :
la - l.62gm/cc' G - 2.68,0 - 35'
The nahrralgroundwatertablelies at 2 m belowthegroundsurface.
(i) Determinethe shearstrenglhof tbe soil along a horizontalptane
througbthe middleof sandlayer.
Draw thc failureenvelopeanddeterminetheapparentangleof shearing
(ii) If duringmonsoon,thewalertablerisestothegroundlevef,how will resistance
anfcohesionof thesoil.
the shearstrengthalongthesameplanechange?
areaof theshearbox = 6 x 6 = 36 cm2.
Solution:Thecross-sectional
Assumethatthe soil is dry abovewatertable.
Therionnalandshearstresses
arefirst obtainedusingtherelation,
Solution: Tbe horizontalplaneunderconsiderationis at a depthof 5 m
load
= -
below the G.L. SlreSS
. area .
GTn These are shown in a tabular form below :
We have, n{d-
lll'
or, E?P ' r.62 Normal load (kg) IU ?o 30
OI, e = 0.654 Shearforce (kg) 9.90 t5.4t 20.88
Normal stress(kg/cm2) o.28 0.56 0.83
Shearstress(kglcm") 0.275 0,428 0.580

)
 Shear Strength tgl
L96 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering

be tlre radius whicb must be perpendicularto OQ, since Oe is a tangen/to

In Fig. 8.11 the nonnal and shearstressesareplotted along the horizontal the circle.
and vertical axes respectively. Three points thus obtained are thenjoined by
a straightline. This is the failure envelopefor the given soil. Tlrus, in order to locatelhe centreofMohrcircle, draw eC L Oe. eC
meets thc o-axis at C, which then, is the ccntre of Mohr circle.
The intercept ofthe failure envelopeon^ther-axis representsthe apparent
cohesion,which is found to be AJZkg/an'. The apparentangle of shearing (v) With C ascentreand Cp as radius,draw the Mohr circle. It intersects
resistance is given by the angle of obliquity of the failure envelope to the the o-axis atA andB, which, then, representthe minor principal stresso3 and
horizontal, and is found to be 28.5'. the major principal stresso1 respectively.
From Fig. 8.12, we obtain,oe = 1.08kg/5y1rrz,ot = 2.47 kg/cm?.
e\I
E
8.5 (vi) Dnw a horizontal lne PQ through Q. It intersectsthe circle at p.
g0'5 This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
q (vii) Join PA andPB. Thesetwo lines are parallel to the directions of the
3 a.t planes on which 03 and 01, respectively,act. From the figure we obtain,
o,
L
+
v) AAB - 32.5' and LPBA = 57.5'
u 0.2
ct
OJ
Hence the minor and the rnajor principal planes are inclined to the
a./l c =0 . l 2 k g l c n z horizontal at 32.5" and 57.5" respectively. The orientation of the planes are
0| shown in Fig. 8.12 (b).
lo.2 0.4 06 O.g lo
l t l e s s , r ( K g l c m 2)
N o r m oS
Fi8.8.11
,
Problenr 8/ A direct shearte.stwas performedon a sample of dry sand.
Under a nbnnal stre-ssof 1.5 kg/on", failure occurred when the shear stress
a
reached 0.65 kg/cm'. Draw the Mohr circle and the failure envelope. Hence
GI
determine the orientation of the principal planes and the magnitude of the F
; t.2
principal slresses. gr
.Y
Solution: The construction is shown in Fig 8.12. The procedure is as
follows: 7oJ o't Principot
+
L Ptane
(i) Choosetwo orthogonal co-ordinateaxesand a_suitablevectorscale. t/l
The scale chosen in this problem is : I cm = 0.4 kg/cnr2. L 0 { (b)
o
CJ
E
(ii) Locate the point Q corresponding to o = 1.5 kg/*rz and r = t/l
0
0.65 kgr'crn?. 2,4q 2.8
(iii) Since the soil is a dry sand, it should not have any apparentcohesion NormolS tress(lQ/cm2l
and tle failure envelope should passthrough the origin, Join the origin O and (a)
the point 8.O8 is the failure envelope.
Fig.8.12
(iv) The point Q representsthe stresseson tle failure plane. But in a
direct sheartest, the failure plane is aly3lrs horizontal-.Now, the point p must Prrblem $r(flrree identicalspecimensof a partiallysaturatedclay were
must touci the iailure subjectedto an unconsolidatedundrainedtriaxial test and the following
envelope. If Q can be joined to the centre of the circle the resulting line will resultswereobtained:
198 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fowtdation Engineering ShearStength 199

,SampleNo. Crll?ressure(W*\ D.eviarorstress

(tg/cmJ < l 1= o 3 l V 1+ 2 c ' l N 6
1. 0.5 0.80 In caseof tlre first sample,o3 = o.Sl<g/crt itrd o1 = L.30kg/c.It
2. 1.O o.97 Substitutingin eqn.(8.6) we get,
1.5 1..t3 0.5JV{+Tcfi=t.3 ....(i)
Determinetheshearparameters of tle soil(i) graphically(ii) analytically. where ilO = t o? (45" + Q/21
solution: In a triaxial testthe cell pressureactsas the minor principal Similarly, for the second and third samples, the following equations are
stess,while themajorprincipalstressis thesumof thecell pressureandthe obtained:
deviatorstressal failure.Tbe valuesof o3 ando1 areshownbelow:
Nq+2c4$=1.97 ....(ii)
SampleNo. os (kg/cm2) oa(kglw2) or (kgcqr2) and, 1.5/V6+ k,/q = L63 ...(iii)
1. - 0.5 0.80 1.30 (i) from(ii) weobtain,
subtracting
2. 1.0 o.97 I.97 0.5f0 - 0,67, of, ilO = 1.34
3. 1..5 L.t7 2.67 ort haf (45' + Q/2) = 1.34
{i) Graphical solution : Three Mohr circtes are constructed and a 0rt tan(45' + i/2) = 1.157
common tangent is drawn tlrough them (Fig. s.13). The shearparametersare
found to be :
olt 45'+$/2=49.7
oft {/2 = 4.2"
c = 0.27W*r2
ot, 0 = 8'4'
0 = 8.5" f'
Substitutingfor f in eqn.(i),
(0.s)(1.34)+ (2c) (1.157)= 1.3
ort c = 0.27W*?
Check: Substitutingtle valuesof c and0 in eqn.(iii), we get,
L.H.s. = (1.s)(134) + (2)(0.27)(1.1s7)
=2.63=RH.S.
Problengp<A sampleof &y coarsesandis testedin thelaboratorytiaxial
appamtusin the undrainedcondition.Under a cell pressureof 2 kg/cm', the
samplefailedwhenthe deviatorstressreached4.38kg/cm'.
(i) Determinethe shcarparameters of thesoil.
0.75 1-0 12.5 1.5 1.75 2-00 2.25 ?.50
(it At what deviator stresswill the soil fail if the cell pressurebe 3
N o r m o lS t r e s s( K g / c m 2 |
kg/crn'?
Solution: Here,o3 =2kglgri,aa= 4.38kgor?.
Fig.8.l3
01 - <r3+ o/ = 2 + 4.38 = 6.38kg/cr*.
(ii)Arulytical solution: Fromcqn (8.6)wc havc,
 ?ol
2OO Problemsin SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering Shear Strength

With o3 =Zk{an? and o1 = 6'38 kg/cm2,a Mohr circle is drawn (Fig' SampleNo. Ccll pressu;e Deviator stress^at Pore pressureat
(kgicml failure (kgicrn') failure (klcm')
8.14).
'sincetlesampleismadeofcoarsesandandsinceitisinthedrystate'
1. 1.0 2.U2 0.41
passesthrough
no apparent cohesion will develop and the failure envelope
2. 1.5 z.t8 o.62
the origin.
to the Mohr.circle
Iriorder to locate the failure envelope,draw a tangent J. 2.0 2.37 0.70
fromtheorigin.Byrneasurement,theangleofobliquityofthislineis3l''
Hence, the shearParametersare:
' Detennine the shearparametersof the soil considering
c = O , O= 3 1 '
(i) total stresses(ii) effective stressess.
(ii) We have, from eqn; (8.6)' solution: The values ofcell pressuresand deviator stressesgiven in the
o1 =o3Nq+2c4$ problern aia the total stressvalues.The conespondingeffective stressesmay
o1 = 03 lV6 be obtained from the relation :
Asc = 0, ".
o ' = 6 - l l
01 = 03 tan21+5' + Q/2') "'(i)
or,
The major and minor principal stresses,consideringthe total stress
(\a analysisaswell aseffectivestressanalysis,aretabulatedbelow :
E
c'l
o3 o1 o'3 g'l
Sample ad
= gg"r"1 1- -;r)
v,
No. (kg/cm2) (- ol + oa) Gc/"-1 ( - a s - * ) ot
v, (kg/cm") (kg/cm:)
o,
+
L
(kg,/cm2)
tt
L
E
1. 1.0 2.U2 3.U2 0.41 0.59 2.59
o,
E 0.88' 3.06
3/'l 2. 1.5 2.t8 3.68 0.62

t, 2.0 2.37 4.37 0.70 1.30 3.67

NormolStress (Kg/cm2) Total stressanolysis:Three Mohr circles are drawn using the three sets
of values of o1 and o3. In Fig. 8.15, thesecircles are shown by firm lines. A
Fig.8'14
common tangent is drawn through them, which is the failure envelope for
Here,o3 =3k{u?,0 = 31' toal stressanalysis.From the figure we obtain.
'
g'37kg/ctt c =o.75 Wt"f and O = ?.5
o1 = (3)[tan(45"+ 3r"/2)f =
Effective stess analysis:In this casethe Mohr circles are drawn with the
Deviatorstress'o7 = 01 - 03
three sets of values of o1' and o3'. In Fig. 8-15 the effectivc stresscircles are
- g.37-3=6.37 kg.tt
representedby broken lines. Thc values ofthe correspondingshearstrength
^ paramete$ are,
problen g.l {Tl" tollo*ing resultswereobtainedfrorn a laboratorytriaxial c' = 0.65 kg/un2 arld O' = 13'
test with aX6ngementsfor porepressuremeasuremenls:
t
202 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering SIrcar Stengtlt 203

Now, a7 = a1 - 63

: 6.05- 2.5= 3.55us/""?

e

.Y
q -o--+
O -13o
Herrce the required deviator stressat failure is 3.55 kg/cm2.
(iD Let the required cell pressurebe xWMr?.
o 6l=6d, lo!'

6 olt 01 =l;68+r ...(ii)

c -
_G I.
' 0 5 Substituting for o1 and 03 in eqn. (i), we get
c =0 ' 7 5
t t.5 2-0 a.o oil
1.68+x=2.Il7x+O.757
I l--. nn -33 0ft l.Ll7x = 0.923
ntitni'' '
N o r m oS
l tressllQ/cm2) ot, x = 0.83
.'. The requiredcell pressureis 0.83 kglonz.
Fig.8.15
Problem $A*Tlie following aretheresultsof a setof drainedtriaxial tests
,.' -- mmdiameterand76mmheight:
Problgm S.|{'fle shearstrengthparametersof a given soil are, c 0.26' performedffiree identicalspecimensof3S
kglcm" an{ 6 = 21'. Undrainedtriaxial lests are to be carried out on i
i'
specinensof this soil. Determine: Sample No. $ll preslure
Deviatorload Change in Axial
, (kN/n') at failure Volume Deformation
, (f deviator stressat which failure will occur if the cell pressurebe 2.5 (kN) (cc) (mm)
kglont.
1. 0.f/11 - 0.9 51,
(ii) the cell pressure d-uring the test, if the sample fails when the deviator :50
stressreaches1.68 kg/crn'. 2. i00 0.659 - 1.3 7.O
Solution: - 1.6
3. 150 0.0956 91
(D We havefrom eqn.(8.6).
01 -o3'lVq+zc'l$
Determine ttre shearparametersof the soil.
For thegivensoil,g = O.26kgc#and Q - /1' Solution: The deviator loaJs at failure corresponding to each cell
ffo * t"n2(as"+ Q/2) = ut(45" + 21"/2) = 2.1!7. pressurearegiven. In order to determinethe correspondingdeviator stresses,
these loads are to be divided by the correctedarea of the sample,which can
and 1fr; - AtrI - 1.455 be obtained from
Hence,eqn (8.6)reducesto :
"^c =vrtLv
or - 2.117os + (21(0.26)(1.455) Lr-LL
ot; at - 2.1!7 a3 + o.757 ....(i) Here, Vr - Initial volume of the specimen

When a3 - 25Woo2 - (n/4)(3.82) (7.6) cc

o1 -(Lll7)(LS)+0.757 = 86.19cc
Lt - 7'6crrr
- 6.05kg/ct&
zo1 Problems in SoitMechanics ttnd Fottndation Engineering Shear Stengtlt 205

For the first sarnPle,A V = - 0.9 cc and AI = 5.L crn

/r'
problenr SWAv unconfined compression test was performed on an
86.19- 0.9 = undisturbed sample of norrnallyconsolidatedclay, having a diameterof 3.75
n" = 7f,:ilf
12.03 c-mz = I2.A3 * 10-4 m2
cm and 7.5 crn high. Failure occuned under a vertical compressive load of
t 16.3kg. The axial de formation recordedat failurewas 0.9 cm. A remoulded
0.0711 =
:. ad= 59.L0kN/rn' sAnrpleof the same soil failed under a compressiveload of 68.2k9, alrd the
12.03x 10-a correspondingaxial cornpressionwas 1'15 crn-
and,o1 = 03 + oa = 50 + 59'10 = 109'10kN/rn2 Determine tle unconfined compressivestrengthand cohesionof the soil
for two othersarnplesarecomputedin a similar in the undisturbed as well as remoulded state.
The majorprincipalstresses
tabulatedbelow: Also determine the sensitivity of the scil and hence classify it
manner.Thc resultsare
accordingly.

Sample o3 Fa LV AL Ac od o1 Sofution: (a) Undisturbed state :

No. 1rxlm2) (kN) (*) ("m) (".2) GN/#) ltcN/m2) Initial areaofcross-sectionofthe sample,
- 0.9 5,1 12.O3 5 9 . 1 0 109.10
I 50 0.0711 As = (ni4) (3,7il2 = 11'04crn2
2 100 0.085e - t.3 7.0 t7^36 69.50 169.50
t = + = ffi = o.r,
Axialstrainarfailure,
15(l o.tB56 - 1.6 9.1 12.65 75.61 225.61,

Corrected atea,Ar=
*
Threc Mohr circles are constxuctedand their common tangent is drawn.
Ttris is the failure envelope of the soil (Fig. 8' 16)' -= 11'04 - 1"55cm2
= L.'
By neasurementwe obtain, T=-d.tz
"
c = 25 kN/rn', O = 3.8 = 9.27kg/anz
Normalstressat failure=
#
stength,4u = 9'27kg/cri
Unconfinedcompressive

J t4 = 4.64kg/cn?
F and,cohesion,= + =
; t00 L
o
Y
stote:
(b) RemouMed

= 1T. 3
15 1.153
o
h s n
-=L
ct
0
c
a. = , 1l#sl = 13'o3cm2
:y!_L__ 50 r00 150 n'= #.L* = 5'?3ks/cm2
-3t n32nn It Az
l t r e s s( K g / c m 2 l
N o r m oS 4u 5'23 )
or' c=;=;=2'62kglcIn'

Fig.8.16 sttengthin theundisturk

Scnstttvlty=@t"
246 Prablems in Soil Mechanies and Foundation Engineering ShearStrength 2W

9'n
- L1"' 7 torque head at failure was 417.5 kg-cm. The vane was then rotated very
- ' '7
5.23 rapidly in order to comptetely remould the soil. It was found that the
As the value of sensitivity lies between I and2,the soil is classified as remoulded soil can be sheared by applying a torque of ?-83.2kg-cm.
a low sensitivesoil. Determine the shearstrcngthof the soil in the undisturbcd and remoulded."-
Probfem S.+4.;lftf ,9U triaxial test, a soil sample wa^sconsolidated at a cell statesand its sensitivity.
pressure ot}Yg/cffiz and a back pressureof I ig/cm2A for 24 hours. On the Solution: Weknow tha!
next day, the cell pressurewas increasedto 3 \E/cm'. This resulted in the
development of a pore pressure,of 0.08 kgfcrn'. The axial stresswas then
gradually increasedto 4.5 kg/crn', which resulted in a failure of the soil. Tlie
pore irressurerecordedat failure was 0.5 kg/crn'. Determine Skempton's pore
S -

"nfr
'?)
pressureparameters
A andB. Here,If=llJS cmandD= 7.5cm,
Solution:We have T
S -
L , u = B [ A o 3 + A ( A o 1- Aor)1, whereAandBare (xl (7.52)(rr.25/2 + 7.5t6)
Skernpton'sporepressure -- s - -
T
Orr
parrmctcls. ttr3.67
hrthefirstcase,Ao3 = 3 - 2 - lkg/em2' Ao1 - I state,f = Ctl.Skg-cm,
In the undisturbed
o . 0 8 + B [ 1+ A ( O - 1 ) l 4175 -
S - o37Wr;rr2
rtt}.67
or, B(l - A) - 0.8 ...(D
In the remouldedstate,T = 733,2kg-cmr
In the second case,

A cr1- 4'5 - t - lsVcrf, Ao3 - 0

0.50- 0 . 0 8 - 8 l O + A ( 3 . s - 0 ) l
Sensitivit, -W- 1.48
or, O.42- 35A8 ...(iD
Dividing (i) by (ii), weget,
l-A - 0.08 EXERCISES
15 A 0.42 8.1. The normal stresssacti4gon two orthogonalplanesof a soil
1 - A sampleare250kNlm2and110kN/m{ Findoutthenormalandsbearstresses
oft "
T-o'6'l ofl a planeinclinedat 60 to thedirectionof themajorprirtcipalsress.
'or,
l - A - 0.67A, or, A - 0.6 [Ans. o = 215 k]-.[/m2,r = 60.6 trtl/m2]
SubstitutingthisvalueforA in (i), wc obuin t.2. The stressconditionson a soil elementare shownin Fig. 8.17.
B(l-0.6)=0.08 Dctermine:
I (D The orientationandmagnitudeof thc principalstesses.
I 0.08
^ = a 7 = u n^
oI, E .z actingon thehorizontalandthc verticafplanes.
(ii) The stresses
I
I .
Problem ttfl6. A vane sheartest was carried but in the field to determine the [Ans. (i) ot = 2,76kg.t] at 98.5'witb horizontal; 03 = 0.83 Ug*rz at 8.5'
sbearing strength of a deep-seatcdlayer of soft clay. The varte was 11.5 crn withhorizontal(ii)o11 - 0J7kg/artz, aH - -0.3k4/cm2;
high and 7.5 cm across the blades. The equivalent torguc recorded at the ov = 2.72kg/c.rr?,av= 0.3 Ugl*r2l

J
248 Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Foundotion Engineering
Slrcar Strength 209

lKglcrs? lKglcn? 8.5. In problem 8.4, if the water table rises from a great depth to the
ground surfaceso that the soil becomesfully saturatedand its natural moisture
2Kglcn2 content increasesto l9%o, how will the shear strength on the given plane
change? [Ans. Reducedby 0.85 t/m']
8.6. The stressconditions on an infinitely small soil elementare shown
in Fig. 8.19.Find out the magnitudeand directionof the principal stresses.

[Ans: o1 = 1'68 kg/cm2 at 12' to the horizontal

03 = 0.47 kg/cn? atl02' to the horizontal]

0'5Kglcr]
Fig.8.17 015Kg1c62
8.3. Fig. 8.18 illustratesthe stressconditionson a soil elemenl
(i) Determine the normal and shear stresseson the planeX-X.
(ii) Draw a free body diagram of the element bounded by plane X-X
and show thesestresses.

1l tn2
X

Fig.8.l9
2.5iln2 8.7. The results of a direct sheartest perfonned on a soil sample in a
2 . 5 tt n ? shearbox of 6 c-rnx 6 crn size are given below:

Shearforce at failure (kg.)

Fig.8.18
Plot the failure envelopefor the soil atrd detennine its shear parameters.
(iii) Prove
trrat
theu* o'iii',
i,TJi::?ftg*,r, r =0.65rg.'/,l [Ans.c=0,0=33']
8.4. Thesubsoilat a siteconsists of a5 m thickstratumof a cohesionless 8.8. A given soil has a unit cohesion of 2 vumzand an angleof internal
soil which is underlainby a rock layer.A surcharge of 5 t/m2is placedon the friclion of 28'. Samplesof the soil were testedin the laboratoryi4 a triaxial
groundlevel.Thepropertiesof thesoil areasfollows: apparafusunder the undrained c-nndition.Determine :

G = 2.68,e = A,7,w --6Vo,S= 30' (i) Deviator stressat failurc when the cell pressureis 1.5 kglcm2.

Determinethe shearstrengthof the soil on a horizontalplane at a depth (ii) The applied cell pressure,if the sample fails under a total vertical
of 2 m below the G.L. pressureof 5.09kg/on2. tAns. (it332 k4.lcmz, (ii) z.s kg/cmzl
[Ans : 4.8? t4n']
8.9. A set of triaxial testswere performed on three samples of a isoil.
The cell pressuresand the deviatorstressesat failure are given below:
210 Problems in Soil Mechsnics and Fottndation Engineering Shear Stengtlt ztL

Sample.No. CellPr. (kN/m2) Deviator stress(kN/m-) 8.f3. A set of triaxial tests were perfonned on three samples of a
line-grainedsoil. The height and diameterof eachsamplewere 75 mm and
I 2M 690 37.5 mm respectively.The following are the results:
2 300 855

J 400 1030 SampleNo. Cell Pr. Deviator load Axial Deformation

$il"fi (tg) (".)
1 1.45 29.5 0.98
Plot Mohr's circles of slressand determinethe apparentcohesionand
"1
angle of internal friction. [Ans. c = 112 kN/m' , 0 = 27 2 2.70 37.9 L.t3
8.10. A direct sheartestwas performedin a 6 cm x 6 cm shearbox on 3 ? 42.8 1.16
a sample of dry, colresiortlesssoil. Under a nonnal load of 40 kg, failure
occurred when the sheariug force reached 26.65 kg. Plot the Mohr strengtlr
envelopeand detenninetbeangleof slrearingresistanceof the soil. Detennine Determinethemissiugvalueof cell pressure
in testno. 3.
graphic:allythe rnagnitudeand direction of the principal stressesat failure.
8.14. The following resullswereobtainedfrorn a set of consolidated
=
[Ans. $ = 36"i o3 = 0.64 kg/crnz at 27" to Il, o1 2.47 kglcn? al ll7" ro Hl uudrainedtestswith arrangernents
for porepirssuremeasurernents:
8.11. Two triaxial tests were perforued on sanples of a moist soil in
an unelrainedcondition. The all-round cell pressuresduring thesetwo tests TlestNo. I 2 J

were 2.5 kg/crn' and 4.0 kg/on' afid the sarnplesthiled under deviator stresses
of 4.85 kg/crn' and 6.70 kg/crn' respectively. Detennine the apparent Cell Pr.(kg/cmJ 1.0 2.0 3.0
cohesiou and the apparent angle of shearing resislanc:eof the soil (i) Deviator Stress(kgicm') L.31. I.62 1.89
analytically (ii) grapbicallY.
Do you expect to obtain the sarnevalues of the sbear pararnetersif the Porepressure
(kg/cmJ 0.18 0.42 0.86
samples were tested in a drained condition ? Explain your answer with
reasons. [Ans; c = 0'59 kg/crn', Q= 22.q'l
Detennine the shearparametersof the soil, considering (i) total stress
8.12. Irboratory triaxial testswere perfornred on three soil sarnplesof (ii) Effective stress.
3.8 cm diameter and7.6 on height.The following resultsrvereobtaitted:
[Ans. (i) c =A.46kglclr2,0 = 6.5'

SampleNo. Cell Pr, Deviator load Changein Atial (ii)c' = 0.42kg/crt, 0' = 9.8'l
(kdcm') at failure volume (cc) Deformation 8.15/ Aa unconfined compressiontest was perfonned on a silty clay
(ke) (cm)
samplq/of 4 cm diameter and 8 cm height. The sarnple failed under a
1 0.5 45 1.1 0.92 compressiveload of 23 kg and the deformation recordedat failure was 1.42
cm. A triaxial test was performedon an identical sampleof the samesoil. The
z 1.0 52 L.5 1.15 all rouncl cell pressurewas 1 kglon2 and the sample failed under a deviator
'/ z.o L.22 load of a 39.5kg, The axial deformationrecordedat failurewas 1.L8cm. Find
3 79.5 L.7
out the apparentvaluesof shearparameters(i) graphicallyand (ii) analyti-
"J
cally. tAns c = O.70kg/cm',$ = 4.5
Plot Mohr's circles and determine the apparent val'ues ot\hear para- 8.16. 421.5 cn long c:ylindricalsoil sanrplehaving a diameterof 10
melers of the soil. [Ans. c = 1 kg/crn', e = 18.7"] crn was subject to an increasingvertical compressiveload. Failure occurred
2t2 Problemsin SoilMeclnnics qnd Foundation Engineering

whentheloadreachedl5lkg,andlhecorrespondingaxialdeformationwas
2 cm. The sarnplewas made of clay and had the following properties
G=2.67,s=O.69,w=26Vo
:
9
Determine the sndarparametersof the soil
o, =
[Ans' 0 = 0 c A'77 kglc11n'i BARTH PRESSURE
cylindrical
8.L7. An unconfiinedcompressiontest was performed on a
a height of 75 mm' The sample 9.1. Inhoduction: It is often required to maintain a difference in the
soil sample having a dihmeter of 3?.5 mm and
23.5 kg. The axial strain recorded at elevation level of the ground on the left and right hand sides of a vertical
failed afa vertical cornpressiveload of
plane was observed to be inclined at 53' section. Such sihtations call for the construction of an earth-retaining
failure was L.16 "* .od the failure
the soil' structure,e.g., a retaining wall or a sheet-pilewall. The earthretainedby such
to the horizoiltal Determine the apparentshearparametersof
= 16"] a structure exerts a lateral thrust which is of paramount importance in the
[Ans. c = 0.68kg/on2, 0 design of the retaining structure.
an
8.L8. A triaxial test was performed on a sample of dry sand having Depending on the conditions prevailing at the site, tle lateral earth
5 applied
"ppui.",6urlue of 36'.Initialiy, a chamberpressureof TglT.ytt pressuremay be divided into the following three categories:
Keeping this
and the deviator stress was gridually increasedto 3 kg/on''
was the. gradually reduced. Al (i) Earth pressuteat rest.
deviator stressunchanged,the cell pressure
what value of cell pressurethe sample will fail? (ii) Active earth pressure.
[Ans. 1.05tg/"*2] (iii) Passiveearth pressure.
to prevent
8.19. Determine the minimum lateral pressure required" 9.2. Earth kessurc at Rest: Fig. 9.1 (a) shows a retaining wall, embedded
to a total vertical stress of 10 kg/on'. The shear below the ground level upto a depth D, and rctaining earth upto a height l/.
failure of a soil subjected "'
given as : c = 0'3 kglcm', I = 17'5 If the wall is perfecfly rigid, no lateral movement of the wall can occur. And
parametersof the soil are
hence,no deformation ofthe soil can take place.The lateral pressureexerted
[Ans.4.94 xgcrtl
by the soil is then called the earth pressureat rest.
an undisturbed
8.20. A laboratory vane shear test was performed in
vane were 6'3 mm and
sample of soft clay. The diameter and height of the S o i tW e d gA
eBt
an applied torque of 110 gm
if .: *- respectively' The sample failed under
by rotating the vane rapidly'
cm. The ,.*pl" was ttren "ott pi.t"ly disturbed
" torque of'45 gm-cm' Determine the
The rernouldid soil failed ,tna"t
in the undisturbed an{ remoulded states
undrained shear strength of the soil Ur',
respectively; 2'5]
and compute its sensltivity.- [Aor.0. 55 and}.22kglurr2 Pa
in
8.21. If a field vane shear test is performed on the soil mentioned
determine
above problem,witha vane of 11.3 cmheightand 7.5 crn diameter,
required to fail the soil in the undisturbed and remoulded states'
the torques
[Ans. 670.6 kg-cm; 268'2kg-cm]

Fig.9.l
 Earth Pressure 2t5
214 Problems in SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering
4. On any vertical plane in the soil adjacent to the wall a coiljugate
Theconjugaterelationshipbetweenthelateralearthpressureandthe relationship existsbetweenthe lateral earlh pressureand the vertical
vertical overburden pressureis given by: overburden pressure.
ol = Ko'ov, or oh = Ko'\z "'(9'1) This theory was later extendedby other investigatorsto take into account
cohesivebackfills and walls with batteredbackface.
where K0 = co-efficient of earth pressureat rest'
The equation governing the relationship between the major and minor
Y = unitweightof soil principal stresses,acting on a soil element, is given by,
z = depth at which lateral pressureis measured' o 1= o 3 N 4 . k - q ...(e.3)
The value of K6 dependson the properties of the soil and its stresshistory, where,Nq= (45" +"Q/2)
and is given by:
0 = angle ofinternal friction
& =t h .,(e.2) c = cohesion.
Let us consider an intinitesimally srnall soil element at a depth Z below
where, p = Poisson'sratio of the soil.
the ground level, adjacentto a retaining wall, as shown in Fig. 9.2'
9.3. Active and Passive Earth Pressupes: In reality, a retaining wall is not
rigid, but flexible, i.e', it is free to roiate about its base' In Fig' 9'1(a)' let
pl and pg,be the at-restlateral thrusts acting on the back and front faces of
the wall respectively. Due to the difference in elevation levels, Po , Po''
t.toyeySond
Hence, a flexible wall will yield away from the bac$fill. The soil wedgeABC
will then tend to slide down along the potential slidilg surface BC. This
I = 1 ' 8 5t / m 3
condition is illustrated inFig.9.1(b). The frictional resistanceFR againstsuch 3m Q=2t"
movement will act upward alongBC. Its horizontal componentFs will act in c=1tlm2
the opposite direction to that of Pg. Thus the net pressureon the wall
will I
decreaie. Such a stateis called the active stateof plastic equilibrium, and the
lateral pressureis called fte active earth pressure'
J-
1'5m/
0enseSantl
Y = 1'95t/m3
simultaneously,thesoil w edgeDEF inftontof the wall getscompressed.
The frictional resistanceFn' io this case acts along ED and its horizontal
J-l @=36o

Fig.9.2
componentFg' actsin the samedirection asthat of P6', Hence the net pressure
on the wall increases. Such a state is called the passive state of plastic o,, = vertical overburdenpressureon lhe elemenL
equilibrium and the lateral pressureis called the passiveearth pressule..
orr = lateral earth pressureon the elemenl
The active and passiveiarth pressuresare usually computed by either of
the two classical ""tth pr"tt.tte theories, viz., Rankine's and Coulomb's According to the fourth assumption stated above, a conjugate relation-
theory. ship exists between,ou and otr . The relationship is similar to the one
g.4. Rankine's Earth Pressure Theory: This theory is based on the expressedby eqn. (9.3). However, the exact form ofthe equation dependson
following assumPtions: thi prevailing conditions, i.e., whether the backfill is in an active state or in
l.Thesoilishomogeneous'semi.infinite'dryandcohesionless. a passive state.
2. Theback of the wall is perfectly smooth and vertical' (i)Active state :
3. Deformation of the wall is sufficient to create a state of plastic
equilibrium' In this cas, <r1 = oy, and 03 = ott
But, o, = 1z
2t6 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering EarthPressure

and, or, = active pressureintensity = pr' f

.'. Eqn. (9.3) gives,
\z = pa'ilq + 2cVF
II
\z 2c ...(9.4)
of, n = L - :
ro /. .t H
'l{o vflo
(ii) Passive state :
t{d
;,ta-
I toT
Here, o1 = oy, and ot = 6u
But, ot, = yz
and,o7, = passivepressureintensity = po
-r.tlt
^ h ^

l -J *otH+-
_L
Ht3

(ol (b)
.'. Eqn. (9.3)gives,
PP=YzNq+?*fi ...(e.s) Fig.9.3

9.4.1. Computation af Eorth PressureUsingRsnkine's Theory z Fig. 9.3 (b) shows the disnibution of active Pressure intensity. The
magnitude cf resultant thrust per unit length of wall may be obtained by
(A) Act ive Earth Pressure: multiplying the averagepressureintensity by the height of the wall.
(a) Cohesionless soils: 0+K-yH 1
For a cohesionlesssoil, c = 0. Average pressureintensity,pou =
i.*or,
.'. Eqn (9.4)reducesto
_ t L = _ n . : = ^ = y r\F. i1; *+ lsinf
Pa = N+
=
.'. Resultantthrust,P4
IX,IH'H
=
l,*'rrr'
...(e.8)
tan" 145" + g/2) Q
"'(9'6) It is evihent from eqn. (9.8) that the resultant thrust is given by the area
or, Po = Kalz of the pressuredistribution diagram. This thrust acts through the centroid of
the hiangleA.BC, i.e.,is applied at a heigbt of Hl3 abovethe baseof the wall.
where, Ko = co-efficient of active earth pressur" = i;*l* "'(g'7)
(ii) F ully Submerged B aclfill:
Eqn. (9.6) and (9.7) can be usedto compute the active earth pressurefor This condition is shown in Fig. 9.a (a). As the soil is frrlly submerged,its
various backfill conditions, as discussedbelow: effectiveunitweightis'
(i) Dry or Moist Baclfill with Horizotxal Ground Surface: T, = ysar_ yw
Fig. 9.3 (a) shows a retaining wall supporting a homogeneous'backfill of At any depth z below the top of the wall, the total active pressureis the
dry or moist soil, uPto a height.FL t
sum of pressuresexertedby the soil and water. According to Pascal's law, a
At any depth z below the top of the wall. I
I fluid exerts equal pressurein all directions at any given depth.
Po = Ko'{ z I Hence, at a depth z,

Ar the top of the wall (z = A), Po = O Pa=KaY'z+Ynz ...(e.e)

At the base of the wall (z= 14, Po = Ko:v'H The corresponding distributiondiagramis shownin Fig. 9.4 (b)
pressure
(iii) Part ially Submerped Bqcffit t:
(a) Backfill havingsimilarpropertiesaboveandbelowwatertable:

I
218 Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineertng Earth Pressure 219

Eqns. (9.10) and (9.11) may be usedto determiile the resultant thrust aild
its poirit of application correspondilrgto any pressuredistribution diagram'

KqYhr
T D
lB
Y1 Pz
P r l
iPs
(o) (b) v Yz F_
I

Fig'9.4

Ilr Fig. 9.5 (a), the retainiug wall has to retain earth upto a heightfl. The
ground water table is located at a depth ft1 below ground level. The active (o) (b)
pressureintensities are given bY:
Fig.9.5
Above ground water table: Po = Koyz (O s z s h)
Below ground water table: Po = Koyhl + Koy'z + ynz (A < z s h2, (b) Backfill having ditterent propertiesabove aild below water table:
zbeing measuredtfromG.W'T.) Fig. 9.6 (a) and (b) illustrate this backfill condition and the corresponding
Fig. 9.5 (b) shows the correspondingpressuredistribution diagrarn.The pressuredistributiott diagratn.
resultant active thrust pbr unit run of the wall is given by the entire area of
this diagfam. It is easierto detennine the areaby dividing it into a nurnber of
triangle and rectangles' In Fig. 9.5 O). 11- Kqrlrhr
I I' q=11h1
Pt = LABP,
Ps = LDEF,
P2 = areaof BCED
P4 = LDFG. ttst
H I I ,
Resultantactive thrust,
n

Pn=Pt+P2+P3+Pa=)4 ...(e.10)
j-1

The point of application ofP4 canbe determinedby taking moments of y'ro

**r,n,i*"rtin4
individual pressureareasabout the baseof the wall' Thus, f l
Pa'l = Pfr + PzJz + P1Y + PaYa (q) (b)

Fig.9.6
2 't''t (iv) Baclcfill with UniformSurch'arge:
i-l
0f' v=-;- Fig.9.7 (a) illustratesa retainingwall supportinga backfill loadedwith
lp,
2 a uniforrn surchargeq. The correspondingpressuredistnbution diagram is
t- 1 shownin Fig. 9.7 (b). Frdm the figure it is evidentthat the effect of the
220 Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering

surchargeis identical to that of an imaginary backfill having a heightzo placed EarthPressure 221
above G.L., where,

'- " _- q
Y- .,(e.r2)

T
zs=gttl-t,,
9/unitareq

* -)r
H
Fig.9.8

I BC = H (1 + anetan p) ...(9.14)

I
J-
onthisimaginaryplaneBC,usingeqn.
(iv) Determinetheactivepressure
(e.13).
(v) For designingtheyall, computethe self-weightof the soil wedge
J*ou tQlH'-J ABC andconsideris effecton thestabilityof thewall separately'
(o) (b)
Fig.9'7

(v'SBaclfill with a SlopingSurface,

The conditionis shownin Fig. 9.8 (a). The activeearthpressureat any
depthz belowthe top of thewall actsin a directionparallelto thesurfaceof
the backfill andis givenby:
Po = KolH

where, &=cosp # ...(e.13)

(vi)Wall Having an Inclkd Bac$ace:

In order to determine the active earth pressure in this case using
Rankine's theory, the following stepsshould be followed (Ref. Fig. 9.9) Fig.9.9
(i) Draw the wall section and the ground line. (b) Cohesive-ftictional Soils:
(ii) Draw a vertical line through the base of the wall to intersect the
From eqn. (9.4), the active earth pressureat a depth z is given by,
ground line at c.
(iii) Compute the length8C from: .rz 2c
n = L - :
re /{6 Vffo
 r +L{w4
'JrrQ
Ipv'
222 Problems in Soit Mechanics {tnd Fottndotion Engineering Earth.Pressure 223

k or, Pp = Ko\z
Atz = 0, pa =
v1%
where, Kp = co-efficientof passiveearJhpressure
A t z =eH^ ,= f rf t No=oo'(a5"+$/z)

Let H"bethe depth at which pressureintensity is zero. 1 + sin$ 1

^{H" '{H" l-tittq=4
2c ^ =U,Or, 2c =&
rt-q ", Fig. 9.11(a) arld(b) showsa retainingwall subjectedto a passivestate'
andthe corresponding passivepressuredistributiondiagram'
ZE\q
or, H, _ ...(e.1s)
I

--{G
, 2 c
]'- -4-
1b
2clNo H
6.j
r y I
L
I o h e s i o n l e sSso i l C- * Soil
{o} (b) (c)
,
d Fig.9.11
J.-tH -r,
' N @ / F _l o l
{o} (b) (b) Cohesive-fr i ct iono I Soi Is:

Fig.9.10 From eqn. (9.5), we havc'

- P p = Y z N q+ 2 c ' [ $
Fig. 9.10 (b) sbows the distribution of active pressure.The negative side
of this diagram (i.e., A abc) indicatesthe developrnentof tensiottupto a depth For the retainingwall sltowu in Fig' 9.1i (a)'
flr. Since soils cannot take tension, rracks will be formedin this zone. Tbe Atz=0,po=Zcfi
depth .I{, is, therefore, called the zone of tension crack. The resultant lateral
thrust is obtained by computing the area of the positive side of the diagram alz=H, Pe=tHNr+Ufi
(i.e. L, cde). ThecorresponctingpressuredistributiondiagramisshowninFig.9.ll
(B) Pcssive Errrtl, Pressurei (c)'
(a) Cobeslonlesssoils:
soil, eqn.(9.5) reducesto:
For a cohesiortless
PP = ^lzNf
 22s \
EartftPressure.
224 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fottndation Engineering
andthc failurc
In the activc statc,thewall rnovcsawayfrom thc backfill
As it slides down' frictional
wedge C.BCtends to move downwards'
r"sisln"es actupwardalongthebackfacc of thewall (soil-walllifion),anO
6i+Qtz of rhefrictionalforceFar,
the failureplane(soil+o-sol rruion;. In absence
backface'Butnow
theactivethrustPwouldhavebecnactingnormallyonthe
Fx, is inclincdat an angle 6 to the normalon the
the resultantP4 of P and
backface.Duetosimilarreasons,thcsoilreactionR4willalsobeinclinedat
an angle{ to thc normalon thc failurclurfacc'
Thesamcargqmcntsleadustothcconclusionthatinapassivestatealso
to the normalson
P -{n rii arwill b! inclinedat angles0 andf respectively
nr
^nafC.However, in thc actlve the
state, linesof action of Pa andR4 lie
whcreas inthe passive the
state' linesof action
belowthc respectivcnormals,
of P- andR- lie above
""'A them.
of
B il"b.t oigt.pniol andanalyticalmethodstqr tllaejgrn]i'ation
Coulomb's theory'
trt"rui ""rtl prorit"iave beenproposedor thebasisof
a ) A c t i v eS t o t e b ) P o s s i v eS t o t e The mostirnPortantmethodsarc:
Graphicalrnethod: (i) Culmenl.'smethod
o (ii) Rebhann'sconstruction
Fig.9.t2
Analyticalmethod: (i) Trial wedgemethod'
9.5. coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory: Instead of analysing the stresses
may refer to any
on a soil element, coulomb considered the equilibrium of the failure soil 'Soil of thesemethods,the reader
For detaileddcscriptions
Mecbanics. However the application of these
wedge as a whole. The rnajor assumptionsin Coulomb's theory are: standardtext-bookof
illustated in this chapterby a number of workcd-out
,n"*noO,havebeen
(i) The soil is dry, homogeneousand isotropic.
problems.
to solve more
(ii) The failure surfaceformed due ro the yielding of the wail is a plane
Some of the special techniquesrequiredto enableus
surface. irregularitiesin the shapeof
complexproblemsinvolving externailo;ds, or
(iii) The failure wedge is a rigid body.
the watt or the groundssrfac-havedso bcendealt with'
(iv) The backface of the wall is rough.
(v) The resultant thrust acts on the backface of the wall at one-rhird
heigbt and is inclined to the normal on the wall at this poinr at an EXAMPLES
./
angle 6 , where, prcblem g.{ nS m brghrigid retainingwall hasto rctaina backfill of dry,
6 = angleof wall friction. cohesionlesssoil havingthe following properties:
Basedon this theory,the lateralearthpressurecan be determinedby the
trial and error method. As the location of the actual failure surface is nor (i)Plotthedistributionofhteralcarthpressureontbewall.
known, a numberof potentialfailure surfac'.es andpoint of appticationof rheresultant
are chosenand the lateralearth tiii ij"t"rrr"e rhc magnftude
pressureis determinedfor eachof tbem.The one for which the lateralthrust thrust
in thelateral'thrustif the waler table
' ' Computetbe pcrcente"ng-"
reachesa certainextremevalue (rninirnumfor active stateand rnaxirnumfor (iii)
passivestate) is accepredas the true failure surfar:e,and the corresponding risesfrom agpeatdepthto the top of the backfill'
lateral thrust is acceptedas {he active or passivetirrust.as the casemay be.
9.S.l Wallfriction: The conceprof wall fricrion is illustratedin Fig. 9.12 (a) Solution:(i) Bulk densityof thc dry backfill,
I
anri (b).
I
t
t
226 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fotrndetion Engineering 227'
EarthPressilre

rd=*=?T#? =t,54t/nf. Problem 9.2. A retaining wall with a smooth,vertical backfacehaos

of
surcharge 5 t/rn"
to retaiu
is placed
a sandbacktill upto a leignt of +.5 rn. A unifonn
As the wall is rigid, the lateral pressureexerted by the backfill is earth over the backfill. The witer table is at 2 m below G.L. The specific gravity
pressureat rest. of solidsand the void ratio of thebacktill are2.68and 0.82 respectively.The
Co-efficient ofearfh pressureat rest, soil above the water table has a degree of saturation of lo7o. The angle of
internal friction of the soil, both aboveand below water table, is 30'.
Ko==L = 'o'tf='=A56?5 Detenninethe magnitudeand point of applicationof the resultantactive
1-p 1-0.36
thruston the wall.
At the top of the wall (z = 0), po = 0
Solution: Bulk densityof the soil abovewater table,
At the baseof the wall (z = 5 m), p0 = Ko\z G + s e
y=
(0.s62s)
(1.s4)
(s.0) | +7'l*
(0.10)(0.82)
= 4.j3/mz -2.68 + (1) = 1'517t/rn3
1+0.82
The distribution of lateral earthpressureis shown in Fig. 9.13.
densityof thesoil belowwatertable,
Submerged
(ii) Resultantlateral thrust on the wall (consideringunit width),
G-1. 2 . 6 8- 1 r , , = 0 . g 2 3 t / m 3
1 4 Ysub=lllY,=11-537(r/
Ps = lKgyH'
Co-efficientof activeearthpressure,
= (r/2!(0562s)(1.s4)(s.o)z 1-sin30' 1
= 10.83 t per m run K"=fi61F=5'
The resultant thrust is applied at a height of 5f3 = t.67 m above the base
= Ko = /l)<t.ol = t.67t/mz
dueto surchatge
Activepressure I
of the wall.
Ir l
(iii) If the water table rises to the top of the backfill, the soil wilt get.fully
at B dueto moistsoil abovewatertable
Active pressure
submcrged.
= Kr,tz= tt.ttt)(2) = r.or ttmz-
= +;+' t,"= (##)
Ysub ttr = o'e65
t/nz [})
Active pressureat C due to slbmerged soil
Resultantthrust
=
1 n l = 0.77t/mz .
= KaTsubr= fl Q.gz3)(2.5) ,
*
|*oy,ubH2 |t.tf \'/
= (r/2) (s.0f [(0.e6s) Lateral PressureexertedbY water
(o.s62s)
+U
= 19.?8t per m run 5m = \wz = (1) (2.5) = 2.5 t/trf .

Percentincreasein lateralthrust
= f19.28
-
f i x I 0 A10.83
Vo I
J-
The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9'14'
The resultant active thrust is equal to the areaabcde. For convenie
this areais divided into a numberof trianglesand rectangles.Considering
= 787o, width of thewall,

Fig.9.13
 EarthPressure 229
228 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatbn Engineering

Solution: Coefficient of active earth pressure,

^ s"or - ff-o'- *70-

5t ln2
Kd=co e0m

=(coslu=l:
. coslo"-G-'1{-re = 0.296
t-
cos10" + Vcos' tO" - cos'32"

thrust,P4 = I *" ,rf

Resultant
/1\
= []l1o.zro) (s)2
(r.82)
Yl
= 6.734t/m
This thrust is inclined at 10" to the horizontal (i.e., acts parallel to the
ground surface) and is applied at a heigbt of 5/3 = 1.67 m above the base of
(bl the wall.
Problen 9.4. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back has to retain a
Fig.9.14 backfill of cohesionlesssoil upto a height of 5 m above G.L. The soil has a
P1 - ( 1 . 6 7 ) ( 4 . 5- ) 7 . 5 1t void ratio of 0.83 and the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. The water
!r=4.52=2.?5m
table is located at a depth of 2 m below the top of the backfill. The soil above
= fif 1t.ot1(2)
- 1.0tt the watertabl eis2}Vosatutated.The angleof internal frietionof the soil above
P2 h= 2.5+ 2t3=3.r7m and below water table are found to be 32' and 28' respectively. Plot the
\")
Ps - (1.01)(2.5) - 2.52 | 2.512= 1.25m distribution of active earth pressureon the wall and detennine the magnitude
h=
and point ofapplication ofthe resultantthrust.
/r \
Pa - l|l1o.tt + 25)(2.5)- 4.691 ta= Z.SR
= 0.83m Solution: Bulk density of the soil abovewater table,
\"1 G+se
Rcsultantthrust P6 - Pt + P2 + Pg + Pa t t w
l + e
- 15,13t pcrmrun.
2.8 + (0.2)(0.83) = 1.55 t/m3
The point of applicationof this thnrstabovethebaseof the wall may be ffi-(1)
obtaincdfrom eqn.(9.11).
densityof thesoil belowwatertable,
Submerged
.Y -_ -(7.s1)(2.2s)+ (1.01)(3.17)+ (2.s2)(1.2s)t(4.0e) (0.83)
15.13 -
Ysub?# t" = ?u-!;sl0) - o'etttnf
- ?5.64 -
Gfr l'76m' Active earth pressureabove water table:
/ Co-efficient of active earth pressura,Ko, - -0.307
Prublem ?3/ A 5 rn high masonryrctainingwall hasto rctain a backfill of i#fffffff
sandysoil fi6vinga unitweightof 1.82gm/ cc andan angleof internalfriction
AtA(z - 0), pa = 0
of 32'. The surfaceof the backfill is inclined at an angle of 10' to ihe
horizontal.Determinethe rraFitude andpoint of applicationof the active AJB(z-zm|pB-Kor\zl - (0.307) (2) - o.sSvrt
(1.55)
thruston thc wall.
,1"".--
 234 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 231

Active pressure below water table: In this casethe upper layer (i.e., the ./
Problem 95 For the retaining wall shown in Fig. 9.16 (a), plot the
moist soil above water table) should be treated as a uniform surcharge, for
distribution of active earth pressureand determine the magnitude and point
which the interuity 4 is equal to the self-weight of the layer.
of application of the resultant active thrust.
q = yzr = (1.55)(2) = 3.I\t/mz
-1o7st_
" I - sin 28" -1vd4-
Now, K,r=i;;;F=o-361

AtB(/ = 0), pa = Ko.e = (0.361)(3.10)

= t.tTt/n?
1-- A L ooseSond
1m (y=1.54tlm3,+= 2f )
AIC(z'= 3 m ) , p c = K o " e t K o " , y " o 6 z+' y n z ' f-
1.2m
L,ooseSond
= r.1,2+ (0.361)e.92)(3) + (1X3) {lro1=1'8t/m39=22o;1
=1.12+0.99+3 C
DenseSsnd
= 5.llVmz (Yo1=2.05t/m31
The pressuredistributiondiagramis shownin Fig. 9.15(b) + = 32o)
/1 \
Now , P=1 l : l @( O.e s)= 0 .e 5 t/n yrJz+2/3=3.67n D L
Yl
P2=0.12)(3)=3..36ttm lz = 3/2 = 1'5rn f zooJ"l--2.30-+
(q) (b)
"r = fll(0.ee+ 3)(3)= 5.e8t/m!3
= 3/3 = rn
\.J Fig.9.16
= Pt + P2 + P3
ResultantthrustP4
Solution: Active pressuresexertedby various strata are as follows:
= 10.29t perm run.
StratumI:
t_-p!6)(1.5)+ (s.e8)
(t)
10.29 " iin ' 7? { -o = 0 . 2 1 0 6
<
I -
K- ='
"at
= 1..41. m 1 + sin25"
.', The resultantthrustof n.29 t per m run is appliedat 1.41,m above pe=o
thebaseof thewall.
pB = Kor,trHr = (0.406)(1.64)(1.0) = 0.67t/m2

While computilg theactive

Statum II: This stratumis frrlly submerged.
eadhpressurein this region,shatumI is to be treatedasa unifonn surcharge
t/m2'
0.95 of intersity q1,where,

Qr = Trq = G.64)(1.0) = I.64t/nf .

3'67mI | - sin22' = 0 . 4 5 5
Now, K""=
t*G6
pB = Koz ql = (0.455)(1.64)= O35t/^2.

Pc = KozQt + Kory'2H2 + ynH2

- 0 . 7 s + ( 0 . 4 s 5 ) ( 1 . 8 0- 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 ) + ( 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 )
(sl
Fig.9.r5
232 Probkms in SoilMechanicsandFoutdation Engineering Earth Pressure 233

= 0.75 + O.M + L.2 = 2.3gt/n? Hence the resultantactive tlrust of 10.315t per m run is applied at 1.409
m abovethebaseof thewall.
StratumIII: Equivalentsurcharge I
Prcblen-{.5. A retaining wall with a smoothvertical backface has to retain
eZ=ltH1 +y'2H2 a backfill of c - $ soil upto 5 m above G.L. The surface of the backfill is
- (1.64)(1.0) + (1.80 - 1.0)(1.2) horizontal and it has the following properties:
-.Z.ffiVtt. y = 1 . 8t / r f , c = l.5t/m2,0 = 12'.
- pressureon the wall.
|' sin 32', t
K",-i;jffi-0.307 $)?tot the dishibution of active earth
.(iipetermine the magnitude and point of application of active thrusl
(flglDeterminc'the depth of the zone of tension cracks.
Pc=K".82+lnHZ (iv) Detennine the intensity of a fictitious uniform surcharge,which, if
- (0.307)(2.60) + (1.0)(1.2) placed over the backfill, can preventthe formation oftension cracks.
(v) Compute the resultant active thrust after placing the surcharge.
- 0.80 + !.2 - 2.0OVn?.
PD-Pc+Ror{gHg+l*Hg Solution: Thewall section is shotrn in Fig. 9.17 (a)
- ZtX) + (0.307)(2.85 ' 1.0)(2.3) + (1.0) (2.3)
* ZW + OJ4 +,L3 = 5.04tht.
The distibution of activeearthpressureis shown-ihFig.9.16p)
I
1?fht-
Computationof forcesandleverarms: 2'06n
P1 = (0.5)(1.0)(0.67) = 0.335t/m /r = 3'5 + l0/3 = 3.83m
s-I
Pz = Q.2) (0.?5) = 0.90t/m h = 2.3 + t.2/2 = 2.90m f-I
P3 = (0.5)(r.2)(0.44)=0.2641/mh - 2 . 3 + L - 2 / 3= 2 . 7 o m '94m
Pa = (0.5)(1.2\(1.2\- 0.72t/m lq = 2.3 + 1.2/3 - 2.70m I
Ps = (2.3)-(2.0)= 4.6t/m fs = 2-3/2 = 1.15m J-! c

P6 - (0.5)(n)Q.74) - 0.851t/m % = 2.3/3 - 0.77m '17r/#l-

(o) (b)
P7 = (0.5)(2.3, (2.3) = 2.&5 t/m h = 2.3/3 = 0.77m
' , t
Fig.9.17
Pa,= D Pi = Lo.3tSt/m
For a c - $ soil, the intersity of activeearthpressureat any depthz is
i-L
givenby:
n

i-l IAaa
o , -vzf r -@
2c

Y='--=ffi=1'409m Here, = 1.525

ff' = oo'(45' + t2'/21 - 1g11251'
\Z. P ,
and, = 1.235
;- l 4
At the top of thewall (z = 0),
 Earth Pressure 235
234 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering

= - (?{1'i)= -2.43
t/m2. - (2]=(1'l= 5.et/n2
- :'z t !t='--e)(s)
+
Vilo r.235 1.525 1.235
The pressuredistribution diagram after placing the surchargeis shown
At the base of the wall (z = 5 m), in Fig. 9.17 (c). The resultantactive thrust in this caseis given by,
pr=(# W=3.47t/mz. PA = (0.5)(5.9X5)= 14.75t/m, appliedara heighrof 5/3 = 1.67m above
the base.
The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9.17 (b).
The depth of the zone of tension ffack is given by, Problem LZA'ietaining wall of 5 m height has to retain a stratified backfill
as shown in Fig. 9.18 (a). Find out the magnitudeof total active thrust on the
H"=?:ifi, wall and locate its point of application.
Solution: (i) Sandy silt layer:
(2)(t'tlt'zrst -
olt r. - 2.06m. iv{ - tan2(45" + 2o'/z) = z.o4
The resultant active thr,ust is given by the part abc of the pressure 166 - 1.438
distribution diagram.
Pn =
- _-( -2r) z
( 13. 0E) -_a - rr 't o
r ,l / y 1 2 .
= 5.!ot/n2 -/
.^ = fl Q.s4)(3.47)
\" J
PB = (1.8ilg'e)_ (2](1.i0)
= 0.33t/m2.
The point of application of P4 is located at L946 = 0.98 m, above the 2.04 7.438
v
baseof the wall. (2)(l'-o-)lt'a3e)
The maximum negative pressure intensity developed the top of the
at H" = = 1.55m
wall = -2.43 t/mz. Evidently, the formation of tension cracks canbe prevented
by placing a surcharge q on the backfill which can neutralise this negative (ii) Loose sandlayer:
pressure,
Now, after placing the surcharge4 the vertical shess oy at any depth Z a,=f-ffi=033
is given by, interuity,41= (1.85)(1.9)= 3.5LVri
Equivalentsurcharge
ov=q+\z
pB = Kozql = (0.33)(3.51) = t.t7th#.
o+vz 2c
/ ) ^= + - : ...(i)
rA No Vtro Pc = KozQr+ Koz\2H2= 1.L7+ (0.33)(1'72)(1.0)
'
# .- 2 c
= l.I7 + 0.57 = t.74t/^2.
A t z = 0 , p e =,,0 VFo' (iii) Densesandlayer:
But the magnitude of q is such that, at z = 0, pA = O,
a,=l-ffi=o'26
ft-#,r=o Equivalent
surcharge
intensity,qz=(f .S5)(1.9) = 5.?3r/mz
+ (1.72X1.0)
or, (r.23s)= 3lt/m2.
Q = ?rvN; = (2)(1.s) Pc = Kot,qz= Q.26)(5.23)= 1.36t/mz

atz= H, O^=
Again, PD=Kotch+KorlsHl
W ft = 1.36 + (0.26)(1.88)(1.6)
236 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundqtion Engineering
Earth Pressure 237

= 1.36+ 0.78= 2.14th?

at 10' to the horizontal. The angle of wall friction is 20'. Determine the total
of forcesandleverarms:
Computation lateral pressureexertedby the backfill, using:
(a) Culmann's method
- a139/,htr (b) Rebhann's method.

SondySitt T
1.55m
Solution: (e) Culmann's method: Fig. 9.19 illustrates the solution of the
problem by Culmann's method. The procedurpis explained below:
Y= 1'85t/m3
1.9m c = 1.0t/mz t \ (i) The backfacc' -B is drawn to a scaleof I : 100.
,
I Q= 20" 0'33t/m2 (ii) The ground line AC, S line BC and rp line 8X are drawn. Here,

f { - 9d' - (o + 0) - 90" - (n" + 8') = 62'.

1.0m
LooseSond
't=1'72tlm3,@=30o to;il, (iii) The pointsD1, D2, .'., Dg arc chosenon AC at equal intervalsof 1
+-
I Dense Sond
P1 m. BDyBD2, ...,BDgarejoined.
(iv) From B, BN L AC is drawn. Its length is measuredand is found to
1.6m Y= 1 ' 8 8 t / m 3 be 4.06 m.
0= 36o Yt
I )- Alternatively,BN = BA'cns(cr - F) = rr'cosG: (l
F)

I r.:slo.zs
D cos
I -=
(a.0) cos (10'- - 8')
= 4.06 m
(o) {bt cos 10'

Fig.9.18 (v) Considering unit width of the wall, the self-weights of various
wedges are computed.For examPle,
P1 = (0.5)(0.35)(0.33) = 0.06r/m, y1 - 2 . 6 + 0 . 3 5 / 3 = 2 . 7 2 m
Weigbt of the wedgeABD1 = W, = *'AD1' BN '7
P2 = (1.17)(1.0) - L.t1 t/m, Y 2 - L.6 + 1.0/2 = 2.10m
P3 - (0.5)(1.0)(0.57)- 0.29t/m, h = 1.6 + l.O/3 = 1.93m = (0.5) (1.0) (4.06) (1.78) = 3.61 t per m'

P4 = (1.36)(1.6) - 2.l8/m, Y 4 = L.6/2 = 0.80m Weight of the wedgc

P5 = (0.5)(1.6)(0.78)= A.62t/m, ys = 1.6/3 = 0.53m ABDr = Wz = TWr = (2) (3.61)- 7.22t/m.

= 18.05Vm
Similarty,Wr = 10.83t/m,W+=14.44tlm,Ws

i * - 4'32t/m Wo=2l.66tlm,W =?5.27Vm,W3= 28.88t/m.

i - 1 (vi) Using a vectorscaleof 1 crn = 3,61 t/rn, the weightsof various
n wedgesare plotted alongBC, and the points C1, C2, ..., Cg are

i-l <t< Oii) iHffi',Cr/,rll atr1.

tointenectBDl
8x isdrawn
!---;--*ffi,=1.216m (viii) Similarly,a numberof lincsaredrawnparallclto thery-lineBXfrom
S P- t . thc pointsC2,C3,...,Cg,alld thecorrespgnding intersectionpoints
Z. arelocated'
E2, Eg,".,, EgwithBDz,&fu,, ..., BDgrespectively
i - l
(ix) The pressure cuweis obtainedby jotnngEy E2,...,Egby a smooth
Problem 9.8. A 4 m high retaining wall has a backface inclined at a positive curve'
batter angle of 8'. Thebackfill (1 - 1.78 t/nf , 0 - 30") is inclined upwards
238 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundarion Engineering Earth Pressure

0\
c-!
O. 6
oo oo
lJ.

o
N
(o
ll
l-
24O Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
EarthPressure 2.41
CE denotes the
(ix) A tangent to this curve ls drawn at E, such that
is joined and extended
maximum ordinate of the pressurecurve' BE
is the failure plane'
to intersect the ground line at D' 8D
the distance C4
The magnitude of t6 resultant active thrust is given by
the length of which is found to be 1'58 cm'
P,1 - (1'58) (3'61) - 5'70 t/m'

(b)Rebhann'smethod:Fig.g.20illustratesthesolutionbyRebhann's
method. The procedure is as follows:
(i) The backface is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100'
8C and rp-line BX ate draq'n'
lilj fn" ground lineAC, $-line
fiiii e semfcircle is <irawn with BC as diameter'
A,AE BX is drawn to intersectBC at E'
iiui fto* ll
ff I BC is irawn to intersect the semi-circle at F'
f"l
BF as radius, an arc FG is drawn' It intersects
liij Wm a as centre and
BC atG.
(vii) From G, GH ll 8X is drawn to intersectAC at 'FL
and GIr as radius, an arc I{r is drawn to intersect
li.iiii witn G as centre
BC atI.
(ix) IIIis joined.
(x) HJ LBC is drawn'
The total lateral thrust is now given by,
P,q - weight of the soil wetlgef/IG
1
= +'GI'HJ'y
- 5'77t/m'
= ,-0.r,(2.76,(L35t(1.78)
Fig.9.2l
rough backface-taving a
Problern g"9. A gravity retaining wall with a
backfill upto 4.5 (ii) The ground-lineAC Q-line BD and rf-line BX are drawn'
positive batter angle of 1b", has to ietain a dry, cohesionless
m above G.L. Tbe properties of the backfill are : Here,Q = ff) - (10' + 15') = 65'
(iiD An arbitrarypoint E is taken onBD'
\*llkN/m3,Q-?5 (iv) A setni-circle is drawn with BE as diameter'
Theropoftbebackfillisslopedupwardsat20.tothehorizontal.Theangle (v) EF lleC is drawn.lt interscctsA-Bat F.
the total active thrust on the
of wall friction *"y u* taken as 1i" Determine (vi) r.G ll BX is drawn. It intersectsBD at G.
wall bY Rebhann's construction' (vii) GIl L BD is drawn. It intersectsthe circle at-Fl
arc II1 is drawn to intersectBD
Solution: This protrlem cannot bc solved
by the conventional 1"iiij witn B as centre and 8Il radius, an
and will meet at a great distance at I.
Rebhann's rnethod, as te groundJine f-line
However, certain modifications over Rebhann's (ix) F/is joined.
l'.' B is nearly equa! to 4 i' is presented in Fig. ( x) N ll F/ is drawn. A"I intersectsAD atJ.
method will enable * * u,olu*the problem. The solution
(xi) From .[ JK ll BX is drawn to intersectA C at K'
9.21, while the procedure is explained below : an arc KL is drawn to intersect
of 1 : 80' lxiii Witn J as cente and JrK as radius,
(i) The backface of the wall, A8, is drawn to e scale BD AtL.
144 Problems in SoilMechanics and Foundation Engineering ('tmsolidotion 145

I'robleu-5r3:- A 3 rn thick layer of silty clay is sandwitchedbetween

lwo Iayersof densesand.The^effectiveoverburdenpressureat the ceutreof
thc silty clay layer is 2 kg/cm" . Howver,due to the constructionof a raft
lirurrdation,this pressureirtcreasesto 4 kg/on' .
Laboratorycousolidationtestwas performedon a 2.5 cm thick sarnple
ol' thc silty c:lay.Under applied stressesof 2 kglcnrz and 4 kg/c,m2 the
conrpressionsof the sample were found to be 0.26 cm and 0.38 cm
rcspcctively.Cornputethe probableconsolidationsettlernentof the raft.
Solution : Using eqn.{6.20),
S, = frr'Ho'LP
wltt'rc, IlO = ittitial thickness
--iltA-p-l-- Su b- toyer = 2.5 cm for the soil sampleand 300 cm for the soil in-siru.
I
4p = changein effective pressure
3m 1 m - - - LlJ e.z-- -{ ILA!3.- S u b - t o y e r =4-2=Zk,/cnz.
II
mu = co-etficieut of volume changefor the pressurerangeof
1m *--illo:--JrL^-P;- Sub-toyer
2kglcm'to 4 kg/cm'
III
l'or lht:laboratorytest:
Rock
lrritialthicknessof the sarnple = 2.5cm
Fig.6.4
Tlricknessundera pressureof 2kglctnz =2.5 -0.26 = 2.24sn.
. (100)(0.387)'to8to 0.781+ 0.471 =
- -l-] Thicknessuudera pressureof 4 kg/on2 = 2.5- 0.38= 2.12crn.
,s =
r", 4.81cm.
gq66 -tt
.'. Changein thicknesswh"enthe pressu.re
Sub-layerII: Depthof middle = 5.5m' irrt'reasesfrorn 2 kg/cm" to 4 kg/on" =2.24-2J2= 0.l2c.lrn.
pm = (4) (1.72) + (1.5)(1.85) = 9.655t/t# = O.965kg/artz Frorn cqn. (6.20)

(3) (200) -
0.t2 = (m")(2.s)(2.0)
Mc = = 3.157t/ri = o.3l6kg/cnl
(2)(3.14)
(s.sr or, m, = 0.024. z/kg.

" =
J", - (100)(0.387).loglo --
0.965+ 0.316 -
2.89cm Again, using eqn. (6.2q, ilre consolidationsetflernentof the silty clay
1 + 05,5 0.965 Inyt'r,
Sub-layerIII: Depthof rniddle = 6.5 m sc = @.024)(300) (2)

pw = (41(1.72)+ (2.5)(1.35)= 11'5t/m2 = r-lllq/cmz = 14.4cm

l'nrble4a$,4,.-' Due to the constructionof a new strucfure the average
ar._i@\=2.26cm vcrfit'a"lpressureat.the centreof a2.5 m thick clay layer increasesfrom 1
(6.sr
(2)(3.14) kg/r'rn" to 2 kg/cm". A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a 2
setllement = 4'81 + 2,89 + 2.26
.'. Totalcstimated crrrthit:k undisturbedsampleof the clay. Under appliedstressesof 1 kglon'
= 9.96cm. l rrd 2 kg/cm" the equil ibrium thicknessesof the samplewere found to be 1.76
r'ru lrrd 1.63crn respectively.On reinovingthe stresscompletely,the thick-
 ('on.rolido lion t47
t46 Problems in SoilMeclmnics snd Fottndation Engineertng
.'. Rcquired cousolidatiou settlemeutof the clay layer in the field
nessinc--reased to 1.88c:m.Tht: final moisturecontentand the spec-ificgravity
,5. = rn,,llg Ao
of solids of the samplewere found lo be297o and2.7l respectively.Conlpute
the probable settlementof the structure'
consolidatiott = (0.08)(2s0) (2 - 1) = 20 cm.
solution: Irt e; and Il;be the tinal void ratio and thicknessof the llcnct:, lhc rt:quiredsettlementof tlie structure = 20 cm
sarnple. l)rrrblenr *Y In a laboratoryconsolidationtest,the void ratio of the
wG -= -(0.29)(2.71) silnrlllc rcducedtiorn 0.85 to 0.73 as the pressurewas increasedfrom 1 to 2
Then, "- t _
= (1)
= o.786
, kg/t'rnr. If the co-efficientof penneabilityof tbe soil be 3.3 x 10{ crn/sec,
LH Le r l cl cr r ni n c :
Again, (i) co-efficicntof volume change
H l = l + e r
(ii) co-elficicnt of coruolidation.
Solution : Usingeqn.(6.2),
where, AH = changein thicluressdue a giveu stress
Ae = correspondingchangein void ratio' L,e 1.
and, frv=
l+es L,p
AH
ol, A e = ( t + e 7 ) . u . I lcrr', eo = 0.85,
"I

ef = O.lgO, and H1 = 1.88cm. Ae = 0.85 - 0.73= 0.r2

Here,
N t = z - | = Ilf./cmz
Ae= (1 + 0.786)
#t mv .1=0.065"*z/kg
of, Ae = 0.95AH "'(i)
Agrin, usingequ.(6.7),
when o = 2.okg/cn? , NI = 1.88 - 1.63 = 0'25crn
6s = (0.95)(0.25) = 9.239 c '. , = k
frr\n
Hence,void ratio at o = Z.}kg/cm" = ef - Le
lf trc, m , - 0 . 0 6 5" n 2 / k g
= 0.786 - 0'238 = 0'548'
- 0.065 t 10-3 "rn2/grn
Again,when o= l'0kg/cn?' NI = 1'88- 136= 0'12trm
' = 6.5 x l}-s anz/gn
Le = (0.95)(0.12) = 9'114
o = 1.0kg/cm2 = 0'786 - 0'114 k - 3.3 x 10-4 cmlsec.
Hence,void ratio at
= 0.672. y- - 1 gm/cc.

Letm,,betheaveragevalueoftheco-efficientofvolunrechangeinthe 3.3 x 10-a

cr= = 5.07" 2/""".
pressurerange of 1'0 to 2.0 kg/on-. (6.sx to-5)(t)
We have frorn eqn. (6'2), f'nrblcnr d' g6 rn thick clay layeris drainedat botq lop and bottom.
Le 1 'f'lrc
rrr clli<'icnt of consolidationof the soil is 5 x 1oe cn(/sec. Determine
mv
l+eg Ao llrr tirrrr rcquircd for 507oconsolidationof the layer due to an externalload.
(0.672- 0.548) . Solullon : Usingequ.(6.9),
_
- = = J- ^1.0)= o . o 8 r 2 / k g '
(2.0
(1 + 0.548)
148 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 149

T -
cr't
- a ,,=sffq=
375crn
If
a
T,' h2 (0.197)(375)'
Tr.t? '= = ---0.0246 - mtn
ot, I =
C,
c,

n(u\2 r u / 5 0 \ 2=
= ffi0^' "
For 50% consolidation, Tr, =
Al-trrl a[.'*/ 0.197.
= 782 days = 2 years 1 month and 22 days.
H 600
For double drainagecondition, h = 300 cm . Problem QV't"a laboratory consolidationtest, a 2.5 crn thick sample
2 2 of'<'lay reached60% cnnsolidatiron in 17 minutes under double drainage
and, 5 x 10-a"nl2,/r.". corrdition. Determine the time required for 6OVoconsolidation of a layer of
lhis soil in the field under the following conditions:
(0.197)(300)2 (i) when a 3 m thick layer of the given soil is sandwitched between
, s e c =3.546 x 107sec lwo sandlayers.
5 x l0-'
(ii) when a 5 m thick layer of the soil is overlainby a sandlayer and
3.546x 107 . rundt:rlainby a deeplayer of intact shale.
oays = 410 days.
s6400 Solution : Using eqn. (6.11), the time factor for 60% consolidation
Problem fy Araft footing is to be constructedon a 7.5 qrn thick clay
T, = 1.781 - 0.933 logls (100 - 60)
layer which lie3 betweentwo sandlayers.In order to predict the time rate of
settlernentof the building , a 2.5 crn thick undisturbed sarnpleof the soil was = 0.?a6
tested in the laboratory under double drainagecondition. The sample was Again, using eqn. (6.9)
found to have undergone5O%corsolidation in 12.5 minutes.Determinethe
time required for 5O%settlernentof the building. Tr,' h2
,'r' -- c ' ' t ' or, C, =
Solution : We hdve from eqn. (6.9), It2
In thr: laboratory test,
C r x t Tr-t?
T,, = a t of, C, = t = 17min.
h'
h = 2.5/2 = 1.25cm
In thelaboratorytest,
(0.2s6)(r.?52=
7, = time factor for 50% consolidation = 0.197 vv = ---di-
a
0.A263cm'/min
t = 12.5min.
( i ) Here the soil layer is drained at both top and bottom
H 2.5 =
h = l.?5 cm
2 2 H _ ( 3 )(2)
(1oo)=15ocm

(0'285X150f
,' - = z44nxamin= r70 days
0.0263
In case of the actual building,
( i i ) In this casethe soil layer is drained at top only
T' = 0'197
H=5m=500cm
 Consolidation 151
150 Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundotion Engineering
*rfl
(0'4q)-L5-00)z -L = 0'0974'
', - = 2 1 l 8 6 3 n n i r t = 1 t t 8 8 r l a y s= 5 . 1 7 y e a r s .
0.0263
,/
Problem Q/ The consolidatiottsettletnentof a new structuretbunded ()f, ,,
u == v&q*e-e.ozo
t = 35.22o/o
on a 5 m thick layer is estimatedas 6.5 cm. The structurewas found to have 3.14
settledby 1.6 cm in 6 monthsafter the completionof couslruction.If the c{ay ll x be the amouutof settlernent.then
layer is underlainby rock and overlainby a layer ofcoarse sattd,detennine:
(D tle timc required for 50% consolidationto occut U=4;xr00
o.)
(ii) the amount of settlementwhich will take place in the next six
montls. or, '=T# =z.z()cn
Solution : Degreeof consolidationoc:curredin the first six months
1..6 Problem &J${ndisturbed sampleswere collec-.tedfrom a 3 m thick
= x Lo07o = 24.627a t'lay stratumwhich lies betweentwo sandstrata.A laboratoryconsolidation
;;
It:sl was performed on a 2.5 crn thick sarnpleof the clay. During the test,water
Time factor for U = 24.62Vo
was allowedto drain out only throughthe top of the sample.The time required
T, = (x/4) (24.62/10q2 = 0.048. t<tr 50Voconsolidationwas found Io be 35 minutes. Determine the time
rtquirt:d for 60% and907oconsolidationin the field.
As single drainagecondition is prevailing, lt = 5 tn.
Solution : As the samplewas testedunder single drainagecondition,
Using eqn. (6.9),
h=H=2.5crn
(o#8,)(t2)
tu = -1o;1ru,1 = 6.67x 1o-3^z/d^y. Again, for U = SUVo,wehave Tr= 0.t97.
Usingeqn.(6.9),
(i)For50%consolidation, time factor, 7,,= O.197.
Using eqn. (6.9), '' = gfft = o'o3s
"'n2'l*i"'
T,x h2 (0.1e7)(s2)
= 738.4days Now, tbr 607oconsolidation, = 1.781- 0.933 logls (100- 60)
C, 6.67 x lO-' = 0.286
= 2yearsand8.4days.
For a double drainagecondition,
(ii) L,et U be the degree of consolidation that will take place in the next
six rnonths, i.e. at the end of 1 year since the completion of construction. We t,t = H = ; 3n = l50cm.
have already found that the time required for 5O% consolidation is 2 years i
and 8.4 days. Thus, degreeofconsolidation occurredin 1 year must be less Tu*'h'
than 50Vo. t6o = -7:
The corresponding time factor may be determined using eqn. (6.10),
"r.P (0.286)
(1so)2
T" = (n/4)(U/LOC)' = (0.03s)
40000
Again, using eqn. (6.9),
= 183857min
= 127.7days o 128days
(6.67x 1g-3)(36s)=
Tr= o.oe74. For 90% consolidation, T,x = l'781- 0.933 logls (100- 90)
(5")
= 0.848.
r52 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fottndation Engineering Consolidotion 153

,u*.* at 2 rn below the ground lev-el.The unit weight of sandabove and below water
tco = iable are 1.90 and 2.10 t/m'. Tbe propertiesof tbe clay are as follows;
C,
Initial void r'atio= 0.72
= 545143
min specificgravity of solids = 2.71
*"*tP
f iquid limit = 427o
= 379 days.
co-efficient of consolidat ion = 2.2 x I 0-3 cm2/sec.
Pnoblem 6.1I. A flexible footing of 2 m x 2msize carries a total load
of 490 kN, inclusive of its self-weighlThe footing restson a sandlayer having Dclennine:
a modulus of elasticity of 400fi) kN/m' and a Poisson'sratio of 0.38. Estimate (i) Probablesettlemenrof the raft.
the probable settlement below the cenlre and below any orie corner of the (ii) The time required to undergo a settlementof 5 cm.
footing. Solution : (i) The soil profile is shown in Fig. 6.5. The clay layer is
Solution: We have, from eqn. (6.19), divided into three sub-layersof thickness 2 m each. The settlement of each
rub-layer rnay now be computed using eqn. (6.21),
- t') r-
s ; =- R 0 E
'I'
.,*, Pt
L , H = H- n ' r Q -'opo'
l+e6
Here, intensity of loading
The computation of settlementfor the first sub-layer is shown below :
= g99]- = 02.5kN./m2 q = (0.00e)(42 - 10) = 0.288
(2) (2)
B = 2 m eo = A'72
p = 0.38, E = 40000kN./m2 Ho = 2m = 2l)0cm.
The influencefactor//may be obtainedfrom table6.1., Dcpthofmiddleofthe sub.layerbelowG.L. = 8 + 2D =9 m
/y(corner) = 0.56
/1(centre)= L.12.
11.6m_J
Roft
Immediatesettlementbelowthecentre,
(I=1'90
t/ m3)
- @#
si(centre) '0.r2)
t Y =2 . ' t 0 t / m 3 )
* 0.59 crn Sond
Immediate settlement below the corner

S;1--e4- = o.295crn. Ctoy

ff 6m ( e e =g , 7,26 = 2 . 7 1 ,
Problen 6.12. A 6 m thick clay stratumis overlainby a 8 m thick r o L = L 2 a /Cov = 2 . 2 x t 0 - 3 c r l l s e c l
sua$m of coarsesandand is underlainby an impermeableshale.A raft I
> zlzz> >7 t>>7>rr>zt> r2l=t>z>7ztz ,>z ,2
footing, supportingthe columnsof a building, is to be foundedat a depthof
1.2 rn below groundlevel. The sizeof the raft f 8.5 m x 13.6m, and it is I m p er v i o u s S h o l e
loadcduniformlywith a stressintensityof 9.ztlm' . Thewatertableis located
Fig.6.5
 154 Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundqtian Engineering
Consolitlalion 155
Initial effective overburden stressat a depth of 9 rn below G.L.
= 0.317
= stressdue to sand above water table + stressdue
to sand below water table + stressdue to clav As single drainagecondition prevailsat site,
h = H = 6m = 600crn.
/b = y ft1 + yru6h2 + y.1^,h3.
Here, ulit weights of sand are : tlsing eqn.(6.9),

y = I'g t/m3
7,,-fi
t=
c,
and, 'kat = 2.1t/m3
- (0.317)(6od-) = 51872327
sec
Ysub= Ysar- Y. = 2.1 - | = l'lt/m3 (2.2 x l0-'\
G + e = 60,0days
Again, Iclay
-
t w
l + e l'

Problem 613. The constructionof a rnultistoreyedbuildittg startedin

(2.7r + 0.72) January 1989t'andwas cornpletedin June 1990. The total consolidation
(l) = 2.0 t/m3
scttlcmentof the building was estimatedto be 8 cn. The averagesettlement
- 2) + (2.o - 1.0) (1) of tlrebuilding was lneasuredin Decernber1991andwas found to be 2.2 cm.
Cornputethe probablesettletnentof the building in January2001.
= !L.4t/rn2 = l.l4kg/cmz
Solution : Lrt C, be the cs'efficient of consolidationof the soil in the
Again, depth of middle of this sub-layer below the base of footing appropriate pressurerange, and Il be the effective length ofdrainage path.
=9-1.5=7.5m. Time elapsedfrom June 1990 to December l99I = 1.5 years
Using the 2 : 1 dispersion method, Degreeofconsolidationoccurredin 1.5 years.

' = ----9
6o !!- - (e'2) (8's) (13.6) - - Q'2)iroo)vo= z7.5vo
u
(B + z)(L + z) (8.5 + 7.5)(13.6+ 7.5) (8)
= 3.15t/m2 = A31^5kg/cnl2 T, = (x/4) (27.5/rm)2 = 0.059
pr = po + Lp = 1.14 + 0.315 = 1.455kg/ctn2
But, T, = _F
Cu't

^ _) ( r . 4 s s \= r'55cm'
8, 8
A r / _ ( 2 q g ) . ( 0 . 2'rogro ^-,
(r + oJD r-14 C, T, 0.059
I ,J O l t
Similarly, settlementsof the secondand third sub-layers are found to be H'
. =
7= ls
2.54 cm and 1.86 cm respectively.Hence,the total settlementof the raft
C,,
= (3.55 + 2.54 + 1.86)cm ort .= 0.039 ...(D
H'
= 7.95 cm.
Again, time elapsedfrom June1990to January2O0l = 10.5 years.
(ii) The degree of consolidation correspondingto a settlementof 5 cm,
Let U be the correspondingdegreeofconsolidation.
(5)(lm)
f f ='6 .^
u = 62'8970 Assuming U > 53Vo, T, = 1.78I- 0.933logls (f 00 - Lr)
c.. I
Using eqn. (6.11), the correspondingtime factor is,
But, r, = (10.s) '..; = o.o3el
(o.o3e)
T, = 1.78t - 0.933 togls (100 - 62.89) ?;= H ' l
= 0.4095.
 t55 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Consolidation t57
1.781- 0.933 lo916(100 - U) = 0.40995
(1'781-: -q'-4095) or, NI=H #a
of' fog16(100 - u) = = 1.47
(0.e33)
Taking antilog of both sides we get, - (2)(1oo)(q.g9s)
= 8.44crn
(1 + 1.25)
100-U=29.51 (iii) In the pressurerangeof 2to 4kg/crr2.
or, U= 100-29.51=70.497o
Amoult of consolidation settJementin January 2001 ^"=#^.b
(8) (70.49) _ < ai
_ -(1oo)
= = )'o4 cm' = = o.o2tcm2lkg.
(1 + 1.25) +
(2)
Probtem {a! e/ e,2 m thick layer of saturatedclay lies in between two
penneable lEdrt'The clay has the following properties : Usingcqn.(6.7), C,' = J-
frr\n
liquid lifrit = 45Vo
co-efficient of permeability = 2.8x 10-7 crn/scc Hcrc, k = 2.8 x 10-7cm,/sec.
initial void latio = 1.25 m v = 0 . 0 2" 1z / u ' g
The iqitial effective overburden pressureat the middle of the clay layer
is 2kg/at ,and is likety to increasei axg',t.2 due ro rhe "o*t,u"iilo or,
ln = lgm/cc = I x 1o-3t'g/cc.
new building. Determine : (2'8 x 1o-')- =
a.. - 0.0133orr2/r""
(i) the final void ratio of the clay. "
(0.021x 10-')
(ii) settlementof the proposedbuilding.
(iii) time required for SOVoconsolidation. w have, Tu= O.197
consolidation,
For 5OVo .
Solution : (i) Compressionindex, C, = (0.009) (45 -10) = 0.315. Usingeqn.(6.9),
But, by definition, T,,.h2 (0.197)QN/z)z
k
' = -T = -afi133; sec'
cr=
, Po+Lp = 1.71days.
loglo -
po-
Problem 6.L5. A laboratoryconsolidation testwas performedon a 2
ps + L,P cm thicksampleof a siltyclay,andthefollowingresultswcreobtained;
0ft A e = L" fo$19
p,
Pressure Final dial gauge Pressure Final dial gauge
L e = (0.31s)rogls{(2 + 2)/(2)} (kglcm2) reading (mm) (kslcnl) reading (mm)
= 0.095 o 5.590 2.00 3.9U
.'. Final void ratio = e6 - L,e 0.25 5.234 4.00 3.515
= l.?5 - 0.095 = 1.155 0.50 4.gffi 8.00 2.785
(ii) Let A/1be theconsolidationsettlementof the clay layer. 1.00 4.6M 0 5;224
LH- _
_ Le
The final moisture content of the sample after swelling was fouttd to be
H 1+tu
32.57o.The specificgravity of solids = 2!lO.
 159
158 Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineering Consolidation

table',"t Ot:t
(i) Plotthee vs. logP curue' Note that, in column5 of the above.
* noiff"T:;ilJl""ail t""i-'*"a*':ri''tiEdetermined
::t1"1tt:^?:::rT":
(ii) Detennile the cornpressiolindex and the co-eft'icientof volutuc : 9,tl2 I:bvsubtracting
:ll. l:1"::
changeof the soil. :il":ffiffi ffi;;;;;"*'1ry:
ofAeo:*':l1 Tri
solution: Inordertoplotthe e vs. logp curve,thefinalvoidratios ;;i;il.6roPriaie values ratiocorrespondi'g
to8kg/crn
;:ffi i'ipd;il;;il ;"id
at the end of eachpressureincrementare to be deterrnine.d'
= ef - Ae = 0'878 - 0'233 = 0'645'
The final void ratio of the sampleat the end of swelling )
.
to 4 kg/on-
andthatcorresponding
e=*G _ ( 0 . 3 2 5 ) ( 2 . 7 0=
, )0 . 8 7 t .
s (1) = 0'645 - (-0'070) =0'715
The thicknessof the sarnpleat this stage, c' and the co-effic:ient of volume
The co-efficient of compressibility' ' in col'
eachpressurerauge' and are slrowr
H = H o - M l change,tz, are then comput;d for in c'ol' 8'
values of Ct are siven
6 and 7 rcspectively' fn"'"o'nput"d scale).hav:
= 2.A - (0.5590 - O'5224)cm ."0 lp (in log
Thevaluesor rc 1lo"i'ritirr.tvt".r"j Ttn
= 1..9634cm. tneY ana i-axis respectively on a semi-loggraphpaper'to
dr;;;"; Tnf ls sbown in Fig' 6'6
Now, we have, obtain the e vs. loglg P curve'
N] Le
H l + e
. MI ,. 0.90
or, O" = + e)
T(1
0.Es
Substitutingthe final valuesof e andH, we gel,
Le = tH tt iO:#t' = 0.e565
Ar/ ...(i)
lo.
I
The c.hangein void ratio, and hencethe final void ratio after each load o
incrernent,arellow detenninedby puttingthe correspondingvaluesof AH itt ;0.
o
eqn. (i). The cornputedvalues are showttbelow in a tabular form : L
E'

mv C, 6 0
Pressure
ranSe
Pressure
itrcre-
I ncrease
in
Change
in void
Equili-
brium
'f/ Ae\
4oJ a u \ L e l
= 1 . -
ment ratto void '"g. k/ |
& NT Le ratio

(kglcm2) (cm) 1c^2/k91 (cn2/kg) 7 8910

(kg/cn2)

(1) /t\ (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (8) toglgp*

0 to 0.25 +0 .25 -o.0356 -o.034 0.879 0.136 o.072

Fig' 6'6
0.25to 0.50 +0.25 4.O274 -o.026 0.863 0.104 0.055 0.086
befoundedin a 3 m thick layerof
0.50to 1.0O +0.50 -o.0356 4.034 0.829 0.068 0.036 0.113 Problem 6.16. A raft footingis to
underlainiV t nign-vpermeable sandlayel' The initial over
1.0Olo 2.00 +1.00 4.0640 -o.061 0.768 0.061 0.019 0.203 "lry;;;;l; is likely
0.t76 burdenpressure orilt "fty layeris 2'0 kg/cmrandthis
at thece-nire
2.00 to 4.fi) +2.00 -{.0549 -o.0s3 0.715 0.027 0.014 of the raft' A 2'5 cm thick
+4.00 -{.0730 -o.070 0.645 0.015 0.008 0.199 to increaseto 4.0 kg/cm?'l;t to 'ht construction underdoubledrainage
4.00 to 8.00
-8.00
sarnpleof this soit is iesteain a consolidometet
8.0Oto 0 +0.2439 +O.233 0.878
i
l
 160 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Consolidation 161

conditio.. The followi'g data.wereobtainedwhe'the pressure

on the sampre
2000
was increasedfrom 2to 4kglan" :
1900

1800
0 I972 16.00 t727
0.25 L92L 36.00 1642 1700
1.00 1870 64.00 1555
1600
2.25 1848 100.00 I49r
4.00 1813 144.N L449 1500
9.00 1769
1400
The dial gaugeconstantis, L division = 0.002 rnin.
(a) Determine the co-efficient of consoridationof the soir by 13C0
the square
root of time fitting method. tr 6 I 10 12 1L 16 18
(b) Estirnate the time required for 50vo and g}Toconsolidatironto Fig' 6'7
occur
in the field.
From Fig.6.7, y'tco= 1l'o
Solution: (a) The procedurefor obtaining the value of C,,by the
square
root of time fitting method is explained below I /so = 134'56min
1. The valucs of the squareroots of various time intervarsat which T,(n).hz
the
dial readingswere taken are plotted along thex-axis while the corresponding Now, .-u= _6_
dial readings are plotted along the y-axis ofan ordinary g.aph paper.
Here, Ir (m) = 0.84[t, h = 2.5/2 = l.?-Scrrr
2' A number of points, each represe'ting a certain dial reading a'd the
corresponding value of vl are obtained. A smooth curve is drawrithrough
(- - (0.848)(1.25)2-
them. " = llffiI&r = L64 x 10-a.,.,2./r..
3._ The straight portion of the curve is projected to intersect the y-axis (b) The time required for 507oand90Voconsolidationto occur in the field
_
at R". This is taken as the initial reading. may be obtained using eqn. (6.9).
4. A point P is arbitrarily chosenon the curve.
5. Frorn P, a horizontal rine pe is drawn to intersect the y-axis ar
e.
, r o = W =(0.1971
(3oo)2
1.64x 10-
= 1.081x tossec
Lx.l, PQ = 4.
= L?Sldays = 3 years 5 months and 6 days.
6. The point R is chosenon projecredpe, such thal, pR = 0.15a.
7, R6 and R are joined. The line R6 is then projected to intenect the T,(gq-xh2
curve al S. t* = = (p.q{8)(iqql2
= 4.654x r'ssec
C, 1.64 x l}-a
The dial reading corresponding to s representsx)vo consoridation. Let
5386days 14years9 monthsand6 days.
t96be the corresponding time required.
162 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering
EXERCISE6
6.1. Estirnate the consolidation settlement of a 2 rn thick clay layer
which is overlain by a layer of sandand underlainby a deep layer of intact
shale, ifthe construction ofa new footing itrcreasesthe averageover-burden
pressure by 50o/o.Tlre initial overburden pressure was 2 kg,/on'. Giveu,
co-efficient of volume c-hange= 0.023 cm'/kg. [4.6 cml
6.2. An 8 rn thick clay stralurn lies between a 10 m thick sand stJatum
at top and a reck layer at bottom. The unit weight of sand is 1.75 t/m3. The
clay stratum has the following properties:
L.L. = 42c/o, w = 28.5o/o, G = 2.72
A raft footing of 15 rn x L5 rn area and carrying a unifonnly distributed
load of 20 Vm" is proposed to be constructedat the site. Determine the prob-
able consolidation settlementof the footing. The clay layer should be divided
into four sub.layers of cqual tlickness and the stress increments may be
computedby 2: I dispersionmethod.
6 . 3 . A 3 m x 3 m s q u a r cf o o t i n g , c a r r y i n g a g r o s s l o a d o 1f 2 5 t , h a s
been constructed over a 5 rn thick sand layer whicb is underlain tirst by a 6
m thick layer of soft clay and then a layer of irnpermeableshale. Compute the
consolidation settlement of the footing by considering the clay layer (i) as a
whole (ii) divided into three layers of equal thickness. Given,
unit weight of sand = 1.8 gm/cc
compression index of clay = O.42
water content of clay =32Vo
specificgravity of clay particles=2.7 KD 3.6 an (ii) a.29 cml
6.4. During a laboratory consolidation test, the void ratio of a soil
sample decreasedfrom 1,2 to 1.05 when the pressureon it increasedfrom 2
to 4kglcn' . Determine the co-efficient of compressibility and tbe co-efficient
of volurne change of the soil. Will thesevalues remain the sarne if pressure
increasesfrom ito 8 kg/crn2. [0.075 .t?/rg;o.o:+ cm2ltg]
6.5. A consolidation test was performed on a samplc of saturatcd clay
in the laboratory. Thc liquid limit and the initial void ratio of thc soil were
487o ard 0.96 respectively. What will be the final vo^idratio of the soil if the
pressur is increased from 0.25 kg/*rz to 1.0 kg/cnr2 ? [0.721
6.6. Sample of a silty clay wassubjected to a laboratory oedometertest.
Under a veitical pressureof Zkglun'the equilibrium void ratio was found to
be 1.05. On increasing the pressureto 3 kg/crn2, the final cquilibrium void
ratiq reduced to 0.93. If the co-efficient of permeability of the soil be 1.2 x
104 cm/sec, detennine the co-efficient of consolidation in t# rc^y.
[r.Ttx toa rt/aay1
Consolidation 163
6J. Estimate the immediate settlement below the centre of a
15 m x 25 m flexible raft footing carrying a gross pressureof t}t/r*.The
raft rests on a sand stratum having a modulus of elasticity of 4080 t/m' ard a
Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The influence factors are as follows :
when LlB = 15, If = 1.36
when LlB = 2.A, If = 1.52 [5.8acm]
6.8. A footing is to be constructedin 3 homogeneousbed of clay having
an overall thickness of 3 m. Thc clay layer is underlain by rock and overlain
by a sand layer. If the co-efficient of consolidation of clay be 9.5 x 10-a
cm-/sec, find out the time required for 907oconsolidation. [930 days]
6.9. The total consolidation settlernentof a building founded on a 5 rn
thick silty clay layer, drained at both ends, is estimated to be 6.8 cm. The
building is tbund to have undergonea sefilementof 2.5 cm in 3 months. The
initial void ratio and the co-efficicnt of permeability of tlie soil are 0.88 and
L2x lAa crn/secrespectively.Determinethe co-efiicient of compressibility
of the soil. [0.265 cm"/kgl
6.10. A building is to be supportedby a raft footing laid in a 3 m thick
bed of clay, which lies betueen two penneablelayers.A 2.5 cm thick sarnple
of the soil is found to have undergone50% c<lnsolidationin 3 minutes under
double drainage condition. Determine the time required for 907o consoli-
dation of the building. [129.1days]
6.11. In a laboratory consolidation test, a 2 cm thick clay specimen
reached 507a consolidation in 12 minutes. The sample was drained at both
top and bottom. A 2 m thick layer of this soil lies below a sandlayer and above
an impermeable layer of very stiff clay. Find out the degreeof consolidation
of theclay layerswhichwill takeplacein 1 year. [2?.SVol
6.12. An isolatedfootingof 2 rn x 2 m plan areais constructed overa
saturatedsandyclay sfiatumof 5 m thicftness.The soil has the following
properties. .
E=3WkN/m', p=0.36, Cc=0.3, w=35Vo, G=2.69.
Estimatcthc probablesettlcmentof the footingif it carriesa grossload
of 225kN. 112.57clnl
6.13. A 5 m thick layer of normally consolidatedclay supportsa newly
@nstru,ctedbuilding. The weight of sand overlying the clay layer is 660
grn/cm' while the new construction increasesthe stressat the middle of the
ilay layer by 450 grn/r:n2. Compute rheprobableconsotidafionsettlementof
rhe building. Given,
LL =397a, G =2,7, w=457o. [439 cm]
t64 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
6.14. The total consolidation seftlement of a.clay layer due to an
imposed load is estimated to be 8.5 cm. A setflement'of 2 crtr tooL place in
15 days. Determine the time required tor 5O7oandgUVoconsolidation.
[68 days; 292 daysl
6.15. The results of a consolidation test are shown below :
(kglcm2)
Pressure
The sample had an initial height of 2 cm and an initial mass of ll2,.O4
gm. After the completion of the test the oven-driedsample was found io weigh
81.39 grn. The specific gravity of solids was 2.71 and the dial gauge consrant
was: 1 divn. = 0.02 mm.
(a) Determine the equilibrium void ratio of the sample after each toad
incremeut.
(b) Determine the values of co-efficient of compressibility and
co-efficient ofvolume change for various pressureranges.
6.16, An undisturbed sample of saturatedclay, collected from a depth
of 5 m below G,L., was subjectedto a laboratory consolidation test. The initial
diarneter and thickness of the sample were 7.5 crn and 2 cm respectively. The
mass of the sarnple in the wet and dry s[ateswcre L75.2 gm and 138.8 gm
respectively. The final cornpressions under various pressures are shown
below:
Plot the e vs logl6 p curve and check whether the soil is over-
consolidated.
If so,determinethepreconsolidation Given,G = 2.67.
pressure.
? i
7
COMPACTION
7.1 Introduction: Constuction of structureson weak soils (e.g., soft clay,
loose sand, etc) sometimesrequires "stabilisation" of the soil mass, i.e., an
artificial improvement of ib engineer.ingproperties,
There are various methods of soil stabilisation, the most common one
being the mechanical stabilisation,and the simplest technique of mechanical
stabilisation is compaction
A soil mass can be compacted by cither a dynamic process or a static
one. In the dynamic metlod the soil is compactedby repeatedapplications of
a dead load, while in tbe static method compaction is done by a steadily
increasing static load. Generally, the dynamic merlod gives better results in
coarse-grainedsoils and tle static compaction is suitable for less permeable
fine-graincd soils.
72 Moisture-densityRelationships: Whilecompactinga soil inthe field,
it is always desirableto compact the soil in such a way tlat its dly density is
maximum. If a given soil is compactedunder a specified compactive effort,
its dry dcnsity will be the maximum at a certain moisture content, known as
the optimum moisture contenL Hence, before compacting a soil in the field,
its optimum moisture content and the corresponding dry density must be
determined in the laboratory. The test employed for this purpose is called
StandardProctor Test.
73 Standard koctor Test In this test, samples of the given soil are
prepared at various moisture contents and are compacted in t cylindrical
mould, 127.3 mm high and having an internal diameter of 100 mm. The
eample is compacted in tfuee layers of equal height, each layer being
oubjectedto 25 blows of a compaction rammer having a self-weight of.2600
gm and a heigbt of free fall of 310 mm.
Samples are cornpacted in the mould at increasing moisture contents.
After each test, weight of the sample compacted is detcrmined and ie bulk
and dry densitiesare cornputed.
A curve is then plotted to show the variation ofdry density with moisture
content (Fig. 7.1). The curve is usually parabolic in shape.Initially thc dry
166 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foutdation Engineering 167
Compaction

2.O At any given moisture content, the dry density of a soil in the fully
I
A A S H 0T e t saturatedcondition can be derived as follows:
l l
t.9 G,{n

U
ry I
(
We have, 'ld -
l + e
: t'8
E S t o n tl ord Pr octer and wG=se
3 I Test
F o r a f u l l y s a t u r a t e d s o i ls, = 1 , wG = e
> l 7 -)
IA

3 rs
/ rd= ##c "'(7'1)
L
\ From eqn (7.1) it is evident that, for a given soil, an increasein moisture
o
r.5 content will always result in a decreasein y4. Hence the zero air voids line is
always a steadily descendfurgline.

t0 15 20 25
W o t e rt o n t e n t( 7 " ) 2'0

Fig.7.1
1.9
,\ - Z er r i o i r v ' o i d sl i n e I
U
(
density increaseswith increasingmoisture content, until a certain peak value \ 10.0cl' SoturotionlineI
U
^
I.E

N
is reached. Further increase in moisture content results in a decreasein the E
I 807' Soturation
dry dersity. The moisture content representedby the peak of the cune is the |t ,l [i n e
optimum moisture content (OMC) and the corresponding dry density is the = 1,7
maximum dry density of the soil under that particular compactive efforl c
q,
For heavier field compaction, the moisture-density relationship can be \
investigated by the modified AASHO test. The test procedure is similar to ?'..
L
that of Proctor test except tbat a heavier rammer (weight = 4900 gm, free fall o \
= 450 mm)ris used and the soil is compactedin 5 layers. t.5
Under heaviercompaction,the moisture-densitycurve (FigJ.l.) is shifted
upwards and simultaneously moves to the left, resulting in a lower OMC but 1.4
a greater y;.o. . l0 l2 l4 l5 l8 20 22

7.4 Zero Air Voids Line: Compaction is achievedby the expulsionbf air WuterContent
{7")
from the voids. However, as the external load acts for a very short time, it is
Fig.1.2
nearly impossible to drive out all the air from the voids. Thus, during
compaction, a soil is not fully saturated.If the remaining air could be driven
out, its void ratio would have been reducedand consequently,its dry density 75 Califomia Bearing Ratio (CBR): The California bearing ratio test is
would have increased.The zero air voids line (FigJ.2) is a theoretical curve of immense importance in the field of highway engineering.The CBR value_
which representsthe relationship between water content and dry density of n8{fg3i!s1-prob&le
the soil when it is l00To saturated.
The California bearing ratio is defined as the ratio of the force per unit
area required to drive a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter at.the rate of
168 Probiemsin SoilMeclnnics and FoundationEngineering Compaction 169

1.25 mm/min into a soil massto that required to drive the same plunger at the
same rate into a standardsarnpleof crushedstone.
or
Thus, cBR=###" xroovo ...(7.2) Y C u r v eB
L
o 600
gr
The test is performed by first compacting the given soil in tle AASHO c
=
mould at the specified compactive effort as stated in Art. 7.3. The sample is CL 400
compacted upto a height of. 127 rnm at the particular moisture content and c orrected5mm
o
density at which the CBR value is required. The plunger is then driven into t Penefrotion
t
the soil under a steadily increasingstatic load. The settlement of the plunger ct
o 200
is measured wifl the help of a dial gauge while the corresponding load is J cfed2.5mm
Corre
obtained fron the proving ring, From the results a load-settlement curve is
plotted and the test loads for 25 mm and 5.0 mm penetrationare determined.
The values of unit standardloads coresponding to thesetwo penetrationsare (mm)
Penetrqtion
\F\
70 kgcr# and 105 kg*? respectively. Therefore, the CBR-values at 2.5 Shift of origin
mm and 5.0 mm penetrationscan be determined.
Fig.7.3
Generally, the CBR valu e at 2.5 mrn penetation should be greater than
that at 5.0 mm penetration. In that case,the former value is acceptedas the
CBR value for design purposcs.
If the CBR value correspondingto 5 rnm penetrationexceedsthat for 2.5 EXAMPL'ES
mm penetation, tle test should be repeated,However, if identical results are Proctortestareshownbelow-:
Problem7.1.Theresultsof a laboratorv
obtained once again, the CBR value for 5 mm penebation should be used.
7.5,1 Correction to the cume : The load-penetrationcurve should always No. ofTesl I a
.' 4 5 6
be convex upwards (curve A in Fig.7.3). However, tiue to surface Wt. of mouldandsoil (kg.) 3.526 3.711 3.797 3.906 3.924 3.882
irregularities, tlre initial portion of the curve is sometimes concave upwards
(curve B in Fig.7.3). The cuwe lhen. must be corrected in the following Water content (%) 8.33 10.40 12.23 L6.20 \7.92 20.39
manner:
(i) The straigbt portion of curve I is projected backwarclsto meet the The mould is 12.7cm high andhasan internaldiameterof 10 cm. The
X-axis at O'. weightof the emptymouldis 1.89kg.
(ii) The origin O is shifted to O'. (i) Plot the moisturecontentvs. dry densitycurve and determinethe
(iii) Subsequently,all penetrationsare measuredfrom the new origin O'. optimummoisturecontentandthemaximumdry density.
Thus, the points corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penelration (ii) Plot tbezeroair void curveandtheL0Voair void curve.
should be shifted towards the right by an amount equal to the shift of Given,G =2.68.
origin.
Solution: Volumeof themould= (x/4) (12.7)(L02)cc
In order to simulate the worst possible field conditions, the CBR test is = 997 cr
sometimes performed on seakedsamples.After compacting the sample in the
mould" the sample is kept submergedin water for a period of 4 days, after In the first test, weight of soil = 3.526 - 1.89
which the sample becomesalmost saturated.The CBR test is then performed = L.636k.g = 16369m
on this soakedsample.
w 1636 =
Bulk density,y = l.64gm/cc,
v= 9n
 l7O Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 17l

2-2
\d - *-
and,drydensity,
f#*S::
= 1.515
gm/cc. {--
9-
I
z Z e r oa i r v o i d s
)-- -o ,/ I
The dry density y2"of the soil correspondingto the zero a ir void condition 2.O
.--q-:< -
may be obtained from eqn. (7.1). U 1 0/o
: oir voids z \
U );---
>E 1 . 8
G ' b -, , , ! ? 1 % l : 9 1
Y* " GG
I * (0.0833) = .= Z . r e g m / c c
(2.68)
g
>\
d6or= 1.752
qm/cc *F- I h.
=t
ta
Again, when the soil has IO% ait void, its degree of saturation isgOVo. c
o,
o /
1.1
"_g_-(%|fa@ _0.248 I

1.2 louc='ts.z.
(2.69)(t nt 1s ro 15 zo 22
, 4 e o= t + 0 . 2 f r = z l 4 7 g m / c n
v,
Wotertontent {7.)
similarly, the dry densitiescorresponding
to theactualproctortest,the Frg.7.4
zero air void condition,andthe lovo afuvoidconditionarecomputedfor the
remainingfive tests.Table7.1 showstheresultsin a tabularform.
Problem T.|/.-=T,\eoptimum moisture content of a soil is 16.5% and its
maximum dry density is 157 gnlec. The specific gravity of solids is 2.65.
Table 7.1
Determine:
No. of test 1 a
a 5 4 ) 6 (i) the degreeof saturation and percentageof air voids of the soil at OMC.
(ii) the theoretical dry density at OMC correspondingto zero air voids.
Wt. of mould and soil (kg.) 3.526 3.7t1 3.797 3.906 3.v24 3.882
Water content (7o) 8.33 10.40 12.23 16.20 L7.92 20.39 Solution: (i) When the sorl is at OMC, it hasa moisturc content of 16.57o
and a dry densityof 1.57Bm/cc.
Wt. of soil (gm) 1636 t82t t907 2016 ?n34 1992
Bulk density (gm/c-c) 1.641 1.826 1 . 9 1 3 2.V22 2.UO 1.998
Now,we have, fd = *

Dry density,ya(gm/cc) 1 . 5 1 5 t.654 r.705 t.740 1.730 1.660 (2'65)(1'0)

!'5't =
l + e
Dry density for zero air 2.I90 2.86 2.018 1.869 1.810 t.733
void, p, (gmlcc)
0r' r + e= f f i = t . e a
Dry density for lOVo air 2.I47 2.M6 1.964 1.808 L.747 t.67
void, y9o (gm/cc) oft e = 0.688

Again, se = w G, or, ,f = n G
The compaction curve is shown in Fig. 7.4. From the curve we find, e
(0.16s)(2.6s)=
optimum rnoisture content = l5.2Vo 0.635 = 63.5Vo
(0.68s)
and rnaximum dry density = 1.76 gm/c.c
Hence,therequireddegreeof saturationis 63.5%o andthepercentage
of
The zero air void line and the lovo air void line also are shown in Fig. air void is (100-63.5)Vo= 36.5Vo
7.4. i.e.,s = 1.
(ii) At zeroair void thesoil is fully saturated,
I7Z Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Compaction 173

(2.6s)=
- (0.165) existing soil is less than its OMC. Hence,a certainamountof water is to be
" = 8- 0.437
s l added to the soil prior to compaction'
(2.6s:" ^' Now, 14*= 1.66 gnlec = l -66t/n3
ta=ffi, =1.844gm/cc
Wt
Therefore, the theoretical dry density at OMC for zero air void = 1.844 B u t , 1 =7 i , o r , W 4 = \ d . V
gmlcc.
Probten.@. During tie construction of an embankment, the density Thus,for every1fi) rn3of finishedembankmen!the weightof dry soil
attained by field compaction was investigatedby the sandjar method. A test requiredis,
pit was excavatedin the newly compactedsoil and was filled up by pouring
W7 = "tit*, 'V = (1.66)(100)t = 1661.
sand. The following were the observations:
Weight of soil excavatedfrom pit = 2883 gm And theweightof wateris,
'w*\
W n = w . W|| d * = ' f r' J; t
Weight of sand required to fill the pit = 2356 gm
Bulk density of sand = t.52gm/cc l-
Moisture content of embankmentsoil = 167o = (0.22s)(166) = 37.35t
Detennine tle dry density of the compactedsoil. of theexisting
Thebulkdensity content
soilis 1'78t/# anditsmoisture
is9%6.
sorurion:
to"'";'="i: thepit,
Dry densityoftheexistingsoil, y4 = #;
ffr J::
\ L)z
Volume of the pit = 1550 cc. or' Yr=1|fu -r'633t/nf
But, weight of the soil excavatedfrom the pit = 2883 gm The volume of soil, V6 to be obtainedfrom borrow areain order to obtain
166 t ofdry soil is,
thesoil, t =
.'. In-situbulkdensityof = 1.86gm/cc
#i
And, in-situ dry densitv of the soil,
, r = Y - #l.oJJ = 1 0 1 . 6 5 m 3
ld
Weight of water availablefrom tbis soit,
,a
'P=tfl=I-#G=r'66gm/*'
Wnr= Wd. w5 = (166)(0.0) = 14.94t
Prcblerudl It is required to construct an embankmentby compacting a soil
excavatedfroln nearby borrow arcas.The optimum moisfure content and the
.'. Quantity of water to be added=(37.35 -t4.94>t
corresponding dry density of this soil were determined in the laboratory and
vrere found ta be 22.57oand 1.66 gm/cc respectively. However, the natural tobeadded=
ofwater
Volume
moisture content and bulk density of the soil were 9Vo and 1.78 gm/cr ##Hi#
respectively. But,densitYofwater,Y,o = 1 gm/cc
Find out the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water to
be added to it, for every !.00 m'of finished embankment. = 10-6 t/cc
Solution: The embankrnentshouid be constructedby compacting the soil = (1000)
1ro-6;tzfit
cbtained from borrow area at the optimum moisfure content and the
corresponding rnaximum dry density. But the natural moisture content of the = l0-3 tlir
 174 Problemsin SoitMechanicsandFoundationEngineering
Compaction t75

.'. Volumeofwarertobeadded= {22.4}) - 2L4l|litre.

(10-') =udffiul cc=e43.8ecc
Thus,101.65m3of soil is to beexcavated from theborrowpi ta,.dz24ra
litre ofwater is to be addedto it. In the loosest state,

Pnoblem?F. ett embankmentwas constructedby compacting ( 3 3 6 3 . 6 - 2 1 -i

00)_12
a soir at a bulk densitY =
(r43^3r) l'J39 gm/cc
moisturecontentof ISSVo^and a dry densityof t.ilTgmTcc.ti"tn. ,p."ln"
gravityofsoil solidsbe2.d8,derenninethevoid ratioan-cl
degreeof saturation dry density, yd_, = = =(t''?n)r. = 1.2o6gm/cc.
of the embankment soil- ------Y-
l+w ( 1+ 0 . 1 1 )
ln the denseststate,
Solution: We have,p =
8857.4-2100I
b u l k d esni.t V - f t * f f = l . f i 6 2 g m / c c
Here, la=l.72gm/cc,G=2.68
y,r* =
drydensity, = r.677gm/cc
_ (a*ga
1.72 #Tfrb
In-situ bulk densityof the soil = 181 gm/ccand its naturalmoisture
ort t+"-ffi cortent = 7%b

ot, e = 0.558. Va= ffi

ln-sirudrydensity,
- 1.505gm/cc
Again, se = wG, or " = Ag
e Y/* ld - ld^o
Relativedeusiw. R^ = . x l00vo
(9.155)-g{s} -
" = - 0.744 = 74.4vo Yd Y/r"" Ydro
(0.55u1
={i#i{i#+#i 0oo)'/.
= 70.74 7o
Problem7.6.rnorderto determine thererativedensityof a sandsampre, its
naturalmoistureconte.ntandburk densityweredetermined /
in the fiero and Problernl]l It is required to construct an embankment having a total
were found tobe 770and1.61grn/ccrespectivery. Sampresof this soirwere
thencornpactedin a procror'smourdof i/30 cft capaciiy, volume of 64000 cu.m. The required soil is to be collected from borrow pits.
at the toosestand It was found that tbe cxisting soil has a moisture content of l4Vo, void ratio
thedenseststates.
The followingdatawereobtained:
of 0.63 and specific gravity of solids of 268. I-aboratory tests indicate that
Weightofemprymould= 2100gm the OMC and maximum dry density of the soil arc l9.5Vo and 1.72 gm/cc
Weightof mould+ soil in thelooseststate= 3363.6grn respectively. The soil is to be carried from the borrow pit to the construction
site by trucks having averagenet canying capacity of 5.5 t. Determine the
Weigbtof mould+ soil in rhedensest
state= 3g57.4gm total number of trips the trucks havc to rnake for constructing the entire
Moisturecontentof thesarnpleusedin lests= llo/a embankment.Also find out the quantity of water to be addedto the borrowed
soil before compaction.
Determinetherelativedensityof thesandandcommenton
its type.
Solution:
Solution: Volunreof thc mould =
$"n of thesoil, ,u = fP
In-sirudrydensity
l + e
 176 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Compaction 177

= g'6CIi1'P= L64sm/cr Solutiron: When the rock presentin the fill is compactedto the densest
(1 + 0.63)
state, its dry unit weight is given by,
= 1.64t/m3
G'{n -i-;
(2.s6)
(t.o) _
.'. In-situbulk density,\ = \a(1 + w) = (1.64,(1 + 0.1a) = L87 t/m3 Y/.- = | . " _
=
o;i
= 1.48gm/cc.

Now, in 1 n3 of borrowedsoil, quantityof dry soil presentis 1.64t, and For the soil. 1d^, = l-63 gm/cc.
quantityof waterpresent= (0.14)(1.64) Wn = w . W6l
t... Let us now consider 1 gm of the given fill. According to the question,
= O.23t the weight of rock and soil present in the fill are 0.8 gm and 0.2 gm
while constructingrheembankment, this soil hasto be comDacted respectively.
at a \_
moisturecontentof l9,5Voandat a dry densityof 172 t/m3.
Now.volumeof0.8gmofrock = = 0.54cc.
For I m3of finishedembankrnent, dry soil required= 1.72t, #cc
andwaterrequired = (0.195)(1.72\t and, volume of 0.2 gm of dry soil = = 0.123 cc:.
= 0.335t. #

.'. For the entireembankmentof 64000m3 Total volurne of 1 gm of fill = 0.54 + 0.123 = 0.663 cc.

quantityof dry soil required= (1.72)(6.t000)= 1,10,0g0t Dry unitweight of rhe filt =
W
and, quantityof waterreguired= (0.335)(64000)= ll,llg 1
L
= - 1.508gm/cc.
- As the in-situdry densityof existingsoil is 1.64t/m3,everycubicmetre 0J63
of excavationwill produce1.64t of dry soil.
Problem 7.9. The results of a laboratorv CBR test are shown below :
.'. Total volurneof excavationrequiredto be made= = 6-7,122
n3
*P No. of tesl 3 4 5 6 8 9 t0 II L:

Grossweightof thissoil = (1.84 (67,lZZ\t = 1,25*51g

r 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 )n ?.5 3.0 4.0 't.5
Penetratron 5.0 10.0 L?.5
(-.)
.'. No. of trip to be made- l'2!'!L8 = 22.812.5- 22,g22
5.5 Lmd (kg) 0 19.8 < t < 93.7 t3zl 171"9 20"t.o288.8 a)7 ) 401.7431.8458.3

Weight of waterobtainedfran 67,122m3of borrowedsoil

= (67,122)(0.23)r = 15,438r Determine the CBR value of the soil. Given, unit standardloads for 2.5
'Weight of water mm and 5.0 mm penefafions are 70 and 105 kg/cm" respectively.
finatly required= 2!,4N L
""Quantitv'
*".:il;,#'_',o,:HrTlffiX'l Solution: Fig.7.5 shows the load vs. penetraiioncurve. As the curve is
initially concaveupwards, an initial zero correction is required.
The shaight portion of the curve is projectedbackwardsto intersect the
X-axis at O , which then becomesthe new origin. Consequently,all points on
Problem 7.8. The rock content in a filr is 8TToby dry weight. The rock can the penetration axis are shifted to the nght by an equal amounl
be compactedto a rninimumvoid ratio of 0.73.The maximum dry unit weight From Fig. 7.5 we obtain,
to whic.h the soil fraction can be compacted is 1.63 gm/cc. wbat is the
maximurn dry density to which the fill can be compactid ? Given, specific test load for corrected2.5 mm penetration= 200 kg.
gravity of the rock = 2.56. and, test load for corrected5.0 mm penetration= 332k9.

Area of CBR plunger = * fS.Ol'"*2 - 19.635cmz

4 '
 178 Problems k Soil Mechanics andFoundation Engineering
Compaction 179

.'.Unittestload
forL|mmpeneftarion
= = 10.19
kg/cn| (i) Plot the water content vs. dry density relationshipand determine the
ffi.
optimum moisture content and the correspondingmaximum dry density of
and,unittestloadfor 5.0mmpenetrat the soii.
ion- I = 16.91ks7cm|
lv.oJJ (ii) If the specific gravity of soil solids be 2.70, pl<rtthe zero afuvoid line.
[Ans. OMC = 17.6%,Y,rmax = 1,74 gmlccl
CBR value for 2.5 mm penetration = 10.19 -t6.- * 1.007o= 14.6% 7.2.The resultsof a standardProctortest are shownbelow.

CBRvalue for5.0mm penetration=

' I x l(fi%o = 16.lLo 7.8 11.6 14.9 t7.7 20.r 22.s
Water C-ontent(%)
105
Thus, CBR value for 5.0 mm penetrationis greaterthan that for 2.5 mm Wt. of soil and mould (gm) 3263.4 3523.28 3734.8 3852.9 3832.7 3765.1
penetration"Therefore, the cBR test has to be repeatedand if similar
results
are obtained once again, then the cBR value of ie.tvo should be accepted. The height and intemal diameterof the mould are 12.6cm and 10.1 cm
respectively. The ernpty mould weighs 1950 grn. Plot the compaction curve
500 and determine ttre optimum moisture contentand the correspondingdry and
bulk densitiesof the soil.
AIso plot the zcro air void line and tbe SOqosaturationline.
400
Given, specific gravity of solids = 2.69. [Ans: OMC = l7Vo,y7 ='1.6gm/cc,
ET
)< y = 1.87gm/ccl
L
c, 7.3. Tlre in-situ dBnsity of a soil mass is being determined by the'''ifure
EN
cutter method. The height and internal diameterof the core are 12.7 cm and
=
cr- L0 cm respectively and is weight, wheu empty, is 1847 gm. When the core
c is filled with soil, it weighs 3674 gm.If the specificgravity of solids be 2.67
o
EI and the degree of saturation of the soil be 63%, determine the in-situ dry
E
CI densityof the soil. The in-situvoid ratio of the soil is found to be 0.85.[Atts.
-, 1.526gm/ccl
7.4. An embankmentof hapezoidalcross-scctionis to bc constructed for
a 2 knr long highway. The embankmentshould have a height af 2.2 m and a
P e n e t r o t i o(nm m l top width of 10 rn. The sides of the embankmerttare to be sloped at 2H : 1'
V. The soil obtained from the borrow area is tested in the laboratory and is !
Fig.7.5 i
found to have the following properties:
Natural moisture content = l2Vo

In-situbulk density = 1.8{./m3

E)GRCISET Optirnummoisturecontent= 19%
i
I
7.1. The following are the results of a proctor compaction test performed
Drv derrsitvat OMC = t.65thf I
on a soil sample" l1
Determine the quantity of soil to be excavatedand the quantity of water i1
WaterContent(%) 9.2 L2.7 15:5 to-beaddedto it beforec<mstructing the embankment.[Ans:65055 m'; 7318 ,l
18.3 2A.2
.31 jt
Bulk Density (gm/cc) I.524 1.749 1.949 2.U9 2.4t9 7.5, Determine the magnitudesof compactive effort imparted to a soil
during:
(i) StandardProctor Test
';
Il
)
180 Problems in Soil Meclunics ond Fottndatian Eng,ineering

(ii)Modified AASHO Test'

x no' of
[Hina: Compactive effort = Wt. of rammer x height of fall
blowslayer x no. oflayersl
7.6.The speciticgravity of solidsof a soil is 2'65. Detenninetbe quantity
of dry soil audwater requiredto c0lnpactthe soil iu a Proctor rnould having
D = 10 cm and H = 12j cm, at a void ratit'rof 0.6 and at a moisture content
8
of 207o.[Ans: 1652 gm; 330 crc]
7.7.T\ree identical triaxial test samplesof 7.5 cm height and 3.75 cm SHEAR STRENGTH
cliameterare to be preparedat a moisture content of 15Voand a dry density of
1.48 gm/cc. Determine the total quantity of oven-dried soil and volume of
8.1 Introduction: When an external load is applied on a soil mass,
water requiredfor the purpose. [Ans: 367.8grn, 55.2 cc]
sbearing stressesafe induced in it. Ii the shearstressdeveloped on any plane
7.t. Determine the CBR value of a given soil from the following data
in the soil exceedsa certain limiting value, failure of the soil occurs. The
obtained from a laboratory CBR test :
maxirnurn shear stresswhich a given soil can withstand is called its shear
0 50.1 81.8 120.0 170.1 421.7 605.9 699.3 662.8 strength.
Load (kg) 19.8

o 0.5 1,0 r.5 2.O 2.5 5.0

'7.5 lo.0 r2.5 The factors goveming the shearstrengthof a soil are :
Penetration
(mm) (i) internal frit:tion, i.e., the resistancedue to particle interlocking
(ii) cohesion, i.e., the resistancedue to the internal structural bond
which tends to hold the particles together.
Plot the load-penetration curve and determine the CBR value of the soil'
According to Coulomb's law, the shearstrength,r, of a soil is given by:
Conrment on the test results. fAns.23.7%l
'E = c + otan ...(8.1)
0
where, o = normal stressacting on the soil
c = cohesion
0 = angle ofinternal friction
The factors c and S are called the shearparametersof a soil.
When expressedgraphically, eqn. (8'1) can be representedby a straight
line called the failure envelope;The general form of failure envelope for a
cohesionless,a cohesiveand a c - 0 soil are shown in Fig. 8.1 (o.),(b) and (c)
respectively.
T
{
I
T
c
J-
(bt
Fig.8.1.
L82 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundation Engineering Shear Stength 183

The shearpararnetersofany soil dependuot only on the nature ofthe soil
but also on such factors like rnoisturecontent and loading conditions. At very
low moi_sfurecontent a cohesivesoil may developa certain amount of internal
friction. Likewise at high rnoisture conlentsa cohesionlesssoil may show the
signs ofhaving an apparentcohesion.
8.2 Mohr's circle of stress: This is a graphical representationof tle stress
conditions in a soil masswhich enablesone to find out the stressesdeveloped
on any plane within the soil due to an external loading system.
In a stressedmaterial, a plane which is subjectedto only a normal stress,
but no shear stress, is called a principal plane. Through any point in the
material, two such planes exist. These planes are called the major and the
miror principal planes, and are ortlogonal to each other. If lhe principal
stresses,01 and g,3,?te known, the normal.stess o and shear stressr on a
plane inclined at an angle 0 to the major principal plane is given by,
"=Y.rycos2o ...(8.2)
" = 9l-:-or
and, ,in 29 ...(8.3)
z intersect the circle at tle samepoint P" This is the pole of Mohr's circle.
Equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be represented by a Mohr Circle, as
illustrated in Fig. 8.2. The co'ordinates of any point on the circumference of
the circle give the stressconditions on a particular plane representedby that
point
^ ^ -
+?
8.3 Pole: The conceptof the pole, or the origin of the planes,is very usefrtl
in such problems where the locations of the principal planes are not known.
Consider the soil element subjectedto a system ofexternal stressesas
shown in Fig. 8.3. It is required to determine the normal and shear stresses
acting on the planeAA, inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal.
Considering the free body diagram of the element it can be proved that
the element can be in equilibrium only if, T, = ayx.
The procedure for drawing the Mohr Circle and locating the pole are as
follows:
(i) Choose tle co-ordinate axesand selecta vector scale.
(ii) Locate the points A and B such that they representthe stresseson
tbe horizontal and vertical boundariesrspectively,of the element.
(iii) JoinAB. It intersectsthe o-axis at C.
(iv) With C as centre and CA = CB as radius, draw the Mohr circle.
(") The point A representsthe stress conditions on the horizontal
plane. From A, draw a straight line parallel to this plane. It intersects the
circumference at P. Again, if from .B a line is drawn parallel to the vertical
plane (since the point B representsthe stressesacting on this plane), it will
T
(-r rTtyl
!y, .'A

QlqT)
A
xv'
Try

(0,0)L/
M c\

Txy a,
(-,Tl \ Io vlrv

cr ,- "i-"3
"i+"3 T
-t- llqjor hincipol
2 Fig.8.3
Shess
-t- FliRorhincipol (uD From the pole P draw a line parallelto the planeon which the
shessesarerequired.This line intersectsthecircleatQ.T\e co-ordinates of
Strrss e
give
Q the nonnal and shear
stresseson the givenplaneAA.
Thus,thepolemay be definedasa particularpoint on thc Mohr's circte
-T suchthat, if a line is drawnfrom this point makingit parallelto any given
Fi8.8.2
 184 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
ShearStength 185

plane within the soil mass,lhen, the co-ordinatesof the point of intersection
such that coulomb's equation is satisfied as the point P lies on the failure
of this line with the circle will representthe stressesacting on that plane.
envelope. In order to determine the location of this plane,join PA and PC.
8.3.1 Sign convention' The following sign conventions are rormallv
Now, LPCB=LPAC+/-APC
followed for plotting the stressco-ordinates:
As AC = PC, LAPC = LPAC = a
Normal stress: Compressive stressesar taken as positive and tensile
stressesas negative. LrcB=ct+ q = 2 a ,

However, soils can with stand only compression and Again,since DF llOB , LPGF = LPCB = 2c.
not tension. Hence the normal stresson any plane of a InAPDG. LPGF = LPDG + LDPG
soil element which is in static equilibriurn is always
positive. or, 2 a = Q + 9 0 " [ ,. . P G L DE, .'. LDPG = 90" I
Shcirrstrcss: The sign of a shearstressis determinedon the basis of or, a = 45' + g/2 ...(8.4)
the direction of its moment about any arbitrary point In Fig. 8.4, the planeBB, drawn at (45' + Q/2) to the majorprincipal
inside the soil mass. If tbe moment acts in the anti- plane,representsthe failure plane.
clockrvisedirection, the shearstressis positive, whereas It r:anbe proved that, at failure the relationshipbetweenthe two principal
if it acts in the clockwise direction. the shear stress is stressesis given by,
negative.
or = 03 :filoz 145" + Q /2) +'zr'tan@s" + g /2) ...(8.5)
8.3.2 Ltrcation oJ the failure plane : Fig. 8.4 representsa soil sample
subjected toa rnajor principal stresso1 and a minor principal stress03. As or, o1 = o3.f{6 + \ctlfia ...(8.6)
the sample is on the verge of failure, the Mohr circle has touched the failure "
envelope at P. Evidently, the pole of the Mohr circle is at A. where, ffO = flo'w value = tan (45" + 0 /2) ...(8.7)
The highest point on the circumference of the Mohr circle is the crown 8.4 Determination of Shear Strength: The following testsare employed
R. The lineAR is inclined to the o-axis at 45'. The corresponding plane in tbr the evaluationofthe shearstrengthofa soil :
the soil is MN, which is the plane subjected to the maximum shear stress,
A. l:boratory tests :
r,no. Howev er, theIntential failure plane in the soil is not MN, but theplane
1. Direcl ShearTest
represented by the poiru P, becausethe stressco-ordinates given by P are 2. Triaxial CompressionTest
,B 3. UnconfinedCompressionTest.
/ , N B. Field Test :
1. Vane ShearTest
For a detaileddescriptionof the testprocedures,the readeris refened to
-3 any standardtextbook of Soil Mer:hanics.Only the essentialpoinf,sregarding
the computationof shearstrengthwill be highlightedhere.
8.4.1 Direct Shcar Test: In this test,soil samplcscornpactedat known
H, ,r8/ densitiesand rnoisturecoutentsin a shearbox of 6 crn x 6 cm size,which can
be split inlo two halvcs,is shcareCby applyinga graduallyincreasing!ateral
load. Three identical sarnplesof a soil are testedunder ditferent vertical
compressive stressesand the corresponding shear stressesat failure are
A determined.A graph is then plotted betweennormal stressand shear qtess.
J Resultsof eachtest are represented
e by a singlepoint. Three points obtained
from the lhree testsarejoined by a straightline which is thc failure envelope
for the given soil. The siope of this line gives the angle of internal friction,
Fig.B.;
while the interceptfrom the r-axis gives the vaiue of cohesionof the soil.
186 Problemsk SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering Shear Strength 187

8,4.2 Triaxial Cunpressian Test: In lhis test, cylindrical soil specimens V r t L V

of 3.8 cm diameterand 7.6 cm height,enclosedin an impermeablerubber A'= - nt ...(8.10)
rnembrane,areplacedinsidetheniaxial cell.An all-roundcell pressure,o3, i
is appliedon the sample.Simultaneously, a gradually increasingvertical where, Vt = initial volume of the specimen
stressis applieduntil eithertle samplefails, or its axial stain exceeds2A%. A 7 = changein volume due to drainage.
Stressvs. straincurvesareplottedto determinethe normalstressat failure. Ir = initial length of the sPecimen
This stressis calledthedeviatorstress,od. The majorprincipalstress,o1, is AI = changein length of the specimen
obtainedfrom the following relation(referFig. 8.5) : 8.4.3 I) nconJircedCompression Test : This is a special caseof triaxial test in
O1=O3*O4 ...(8.8) which o3 = 0. We have, from eqn. (8.5)
oi= "3*-d ar = o3vn4 (45' + 6/21 + ktang," + Q/Z)
As 03 = 0, for an unconfined cotnpressiontest,
or = 2c tan(45' + Q/2) ...(8.11)

A number of tests on identical specimenswill give the same value of

o1. Thus, only one equation is availablewhile two unknowns, viz., c and f ,
are involved. Hence, eqn. (8.11) cannot be solved without having a prior
knowledge ofany one ofthe unknowns.
P
Due to this reason,the unconfined com-
r1 =
q3ta6 pression test is employed to determine
the shearparametersof purely cohesive
[o) (b) (c] soils only. For such soils, S = 0", and
hence,
Fig.8.5
ol=2clan45" =2c
Three samplesofa soil are testedunder different cell pressures.From the The vertical stress o1 at failure, TorqueRod
results, three Mohr circles are construcied, and a common tangent is drawn known as the unconfined compressive-
to them. This is the failure envelope. strength and denoted by q* is obtained
The normal stressat any point during the test is determined by dividing by dividing the normal load at failure by Vones
the normal load obtained from the reading of the proving ring by the the correctedarea,asgiven by eqn. (8.9)
cross-sectionalarea of the sample. Due to the bulging of the sample during
Tlus, qu = 2c
shear, the cross-sectional area should be modified using the following
equation : eu
Ac = As/(t - e) ...(8.e) or, c=T ...(8.12)
where, Ac = coffected area 8.4.4 Vane Sheqr Test.' This is a field
A0 = initial area test used for the direct deterrninationof
e = axial sf]ain = M/L the shear strength of a soil. Generally
where, A L = axial compression this test is conductedin soft clav situated I. f Vanes
L = initial length at a lreat deoth- samolFdrEf,ich are r/
airfi.ffil
In the drained tiaxial tests,the volume of the sample may changeduring
the test due to expulsion or absorption of water. In that case, fhe corrected
The apparatusconsistsof fourmetal I
area should be detennined from :
blades, called vanes,mounted on a steel
rod, as shown in Fig. 8.6. The device is l- o-l
pushed slowly upto the desired depth Fig.8.6
 188 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Stength 189
and is rotated at a uniform speedby applying a torque through the torque rod.
The amount of torque applied is recorded on a dial fitted to the rod. Failure ol-('3
and, a = sin 20
occurswhen the vane can be rotatedwithout any further increasein the torque. z
For a cohesive soil, Q = 0. Hence coulomb's equation reducesto :
S = C
Here, ot = 2?,g/crf and o3 - t,lkq./cri
Thus, for a cohesive soil, the shearsrrengthis equal to its cohesion.In a vane The givenplaneis inclinedat 30' to the majorprincipalstress.But the
shear
test,
thecohesion,
r"I:y *.ryry*n bederermined
from: directiouof major principalstressis perpendicular to the major principal
plane.Hencetheangleof inclination between the given planeandfte major
:,"=.d4{A \ "(sr3) principalplaneis,
I t2 6l I 0=90'-30"=60P
' + - l
_ i . - -
where, I : torqueapplied (= p.a) (2 + t.l') (2 - l.l)
ar - * --T-.cos(2 , /^ .x 60")
i/ = heightofthevane T
D = diameterof tlle vane.
= 1.55 + (0.45)(cos120')
:
t.5 sensitivity: when the shear stressesdeveloped in a soil exceeds its = 1.55 + (0.45)(-l/2)
.shearstrength, the soil fails by shear and loses its strength. However, if rhe = l.32skg/cmz
soil is left in that state for some time, it regains some of its original strength.
Q - r.r\ .^ x 60')
The sensitivity of a soil is a measureof its capabilify of regaining strength and r = #sin (2
after a disturbance has been causedin the soil. It is expressedas,

o shear stength in the undisturbed sute - (0.45)(sin120') = 0.39kg/arr2

' shear strength in the remoulded state
...(8.14)
on the basisof the sensitivity,clayey soils are divided in the followine TlKglcnz]r
categories:
Sensitivity 0.75
Nature of clay
I Insensitive
t-2 f,owsensitive 0.50 0 t1.33,0.39)
2-4 Medium sensitive I
4-8 Sensitive I
0.25
8-L6 Extra sensitive 0'39K9
>16 Quick clay 0
f.5 c t-75 2.5 {
( K g/ c m 2 l
EXA.MPLES
.
Pnoblern
V. A soil sample is subjectedto a major principal stressof 2
kglon- and a rninor principal stressof 1.1 kg/r-' . Determinethe uonnal and
shear stressesacting on a plane inclined at 30o to the nrajor principal stress.
Fig.8:7
sclution: (a) Analytical method: The normal stress,o and the shear
stress,r on any plane inclined at 0 to the major principal plane is given by : (b) Grophicalmethad:Thegraphicalsolutionis shownin Fig 8.7'The
procedureis statedbelow:
o ==0--?
1 * o 3 '* 0 -T
1 - o 3 cos2o (i) TheMohr circleis drawnwith at = 2'0kg/cmz andcr3= 1.1kg,/cm2

L_--
190 Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Fottndation Engineering Shear Strengtlt

(ii) From the centre C of tlris circle, CD is drawn at atr augle of 120o l m2 y
( = 2 0) to the o-axis. This line intersectsthe circle at D.
Altenratively, frorn the pointA correspondingto s3, a straight lineAD is
drawn at an angle of 600 1= 0) to the o-axis.AD also intenects tbe circle at N(40,'t0)
the samepohrt D. :16'5kN/m?--+1
(iii) The co-ordinatesof D give the normal and shearstressesacting on
the given plane.From Fig. 8.7 we obtain, t
T = 3 ' 6k N /
o = 1.33kg/cmz
30 19. LS S
r = 0.39kg/crnz

Problem m. stressesactingon a soil elementdre shown in Fig. 8.8 (a).

Y.
10kN/m2 M
(20,-10)
2 0 k Nm
/
iot<Nl#
_T(kN/m2) tDr
to)
Fig.8.8(b)

6. From P, FQ ll ,ttr is drawn to intersectthe circle at p.

D The solutions to tle three giveu questionsare now obtained as follows :
Fig.8-8(a)
(i) The points of intersection,R and $ between the circle and the o-axis
(i) Detennine the magnitudeand direction of the principal stresses.
give the principal stresses.Here,
(ii) Find out the stressesacting on the plaue XX.
ol = 48 kN,/rn2
(iii) If the soil hasa colresionof 5 kN/m2 and an angleof intemal friction
of 25o,find out whelher a shearfailure is likely to occur along the planeXX. and ot = l6.2kN/m2
Solution:The graphicalsolutionof the problem is presentedin Fig. 8.8 In order to locate the directions of the principal planes,the points R and
(b). The procedureis as follows: S arejoined to the pole P. Through any pontZ in the soil elelnent, Z -lllPS
1. Two orthogonal c'o-ordinateaxes and an appropriatevector scale and Z - 3 ll PR are drawn.
(1 cm = S *NZm2) are chosen. The planes Z - t andZ - 3 give the directions of the major and minor
principal planes respecrivcly.
2" Tbe points M (20, -10) and l{ (40, 10) are chosen to represent the
(ii) The strcsseson,lXare given by the co-ordinatesof Q. From the figure
slresseson the planesAB and8C respectively.
we obtain.
3. M andif arejoined and the mid-point O of MN islocated. = 16.5kN/m2 andrps=3.6kN/rn2
on
4. Witlr O as cenlre and M]{as diameter, the Mohr circle is drawn.
(iii) The normal stresson.lXis 16.6kN/#. Frsm coulomb's equation,
5. The pointilf representsthe stresseson the planeA.B.FromM, a straight the shear strength of a soil is given by,
line ifP is drawn parallel to AB, to intersectthe circle at P. P is the pole.
s - c + otano

l
 t92 Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering
193
Slrcor Strengtlt
Here, c =5 kN/rn2,o = 16.6 kN/m2, 6 = ?5"
(ii) FromA (representingthe stressconditionson the plane bc) d:,awAP
.'; s = 5 + (16.6)(ran25')
ll bc, to intersect the circle at P. This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
= 12.74kN,/m2 > 3.6 kN,zmz Alternatively, if frorn B, BP ll bc is drawn, it alsowill intersectthe circle at
Asr < s, ^failure along)Q( isnotpossible. P.

Problern si.]r4he stressesactingon an elementof erasticsoil mass'areshown (iii) FrornP, drawPQll ,XX.It intenectsthe circle at Q. The co-ordinates
in Fig. 8.9 (a). Determinethe nonnal and shearstresseson the planeXX. of Q give the stresseson the planeXX. From the figure w'eob'.ain,
oxx = 2'35t/mz
5Kg/cm2
artd rnr = 0'95t/n2
ZKglcnz Problem S;&;The stressconditionson a soil elementare shown in Fig. 8.i0
(a). r
(i) Find out graphicallythe stresseson the plane,4,4.

5Kglc nz (ii) Draw a freeboclydiagramof thesoil elementandshow thesestresses.

(iii) Prove ihat the free body is in equilibriurn.
X

50kN/m2
(o)
5 5k N / m 2
(a)
Fig.8.e
solution.'Fig. 8'9 (b) slrows the graphical solution. The solution is 40kN/m2
8.61
obtainedin thc lbllowiug stcps: kN/m2
a?
(i) Locate the pointsA (2, 0) a^d ^B(5, 0) which represe^trhe pri^cipal T ( k N/ m 2 ) I

stressesacting on the soil element.with AB as diameter.draw the Mohr's A 50k N/m2

circle. 60kN/m2
a 7 ( K g/ c m 2 )
55kN/m2 q__-L
8.57k N/m2
cr
30 40 ( k N/ m 2 )

+ 2
0.95

Fig.3'it-'-
P. solution: (i) The graphicalsolutiouof the problernis shown in Fig. 8.10
-T(Kglcnzl (b), from which we get,
tb) ,\
o = 55 kli/m-
Fig.8.e(b)
t94 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Shear Stength 195

r = 8.67 kN/m2 G + e
(ii) The free body diagram of the soil element pqr, bounded by the
Now, Ysar= ll;.Yw
vertical plaile, the horizontal plane and tbe given plane AA, is shown in 2.68+ 0.654,. ^,
= -l-a
Fig. 8.10 (c). g654 tr'ut
_
(iii) The free body will be in equilibrium if the sum of the components
ofall forces acting on it along any two orthogonal axcs separatelybe zero. Z.OTgm/cc= 2.02Vm3
(i) The normalstresson thegivenplane.,
Let, P4 = 1unit,
p o l a = ld, 21 + l*6. 22
pr=ffi=6;=2units
= (r.62,(2) + (r.02)(3\ = 6.3t/m2
| -
g r'e'
and- ' 7 'o -PQ
ar 1'732unia ..'. Sbearstrengthof tbesoil at thisplane,
tanh=m-{3n
., = c + otano
Consideringunit thicknessof theelement,
- 0 + (6.3)(tan35') - 4,41t/n?
2 Fx = (- 40) (1) - (8.67)(cos30) (2) + (s5) (cos60")(2)
(ii) In this casetheentiresoil massis submerged.
=-40-15+55-0.
x Y (- 60)(r.732, + (&67)(sin30")(2) + (5s) (sin60")(2)
- o - ysub.z= (1.02\(5,- 5.tt/m2
- -103.92 + 8.67 + 95.25 - 0.
and, = (5.1)(ran35) - 3.57t/mZ
Hencethe freebody is in equilibriurn. -/,, s
Problen-td Specimens of a silty sandweresubjectedto the directshear
Probbm ffie subsoitata siteconsistsof a 10m thick homogeneous
layer testin thelaboratory,in a shearboxof 6 cm x 6 cm size.Thc normalloadand
ofdense sandhaving the follouring properties: theconesponding shearforcesat failureareshownbelow :
la - l.62gm/cc' G - 2.68,0 - 35'
The nahrralgroundwatertablelies at 2 m belowthegroundsurface.
(i) Determinethe shearstrenglhof tbe soil along a horizontalptane
througbthe middleof sandlayer.
Draw thc failureenvelopeanddeterminetheapparentangleof shearing
(ii) If duringmonsoon,thewalertablerisestothegroundlevef,how will resistance
anfcohesionof thesoil.
the shearstrengthalongthesameplanechange?
areaof theshearbox = 6 x 6 = 36 cm2.
Solution:Thecross-sectional
Assumethatthe soil is dry abovewatertable.
Therionnalandshearstresses
arefirst obtainedusingtherelation,
Solution: Tbe horizontalplaneunderconsiderationis at a depthof 5 m
load
= -
below the G.L. SlreSS
. area .
GTn These are shown in a tabular form below :
We have, n{d-
lll'
or, E?P ' r.62 Normal load (kg) IU ?o 30
OI, e = 0.654 Shearforce (kg) 9.90 t5.4t 20.88
Normal stress(kg/cm2) o.28 0.56 0.83
Shearstress(kglcm") 0.275 0,428 0.580

)
 Shear Strength tgl
L96 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering

be tlre radius whicb must be perpendicularto OQ, since Oe is a tangen/to

In Fig. 8.11 the nonnal and shearstressesareplotted along the horizontal the circle.
and vertical axes respectively. Three points thus obtained are thenjoined by
a straightline. This is the failure envelopefor the given soil. Tlrus, in order to locatelhe centreofMohrcircle, draw eC L Oe. eC
meets thc o-axis at C, which then, is the ccntre of Mohr circle.
The intercept ofthe failure envelopeon^ther-axis representsthe apparent
cohesion,which is found to be AJZkg/an'. The apparentangle of shearing (v) With C ascentreand Cp as radius,draw the Mohr circle. It intersects
resistance is given by the angle of obliquity of the failure envelope to the the o-axis atA andB, which, then, representthe minor principal stresso3 and
horizontal, and is found to be 28.5'. the major principal stresso1 respectively.
From Fig. 8.12, we obtain,oe = 1.08kg/5y1rrz,ot = 2.47 kg/cm?.
e\I
E
8.5 (vi) Dnw a horizontal lne PQ through Q. It intersectsthe circle at p.
g0'5 This is the pole of the Mohr circle.
q (vii) Join PA andPB. Thesetwo lines are parallel to the directions of the
3 a.t planes on which 03 and 01, respectively,act. From the figure we obtain,
o,
L
+
v) AAB - 32.5' and LPBA = 57.5'
u 0.2
ct
OJ
Hence the minor and the rnajor principal planes are inclined to the
a./l c =0 . l 2 k g l c n z horizontal at 32.5" and 57.5" respectively. The orientation of the planes are
0| shown in Fig. 8.12 (b).
lo.2 0.4 06 O.g lo
l t l e s s , r ( K g l c m 2)
N o r m oS
Fi8.8.11
,
Problenr 8/ A direct shearte.stwas performedon a sample of dry sand.
Under a nbnnal stre-ssof 1.5 kg/on", failure occurred when the shear stress
a
reached 0.65 kg/cm'. Draw the Mohr circle and the failure envelope. Hence
GI
determine the orientation of the principal planes and the magnitude of the F
; t.2
principal slresses. gr
.Y
Solution: The construction is shown in Fig 8.12. The procedure is as
follows: 7oJ o't Principot
+
L Ptane
(i) Choosetwo orthogonal co-ordinateaxesand a_suitablevectorscale. t/l
The scale chosen in this problem is : I cm = 0.4 kg/cnr2. L 0 { (b)
o
CJ
E
(ii) Locate the point Q corresponding to o = 1.5 kg/*rz and r = t/l
0
0.65 kgr'crn?. 2,4q 2.8
(iii) Since the soil is a dry sand, it should not have any apparentcohesion NormolS tress(lQ/cm2l
and tle failure envelope should passthrough the origin, Join the origin O and (a)
the point 8.O8 is the failure envelope.
Fig.8.12
(iv) The point Q representsthe stresseson tle failure plane. But in a
direct sheartest, the failure plane is aly3lrs horizontal-.Now, the point p must Prrblem $r(flrree identicalspecimensof a partiallysaturatedclay were
must touci the iailure subjectedto an unconsolidatedundrainedtriaxial test and the following
envelope. If Q can be joined to the centre of the circle the resulting line will resultswereobtained:
198 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fowtdation Engineering ShearStength 199

,SampleNo. Crll?ressure(W*\ D.eviarorstress

(tg/cmJ < l 1= o 3 l V 1+ 2 c ' l N 6
1. 0.5 0.80 In caseof tlre first sample,o3 = o.Sl<g/crt itrd o1 = L.30kg/c.It
2. 1.O o.97 Substitutingin eqn.(8.6) we get,
1.5 1..t3 0.5JV{+Tcfi=t.3 ....(i)
Determinetheshearparameters of tle soil(i) graphically(ii) analytically. where ilO = t o? (45" + Q/21
solution: In a triaxial testthe cell pressureactsas the minor principal Similarly, for the second and third samples, the following equations are
stess,while themajorprincipalstressis thesumof thecell pressureandthe obtained:
deviatorstressal failure.Tbe valuesof o3 ando1 areshownbelow:
Nq+2c4$=1.97 ....(ii)
SampleNo. os (kg/cm2) oa(kglw2) or (kgcqr2) and, 1.5/V6+ k,/q = L63 ...(iii)
1. - 0.5 0.80 1.30 (i) from(ii) weobtain,
subtracting
2. 1.0 o.97 I.97 0.5f0 - 0,67, of, ilO = 1.34
3. 1..5 L.t7 2.67 ort haf (45' + Q/2) = 1.34
{i) Graphical solution : Three Mohr circtes are constructed and a 0rt tan(45' + i/2) = 1.157
common tangent is drawn tlrough them (Fig. s.13). The shearparametersare
found to be :
olt 45'+$/2=49.7
oft {/2 = 4.2"
c = 0.27W*r2
ot, 0 = 8'4'
0 = 8.5" f'
Substitutingfor f in eqn.(i),
(0.s)(1.34)+ (2c) (1.157)= 1.3
ort c = 0.27W*?
Check: Substitutingtle valuesof c and0 in eqn.(iii), we get,
L.H.s. = (1.s)(134) + (2)(0.27)(1.1s7)
=2.63=RH.S.
Problengp<A sampleof &y coarsesandis testedin thelaboratorytiaxial
appamtusin the undrainedcondition.Under a cell pressureof 2 kg/cm', the
samplefailedwhenthe deviatorstressreached4.38kg/cm'.
(i) Determinethe shcarparameters of thesoil.
0.75 1-0 12.5 1.5 1.75 2-00 2.25 ?.50
(it At what deviator stresswill the soil fail if the cell pressurebe 3
N o r m o lS t r e s s( K g / c m 2 |
kg/crn'?
Solution: Here,o3 =2kglgri,aa= 4.38kgor?.
Fig.8.l3
01 - <r3+ o/ = 2 + 4.38 = 6.38kg/cr*.
(ii)Arulytical solution: Fromcqn (8.6)wc havc,
 ?ol
2OO Problemsin SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering Shear Strength

With o3 =Zk{an? and o1 = 6'38 kg/cm2,a Mohr circle is drawn (Fig' SampleNo. Ccll pressu;e Deviator stress^at Pore pressureat
(kgicml failure (kgicrn') failure (klcm')
8.14).
'sincetlesampleismadeofcoarsesandandsinceitisinthedrystate'
1. 1.0 2.U2 0.41
passesthrough
no apparent cohesion will develop and the failure envelope
2. 1.5 z.t8 o.62
the origin.
to the Mohr.circle
Iriorder to locate the failure envelope,draw a tangent J. 2.0 2.37 0.70
fromtheorigin.Byrneasurement,theangleofobliquityofthislineis3l''
Hence, the shearParametersare:
' Detennine the shearparametersof the soil considering
c = O , O= 3 1 '
(i) total stresses(ii) effective stressess.
(ii) We have, from eqn; (8.6)' solution: The values ofcell pressuresand deviator stressesgiven in the
o1 =o3Nq+2c4$ problern aia the total stressvalues.The conespondingeffective stressesmay
o1 = 03 lV6 be obtained from the relation :
Asc = 0, ".
o ' = 6 - l l
01 = 03 tan21+5' + Q/2') "'(i)
or,
The major and minor principal stresses,consideringthe total stress
(\a analysisaswell aseffectivestressanalysis,aretabulatedbelow :
E
c'l
o3 o1 o'3 g'l
Sample ad
= gg"r"1 1- -;r)
v,
No. (kg/cm2) (- ol + oa) Gc/"-1 ( - a s - * ) ot
v, (kg/cm") (kg/cm:)
o,
+
L
(kg,/cm2)
tt
L
E
1. 1.0 2.U2 3.U2 0.41 0.59 2.59
o,
E 0.88' 3.06
3/'l 2. 1.5 2.t8 3.68 0.62

t, 2.0 2.37 4.37 0.70 1.30 3.67

NormolStress (Kg/cm2) Total stressanolysis:Three Mohr circles are drawn using the three sets
of values of o1 and o3. In Fig. 8.15, thesecircles are shown by firm lines. A
Fig.8'14
common tangent is drawn through them, which is the failure envelope for
Here,o3 =3k{u?,0 = 31' toal stressanalysis.From the figure we obtain.
'
g'37kg/ctt c =o.75 Wt"f and O = ?.5
o1 = (3)[tan(45"+ 3r"/2)f =
Effective stess analysis:In this casethe Mohr circles are drawn with the
Deviatorstress'o7 = 01 - 03
three sets of values of o1' and o3'. In Fig. 8-15 the effectivc stresscircles are
- g.37-3=6.37 kg.tt
representedby broken lines. Thc values ofthe correspondingshearstrength
^ paramete$ are,
problen g.l {Tl" tollo*ing resultswereobtainedfrorn a laboratorytriaxial c' = 0.65 kg/un2 arld O' = 13'
test with aX6ngementsfor porepressuremeasuremenls:
t
202 Problems k Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering SIrcar Stengtlt 203

Now, a7 = a1 - 63

: 6.05- 2.5= 3.55us/""?

e

.Y
q -o--+
O -13o
Herrce the required deviator stressat failure is 3.55 kg/cm2.
(iD Let the required cell pressurebe xWMr?.
o 6l=6d, lo!'

6 olt 01 =l;68+r ...(ii)

c -
_G I.
' 0 5 Substituting for o1 and 03 in eqn. (i), we get
c =0 ' 7 5
t t.5 2-0 a.o oil
1.68+x=2.Il7x+O.757
I l--. nn -33 0ft l.Ll7x = 0.923
ntitni'' '
N o r m oS
l tressllQ/cm2) ot, x = 0.83
.'. The requiredcell pressureis 0.83 kglonz.
Fig.8.15
Problem $A*Tlie following aretheresultsof a setof drainedtriaxial tests
,.' -- mmdiameterand76mmheight:
Problgm S.|{'fle shearstrengthparametersof a given soil are, c 0.26' performedffiree identicalspecimensof3S
kglcm" an{ 6 = 21'. Undrainedtriaxial lests are to be carried out on i
i'
specinensof this soil. Determine: Sample No. $ll preslure
Deviatorload Change in Axial
, (kN/n') at failure Volume Deformation
, (f deviator stressat which failure will occur if the cell pressurebe 2.5 (kN) (cc) (mm)
kglont.
1. 0.f/11 - 0.9 51,
(ii) the cell pressure d-uring the test, if the sample fails when the deviator :50
stressreaches1.68 kg/crn'. 2. i00 0.659 - 1.3 7.O
Solution: - 1.6
3. 150 0.0956 91
(D We havefrom eqn.(8.6).
01 -o3'lVq+zc'l$
Determine ttre shearparametersof the soil.
For thegivensoil,g = O.26kgc#and Q - /1' Solution: The deviator loaJs at failure corresponding to each cell
ffo * t"n2(as"+ Q/2) = ut(45" + 21"/2) = 2.1!7. pressurearegiven. In order to determinethe correspondingdeviator stresses,
these loads are to be divided by the correctedarea of the sample,which can
and 1fr; - AtrI - 1.455 be obtained from
Hence,eqn (8.6)reducesto :
"^c =vrtLv
or - 2.117os + (21(0.26)(1.455) Lr-LL
ot; at - 2.1!7 a3 + o.757 ....(i) Here, Vr - Initial volume of the specimen

When a3 - 25Woo2 - (n/4)(3.82) (7.6) cc

o1 -(Lll7)(LS)+0.757 = 86.19cc
Lt - 7'6crrr
- 6.05kg/ct&
zo1 Problems in SoitMechanics ttnd Fottndation Engineering Shear Stengtlt 205

For the first sarnPle,A V = - 0.9 cc and AI = 5.L crn

/r'
problenr SWAv unconfined compression test was performed on an
86.19- 0.9 = undisturbed sample of norrnallyconsolidatedclay, having a diameterof 3.75
n" = 7f,:ilf
12.03 c-mz = I2.A3 * 10-4 m2
cm and 7.5 crn high. Failure occuned under a vertical compressive load of
t 16.3kg. The axial de formation recordedat failurewas 0.9 cm. A remoulded
0.0711 =
:. ad= 59.L0kN/rn' sAnrpleof the same soil failed under a compressiveload of 68.2k9, alrd the
12.03x 10-a correspondingaxial cornpressionwas 1'15 crn-
and,o1 = 03 + oa = 50 + 59'10 = 109'10kN/rn2 Determine tle unconfined compressivestrengthand cohesionof the soil
for two othersarnplesarecomputedin a similar in the undisturbed as well as remoulded state.
The majorprincipalstresses
tabulatedbelow: Also determine the sensitivity of the scil and hence classify it
manner.Thc resultsare
accordingly.

Sample o3 Fa LV AL Ac od o1 Sofution: (a) Undisturbed state :

No. 1rxlm2) (kN) (*) ("m) (".2) GN/#) ltcN/m2) Initial areaofcross-sectionofthe sample,
- 0.9 5,1 12.O3 5 9 . 1 0 109.10
I 50 0.0711 As = (ni4) (3,7il2 = 11'04crn2
2 100 0.085e - t.3 7.0 t7^36 69.50 169.50
t = + = ffi = o.r,
Axialstrainarfailure,
15(l o.tB56 - 1.6 9.1 12.65 75.61 225.61,

Corrected atea,Ar=
*
Threc Mohr circles are constxuctedand their common tangent is drawn.
Ttris is the failure envelope of the soil (Fig. 8' 16)' -= 11'04 - 1"55cm2
= L.'
By neasurementwe obtain, T=-d.tz
"
c = 25 kN/rn', O = 3.8 = 9.27kg/anz
Normalstressat failure=
#
stength,4u = 9'27kg/cri
Unconfinedcompressive

J t4 = 4.64kg/cn?
F and,cohesion,= + =
; t00 L
o
Y
stote:
(b) RemouMed

= 1T. 3
15 1.153
o
h s n
-=L
ct
0
c
a. = , 1l#sl = 13'o3cm2
:y!_L__ 50 r00 150 n'= #.L* = 5'?3ks/cm2
-3t n32nn It Az
l t r e s s( K g / c m 2 l
N o r m oS 4u 5'23 )
or' c=;=;=2'62kglcIn'

Fig.8.16 sttengthin theundisturk

Scnstttvlty=@t"
246 Prablems in Soil Mechanies and Foundation Engineering ShearStrength 2W

9'n
- L1"' 7 torque head at failure was 417.5 kg-cm. The vane was then rotated very
- ' '7
5.23 rapidly in order to comptetely remould the soil. It was found that the
As the value of sensitivity lies between I and2,the soil is classified as remoulded soil can be sheared by applying a torque of ?-83.2kg-cm.
a low sensitivesoil. Determine the shearstrcngthof the soil in the undisturbcd and remoulded."-
Probfem S.+4.;lftf ,9U triaxial test, a soil sample wa^sconsolidated at a cell statesand its sensitivity.
pressure ot}Yg/cffiz and a back pressureof I ig/cm2A for 24 hours. On the Solution: Weknow tha!
next day, the cell pressurewas increasedto 3 \E/cm'. This resulted in the
development of a pore pressure,of 0.08 kgfcrn'. The axial stresswas then
gradually increasedto 4.5 kg/crn', which resulted in a failure of the soil. Tlie
pore irressurerecordedat failure was 0.5 kg/crn'. Determine Skempton's pore
S -

"nfr
'?)
pressureparameters
A andB. Here,If=llJS cmandD= 7.5cm,
Solution:We have T
S -
L , u = B [ A o 3 + A ( A o 1- Aor)1, whereAandBare (xl (7.52)(rr.25/2 + 7.5t6)
Skernpton'sporepressure -- s - -
T
Orr
parrmctcls. ttr3.67
hrthefirstcase,Ao3 = 3 - 2 - lkg/em2' Ao1 - I state,f = Ctl.Skg-cm,
In the undisturbed
o . 0 8 + B [ 1+ A ( O - 1 ) l 4175 -
S - o37Wr;rr2
rtt}.67
or, B(l - A) - 0.8 ...(D
In the remouldedstate,T = 733,2kg-cmr
In the second case,

A cr1- 4'5 - t - lsVcrf, Ao3 - 0

0.50- 0 . 0 8 - 8 l O + A ( 3 . s - 0 ) l
Sensitivit, -W- 1.48
or, O.42- 35A8 ...(iD
Dividing (i) by (ii), weget,
l-A - 0.08 EXERCISES
15 A 0.42 8.1. The normal stresssacti4gon two orthogonalplanesof a soil
1 - A sampleare250kNlm2and110kN/m{ Findoutthenormalandsbearstresses
oft "
T-o'6'l ofl a planeinclinedat 60 to thedirectionof themajorprirtcipalsress.
'or,
l - A - 0.67A, or, A - 0.6 [Ans. o = 215 k]-.[/m2,r = 60.6 trtl/m2]
SubstitutingthisvalueforA in (i), wc obuin t.2. The stressconditionson a soil elementare shownin Fig. 8.17.
B(l-0.6)=0.08 Dctermine:
I (D The orientationandmagnitudeof thc principalstesses.
I 0.08
^ = a 7 = u n^
oI, E .z actingon thehorizontalandthc verticafplanes.
(ii) The stresses
I
I .
Problem ttfl6. A vane sheartest was carried but in the field to determine the [Ans. (i) ot = 2,76kg.t] at 98.5'witb horizontal; 03 = 0.83 Ug*rz at 8.5'
sbearing strength of a deep-seatcdlayer of soft clay. The varte was 11.5 crn withhorizontal(ii)o11 - 0J7kg/artz, aH - -0.3k4/cm2;
high and 7.5 cm across the blades. The equivalent torguc recorded at the ov = 2.72kg/c.rr?,av= 0.3 Ugl*r2l

J
248 Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Foundotion Engineering
Slrcar Strength 209

lKglcrs? lKglcn? 8.5. In problem 8.4, if the water table rises from a great depth to the
ground surfaceso that the soil becomesfully saturatedand its natural moisture
2Kglcn2 content increasesto l9%o, how will the shear strength on the given plane
change? [Ans. Reducedby 0.85 t/m']
8.6. The stressconditions on an infinitely small soil elementare shown
in Fig. 8.19.Find out the magnitudeand directionof the principal stresses.

[Ans: o1 = 1'68 kg/cm2 at 12' to the horizontal

03 = 0.47 kg/cn? atl02' to the horizontal]

0'5Kglcr]
Fig.8.17 015Kg1c62
8.3. Fig. 8.18 illustratesthe stressconditionson a soil elemenl
(i) Determine the normal and shear stresseson the planeX-X.
(ii) Draw a free body diagram of the element bounded by plane X-X
and show thesestresses.

1l tn2
X

Fig.8.l9
2.5iln2 8.7. The results of a direct sheartest perfonned on a soil sample in a
2 . 5 tt n ? shearbox of 6 c-rnx 6 crn size are given below:

Shearforce at failure (kg.)

Fig.8.18
Plot the failure envelopefor the soil atrd detennine its shear parameters.
(iii) Prove
trrat
theu* o'iii',
i,TJi::?ftg*,r, r =0.65rg.'/,l [Ans.c=0,0=33']
8.4. Thesubsoilat a siteconsists of a5 m thickstratumof a cohesionless 8.8. A given soil has a unit cohesion of 2 vumzand an angleof internal
soil which is underlainby a rock layer.A surcharge of 5 t/m2is placedon the friclion of 28'. Samplesof the soil were testedin the laboratoryi4 a triaxial
groundlevel.Thepropertiesof thesoil areasfollows: apparafusunder the undrained c-nndition.Determine :

G = 2.68,e = A,7,w --6Vo,S= 30' (i) Deviator stressat failurc when the cell pressureis 1.5 kglcm2.

Determinethe shearstrengthof the soil on a horizontalplane at a depth (ii) The applied cell pressure,if the sample fails under a total vertical
of 2 m below the G.L. pressureof 5.09kg/on2. tAns. (it332 k4.lcmz, (ii) z.s kg/cmzl
[Ans : 4.8? t4n']
8.9. A set of triaxial testswere performed on three samples of a isoil.
The cell pressuresand the deviatorstressesat failure are given below:
210 Problems in Soil Mechsnics and Fottndation Engineering Shear Stengtlt ztL

Sample.No. CellPr. (kN/m2) Deviator stress(kN/m-) 8.f3. A set of triaxial tests were perfonned on three samples of a
line-grainedsoil. The height and diameterof eachsamplewere 75 mm and
I 2M 690 37.5 mm respectively.The following are the results:
2 300 855

J 400 1030 SampleNo. Cell Pr. Deviator load Axial Deformation

$il"fi (tg) (".)
1 1.45 29.5 0.98
Plot Mohr's circles of slressand determinethe apparentcohesionand
"1
angle of internal friction. [Ans. c = 112 kN/m' , 0 = 27 2 2.70 37.9 L.t3
8.10. A direct sheartestwas performedin a 6 cm x 6 cm shearbox on 3 ? 42.8 1.16
a sample of dry, colresiortlesssoil. Under a nonnal load of 40 kg, failure
occurred when the sheariug force reached 26.65 kg. Plot the Mohr strengtlr
envelopeand detenninetbeangleof slrearingresistanceof the soil. Detennine Determinethemissiugvalueof cell pressure
in testno. 3.
graphic:allythe rnagnitudeand direction of the principal stressesat failure.
8.14. The following resullswereobtainedfrorn a set of consolidated
=
[Ans. $ = 36"i o3 = 0.64 kg/crnz at 27" to Il, o1 2.47 kglcn? al ll7" ro Hl uudrainedtestswith arrangernents
for porepirssuremeasurernents:
8.11. Two triaxial tests were perforued on sanples of a moist soil in
an unelrainedcondition. The all-round cell pressuresduring thesetwo tests TlestNo. I 2 J

were 2.5 kg/crn' and 4.0 kg/on' afid the sarnplesthiled under deviator stresses
of 4.85 kg/crn' and 6.70 kg/crn' respectively. Detennine the apparent Cell Pr.(kg/cmJ 1.0 2.0 3.0
cohesiou and the apparent angle of shearing resislanc:eof the soil (i) Deviator Stress(kgicm') L.31. I.62 1.89
analytically (ii) grapbicallY.
Do you expect to obtain the sarnevalues of the sbear pararnetersif the Porepressure
(kg/cmJ 0.18 0.42 0.86
samples were tested in a drained condition ? Explain your answer with
reasons. [Ans; c = 0'59 kg/crn', Q= 22.q'l
Detennine the shearparametersof the soil, considering (i) total stress
8.12. Irboratory triaxial testswere perfornred on three soil sarnplesof (ii) Effective stress.
3.8 cm diameter and7.6 on height.The following resultsrvereobtaitted:
[Ans. (i) c =A.46kglclr2,0 = 6.5'

SampleNo. Cell Pr, Deviator load Changein Atial (ii)c' = 0.42kg/crt, 0' = 9.8'l
(kdcm') at failure volume (cc) Deformation 8.15/ Aa unconfined compressiontest was perfonned on a silty clay
(ke) (cm)
samplq/of 4 cm diameter and 8 cm height. The sarnple failed under a
1 0.5 45 1.1 0.92 compressiveload of 23 kg and the deformation recordedat failure was 1.42
cm. A triaxial test was performedon an identical sampleof the samesoil. The
z 1.0 52 L.5 1.15 all rouncl cell pressurewas 1 kglon2 and the sample failed under a deviator
'/ z.o L.22 load of a 39.5kg, The axial deformationrecordedat failurewas 1.L8cm. Find
3 79.5 L.7
out the apparentvaluesof shearparameters(i) graphicallyand (ii) analyti-
"J
cally. tAns c = O.70kg/cm',$ = 4.5
Plot Mohr's circles and determine the apparent val'ues ot\hear para- 8.16. 421.5 cn long c:ylindricalsoil sanrplehaving a diameterof 10
melers of the soil. [Ans. c = 1 kg/crn', e = 18.7"] crn was subject to an increasingvertical compressiveload. Failure occurred
2t2 Problemsin SoilMeclnnics qnd Foundation Engineering

whentheloadreachedl5lkg,andlhecorrespondingaxialdeformationwas
2 cm. The sarnplewas made of clay and had the following properties
G=2.67,s=O.69,w=26Vo
:
9
Determine the sndarparametersof the soil
o, =
[Ans' 0 = 0 c A'77 kglc11n'i BARTH PRESSURE
cylindrical
8.L7. An unconfiinedcompressiontest was performed on a
a height of 75 mm' The sample 9.1. Inhoduction: It is often required to maintain a difference in the
soil sample having a dihmeter of 3?.5 mm and
23.5 kg. The axial strain recorded at elevation level of the ground on the left and right hand sides of a vertical
failed afa vertical cornpressiveload of
plane was observed to be inclined at 53' section. Such sihtations call for the construction of an earth-retaining
failure was L.16 "* .od the failure
the soil' structure,e.g., a retaining wall or a sheet-pilewall. The earthretainedby such
to the horizoiltal Determine the apparentshearparametersof
= 16"] a structure exerts a lateral thrust which is of paramount importance in the
[Ans. c = 0.68kg/on2, 0 design of the retaining structure.
an
8.L8. A triaxial test was performed on a sample of dry sand having Depending on the conditions prevailing at the site, tle lateral earth
5 applied
"ppui.",6urlue of 36'.Initialiy, a chamberpressureof TglT.ytt pressuremay be divided into the following three categories:
Keeping this
and the deviator stress was gridually increasedto 3 kg/on''
was the. gradually reduced. Al (i) Earth pressuteat rest.
deviator stressunchanged,the cell pressure
what value of cell pressurethe sample will fail? (ii) Active earth pressure.
[Ans. 1.05tg/"*2] (iii) Passiveearth pressure.
to prevent
8.19. Determine the minimum lateral pressure required" 9.2. Earth kessurc at Rest: Fig. 9.1 (a) shows a retaining wall, embedded
to a total vertical stress of 10 kg/on'. The shear below the ground level upto a depth D, and rctaining earth upto a height l/.
failure of a soil subjected "'
given as : c = 0'3 kglcm', I = 17'5 If the wall is perfecfly rigid, no lateral movement of the wall can occur. And
parametersof the soil are
hence,no deformation ofthe soil can take place.The lateral pressureexerted
[Ans.4.94 xgcrtl
by the soil is then called the earth pressureat rest.
an undisturbed
8.20. A laboratory vane shear test was performed in
vane were 6'3 mm and
sample of soft clay. The diameter and height of the S o i tW e d gA
eBt
an applied torque of 110 gm
if .: *- respectively' The sample failed under
by rotating the vane rapidly'
cm. The ,.*pl" was ttren "ott pi.t"ly disturbed
" torque of'45 gm-cm' Determine the
The rernouldid soil failed ,tna"t
in the undisturbed an{ remoulded states
undrained shear strength of the soil Ur',
respectively; 2'5]
and compute its sensltivity.- [Aor.0. 55 and}.22kglurr2 Pa
in
8.21. If a field vane shear test is performed on the soil mentioned
determine
above problem,witha vane of 11.3 cmheightand 7.5 crn diameter,
required to fail the soil in the undisturbed and remoulded states'
the torques
[Ans. 670.6 kg-cm; 268'2kg-cm]

Fig.9.l
 Earth Pressure 2t5
214 Problems in SoitMechanics and Fonndation Engineering
4. On any vertical plane in the soil adjacent to the wall a coiljugate
Theconjugaterelationshipbetweenthelateralearthpressureandthe relationship existsbetweenthe lateral earlh pressureand the vertical
vertical overburden pressureis given by: overburden pressure.
ol = Ko'ov, or oh = Ko'\z "'(9'1) This theory was later extendedby other investigatorsto take into account
cohesivebackfills and walls with batteredbackface.
where K0 = co-efficient of earth pressureat rest'
The equation governing the relationship between the major and minor
Y = unitweightof soil principal stresses,acting on a soil element, is given by,
z = depth at which lateral pressureis measured' o 1= o 3 N 4 . k - q ...(e.3)
The value of K6 dependson the properties of the soil and its stresshistory, where,Nq= (45" +"Q/2)
and is given by:
0 = angle ofinternal friction
& =t h .,(e.2) c = cohesion.
Let us consider an intinitesimally srnall soil element at a depth Z below
where, p = Poisson'sratio of the soil.
the ground level, adjacentto a retaining wall, as shown in Fig. 9.2'
9.3. Active and Passive Earth Pressupes: In reality, a retaining wall is not
rigid, but flexible, i.e', it is free to roiate about its base' In Fig' 9'1(a)' let
pl and pg,be the at-restlateral thrusts acting on the back and front faces of
the wall respectively. Due to the difference in elevation levels, Po , Po''
t.toyeySond
Hence, a flexible wall will yield away from the bac$fill. The soil wedgeABC
will then tend to slide down along the potential slidilg surface BC. This
I = 1 ' 8 5t / m 3
condition is illustrated inFig.9.1(b). The frictional resistanceFR againstsuch 3m Q=2t"
movement will act upward alongBC. Its horizontal componentFs will act in c=1tlm2
the opposite direction to that of Pg. Thus the net pressureon the wall
will I
decreaie. Such a stateis called the active stateof plastic equilibrium, and the
lateral pressureis called fte active earth pressure'
J-
1'5m/
0enseSantl
Y = 1'95t/m3
simultaneously,thesoil w edgeDEF inftontof the wall getscompressed.
The frictional resistanceFn' io this case acts along ED and its horizontal
J-l @=36o

Fig.9.2
componentFg' actsin the samedirection asthat of P6', Hence the net pressure
on the wall increases. Such a state is called the passive state of plastic o,, = vertical overburdenpressureon lhe elemenL
equilibrium and the lateral pressureis called the passiveearth pressule..
orr = lateral earth pressureon the elemenl
The active and passiveiarth pressuresare usually computed by either of
the two classical ""tth pr"tt.tte theories, viz., Rankine's and Coulomb's According to the fourth assumption stated above, a conjugate relation-
theory. ship exists between,ou and otr . The relationship is similar to the one
g.4. Rankine's Earth Pressure Theory: This theory is based on the expressedby eqn. (9.3). However, the exact form ofthe equation dependson
following assumPtions: thi prevailing conditions, i.e., whether the backfill is in an active state or in
l.Thesoilishomogeneous'semi.infinite'dryandcohesionless. a passive state.
2. Theback of the wall is perfectly smooth and vertical' (i)Active state :
3. Deformation of the wall is sufficient to create a state of plastic
equilibrium' In this cas, <r1 = oy, and 03 = ott
But, o, = 1z
2t6 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering EarthPressure

and, or, = active pressureintensity = pr' f

.'. Eqn. (9.3) gives,
\z = pa'ilq + 2cVF
II
\z 2c ...(9.4)
of, n = L - :
ro /. .t H
'l{o vflo
(ii) Passive state :
t{d
;,ta-
I toT
Here, o1 = oy, and ot = 6u
But, ot, = yz
and,o7, = passivepressureintensity = po
-r.tlt
^ h ^

l -J *otH+-
_L
Ht3

(ol (b)
.'. Eqn. (9.3)gives,
PP=YzNq+?*fi ...(e.s) Fig.9.3

9.4.1. Computation af Eorth PressureUsingRsnkine's Theory z Fig. 9.3 (b) shows the disnibution of active Pressure intensity. The
magnitude cf resultant thrust per unit length of wall may be obtained by
(A) Act ive Earth Pressure: multiplying the averagepressureintensity by the height of the wall.
(a) Cohesionless soils: 0+K-yH 1
For a cohesionlesssoil, c = 0. Average pressureintensity,pou =
i.*or,
.'. Eqn (9.4)reducesto
_ t L = _ n . : = ^ = y r\F. i1; *+ lsinf
Pa = N+
=
.'. Resultantthrust,P4
IX,IH'H
=
l,*'rrr'
...(e.8)
tan" 145" + g/2) Q
"'(9'6) It is evihent from eqn. (9.8) that the resultant thrust is given by the area
or, Po = Kalz of the pressuredistribution diagram. This thrust acts through the centroid of
the hiangleA.BC, i.e.,is applied at a heigbt of Hl3 abovethe baseof the wall.
where, Ko = co-efficient of active earth pressur" = i;*l* "'(g'7)
(ii) F ully Submerged B aclfill:
Eqn. (9.6) and (9.7) can be usedto compute the active earth pressurefor This condition is shown in Fig. 9.a (a). As the soil is frrlly submerged,its
various backfill conditions, as discussedbelow: effectiveunitweightis'
(i) Dry or Moist Baclfill with Horizotxal Ground Surface: T, = ysar_ yw
Fig. 9.3 (a) shows a retaining wall supporting a homogeneous'backfill of At any depth z below the top of the wall, the total active pressureis the
dry or moist soil, uPto a height.FL t
sum of pressuresexertedby the soil and water. According to Pascal's law, a
At any depth z below the top of the wall. I
I fluid exerts equal pressurein all directions at any given depth.
Po = Ko'{ z I Hence, at a depth z,

Ar the top of the wall (z = A), Po = O Pa=KaY'z+Ynz ...(e.e)

At the base of the wall (z= 14, Po = Ko:v'H The corresponding distributiondiagramis shownin Fig. 9.4 (b)
pressure
(iii) Part ially Submerped Bqcffit t:
(a) Backfill havingsimilarpropertiesaboveandbelowwatertable:

I
218 Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndation Engineertng Earth Pressure 219

Eqns. (9.10) and (9.11) may be usedto determiile the resultant thrust aild
its poirit of application correspondilrgto any pressuredistribution diagram'

KqYhr
T D
lB
Y1 Pz
P r l
iPs
(o) (b) v Yz F_
I

Fig'9.4

Ilr Fig. 9.5 (a), the retainiug wall has to retain earth upto a heightfl. The
ground water table is located at a depth ft1 below ground level. The active (o) (b)
pressureintensities are given bY:
Fig.9.5
Above ground water table: Po = Koyz (O s z s h)
Below ground water table: Po = Koyhl + Koy'z + ynz (A < z s h2, (b) Backfill having ditterent propertiesabove aild below water table:
zbeing measuredtfromG.W'T.) Fig. 9.6 (a) and (b) illustrate this backfill condition and the corresponding
Fig. 9.5 (b) shows the correspondingpressuredistribution diagrarn.The pressuredistributiott diagratn.
resultant active thrust pbr unit run of the wall is given by the entire area of
this diagfam. It is easierto detennine the areaby dividing it into a nurnber of
triangle and rectangles' In Fig. 9.5 O). 11- Kqrlrhr
I I' q=11h1
Pt = LABP,
Ps = LDEF,
P2 = areaof BCED
P4 = LDFG. ttst
H I I ,
Resultantactive thrust,
n

Pn=Pt+P2+P3+Pa=)4 ...(e.10)
j-1

The point of application ofP4 canbe determinedby taking moments of y'ro

**r,n,i*"rtin4
individual pressureareasabout the baseof the wall' Thus, f l
Pa'l = Pfr + PzJz + P1Y + PaYa (q) (b)

Fig.9.6
2 't''t (iv) Baclcfill with UniformSurch'arge:
i-l
0f' v=-;- Fig.9.7 (a) illustratesa retainingwall supportinga backfill loadedwith
lp,
2 a uniforrn surchargeq. The correspondingpressuredistnbution diagram is
t- 1 shownin Fig. 9.7 (b). Frdm the figure it is evidentthat the effect of the
220 Problems in Soil Mechanics qnd Foundation Engineering

surchargeis identical to that of an imaginary backfill having a heightzo placed EarthPressure 221
above G.L., where,

'- " _- q
Y- .,(e.r2)

T
zs=gttl-t,,
9/unitareq

* -)r
H
Fig.9.8

I BC = H (1 + anetan p) ...(9.14)

I
J-
onthisimaginaryplaneBC,usingeqn.
(iv) Determinetheactivepressure
(e.13).
(v) For designingtheyall, computethe self-weightof the soil wedge
J*ou tQlH'-J ABC andconsideris effecton thestabilityof thewall separately'
(o) (b)
Fig.9'7

(v'SBaclfill with a SlopingSurface,

The conditionis shownin Fig. 9.8 (a). The activeearthpressureat any
depthz belowthe top of thewall actsin a directionparallelto thesurfaceof
the backfill andis givenby:
Po = KolH

where, &=cosp # ...(e.13)

(vi)Wall Having an Inclkd Bac$ace:

In order to determine the active earth pressure in this case using
Rankine's theory, the following stepsshould be followed (Ref. Fig. 9.9) Fig.9.9
(i) Draw the wall section and the ground line. (b) Cohesive-ftictional Soils:
(ii) Draw a vertical line through the base of the wall to intersect the
From eqn. (9.4), the active earth pressureat a depth z is given by,
ground line at c.
(iii) Compute the length8C from: .rz 2c
n = L - :
re /{6 Vffo
 r +L{w4
'JrrQ
Ipv'
222 Problems in Soit Mechanics {tnd Fottndotion Engineering Earth.Pressure 223

k or, Pp = Ko\z
Atz = 0, pa =
v1%
where, Kp = co-efficientof passiveearJhpressure
A t z =eH^ ,= f rf t No=oo'(a5"+$/z)

Let H"bethe depth at which pressureintensity is zero. 1 + sin$ 1

^{H" '{H" l-tittq=4
2c ^ =U,Or, 2c =&
rt-q ", Fig. 9.11(a) arld(b) showsa retainingwall subjectedto a passivestate'
andthe corresponding passivepressuredistributiondiagram'
ZE\q
or, H, _ ...(e.1s)
I

--{G
, 2 c
]'- -4-
1b
2clNo H
6.j
r y I
L
I o h e s i o n l e sSso i l C- * Soil
{o} (b) (c)
,
d Fig.9.11
J.-tH -r,
' N @ / F _l o l
{o} (b) (b) Cohesive-fr i ct iono I Soi Is:

Fig.9.10 From eqn. (9.5), we havc'

- P p = Y z N q+ 2 c ' [ $
Fig. 9.10 (b) sbows the distribution of active pressure.The negative side
of this diagram (i.e., A abc) indicatesthe developrnentof tensiottupto a depth For the retainingwall sltowu in Fig' 9.1i (a)'
flr. Since soils cannot take tension, rracks will be formedin this zone. Tbe Atz=0,po=Zcfi
depth .I{, is, therefore, called the zone of tension crack. The resultant lateral
thrust is obtained by computing the area of the positive side of the diagram alz=H, Pe=tHNr+Ufi
(i.e. L, cde). ThecorresponctingpressuredistributiondiagramisshowninFig.9.ll
(B) Pcssive Errrtl, Pressurei (c)'
(a) Cobeslonlesssoils:
soil, eqn.(9.5) reducesto:
For a cohesiortless
PP = ^lzNf
 22s \
EartftPressure.
224 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fottndation Engineering
andthc failurc
In the activc statc,thewall rnovcsawayfrom thc backfill
As it slides down' frictional
wedge C.BCtends to move downwards'
r"sisln"es actupwardalongthebackfacc of thewall (soil-walllifion),anO
6i+Qtz of rhefrictionalforceFar,
the failureplane(soil+o-sol rruion;. In absence
backface'Butnow
theactivethrustPwouldhavebecnactingnormallyonthe
Fx, is inclincdat an angle 6 to the normalon the
the resultantP4 of P and
backface.Duetosimilarreasons,thcsoilreactionR4willalsobeinclinedat
an angle{ to thc normalon thc failurclurfacc'
Thesamcargqmcntsleadustothcconclusionthatinapassivestatealso
to the normalson
P -{n rii arwill b! inclinedat angles0 andf respectively
nr
^nafC.However, in thc actlve the
state, linesof action of Pa andR4 lie
whcreas inthe passive the
state' linesof action
belowthc respectivcnormals,
of P- andR- lie above
""'A them.
of
B il"b.t oigt.pniol andanalyticalmethodstqr tllaejgrn]i'ation
Coulomb's theory'
trt"rui ""rtl prorit"iave beenproposedor thebasisof
a ) A c t i v eS t o t e b ) P o s s i v eS t o t e The mostirnPortantmethodsarc:
Graphicalrnethod: (i) Culmenl.'smethod
o (ii) Rebhann'sconstruction
Fig.9.t2
Analyticalmethod: (i) Trial wedgemethod'
9.5. coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory: Instead of analysing the stresses
may refer to any
on a soil element, coulomb considered the equilibrium of the failure soil 'Soil of thesemethods,the reader
For detaileddcscriptions
Mecbanics. However the application of these
wedge as a whole. The rnajor assumptionsin Coulomb's theory are: standardtext-bookof
illustated in this chapterby a number of workcd-out
,n"*noO,havebeen
(i) The soil is dry, homogeneousand isotropic.
problems.
to solve more
(ii) The failure surfaceformed due ro the yielding of the wail is a plane
Some of the special techniquesrequiredto enableus
surface. irregularitiesin the shapeof
complexproblemsinvolving externailo;ds, or
(iii) The failure wedge is a rigid body.
the watt or the groundssrfac-havedso bcendealt with'
(iv) The backface of the wall is rough.
(v) The resultant thrust acts on the backface of the wall at one-rhird
heigbt and is inclined to the normal on the wall at this poinr at an EXAMPLES
./
angle 6 , where, prcblem g.{ nS m brghrigid retainingwall hasto rctaina backfill of dry,
6 = angleof wall friction. cohesionlesssoil havingthe following properties:
Basedon this theory,the lateralearthpressurecan be determinedby the
trial and error method. As the location of the actual failure surface is nor (i)Plotthedistributionofhteralcarthpressureontbewall.
known, a numberof potentialfailure surfac'.es andpoint of appticationof rheresultant
are chosenand the lateralearth tiii ij"t"rrr"e rhc magnftude
pressureis determinedfor eachof tbem.The one for which the lateralthrust thrust
in thelateral'thrustif the waler table
' ' Computetbe pcrcente"ng-"
reachesa certainextremevalue (rninirnumfor active stateand rnaxirnumfor (iii)
passivestate) is accepredas the true failure surfar:e,and the corresponding risesfrom agpeatdepthto the top of the backfill'
lateral thrust is acceptedas {he active or passivetirrust.as the casemay be.
9.S.l Wallfriction: The conceprof wall fricrion is illustratedin Fig. 9.12 (a) Solution:(i) Bulk densityof thc dry backfill,
I
anri (b).
I
t
t
226 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fotrndetion Engineering 227'
EarthPressilre

rd=*=?T#? =t,54t/nf. Problem 9.2. A retaining wall with a smooth,vertical backfacehaos

of
surcharge 5 t/rn"
to retaiu
is placed
a sandbacktill upto a leignt of +.5 rn. A unifonn
As the wall is rigid, the lateral pressureexerted by the backfill is earth over the backfill. The witer table is at 2 m below G.L. The specific gravity
pressureat rest. of solidsand the void ratio of thebacktill are2.68and 0.82 respectively.The
Co-efficient ofearfh pressureat rest, soil above the water table has a degree of saturation of lo7o. The angle of
internal friction of the soil, both aboveand below water table, is 30'.
Ko==L = 'o'tf='=A56?5 Detenninethe magnitudeand point of applicationof the resultantactive
1-p 1-0.36
thruston the wall.
At the top of the wall (z = 0), po = 0
Solution: Bulk densityof the soil abovewater table,
At the baseof the wall (z = 5 m), p0 = Ko\z G + s e
y=
(0.s62s)
(1.s4)
(s.0) | +7'l*
(0.10)(0.82)
= 4.j3/mz -2.68 + (1) = 1'517t/rn3
1+0.82
The distribution of lateral earthpressureis shown in Fig. 9.13.
densityof thesoil belowwatertable,
Submerged
(ii) Resultantlateral thrust on the wall (consideringunit width),
G-1. 2 . 6 8- 1 r , , = 0 . g 2 3 t / m 3
1 4 Ysub=lllY,=11-537(r/
Ps = lKgyH'
Co-efficientof activeearthpressure,
= (r/2!(0562s)(1.s4)(s.o)z 1-sin30' 1
= 10.83 t per m run K"=fi61F=5'
The resultant thrust is applied at a height of 5f3 = t.67 m above the base
= Ko = /l)<t.ol = t.67t/mz
dueto surchatge
Activepressure I
of the wall.
Ir l
(iii) If the water table rises to the top of the backfill, the soil wilt get.fully
at B dueto moistsoil abovewatertable
Active pressure
submcrged.
= Kr,tz= tt.ttt)(2) = r.or ttmz-
= +;+' t,"= (##)
Ysub ttr = o'e65
t/nz [})
Active pressureat C due to slbmerged soil
Resultantthrust
=
1 n l = 0.77t/mz .
= KaTsubr= fl Q.gz3)(2.5) ,
*
|*oy,ubH2 |t.tf \'/
= (r/2) (s.0f [(0.e6s) Lateral PressureexertedbY water
(o.s62s)
+U
= 19.?8t per m run 5m = \wz = (1) (2.5) = 2.5 t/trf .

Percentincreasein lateralthrust
= f19.28
-
f i x I 0 A10.83
Vo I
J-
The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9'14'
The resultant active thrust is equal to the areaabcde. For convenie
this areais divided into a numberof trianglesand rectangles.Considering
= 787o, width of thewall,

Fig.9.13
 EarthPressure 229
228 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatbn Engineering

Solution: Coefficient of active earth pressure,

^ s"or - ff-o'- *70-

5t ln2
Kd=co e0m

=(coslu=l:
. coslo"-G-'1{-re = 0.296
t-
cos10" + Vcos' tO" - cos'32"

thrust,P4 = I *" ,rf

Resultant
/1\
= []l1o.zro) (s)2
(r.82)
Yl
= 6.734t/m
This thrust is inclined at 10" to the horizontal (i.e., acts parallel to the
ground surface) and is applied at a heigbt of 5/3 = 1.67 m above the base of
(bl the wall.
Problen 9.4. A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back has to retain a
Fig.9.14 backfill of cohesionlesssoil upto a height of 5 m above G.L. The soil has a
P1 - ( 1 . 6 7 ) ( 4 . 5- ) 7 . 5 1t void ratio of 0.83 and the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.68. The water
!r=4.52=2.?5m
table is located at a depth of 2 m below the top of the backfill. The soil above
= fif 1t.ot1(2)
- 1.0tt the watertabl eis2}Vosatutated.The angleof internal frietionof the soil above
P2 h= 2.5+ 2t3=3.r7m and below water table are found to be 32' and 28' respectively. Plot the
\")
Ps - (1.01)(2.5) - 2.52 | 2.512= 1.25m distribution of active earth pressureon the wall and detennine the magnitude
h=
and point ofapplication ofthe resultantthrust.
/r \
Pa - l|l1o.tt + 25)(2.5)- 4.691 ta= Z.SR
= 0.83m Solution: Bulk density of the soil abovewater table,
\"1 G+se
Rcsultantthrust P6 - Pt + P2 + Pg + Pa t t w
l + e
- 15,13t pcrmrun.
2.8 + (0.2)(0.83) = 1.55 t/m3
The point of applicationof this thnrstabovethebaseof the wall may be ffi-(1)
obtaincdfrom eqn.(9.11).
densityof thesoil belowwatertable,
Submerged
.Y -_ -(7.s1)(2.2s)+ (1.01)(3.17)+ (2.s2)(1.2s)t(4.0e) (0.83)
15.13 -
Ysub?# t" = ?u-!;sl0) - o'etttnf
- ?5.64 -
Gfr l'76m' Active earth pressureabove water table:
/ Co-efficient of active earth pressura,Ko, - -0.307
Prublem ?3/ A 5 rn high masonryrctainingwall hasto rctain a backfill of i#fffffff
sandysoil fi6vinga unitweightof 1.82gm/ cc andan angleof internalfriction
AtA(z - 0), pa = 0
of 32'. The surfaceof the backfill is inclined at an angle of 10' to ihe
horizontal.Determinethe rraFitude andpoint of applicationof the active AJB(z-zm|pB-Kor\zl - (0.307) (2) - o.sSvrt
(1.55)
thruston thc wall.
,1"".--
 234 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 231

Active pressure below water table: In this casethe upper layer (i.e., the ./
Problem 95 For the retaining wall shown in Fig. 9.16 (a), plot the
moist soil above water table) should be treated as a uniform surcharge, for
distribution of active earth pressureand determine the magnitude and point
which the interuity 4 is equal to the self-weight of the layer.
of application of the resultant active thrust.
q = yzr = (1.55)(2) = 3.I\t/mz
-1o7st_
" I - sin 28" -1vd4-
Now, K,r=i;;;F=o-361

AtB(/ = 0), pa = Ko.e = (0.361)(3.10)

= t.tTt/n?
1-- A L ooseSond
1m (y=1.54tlm3,+= 2f )
AIC(z'= 3 m ) , p c = K o " e t K o " , y " o 6 z+' y n z ' f-
1.2m
L,ooseSond
= r.1,2+ (0.361)e.92)(3) + (1X3) {lro1=1'8t/m39=22o;1
=1.12+0.99+3 C
DenseSsnd
= 5.llVmz (Yo1=2.05t/m31
The pressuredistributiondiagramis shownin Fig. 9.15(b) + = 32o)
/1 \
Now , P=1 l : l @( O.e s)= 0 .e 5 t/n yrJz+2/3=3.67n D L
Yl
P2=0.12)(3)=3..36ttm lz = 3/2 = 1'5rn f zooJ"l--2.30-+
(q) (b)
"r = fll(0.ee+ 3)(3)= 5.e8t/m!3
= 3/3 = rn
\.J Fig.9.16
= Pt + P2 + P3
ResultantthrustP4
Solution: Active pressuresexertedby various strata are as follows:
= 10.29t perm run.
StratumI:
t_-p!6)(1.5)+ (s.e8)
(t)
10.29 " iin ' 7? { -o = 0 . 2 1 0 6
<
I -
K- ='
"at
= 1..41. m 1 + sin25"
.', The resultantthrustof n.29 t per m run is appliedat 1.41,m above pe=o
thebaseof thewall.
pB = Kor,trHr = (0.406)(1.64)(1.0) = 0.67t/m2

While computilg theactive

Statum II: This stratumis frrlly submerged.
eadhpressurein this region,shatumI is to be treatedasa unifonn surcharge
t/m2'
0.95 of intersity q1,where,

Qr = Trq = G.64)(1.0) = I.64t/nf .

3'67mI | - sin22' = 0 . 4 5 5
Now, K""=
t*G6
pB = Koz ql = (0.455)(1.64)= O35t/^2.

Pc = KozQt + Kory'2H2 + ynH2

- 0 . 7 s + ( 0 . 4 s 5 ) ( 1 . 8 0- 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 ) + ( 1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 2 )
(sl
Fig.9.r5
232 Probkms in SoilMechanicsandFoutdation Engineering Earth Pressure 233

= 0.75 + O.M + L.2 = 2.3gt/n? Hence the resultantactive tlrust of 10.315t per m run is applied at 1.409
m abovethebaseof thewall.
StratumIII: Equivalentsurcharge I
Prcblen-{.5. A retaining wall with a smoothvertical backface has to retain
eZ=ltH1 +y'2H2 a backfill of c - $ soil upto 5 m above G.L. The surface of the backfill is
- (1.64)(1.0) + (1.80 - 1.0)(1.2) horizontal and it has the following properties:
-.Z.ffiVtt. y = 1 . 8t / r f , c = l.5t/m2,0 = 12'.
- pressureon the wall.
|' sin 32', t
K",-i;jffi-0.307 $)?tot the dishibution of active earth
.(iipetermine the magnitude and point of application of active thrusl
(flglDeterminc'the depth of the zone of tension cracks.
Pc=K".82+lnHZ (iv) Detennine the intensity of a fictitious uniform surcharge,which, if
- (0.307)(2.60) + (1.0)(1.2) placed over the backfill, can preventthe formation oftension cracks.
(v) Compute the resultant active thrust after placing the surcharge.
- 0.80 + !.2 - 2.0OVn?.
PD-Pc+Ror{gHg+l*Hg Solution: Thewall section is shotrn in Fig. 9.17 (a)
- ZtX) + (0.307)(2.85 ' 1.0)(2.3) + (1.0) (2.3)
* ZW + OJ4 +,L3 = 5.04tht.
The distibution of activeearthpressureis shown-ihFig.9.16p)
I
1?fht-
Computationof forcesandleverarms: 2'06n
P1 = (0.5)(1.0)(0.67) = 0.335t/m /r = 3'5 + l0/3 = 3.83m
s-I
Pz = Q.2) (0.?5) = 0.90t/m h = 2.3 + t.2/2 = 2.90m f-I
P3 = (0.5)(r.2)(0.44)=0.2641/mh - 2 . 3 + L - 2 / 3= 2 . 7 o m '94m
Pa = (0.5)(1.2\(1.2\- 0.72t/m lq = 2.3 + 1.2/3 - 2.70m I
Ps = (2.3)-(2.0)= 4.6t/m fs = 2-3/2 = 1.15m J-! c

P6 - (0.5)(n)Q.74) - 0.851t/m % = 2.3/3 - 0.77m '17r/#l-

(o) (b)
P7 = (0.5)(2.3, (2.3) = 2.&5 t/m h = 2.3/3 = 0.77m
' , t
Fig.9.17
Pa,= D Pi = Lo.3tSt/m
For a c - $ soil, the intersity of activeearthpressureat any depthz is
i-L
givenby:
n

i-l IAaa
o , -vzf r -@
2c

Y='--=ffi=1'409m Here, = 1.525

ff' = oo'(45' + t2'/21 - 1g11251'
\Z. P ,
and, = 1.235
;- l 4
At the top of thewall (z = 0),
 Earth Pressure 235
234 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Fonndation Engineering

= - (?{1'i)= -2.43
t/m2. - (2]=(1'l= 5.et/n2
- :'z t !t='--e)(s)
+
Vilo r.235 1.525 1.235
The pressuredistribution diagram after placing the surchargeis shown
At the base of the wall (z = 5 m), in Fig. 9.17 (c). The resultantactive thrust in this caseis given by,
pr=(# W=3.47t/mz. PA = (0.5)(5.9X5)= 14.75t/m, appliedara heighrof 5/3 = 1.67m above
the base.
The pressuredistribution diagram is shown in Fig' 9.17 (b).
The depth of the zone of tension ffack is given by, Problem LZA'ietaining wall of 5 m height has to retain a stratified backfill
as shown in Fig. 9.18 (a). Find out the magnitudeof total active thrust on the
H"=?:ifi, wall and locate its point of application.
Solution: (i) Sandy silt layer:
(2)(t'tlt'zrst -
olt r. - 2.06m. iv{ - tan2(45" + 2o'/z) = z.o4
The resultant active thr,ust is given by the part abc of the pressure 166 - 1.438
distribution diagram.
Pn =
- _-( -2r) z
( 13. 0E) -_a - rr 't o
r ,l / y 1 2 .
= 5.!ot/n2 -/
.^ = fl Q.s4)(3.47)
\" J
PB = (1.8ilg'e)_ (2](1.i0)
= 0.33t/m2.
The point of application of P4 is located at L946 = 0.98 m, above the 2.04 7.438
v
baseof the wall. (2)(l'-o-)lt'a3e)
The maximum negative pressure intensity developed the top of the
at H" = = 1.55m
wall = -2.43 t/mz. Evidently, the formation of tension cracks canbe prevented
by placing a surcharge q on the backfill which can neutralise this negative (ii) Loose sandlayer:
pressure,
Now, after placing the surcharge4 the vertical shess oy at any depth Z a,=f-ffi=033
is given by, interuity,41= (1.85)(1.9)= 3.5LVri
Equivalentsurcharge
ov=q+\z
pB = Kozql = (0.33)(3.51) = t.t7th#.
o+vz 2c
/ ) ^= + - : ...(i)
rA No Vtro Pc = KozQr+ Koz\2H2= 1.L7+ (0.33)(1'72)(1.0)
'
# .- 2 c
= l.I7 + 0.57 = t.74t/^2.
A t z = 0 , p e =,,0 VFo' (iii) Densesandlayer:
But the magnitude of q is such that, at z = 0, pA = O,
a,=l-ffi=o'26
ft-#,r=o Equivalent
surcharge
intensity,qz=(f .S5)(1.9) = 5.?3r/mz
+ (1.72X1.0)
or, (r.23s)= 3lt/m2.
Q = ?rvN; = (2)(1.s) Pc = Kot,qz= Q.26)(5.23)= 1.36t/mz

atz= H, O^=
Again, PD=Kotch+KorlsHl
W ft = 1.36 + (0.26)(1.88)(1.6)
236 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundqtion Engineering
Earth Pressure 237

= 1.36+ 0.78= 2.14th?

at 10' to the horizontal. The angle of wall friction is 20'. Determine the total
of forcesandleverarms:
Computation lateral pressureexertedby the backfill, using:
(a) Culmann's method
- a139/,htr (b) Rebhann's method.

SondySitt T
1.55m
Solution: (e) Culmann's method: Fig. 9.19 illustrates the solution of the
problem by Culmann's method. The procedurpis explained below:
Y= 1'85t/m3
1.9m c = 1.0t/mz t \ (i) The backfacc' -B is drawn to a scaleof I : 100.
,
I Q= 20" 0'33t/m2 (ii) The ground line AC, S line BC and rp line 8X are drawn. Here,

f { - 9d' - (o + 0) - 90" - (n" + 8') = 62'.

1.0m
LooseSond
't=1'72tlm3,@=30o to;il, (iii) The pointsD1, D2, .'., Dg arc chosenon AC at equal intervalsof 1
+-
I Dense Sond
P1 m. BDyBD2, ...,BDgarejoined.
(iv) From B, BN L AC is drawn. Its length is measuredand is found to
1.6m Y= 1 ' 8 8 t / m 3 be 4.06 m.
0= 36o Yt
I )- Alternatively,BN = BA'cns(cr - F) = rr'cosG: (l
F)

I r.:slo.zs
D cos
I -=
(a.0) cos (10'- - 8')
= 4.06 m
(o) {bt cos 10'

Fig.9.18 (v) Considering unit width of the wall, the self-weights of various
wedges are computed.For examPle,
P1 = (0.5)(0.35)(0.33) = 0.06r/m, y1 - 2 . 6 + 0 . 3 5 / 3 = 2 . 7 2 m
Weigbt of the wedgeABD1 = W, = *'AD1' BN '7
P2 = (1.17)(1.0) - L.t1 t/m, Y 2 - L.6 + 1.0/2 = 2.10m
P3 - (0.5)(1.0)(0.57)- 0.29t/m, h = 1.6 + l.O/3 = 1.93m = (0.5) (1.0) (4.06) (1.78) = 3.61 t per m'

P4 = (1.36)(1.6) - 2.l8/m, Y 4 = L.6/2 = 0.80m Weight of the wedgc

P5 = (0.5)(1.6)(0.78)= A.62t/m, ys = 1.6/3 = 0.53m ABDr = Wz = TWr = (2) (3.61)- 7.22t/m.

= 18.05Vm
Similarty,Wr = 10.83t/m,W+=14.44tlm,Ws

i * - 4'32t/m Wo=2l.66tlm,W =?5.27Vm,W3= 28.88t/m.

i - 1 (vi) Using a vectorscaleof 1 crn = 3,61 t/rn, the weightsof various
n wedgesare plotted alongBC, and the points C1, C2, ..., Cg are

i-l <t< Oii) iHffi',Cr/,rll atr1.

tointenectBDl
8x isdrawn
!---;--*ffi,=1.216m (viii) Similarly,a numberof lincsaredrawnparallclto thery-lineBXfrom
S P- t . thc pointsC2,C3,...,Cg,alld thecorrespgnding intersectionpoints
Z. arelocated'
E2, Eg,".,, EgwithBDz,&fu,, ..., BDgrespectively
i - l
(ix) The pressure cuweis obtainedby jotnngEy E2,...,Egby a smooth
Problem 9.8. A 4 m high retaining wall has a backface inclined at a positive curve'
batter angle of 8'. Thebackfill (1 - 1.78 t/nf , 0 - 30") is inclined upwards
238 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundarion Engineering Earth Pressure

0\
c-!
O. 6
oo oo
lJ.

o
N
(o
ll
l-
24O Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
EarthPressure 2.41
CE denotes the
(ix) A tangent to this curve ls drawn at E, such that
is joined and extended
maximum ordinate of the pressurecurve' BE
is the failure plane'
to intersect the ground line at D' 8D
the distance C4
The magnitude of t6 resultant active thrust is given by
the length of which is found to be 1'58 cm'
P,1 - (1'58) (3'61) - 5'70 t/m'

(b)Rebhann'smethod:Fig.g.20illustratesthesolutionbyRebhann's
method. The procedure is as follows:
(i) The backface is drawn to a scale of 1 : 100'
8C and rp-line BX ate draq'n'
lilj fn" ground lineAC, $-line
fiiii e semfcircle is <irawn with BC as diameter'
A,AE BX is drawn to intersectBC at E'
iiui fto* ll
ff I BC is irawn to intersect the semi-circle at F'
f"l
BF as radius, an arc FG is drawn' It intersects
liij Wm a as centre and
BC atG.
(vii) From G, GH ll 8X is drawn to intersectAC at 'FL
and GIr as radius, an arc I{r is drawn to intersect
li.iiii witn G as centre
BC atI.
(ix) IIIis joined.
(x) HJ LBC is drawn'
The total lateral thrust is now given by,
P,q - weight of the soil wetlgef/IG
1
= +'GI'HJ'y
- 5'77t/m'
= ,-0.r,(2.76,(L35t(1.78)
Fig.9.2l
rough backface-taving a
Problern g"9. A gravity retaining wall with a
backfill upto 4.5 (ii) The ground-lineAC Q-line BD and rf-line BX are drawn'
positive batter angle of 1b", has to ietain a dry, cohesionless
m above G.L. Tbe properties of the backfill are : Here,Q = ff) - (10' + 15') = 65'
(iiD An arbitrarypoint E is taken onBD'
\*llkN/m3,Q-?5 (iv) A setni-circle is drawn with BE as diameter'
Theropoftbebackfillisslopedupwardsat20.tothehorizontal.Theangle (v) EF lleC is drawn.lt interscctsA-Bat F.
the total active thrust on the
of wall friction *"y u* taken as 1i" Determine (vi) r.G ll BX is drawn. It intersectsBD at G.
wall bY Rebhann's construction' (vii) GIl L BD is drawn. It intersectsthe circle at-Fl
arc II1 is drawn to intersectBD
Solution: This protrlem cannot bc solved
by the conventional 1"iiij witn B as centre and 8Il radius, an
and will meet at a great distance at I.
Rebhann's rnethod, as te groundJine f-line
However, certain modifications over Rebhann's (ix) F/is joined.
l'.' B is nearly equa! to 4 i' is presented in Fig. ( x) N ll F/ is drawn. A"I intersectsAD atJ.
method will enable * * u,olu*the problem. The solution
(xi) From .[ JK ll BX is drawn to intersectA C at K'
9.21, while the procedure is explained below : an arc KL is drawn to intersect
of 1 : 80' lxiii Witn J as cente and JrK as radius,
(i) The backface of the wall, A8, is drawn to e scale BD AtL.
242 Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Fotrndation Engineering Earth Pressure 243
(xiii) KL is joined. (i) The backtaceAB, ground litte AC, S-lirc BD and E-line BX are
(xiv) FromK, KM I BD is d,rawn. drawn as usual.Here,q, = 90' - l0' - 15' = 65".
.LI -y (ii) An arbitrary point E is rakenon the O-line.
Now, P4 = weightof thesoil wedgeJKl = l.XU
a (iiD EF' ll BX is drawn to inrersect.ACat F.
= (0.s) (3.0)(3.3) (17) = 84.2 kN/m' (iv) Witb E as ceutre,an arc FG is drawn to interseclBD at G.
Problem 9.10. Determinethe magnitudeof the resultantac:tivethrustexerted (v) FG is joined. L EFG is rhepressurelriangle.
(vi) FH LBD is drawn.
by a cohesionlessbackfill on a 4.0 m high retainingwall having a backtace
inclined at 10" to tbe vertical. The top surface of the backtjll is inclined to Now, P1 = w-eightof the wedgeEFG
the horizontal at 25", The unit we ight and angle of internal friction of the
1
backfill are 1.8 Vrn2and 25" respect-ively.The angle of wall friction may be = .y
;.GE.FH
taken as 15".
= (0.s)(4.28)
(3.e0)
(1.8)
Solution: In this case,the Q-line and tbe groundline are parallel to eaclr
other (since F = 0 = 25") and will never rneet each other. The linal soil = 15.02r,/m run.
wedge may be construcled anywhere on ilre $-line. Prob[ern 9.11. It is required to constructa gravity retaining wall to retain a
With refere.nceto Fig. g.Zz,the procedureis explainedbelow : sandbackfill upto a heiglrtof 3.5 m. The wall is requiredto have a backface
which is batteredat 10'. The surfaceof the packfill has an upward slope of
c 8' and carriesa uniform surchargeof I tlm?.The unit wciglt and ary;ie of
intenralfriction of the backfillare 1.80t/rn'and 33'respectively.Delennine
the total active thrust on the wall.
solution: As the value of angleof wall friction has not been supplied,
)
we wiil assume,0 = = (z/3) (33") = 22.
;0
The unifonn surchargeplaced over the backfill may be repracedby an
equivalent soil layer which will exert the samevertical stresson the backfill.
The beightof this equivalentsoil layer is,
, = q 1= . 0 =
tt" U.56m.
i m
The problem can tlow be solved by Rebhann's rnethod, with a few
modificatiorn as explained below :
(i) The backfaceAfl ground line AC, g-line BC and rp-line BX are
drawn as usual-
(ii) FrornA, a vertical line AA' is drawn and the diskncer4.41is laid off
from it such that,r4A| = he = 0.56 m.
(iii) Through Av A1c2 is drawn parallel to the ground line to intersect
the g Jine at C2.AB andA1C2 are projectedbackwards to meet at
Az. A2B andA2Ct will now be treatedas the modified backfaceand
the ground line respectively.
The problem is then solved by Rebhann's construction in the usual
maruler.With referenceto Fig, 9.23, the resultantactive thrust,

Fig.9.22
 Earth Pressure 245

244 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

s
cl

!b
r

Fte.9.23

. . GI . y
- FGH = z\ ,,
Pa = weight of the wedge

= (I/2)(273)(2.32)(1.80)= 5.70 tpermrun.

Prublem 9.12. A retainingwall hasto supporta homogeneous backfill upto
3.6 m aboveG.L. A long brick wall, 375 mm thick and 3.5 m high, runs
parallelto the retainingwall at a horizontaldistanceof 2.8 m from the top
cornerof theback of the wall. Determinethe total lateralthruston thewall,
given,
y = 1 . 8t / m } , 0 = 3 0 ' , c = 0 , c r = 7 8 ' , F = 6 ' , 6 = 1 5 " .
Solution: Unit weight of brick masonry= t92Okgl.3.
.'. Self-weigbtof thebrick wall permetrerun
= (0.375)(3.s)(1920)=2.52t.
The brick wall actsas a concentrated linear load on the backfill. The
problem can be solved by Culmann'sgraphicalmethod.The solutiott is
procedureis statedbelow :
presentedin Fig. 9.24 andthe step-by-step
246 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Earth Pressure 247

(i) The backthce A.B, ground lhte AC, Q-line BC and rp-line BX are
d r a w n a s u s u a l ' H e r e , r p= c r - 6 = 7 8 ' - 1 5 " = 6 3 " .
(ii) A numberof points,Cr C2,...,C5 arechosenon the ground lineand
8C1 through.BC5arejoined. Thesepoints are chosenin sucha way
that the line of aclion of the linear load passesthrough one of them.
In the presentproblem, thesepoittts are chosenat equal intervals of
1.41m.
(iii) Sell'-weightof the trial failure wedgesare now cornputed.
eachwedge,
Altirudeof - 6") =
It = AB'cos(12' +;ffig'
= (3.6) (cos 6')./cos 12" = 3.66 m
.'. Self-weight of eachwedge = (ll2\ (1.41) (3.66) (1.8) = 4.64t|m.
Vector scalechosen: 1 cm = 4.64t1m.
(iv) Lay- otTthe distancesBD pnd BD2 from BC, using the chosenvector
scale, to representthe self-weight of ABCI andABC2 respectively.
Just after crossingC2,the linear load c.omesinto action, and has to
be addedto the self-weightof ABC2and all subsequentsoil wedges'
From D2 lay off the distanceD2D2' to representthe linear load.

i.e., D2D2'='# = 0.54m.

-
,7 ?F5

(v) The distancesD2'D3,DPa and DaD5are laidoff torepresentthe no-

A \ )Yt1
weightof thewedges C2BC3, C3BC4 allrd CaBC5respectively.
**_{ l-r l"\ |
o a - \ 1 " '\l
(vi) From DyD2,D2',...,D5 a numberof lines are drawn parallel to
rp-line to intersectBCy BC2, ..., BCs at EyE2,E2',...,E5
\i\l
\-,,\-,,\i
?0.\
respectively.
(vii) The pressure cune is drawn. A tangent to this curve is drawn at
,'r< | )4-l

Rr\'\^4
E2', which is the farthest point from the $-line.
bl
BC2 representsthe potential failure plane. \*.
By measuremenl,E2'D2' = 1.37 cto. \_,
.'. Total lateral thnrst -- (1.37) (4.64) = 6.36 t/m. Prr=63'5kN/m A?=94'9kN/m
Par=110.1
kN/mtt=rnU*r.torriaU*r,
Problem 9.13. A 5 m high gravity retaining wall hasto retain a cohesionless
backfill (y = tg kN,/m3, 0 - 33') upto a heightofs m.Thebackfaceofthe
wall has a positive batter angle of 12', and the ground surfacehas an upward
inclination of 15". The angle of wall friction is Z)". Determine the total active
thrustby the hial wedge method.
Solution: Fig.9.?5 (a) shows the section of the wall, drawn to scale.
Fig.9.25
The ground lineAC and tle S -line BD are drawn.
248 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering
Equal distancesAC1 = CtC2 = ... 3 C4C5 = 1.5 m are laid off from
AC. The lines 8C1, BC2, ..., BC5 arejoined. Theseare tle trial failure lines.
Let W1,W2, ..., W5 be the self-weigbtsof the wedgesABC1,C1BC2,...,
C&CS:Accordingtotheconstruction,l[ = Wz =...= W5 = lf(say).
Altitude of each wedge = BN = 5.15 m.
(1e)= 73.4kN/m.
:.Wr= (rl2)(r.s>(s.1s)
For each wedge, the resultant aclive lhrust acts at an angle 6 = 20", to
the normal to the backface of the wall.
Again, for the failure planesBCyBC2, ...,8C5, the resultantsoil re-
actions.R1, R2, .. .,R5 areinclined to the normalson the respectiveplanesat,
o .=33'.
Constructionof Force Triangles :
Let us consider the first ftial wedgeA8Cl. The forces acting on it are :
(i) Self-weight W1 @oth magnitude and direction are known).
(ii) Soil reaction R1 (only the direction is known).
(iii) Wall reaction P,4, (this is equal to tle resultant active thrust on the
wall and only its direction is known).
Let us choose a suitable vector scale. A vertical line a1b1is drawn to
represent I4r1in magnitude and direction. From c1, a1c1is drawn parallel to
the direction of Pa, while frombl, b1c1isdrawn parallel tofi1. They intersect
at c1, and tle force triangle a1b1c1is closed. d1c1now representsthe lateral
thrust for the trial failure plane BC1, in magnitude and direction
Force triangles for all other kial wedges are constructed in a similar
manner. Note that for eachwedge,
(i) The magnitude of lTandPn change,but their directions do not.
(ii) Both magnitude and direction of,R change.
In order to compute the actual value of the resultant thrust and to locate
the corresponding potential failure plane, a pressure curve is drawn as
follows:
(i) At any height aboveAC, DlD5llAC is drawn.
( i i ) A t C y C 2 , . . . , C 5 t h e l i n e s E 1 C 1 , E 2 C 2 , . . . , E 5 Ca5r c d r a w n
perpendiculattoAC.
(iii) The dist ancesE 1Dy E 2D2, . . ., E 5D5 arelaid off from thosenormals,
to representP4 PAr, .. ., Pn, to the chosenvector scale.
,,
(iv) The points E1, E2, ...,E5are joined by a smooth curve. This is the
pressure cufle.
EarthPressure 249
(v) At E, a tangent XEY is drawn to the curve, making it parallel to
AC. The distance of this tangent from DE gives the maximum
value ofP4.
(vi) From E, draw EC' LAC'. Join BC', which now represents the
potential rupture plane.
From Fig. 925weget,Pn = 113.5kN,/m.
wall"r. Jf*l:lt"tlun,
e.1.Aretaining vertical
, smooth backhas
to retain a sandbackfill having the following properties:
y=1.85t/m3,q=3g".
(i) Detennine the total active thrust exertedby the backfill on the wall.
(ii) Determine the percentchangein active thrust, if the water table rises
from a great depth to a height of 2 m above the baseof the wall.
I Ans. (i) 4.93 tlm (ii) Increasesby 27.2%b]
9.2. A6 m high earth fill is suppodedby a retainjng wall with a smooth
vertical backface and canies a surchargeof 30 kN/m'. The angle of internal
friction of the fill soil is 30", while its bulk density is 17.5 kN/m'. Plot the
distribution of activeearthpressureon thewall. Also determinethe magnitude
and point of application of the resuitantthrust.
I Ans. 165 kN/m, appliedat236 m abovebase]
9.3. A vertical retaining wall has to retain a horizontal backfill upto a
height of 4 m above G.L. The propertiesof the backfill are :
c = 0, 0 = 28', G = 2.68, w = ll7o, s = 55Vo, F = 0.5
If the wall is rigidly held in position, what is the magnitude of active
thrust acting on it? I Ans. 15.5t/m ]
9.4. With referenceto Problem 3, determinethe percentagechangesin
active thrust if the wall moves :
(i) towards the backfill
(ii) away from the backfill
Assume that, the lateral rnovementof the wall is sufficient to bring about
a stateof plastic equilibrium.
t Ans. (i) Reducesby 63.97o (ii) Increasesby 17697o I
9.5. A masonryretaining wall, 5.5 m high, retainsa backfill of cohesion-
less soil, having a horizontal top surface.The soil has an angle of internal
friction of 27.5", a void ratio of 0.83, and the specificgravity of solids is 2.65.
The water table is located at 2.2 m below the top of tle wall. Above the water
table, the averagedegreeof saturationof the soil is loVo,Plotthedistribution
 250 Probkms in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering EarthPressure 251

of active earth pressureand compute the magnitude and point of application
of the resultant rhrusr. I Ans 12.56 t/m applied at 1.5g m above the base
]
9.6. A cohesionlessbackfill, retained by a 5 m high retaining wall with
a srnooth vertical back, is bounded by a horizontal surface. Tbe water table
is at 2 rn below the top of the wall. Above the wa-tertable, the angle of internal
friction andbulk densityof the soil are 18 kN/m3 and 30; respeJtively.Below
the water table, the bulk density increasesby Lovo while the frictiln angle
decreasesby 2ovo. Detennine the resultant active pressureon the wail.
e,7.Aretai'ing
wauhaving
a smooth
vertical
rjffjfiTfi:
cohesionless backfill. State, giving reasons, how the active earth pressure
exerted by the backfill will change in each of tlre following cases:
(a) the backfill becomes saturated due to capillary-water, while the
ground water table rernains belgw the baseof the wall.
(b) the ground water table rises above the base,but there is no capillary
water.
(c) the given backfill is replacedby a cohesionlesssoil having :
(i) sarneunit weight but greater angle of internal friction.
(ii) same angle of internal friction but greater unit weighl
(iii) same unit weight and angle of internal friction, but having a small
apparent cohesion.
9.8. cornpute the total active thrust and its point of application for the
retaining wall shown i'Fig. 9.26. The wall has a smooth backface.
I Ans. 3.6 r/m, 0.90 m above the base]
CtoyeySond
f = 1 . 8 5t / m 3
3m * =2lro
c= ll/ p2
(a) Determine the active thrust on the wall if the backfill has a horizontal
top surface.
(b) Determine the percentchangein the active thrust if, insteadof being
horizontal, the backfill is now sloped upwards at an angle of 15" to the
horizontal. I Ans.(a)39.52kN/m.(b) Increases by 8.85%l
9.10. A masonry wall has to retain a cohesive backfill having an
unconfined compressivestrengthof 4 t/m' and a bulk density of 1,72 gmlcc.
The overall height of the wall is 6 m. Determine :
(i) the depth upto which tensioncrackswill be extended.
(ii) the magnitude and point of application of the active thrust
IAns. (i) 2.32m (ii) 11.63kN/rn at 1.23m abovebase]
9.11. With referenceto Problem 9.10, detennine the minimum intensity
of a uniform surcharge,which when placedover the backfill, will prevent the
formation of tension cracks. I Ans.3.08tAn]
9.12. A5 m high masonry retaining wall with a vertical backfaceretains
a horizontal backfill of dry sandhaving T = 20 kN/m3 and 6 = 32'. Compute
the resultant active thrust on the wall by :
(i) Rankine's theory
(ii) Coulomb's theory, using the trial wedge rnethod.
Which one of the results is more realistic and whv?
I Ars. (i) 76.75kN/m (ii) 79.3kN/rn,assuming0 = !t
9.13. An RC.C. retaining wall, having a backfaceinclined to the vertical
at 10', has to retain a horizontal backfill of dry sand upto a height of 5.2 m.
The soil has a unit weight of 17.5 kN/m' and an angle of internal friction of
28". The angle of friction between soil and concrete may be taken as 18'.
Determine the point of application, direction and magnitude of the active
thrusl Use the trial wedge method.
I Ans. 98 kN/m, at 18" to the normal on the backface]

I
-r- 9.14. Solve Problem9.13 graphically,using :
(i) Culmarur's method.
D e n s eS a n d (ii) Rebhann'sconstruction.
1'5m I = 1 . 9 5/fm 3 9.15. A gravity retaining wall has to retain a 6 m high backfill of dry,
g=36o
cohesionlesssoil (1 = 19 kN,/m3, O = 36') having a surchargeangle of 8'.
Fig.9.26 The back of the wall has a positive batter angle of 10". The backfill carries a
linear load of 5 t/m, running parallel to the wall, at a distanceof 3 m from the
9.9. A smooth vertical retaining wall has to retain a backfill of
top of the backface, measuredalong the ground. Compute the total active
cohesionlesssoil uptoa heightof4 m aboveG.L. The properriesofthe backfill
thrust on the wall by Culmann's method.Locate the point of application and
are : .,
directionof thisthrust.Assurne,6 = i 0. I Ans. 155kN/m]
y = 19 li.{,/m3, 0 = 36' J
 252 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

9.15. Qompute the total active thrust exerted by

the backfill on the EarthPressure
retaining wall system shown in Fig. 9.27. Locate the 253
position of the potential
rupfure surface.
0 = 25', G = 2.65, e = L.05, s = 0
The back of the wall is relatively smooth.Compute the total active earth
pressureexertedby the backfill using any suitable theory.
A few months after construction,the backfill was thoroughly compacted
and consequently,its Q -value increasedto 32'. However, the top surface of
the backfill was depressedby 80 cm. Determine the percent change in the
C l e o nS o n d
total active earth pressure.
(Y=19kN/m3,
).20. A 4 m high earth-retaining stucture having a smooth vertical
@ = 3 3 oc, = g 1 backfacc retains a backfill having the following properties:

c = 2l/m2, Q - 22', rl = 1.85t/m2

Plot the distribution of passive prssureon the wall and determine the
magnitude and point of application of the total lateral force.
Fig.9.27 I Ans. 56.3 Vm ; 1.61 m above the base ]

9'17. T\e backfit praced behi'd a 5 m high masonry

retaining walr
consists of a partiaily sarurated crayeysilt, havin!
rhe follo;ing p-fir,i.r,
unir weighr = 18.5 kN/m3
cobesion= 10 kN/mz
angle ofinternal friction = 21"
angle of wall friction = 12.
adhesion between soil and wall = g kNlm2
surchargeangle ofbackfill = 10.
The back of the wail is inclined to the horizontar g0'.
at Determine the
magnitude and direction of the aclive thrust by the triar
wedge -"rtoJ. arro
determine the depth to which tension cracks wiil be
extende-d.
IAns. 27.5 kN/m run; 1.57m]
A retaining wall, 4.5 m high and having a positive batter
_ _^ ?.18. angle of
15" has to retain a cohesionlesstactnfl having a unit *.ight
of 1.g5 t/*?;;
an a.gle of internar friction of 31'. usi'g Reiharur,s
meilod, aetermine rne
magnitude of laterar thrust on the walr, ii the surcharge
angle of the backfilr
is:
(i) 10'(ii) 2s. (iii) 31".
9.19. A4 m high retaining wall with a vertical backface
was eonstructed
to retain a backfifl of loose send with a horizontal top
surface nurt.a to tn.
top of the wall. raboratory investigations revealed
that the sand had the
following properties:
 Stability of Slopes 255

and, a = o" silB = yz cosBsinp ...(10.3)

Failure will occur ifthe shear stressr exceedsthe shear strength rJ of
the soil. The faclor of safety againstsuch failure is given by,

10 X

STABILITY OF SLOPES
10.1 Introduction: A slope in a soil mass is encountered
when the
elevation of the ground surface gradualy changes from a rower
lever to a
h.igherone. Such a slope may be either naiurar
6i lirty region) or man-made
(in artificially comkucted ernbankrnentor excavations).
T
The soil mass bounded by a slope has a tendency to slide down.
The Fig. 10.1.
principal factor causirrgsuch a sridi'g fairure is the serf-weight
of the soil.
However, the failure may be aggravateddue to seepageof water
forces. Every man-rnadesrope has to be properly desig'ed to ascertai.
or seismic r = T! ...(10.4)
the
safety ofthe slope againstsliding failure.
olrcsionlesssoi/s: We have frorn Coulomb's equation,
various methods are availabre for anarysing tbe stability \t):f
of slopes.
Generally these methods are basedon tbe following assumptions : rf = c + otano
1. Any slope stability problern is a two_dirnerrsionalone. soil,c = 0,
For a cohesionless
2. The shearparametersof the soil areconstantalong any possible r/ = otan0
_ slip
surface.
in eqn.(10.4)
Substituting
3. I* problerns invorvi'g seepage of water, the flow'et ca'
be
constructed and thc seepageforces can be determined. ohno
F =
a
10.2 stability of rnfinite sropes: In Fig. 7o.r,x-x represe'ts a.
infinire
slope which is inclined to the horizontal at an angre p. on any prane yy Again, substitutingthe expressionsfor o andr.
(YY ll w at a depth z below the ground lever thJ roil prop"rti"i and the
c o s ' B . t a n O_ t a n O , /
overburden pressure are constant. Hence, failure ,my o""ui along
a plane
F _ 11
''tzcosPsinP= ;;ft= / r1t
"'(10's)
parallel lo the slope at some depth. The co'ditions for such
a failure may ue
analysedby co.sidering the equiribrium of the soir prismA,BCD of width When S = p, F. = 1. Thus a slope in a cohesionlcsssoil is stable till
b.
Considering unit thickness,volume of the prism V = z b cos F s Q, provided tbat no extemal force is present.
F
and, weight of the prism, ((ii)) c - f sor/s: In this case,the factorofsafety againstslopefailure
W=yzbcosp is glverf by,
Vertical stess on llPdue to the selt'-weight.
n c * otano
",=l=yzcosp ...(10.1)
T
) ^
This vertical stressrranbe resolvedinto the following two componenfs: ,' _ c + yzcos'Ftan0 ...(r0.6)
yzcospsinp /
o = o, cosp = yt.or2B ...(r0.2)
 Stability of Slopes 257
6 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Let H" be the critical heigbt of the slope for which F = 1 (i.e, ,f = r)

YfI" *tB sinp = c * yH, "*28 t nq

or, 4_ffi
Of, Hc-+ ...(10.7)
y "or2 p (tanf - tan p)
Eqn.(10.7)mayalsobewrifrenas:
q) Foce b) Toe c) Base
C .

:? - cos"B(tanF
- tano) ...(10.8) Foiture Foi [ure Foilure
Fig. 10.2
or' Sn= cos2B(tanB
- tano) ...(10.e)
(a)Purely cohesive soils: I.etAB representthe slope whose stability has
where, s, is a dimensionlessquantity known as the stability number and is to be investigated.A trial slip circleASlC is drawn with O as centre and OA
given by : = OC = R as radius.

cohesion at a depth H is,

s'=yt

cn=q
c
...(10.10)

If a factor of srfety F, is applied to the cohesion such that the mobilised

...(10.11)
,+'
I
---
\!
P
\ \
B ---

tr r-o
Then, r- " - c ^ c
...(10.12)
yE= F;yH
From eqns.(10.10)and (10.12),we ger,
c c
y4=+rH
or, F, = + = Fn.
Fig.10.3
Hence, the factor of safety againstcohesion,.F., is tle sameas the factor
Let Wbe the weigbt of the soil rnassA.SICBacting vertically downwards
of safety with respectto height, Fa .
through the centre of gravity and c be the unit c-ohesionof the soil. The
10.3 stability of Finite slopes: In case of slopes of limited extent, three self-weight tends to causethe sliding while the shear resistancealong the
tlpes of failure may occur.Theseare:facefailure, toe failure and basefailure planeASIC counteractslt.
(Fig. 10.2 a, b and c respectively). Now, arc le4gth ASIC = R '0
Variousmethodsofanalysingthefailureoffinite slopesarediscussedbelow.
where, Q = IAOC (expressedin radians)
10.4 Swedish Circle tleUgAL In this merhod, rhe surface of sliding is
assuffiill-i6Efifll oI a circle.
258 Problems in Soil Meclutnics rrnd Foundotion Engineering
Stobiliry of Slopes

.'. Total shearresistancealong the plane ASIC = R 0 c

Restoringrnornelt = shearresistancex lever arrn
il),r-l>-
ot Mn = nOc x R = R20c ...(10.13) l ! o.
lL-k
d (r.t -
. - \
I I \
Consideringunit thicknessof the soil rnass, , l r
\
\ \ u
V
Q

W = A . I . y = A t
where, Y = unit we.ightof the soil
A = cross-seclionalareaof the sectorASr CB.
The areaA can be detenninedeitherby using a plauirneteror by drawing
the figure to a proper sc-aleon a graph paper and counting tht'.number o[
divisions ofthe graph paper coveredby the area.
Now, disturt'ringrnornent,MA = W .a
Nr
where, d = lever ann of lIlwith respectto O.
The distancedrnay be detenninedby dividitrg tbe areainto an arbitrary
numberof segrnentsof small width, andtakingmLrnlentsof all thesesegrnents
about O.
Thus, the factor of safety against slope failure,

-< M* cRzo {r-

-l = - = - - a ...(10.14) Fig'l0'4
MD Wd
C = c'la
A rrurnber of trial slip circles are cboseu and tbe lhctor of sal'ety with
respectto each of them is computed.A curve is then plotted to show the whert:, c = unitt:ohesion,
variation of factor of safety with various slip circles (the curve F1 F2 Fg in lo = averagelengthofslice
Fig. 10.11).The slip circle correspondingto tbe minimurn factor of sat'etyis
(iii) I-ateraltlrrusttiorn adjacentslices,El andEp .In simplified analysis
identified from this curve. This is the potential slip surface, and the
corresponding factor ofsafety is the factor ofsafety againstfailure ofthe slope it is assurned that, E1 = ER 'Hence the effects of these two forces are
AB. neglcctcd.
(iv) Soit reactionR ac.rossthe arc:.According to the laws of friction, when
(b) Cohesite frirtional soils: With reference to Fig. 1O.4,a trial slip
the soil is about tc slicle, R will be inclined to the normal at an angle Q.
circf eASlC is taken and the sector 1,SlCB is divided into a nunrber of verticzl
(v) The vertical stresses,V1 and7p , which areequal and oppositeto each
slices,preferablyofequal width. The forcesacting on eachslice are:
other and henceneednot be considered.
(i) Self-weight, 17,of the slice, acting verticalty dounwards through the
The weighl W is resolved into a normal componentN and a tangential
centre of gravity. ConsiCeringunit thickness of the slice,
colnponent L For sorneof the slices Twill enhancethe failure, for the others
W=\xboxln ...(10.15) it will resist the tailure. The algebraicsurn of the normal and tangential
where, boant-lo represent the average height and length of the slice conponentsare obtainedfrom :
i 2 T = 2 ( U rs i n c ) ...(10.17)
respectively.
and, t t/ = E (I4zcoso) ...(10.18)
(ii) The cohesive force, C, acting along the arc iu a direction opposilg
the probable motion of the sliding soil. Now, driving lllomellt, Mo=R2T ...(10.1e)
 Stability of Stopes 261
260 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundotion Engineering

(iv) From 8, drawBP,making it inclined to the horizon lal at a2' BP and

and,Restoringmoment, Mn = R[clAI + x/V tan$]
AP intersect atP, which is a point on the desiredline PQ'
But = R0
>At = totallengtbofarcASlC (v) The other point Q is located at a deptl ,Frbelow the toe of the slope
join
Mn = RIcR0 + trYtanOl ...(10.20) anOit a horizontal distanceof 4.5 II away frorn it. Locate tlris point and
PQ.The centre of the critical slip circlc will be located on PQ'
.'. Factorof safety,
Table 10.1
M^
'- - - RlcR0 + xNtan0l
F =

MD
- -

R'T Slope Slope angle ($) Valuesof angles

(V, H)
.y't c{_9__t_X_ffeLQ. cr1 Q.,t
or, Vr = zr
...(10.21)
1 : 0.58 60' 29" 40'
A number of txial slip circles should be consideredand the factor of safety
1:1 45" 28" 37"
for each should be determined.The one correspondingto the minimum factor
of safety is the critical slip surface. 1:1.5 33"48' 26" 35'
1O5 Method of l-ocating the centre of the Trial slip circle: The number L:2 25" 35'
26"36'
of rrials reguired to find out the critical slip circle can be minitnised by an
empirical method proposedby Fellenius. According to _him,the centre of the 1:3 18"24' 25' 35'
critical slip circle is located on a straight lne PQ, which can be obtained as 1:5 11'1g' 25" 27"
follows:
(i) Draw the given slopcAB and determine the slope angle-,- [ 10.8 Friction Circle Method: This methodis basedon the assumptionthat
(ii; Oetermine the values of the anglesa1 and crz (Fig. 10'5) from Table the resuttant forceR on the rupture surfaceis tangential to a circle ofradius
10.1. y = R sin Q which is concentric with the tial slip circle. Various steps
(iii) FromA, drawAP at at *ngle of c1 to A8. involved ate givenbelow :
1. Draw the given slope to a chosenscale'
2. Seleeta triatslip circle of radius R, the centre of which is located at
o (Fig. 10.6a)
3. ComPuter (= fi sin Q) and draw anothercircle of radius r, with O as
the centre.
4. Now considerthe equilibrium of the sliding soil mass under the
following forces:
(i) Self-weightWof the sedorABCD.
1il; fne cohesiveforce C along the planeADC, the magnitudeand
directionof which canbe computedasfollows :
Let c be the unit cohesion.\\e arcADC is dividedinto a numberof
smallelements. l*t C1,'C2,.-..,Cnbe themobilisedcohesiveforcesalong
them.
The resultantC of theseforcescanbc determinedby drawinga force
polygon.
Now, themobilisedunit cohesion,c-', is givenby :
Fig.10.5
 262 Problems in Soil Meclmnics and Foundation Engineering
Stability of Slopes 263

(i) Drawa vertic:alline rtb to representW (Fig. 10.6(b))'

(ii) From rr clrawac, making it parallelto the line of action of Fp .
(iii) Frorn b drop a perpendicularbd on ac. The line bd now represents'
in magnitudeand direction,the cohesiveforc.eCR requiredto maintain the
equilibriurn of the soil massABCD along the closen slip circle.
6. Dek:rmine the unit cohesioncrrequired for stability from :

c, = ...( 1{) .26)

i
7. The thctor of sal'etvw.r.t. cohesionis now obtainedliotn :
- acfualcohesiorl c
F = - = - ...(10.27)
requiredcohesion cr

8. The factor of safely w.r.t. shearstrengthc:anbe obtained as follows:

(i) Assurne a certain factor of sat'etywith respectto the angle of
intemal triction. Let it be,F6.The mobilisedangleof intenni frictiott is then
given by:
tan 0
(q)
(b) tanOz= ...(10.28)
n
Fig. 10.6
(ii) Draw a uew tiiction circlewith O ascentreand r' asradius,where,
, c ' r'= Rsin0n ...(10.2e)
c ^ = n .,.(r0.22)
' c
(iii) The lactor of sat'etyw.r.t. cohesionF. is thenobtainedby tbnning
where, F. = factor of safety with respectto cohesion. anothFr triangle of forcres.CompareF6' and F6. If they are different, go for
The cohesive force is givel by alother trial.
(iv) In this mauner, adjust the radius of the circle until ,FOand F.
, c'L..
C=C^tr= ...(10.23) becorneequalto eachother.This value is theuacceptedasthe factor ofsafety
O: for shearstrengthof the soil w.r.t. the given trial slip circle.
But, sumrning up the moments of all forces about o and equating to zero, 10.9 Taylor's Stability Number: Taylor carried out stability analysis of a
we get, large @rious heights, slope angles and soil
C'Lo'R=C.Lr.a ...(1o.24) properties.On the basis of the results, he proposed a simple method by which
the factor of safety of a given finite slope can be easily detennined with
where, a = perpendicular distanceof line of action of c frorn the centre of
'the reasonableaccuracy.Taylor introduccda dimensionlessparameter,called
slip circle.
Taylor's Stability Nurnber,which is given by,
"= !^
Lc
...(10.2s) ,./r,, = F , \ H
...(10.30)

(iii) The other force is the soil reaction d which is assumedto be

The value of S,, rnay be obtained frorn Fig. 10.7.
trngential io the friction circle.
5. Draw the triangle of forces in the following lnanner :
 265
Problems in SoitMechanics and Fottndation Engineering Stabilityof SloPes

0'18

0.16
0-20
e o

I
I 01s
% /,
/
+ 0.14
I

2
e.

#
a
L'
L
!
@ 4.12
(U E
-o E
E a
a z
z a.n t
>
=
0.10
/ 5
/ +
o
-ct
+
o ../l
t/l
/ /
0.05

,l /,
0.06 i
0.05
10 20 30 /.0 50 60 70 80 90 ; I
----*
-Angte(Degrees)
Slope D e p t hF c c t o r , n 6 *
Fig.10.8
Fig.10.7
where, D - Depth of bard stratumbelow toe
w.r.t cohesion, f/ = Height of sloPeabovetoe'
The stability numbers are obtained for factor of safety
slope angles'-Each
while fte factorof safety w.r.t' friction, Fq is initially taken as unity' Fig. 10.8 consists of a family of curves for various
ThevaluesofS'obtainedfromFig'10'Tareapplicableforslip.circles curveconsistsoftwoparts.Theportionsdrawnwitifirmlinesareapplicable
while the portions drawn with
passingthrough tne ioe. However for slopesmade in cohesivesoils
of limited to field conditions iffustraiea in Fig' 10'9 (a),
shown in Fig' 10'9 (b)'
ieptn i'na "nierlain bya hard stratum, the critical slip circle below
passes the broken lines are meant for the conditions
Tbe figure also consiss bf a third set of cuwes' shown with broken lines'
toe.Insuchcases,thevalueofs'shouldbeobtainedfromFig'10'8'Intlis the distancc x of the rupture circle
as : for various values of 4 where n represents
figure, the depth factor plotted along the 'r'axis is defined given by'
D + H from the toe, as illustated in Fig. 10'9 (a), and is
nc= ...(10.31)
H n =xf r

I
-l
266 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatian Engineering Stttbility of Slopes 261

{o} (b)
Fig. 10.9

EXAMPLES
/
Problern l0y'J A slopeof infinite extentis rnadein a densesandlayer at Y F t o wL i n e s
an angle of 30'to the horizontal.Detenninelhe factor of safety of the slope
againstshearfailure if the angle of internalfriction of the soil be 36'.
Fig,10.10
Solution: With referenceto Fig. I0.I, XX representsthe given slope,
at P'
while )Yis a plane parallel to it at a depthz. line PQ represents oue sucli equipotential line, which intersects \Y
Hence, the piezonetric head at P is given by PR'
Vertical stresson XIldue to overburden.
oz=lz
Fromgeotnetryof the tigure, PR = P0 cosF
and, PQ = zcos9
where, Y = unit weight of the soil
PR = zcos20
Normal stresson YY, o = oz cos2p ([] = slope angle) 1 ^
Therefore,neutralpressureal P = 'l', z cos- p
Shear stressorr YI, a = o" c.osF sin 0
Now. total vertical stressat P due to overburden,
Shearstrengthof the soil on the plane 17,
o= = YsatZ
"f = otanQ = o-(:os2ptanQ.
Total nrlrmal slressat P, o = o; c:os2p = yr",, "or2 p
But, tactor of safteyagair:stsheartailure,
a Shearstressat P, r = o : c o s p s i n 0= Y s a tczo s P s i n P
o"cos'F tanO
',r- - - ' f - - t a n0
Effec-tivenormal stressat P = total normal stress- neutral stress
r ozcosBsinB lan0
or, o' = ysat', .or2 B - Yrz coszP
tan 36'
=rr"3tr=I'46'
/ = Z cos2F (y"ar- y.) = ysuu, "or2 P .
Problem nd fslope inc:linecl at 16' to the horizontalis to be made in
However,tbe shearingstressis entirily intergrannular.
a cohesionlessdeposithaving the following properties:
G=2.70,e=0.72,0=35', Shearslrength of the soil on Ylz,
Detennine the factor of sat'etyof the slope againstshearfailure if water "f = o' tan S = ]116z cos2P tan $
percolatesin a direction parallel to tlre surfaceofthe slope.
.'. Factorofsafety againstshearfailure,
Solution: The given conditiousare shown in Fig. 10.10.
'is
]*5 z cos2p tan Q y.ubtan 0
" = i = l;;"'P't"P
YYis a plane locatedat a depthzbelow the slope.As water percolatesin -
a directio;rparallel ro the slope,all llow lines rnust be parallel to the slope. yr", tan p
Therefore.,all equipotentiallines should be perpendicularto the slope. The
268 Problems in Soil Meclunics and Foundatian Engineering Stability of SloPes

(2'79-*0J3li1'0)=
Now, ysar Il +*e "' nu...= (l+0.72)
r./rn3
1.988

Ysub 1.983-X=0.988t,/m3
1.55
(0.988)(tan35') ,
Fs=
6trsffi=r'2r
Problern 10.3 A slope of 35' inclination and 6 m vertical height is to
be rnade in a pur^elycohesive soil having a unit weight of 1-.85Vmt and a
cohesion of 6 t/m' . Determine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding
failure.
Solution : The problem will be solved by the Swedish circle method.
The solution is presentedin Fig. 10.11 and the procedure is explained below:
(i) The given slopeA3 is drawn to a scale of 1 : 200.
(ii) The values of c1 and cr2for p = 35' are determined from Table
10.1 by making linear interpolation between F = 33"48' and B = 45". The
following values are obtained :
al = 26.2", eZ = 35"
(iii) The point Q lying at a depth of .EI= 6 m belowA and at a linear
distance of.4.5 H = 2'7 m fromA is located.
(iv) FromA and .B, two straigbt linesAPand BP are drawn such that,
LPAB = ?.6.2", and LHBF = 35"
AP and BP intersect at P.
(v) PQ is joined. The centre of the critical slip circle should be located
J-o,
on this line. rr 2?'5m
I
(vi) PB is measuredand found to be 4. 6 m. On projected Q,two more
p o i n t s P ' a n d P " a r e t a k e n s u c h t h a t , P P '= P ' P " = & = 2.3m. Fig.10.11
distutbittg
(vii) Three trial slip circles are drawn with P, P' and P" as centres and (ii) Considering unit thickness; the area, weigbt and the
PA, F A and F' A respectively as radius. The factor of safety with respect to o*K f*.".h sliie are d9trmine4'Thes?a4 lablla
each circle is determined separately. r--'=
Width Averagelenglh Area Weight Level ' Moment
Fig. 10.11 shows the determination of Fg with respect to the first trial lstu"
llVo. f t x A x l ) arm aboutP
slip circlg having its centre atP. abovl P
(t) (m) (t-m)
The ptocedure is statedbelow : (n) (n) o*t
(i) The area under tle slope and the slip surface is divided into 7 slices.
4.07 3.7 -15.06
The first 6 slices have a width of 2 m each while the width of the 7tb slice is I 2.0 2.2
2.2m.
 27L
210 Problcms in SoilMe:hanics and FoundtrtionEnginecring Stabilityof SloPes

50' to the
Slice Widtlt Aterage Iengrlt
Problern 10.4 A 10 rn deep cut, with the sidesinclirted at
Area Weiglt Let,er Moment conditionsare as follows:
No. (yxAxI) horizontal.hasto tretnadeat a sitewlrerethesubsoil
Qrm about P
ebout P Typeof soil y (Wlmi) c (kNlm2)
No. Depth (m) Q ( /
(m) (m) (^2) (t) (m) (t-m)

2 2.0 2.4+ 4.0 6.2 -19.50 0-4 Very sotl claY r7.5 0 L2
- - = 1 l
T1.47 1 . f
I
2 * "
1 4-1 Mediurn claY 18.0 0 35
2.0 gfl=o'ut 9.3 t7.21 tr.J 5.16
19.0 0 68
J 7 -t4 Stiff clay

4 2.0 5.3+ 6.3= 5 ' E 11.6 2r.6 z.) 49.36 4 14-o Roclk
2
probablebase
5 2.0 6.3+5.6_.o. r 1.9 22.01 .1. -t 94.64 Cotnpute tlre thctor of safetyof the slopewith respectto a
-"- lailure along a slip circle of 13.5 m radius'
2
prcibletncan
solution: Fig. l}.l2illustrates the given conditions.The
6 2.0 wl2=o'" 9.5 17.58 6.3 r10.75 be solved by the Swedish c:irclemethod'
this
1DGE representsthe slip circle of radius 13.5. O is the centre of
.|
2.2 4.29 7.94 8.4 66.1O circle.Astheslipcirclepassesthroughthreedifferentlayers,thefailure
ff=r.ns
2M = 292.A5t-nt - l Y l= 1 ? ' 5k N/ m 3
qI
tr = 78 ril/m2
Disturbing Mornent, MD 292.05 t-st

Again, restoring lnornenl, MR c R2.o - r Y 2 =1 8k N / m l

r g2=
ln 35;1r11s2

Here, c = 2.5t/nt?
R = PA = 9.9rn [ = 1 9k N / r n 3
? m C 3 = 1 51 P 7 6 1 2
g = LAPD = 102.5'= 1.789radian

MR = Q.s) (e.e-)(1.789)= 438.35t-m

=
Facforofsal'ery= 1.50
#; ffi=
Fig.10.12
In a similar manner,thc factor of safcty of the slopew.r.t. the two other
of
slip circles (having their ceutresat P' and P"1 aredetenninedand are lbund wedgeconsistsof threedifl'erentiones. lrt IV1,W2and W! be the weights
about O.
to be 1"55 and 1.66 respectively.A curve representingtlrevariation of factor th" t[r.. zonesand.r1,.r2and .'3 be the correspondinglever arms
of safety is then plotted. Tbe minimum factor of safety of the slope, as FromB,drawBlLHF.Zorrelmaylrowbedividedirttotlretriangle
obtained from this cuwe, is 1.45.Tlie correspondingcritical slip circle will BHI and the rectangleB/FE
bave its centrelocatedat P^.
Weight of L BHI = (0.s)(17.s)(3.3)(4.0)kN = 11s.skN.

I
272 Problems in SoiI Meclmnics and Fottndation Engineering 273
Sttrbilityof StttPt's
Weight of sector BIFE = (17.5)(6.5)(4.0)kN = 455kN.
Asthes|ipcirclcpasst:sthrclughtlrrccdift.ererrtsoillayers,tlreresisting
Wr = 115'5 + 455 = 560'5kN. along the three segtneutsof
tbrce cotrsistso[ thc cohesivclbrcesmobilised
in the figure'
(115.s)(7.2 - 33/3) * (65)Q2 + 65/2)
= 9.?4m. the slip circlc. Thc corrt:spcndinganglesare shown
'l =
560^5 Thcrclbre,lotal rcstoriltglllorllellt
The secondzoneHFGJ is assurned to be a parallelograrn,
thecentroidof = c t R 2 o 1+ c r R ? 0 , + c 3 R : 0 3
which lies at the intersectionof thediagonals.
= .41(cr01 + cr $ + ca 03)
W2 = (18)(10.6)(3)= 572.4kN
x2 = 7.5m (by measurement) = (13.s2) + (36)(r4'2)+ (78)(16'2)]
[(26)(101'5) #
In orderto find out W3andx3,zoneIII is dividedinto 7 slices.The area, = 14039.69kN-rn'
lever arm and momentof eac.hslice aboutO are determined.Theseare
tabulatedbelow: Factor of safetyalonglhe givt:n slip circlt:
14039.69 =
= 1.09
Slice Widtlt Average Imgtlt Area Weight Lever Moment Tzsollg
made in a-siltyclay having
No. tm) (m) (^2) (kN) 4rm about O Problem l0.5 A slopeof l V : 2 H is to be
ubaut O ( w- m ) a t r a t r g l e o f i r r t e n r a l r r i c t i o n o f 5 . a r r d a c o h e s i o r r o f 0 . 2 5 k g l o n " . T hthe
eurrit
of cut is 8 m' Cornpute
(m) *"isf, of the soil is 1-85grn/cc, and the depth
circle method'
-:731.8 faclir o[ saft:tyof the slopeby the Swedish
l. 3.5 4.55 96.3 7.6 10'13 (t)' T1" centreof a
!{o*r.u)=t.t Solution: The given slope is showuiu Fig'
The sliding wedge is divided
trial slip c:irrrleis lo"ut a uy Feilenius,method.
z. 9.45 t79.5 4.6 -825.7 equal width of 4 rn' while slice no' 6
into 7 slices.The tirst five sliceshave
l{z.u*t.r)=t.rt and ? are 2.8 rn wide each'The average ftngth of each slice is tneasured'

2 a 1 1.4 140.6 z.l -295.3

A
15.9 342.1 0.4 120.8
q.
=
lo., *6.e) 5.3
3 19.5 370.5 3.4 t259.7 /ii'i\
/ ri\.\/(
-----'72sF

Itu.n*6.1)=6.5
L933.4
6. J
=5.3 15.9
*4.5) 3A2.1 6.4
lrc.t l
4 9.0 r7r.a 9.9 1692.9
|o.s ro)=zzs N1
2 M = 3153.9
T1
W3 x x3 = 3153.9kN - m
Now, total disturbingmoment = Wtxt + WZvZ + W3x3
Ws
- (s60.5) (7.5)+ 3rs3.e
(9.7$ + (s72,4)
= 12906.L9 1"1
&=l'ls f,
Tg=0
Fig.10.13(a)
 274 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engincering
Stahility olSlqtas 275

%(1 6 s)/ In lhis nranncr,lhc nomral ancllangentialcomponentsfor eachslice are

detcrmined.Thc rt:sull.sare labulatedbelow :
Pzn't+9) Slice No. Widtlr Average Weight t{ T
P8{1.82) (m) length (m) (t) (r) (t)
P1
(t.eq) Ps(1,65
) 1 q 2.4 17.76 t4.7 -10.1
z 4 6.2 45.8t1 44.7 -9.9
\t1.71 J 4 8.7 64.38 64.4 0
4 4 10.3 76.22 73.8 19.4
5 4 9.65 71.4r 62.3 34.6
6 2.8 8.4 43.51 30.1 31,.2
7 2.8 3.6 18.7 10.1 15.9
|| 2 W = 3 3 7 . 9 t ,X N = 2 5 5 . 4 t , : r = 8 1 . 1t
I
t It should be noted tlrat.as the width of slices6,ard 7 are70Voof that of
lhe olhcr slices,lhc length of the vertical lines representingW7 and W6 are
4 ' 5H 701 of the.avcragelengthof slice no. 6 and 7 respectively.
(b)
Fig.10.13 The tactor of sat'etyof the slopew.r.t. the slip circle underconsideration
may now be determinedusing eqn.(10.24) :
The weight of any slice may now bc determinedas :
c R 0 + I y ' y 't a n q
Ir t -
!7 = width x averagelength x unit weight of soil z r
The selt'-weightis assumedto act along the centralvertical line througlr R = 15.8m,
By rneasurernent,
each slice, and not through its geometrical centre. The norn.raland tangential
components/y' and I respec-tively,of the self-weight are deternined by and, = (lffiLI*o.= z.oo7rad.
o = 115"
constructinga triangle of tbrce. An easyrnethod of doing this is explained
(2.s)(15.8)(2.007)+ (2s5.$(tan5')
here with reference to lhe slice no. 4. F- s = =l.E
Draw the centralvertical line throughthe rniddleof the slice (shownwith
a broken line). Measureits length.Extend the line and lay-off an equal length In order to Iocate the critical slip circle, i.e., the slip circle with the
frour it. This new line now representsthe self-weight Wa in magnitude and rniuirnumthctor of sat'ety,proceedas follows :
direclion. The corresponding vector scale used is (i) Measure.the distancePyB,l-e.tit be I.
1 cm = width of slice x unitweight of soil (ii) With P0 as centre fonlr a grid consistingof 9 points such that the
length of each side of the grJd= 712.
= (4) (1.85)= 7.4ln
(iii) Draw trial slip circles taking each of these9 points in turn as the
In order to construct the force triangle, join tlre cetrtre ofthe slip circle ccntre.Computethe faclor of safetyof the slopefor eachslip circle.
to the mid-point of the bottom of slice. Extend this radial line and drop a (iv) Plot the values of F5 thus obtained for each grid point and draw
perpendicular on it from the terminal point of the line representing IVa. The
contour lines for different values of F5. The slip circle having the minimum
nonnal component.lf4 and tangential component14 are now detennined frorn
value of.F5 can be detenninedfrom this contour.The conespondingvalue of
the force triangle.
F5 is the fac-torof safety of the slope.

l _
 271
Sttrbility of SloPes
276 Problems in Soil Mechanics und Foundation Engineering
Tlrroughtltcpoirrtofintcrsecticltrof!Vatt<lC,drawastraightlirrernaking
the third force F.
The processis illustratedin Fig. 10.13(b). It is found thal tht: slip circkr it tangent ti tt " tii.iio,r circle. This line represe'ts
to representW in
having the rninimum factor of safely is lhc outr drawn with P,7as lhc ct:nlre. Choose a vc(-lor scale and draw :t straight line
of actiort of C and F'
Thus, Fellenius'methodyields an accuratcrcsult in this case.Tlre tactoro[ ,nugil*J. and dircctiorr. Using the kuown lines
of C tiorn it'
safety ofthe slope.is found lo be 1.25. .oipt"t. the t'orcetrianglc attd detennine the tnagnitude
The.valut: of Cj oblainedhere'is 41 t'
Prolrlern 10.5 A 12 rn high ernbankutcuthas sidc'gtopc.s oL I V :2 H.
The soil has a unit weight of 1.8 Vmr, cohesionof 1.5 t/m/ and angle of Mobilised cohesion, "*=?=*t"=r.rtt/mz
internalfric{ion of 15".Determint:the factorof saft:tyof tht:skrpr:with r(:sp(:ct
The factor of safety wilh respecrtto cohesion is'
to any chosenslip circle. Use the tiiction circle rncthocl. ^ c 1.5 t
Solution: The slopeis drawn in Fig. 10.14.A triat slipcircle AEC is
F,=;=ii=1"34
drawnwith a radiusR= 20.5m. The cbordAC isjoined and ils lcrrgthis lirund friction' F0 = r'0'
F, = l.34when the factor of safetywith respectto
to be 32 m. [,etD be the rnid point ofAC. that they 4reequal
However,thesetwo factorsof safetyshouldbe so adjusted
The centre of the slip circ{e P rs jointd lo D aud PD is r:xltndcd. It to one another'
intersectsthe slope at .F and the slip circlc at E. Thc rnid-point G of EF nray
As a tlrst trial, let Fa = l'20
be taken as the centreof gravity of lhr an:aABCE.
Norv, areaABCE = MBC + Ar(:aADCE tanQ-=s8=q#
l )
= :.BH.AC + 1AC . DE
z _ t
or, 0- = 8'36''
l )
= :(2.2) (32) + ;(31) (7.4-s)
, . J

= 1 9 4 . 1n r ' R s i n@
Consicleringunit width of tbe slope,weight of thc soil wt:dgt:
R s i n@ m
A B C E = ( 1 e 4 . 1 )( 1 ) ( 1 . 8 )r
= 349.38t.
Now, deflectionangle 6 = 102" = 1.78radian
. ' . A r c l e n g t h o f A E C = L = R 0 = ( 2 0 . 5 ) ( 1 . 7 8 )= 3 6 . 4 9 r n .
The lever arm /o of the cohesiveforce.with respec to P is given by,

t" = ?.R
LC

= = 23.38
m
#(20.s)
At a distanceof 23.38m from P, draw a line paralleI to the chord AC.
This gives the direction of the cohesive force C. Again, tfirouglr G, draw a
vertical line to represnt the self-weight of the soil wedge Iv. The lines of
action of W awJC intersect at p.
Now, radius of the friction circlc,
r = R sinO = (20.5)(sin10') = 3.56rn. Fig.10.14
 279
278 Problems in Soil Mechtrnics ond Foundttion Engineering Stabitityof SloPes

Assume that friction and cohesion

The new radius of the friction circle is, of safety of the slope againstshearfailure'
their ultimatevalues'
r' = R sin S,, = (20.5) (sin 8.36") = 2.9ttm are nobilised to the sameproportionof
of friction (i'e" Fq = 1)' the
Draw anotherfriction circle with this radius. solution: In case of full mobilisation
= L5' and p = 30" as obtained
The direction of F slightly changes.A new tirrce triangle is cottslructed. value of Taylor's Stability Nurnber for 6
'fhe
value of C obtainedfrom it is 46.7 t. from Fig. 10.7,is, S,, = 0'046'
c 46'7 Using eqn.(10.30)
Mobilised cohesiolt , c m = T = 1 6 , = l . 2 l t / : n 2
s"= F.fu' ot' F' =
F a c t o r o f s a f e t yw . r . t c o h e s i o n , F -, = + = l.l8
r.zl 1.6
F'-F+ or, 'E. - (0.046)(1.8)(12) = 1 . 6 1

Hence the l'a<{orot safety of the given slope for the slip circle under However,asfrictionwillnotbefullyrnobilised,tlreactualvalueofF.
is 1.18.
consideration by trials'
I
will be less than this, and is to be found out
Problern 1\7 It is requiredto makea 6 m deepexcavationin a stratunr 'Fo = l'25
LeI
of soft clay having 'l = 18 kN/m'aud c = 26 kN/rn'. A rock layer exists at a
tan 15" =
depth of 9 rn below the ground level. Determine the factor of safety of thc tanQ= ffi o'2r43
slope againstsliding ifthe slopeanglebe 40'.
Solution: The problem will be solvedby Taylor's method. or' 0 = 12'1"

= rc
Referringto Fig. 10'7,for F = 30"
Here, lhe depth factor, ,o -
I when 0=10", S"=0'075
For n4 = 1.5 and F = 40", the value of Taylor's Stability NurnberS, as S'=0'046
when Q=15",
obtainedfrom Fig. 10.8 is, So = 0.172.
But, we have from eqn. (10.30),
. ' . w h e nb = 1 2 . 1 ' , s,=0.46.ffi
sr, = ' or, F. = u.058.
F r n (H Sny/{

F"=
26
(0.172)(18)(6)
= 1.40 +=offina=r'277-r:5
of safety of the slope
Hence, the required factor of safety of the slope = 1.46. Hence, as F. and F6 are nearly equal' the factor
may be taken as 1.25'
It may be further observedfrom Fig. 10.8that, for p = 40"and nd= 1.5,
the value of n is approximately 0.7. E)GRCISE I,O
slope of 35' inclination
x = n H = ( 0 . 7 )( 6 ) = 4 . 2 m 10.L. Compute the factor of safety of an infinite
Hence, lhe critical slip circle will cut the ground level in front of the toe madeinasanddeposithavinganang|eofinternalfrictiorrof4o".[Ans.1.2]
at a distanceof 4.2m4 l0.2.Arrirrfiniteslopeof6mheightand35.inclirrationismadeina
:
Problern W.{/ n cutting is to be made in a soil mass having layer of densesand having the following-propcrties
^ \.{ s = 4 . 5 V r n - ,d = 5 o , e = o ' 8 5 , G = 2 3 0' w=o7o
y - 1.8 t/m3, cA- te tt^2 and Q = 15', with.slide slopes of 30' to tle
againstsliding'
horizontal, upto a delth of 12 m below the ground level. Determine the factor (a) Determine the factor of safety of the slope
 280 Problens in Soil Mecl:onics and Foundation Engineering Stability of Slopes 281
(b) How will the fac:tor of safety changc if the slope gets fully
submergcd?
[Ans.(a) 1.2s(b) 1.e81
10.3. Detennine the fac'torof safetyof the slopeAB with respectto tht: 3.tn
given slip circle shown in Fig. 10.15.The soil hasa unit weigtrt ot ig.5 kNln3 %
and a cohesionof 42 kN/m'. Use the Swedishcircle rnethocl.
[Ans : 1.42]
10.4. A 12 rn deepcut is rnadei'a silty clay with side slopesof 3()".The
soil has the tbllowing properties:
l-
15m
/ y=;f;,',';,t,H'=,:;:
/
6m

Y = 1.9gm,/cc:, c=0.25 kg/cm', O = 8". \Y- sirt

crou.r
,/ y = 1 . 9 f / m c3 =
, 1.5t/m2
6'5m
- cb=6o
./ Stiff ttov ,/

\=195t/m3,:yr/ 12n

Rock

Fig.10.16

Fig.10.15
Locate the ccntre of the critical slip circle by Fellenius' method and
detennine the factor of safety of the slope against sliding tailure by the
Swedislrcircle rnethod.
lArrs. 1.45] 1 ' 9g m / c c
10.5.Deterrninethe factor of sat'etyof theslopeshown in Fig. 10.16with
respectto the given friction circle by the standardrnethodof slices. 0 . 4K g1 c m 2
-o
)
10.5. A 10 m deep cut is to be made in a soil with side slopesof 1 v: 1
.F/.The unit weight of the soil is 1,.8gm/cc and the soil has an uncontjned 9m
cornpressive strength of 0.63 kglcm". Deterrnine the factor of sal-etyof the
slope againstsliding,
(i) neglecting tensiou cracks
(ii) consider:ngtensioncracks Fig.10.17

10.7. cornpute tbe factor of sat'etyof the slopeshown i' Fig. 10.17 with Detenniue the thclor of safety of the side slopes of the canal against
respectto the given slip circle by the tiiction circle methocl. slidirrgby Taylor's nlethod. [Ans.1.25]
10.8. An unlined irrigation ca'al hasa depthof g rn and a side slopesof 10.9. An ernbankment
is constructed
with a c-Qsoil havingthe following
I : 1. The propertiesof the soil are as follows: properties :
c=2.0Vr12, q = 15", y = l.gt,/nr3 c=2.5Vm2, q = IZ', y = 1.851,/m3
?82 Problems in SoiIMechanics and Fotrndation Engineering

to both
The ernbar*rnentrnusthave a ihctor of safetyof 1'5 with respect
cohesionand angle of intemal friction'
of the
(a) What will be the maximum allowable slope if the height
embartkrnentbe 12 rn ?
of the
(b) What will be thc maxitnutn allowable height if the sides
enbankment are sloPed Lt45" ?
l0.l0.A6rnlriglretnbaltklnenlistobemadewnitlraclayeysoilhaving
exists
11
a unit weight of 1.7itlm3 and a cohesionof 3.5 t/mz. A hard stratum
wlmt should be the slope a'gle if
at a depth;f 3 m below the ground level.
33"]
the requiredtactorof safetyJgainstslidingbe2'0 ? [Ans' BEARING CAPACITY
l0.ll.DetennirretlrefactorofsafetyoftheslopeshowttirrFig'10'18
with respect to the given slip circle. use the friction circle method. 11.1 Introduction: Structuresofall typeshaveto rest on the soil existing
is transmited to the supportingsoil
at the site.The load of the superstructure
throughstructuralmemberscalledfootingswhich ate to be designedproperly
so as to ensure:
(i) The shearstressdcvelopedon any plane in the loaded soil mass
does not exceedthe shearstrengthof the soil. In other words, shearfailure
doesnot occur.
Y = 1 8k N/ m 3
c = ' lf / m 2 (ii) The settlenent of the footing due to the applied load does not
excred the tolerablclimit.
The bearing capacity of a given footing hasto be detenninedcorsidering
both of these factors. The present chapter deals with the detennination of
bearingcapacityof a footing from the point of view of shearfailure.
ll.2 Definition of Terms Related to Bearing Capacity:

Fig.10.18
l. Grossloading intensity (q): This is the intensity of total pressureat
the baseof footing due to the load from the superstructure,self-weight of the
footing and the weight of earth fill above the baseof footing.
2. Net loading intensiry fu): Before the conskuction of a footing, the
soil at the foundation level is subject to an overburden pressuredue to the
self-weight of the soil mass. The net loading intensity is the difference
between the gross loading intensify and the overburdenpressure.
If a footing is founded in a soil rnasshaving a unit weight y at a depth D
below the ground level, then,
e, = e - ,(D ...(11.1)
3. Uhimste bearing capacity (q): This is the minimum intensity of
loading at the base of the tbundation which will causea shear failure of the
soil.
4. Net ultimate bearing capacity (q,): This is rhe minimum net
pressure intensity due to the applied load (i.e., excluding the existing
overburdenpressure)which will causea shearfailure.
284 ,routeryyA A:tEjc{ya Sunttit-nn{leet!9t, Bcaring Copacity 285
5 . Net safebearing capocity (q,u): The rninirnurn net pressureintensity
at the baseof tbotiilg with respectto a specifiedfactor of sal'etyagainstshear the following expressionfor the ultimate bearins capacity of a footing of
failurc,i.e., width B, placedat a depthD below G'L.:

Q"r =
Qu,t
-f .,(rr.z) --J
r--B
l 9 u l
6. Safe beoring capacity (q"): The maximum gross loading intensitY
whicb the tooting will sately carry without the risk of shear tailure,
irrespectiveof the rnagnitudeof settletnettt.
't ...(11.3) H
Thus. Q, = Qr" + D
-+
0l' e'=!+Yn .,(1r.4)

7. AIIow,abIe bearing cupaciry @): Tlris is the net intensity of loading

which the foundation will carry without undergoing settlernentin excess of F i g .l l . l
the permissiblevalue but not t:xceedingthe net safebearing capacity'
11.3 Types of shear Failure: The sheartailure of a soil masssupporting 4n = cN, + YDNo + o.5YBi/i, ...(11.5)
a structure may take place in either of the following modes: wherc, N, , NqarrdNo arebeariugcapacitylactorswhich dependon the
(i) General shear failure atgle of intt:rnalfriction of the soil'
(ii) Local shearfailure
Eqn.(1 1.5) is applicableto geucralshear[ailurc.For local shearfailure,
(iii) Punchingsheartailure
the followlng equatiollis to be used:
In dense sands and stiff clays, when the loading intensity exceeds a
certain limit, the footing ge.nerallysettlcssuddenly into the soil and well Q n = c ' N r ' + Y D N+. 0' . 5y 8 { ' ...(11'6)
defined slip surfaces are fonned. The shear strength of the soil is fully
rnobilised along thesesurfaces.This is calleda generalshearfailure.' whcrc, c' = 1c ...(11.7)
5
In relatively loose sands and in medium clays, the footing settle.s
gradually.The failure planesare not so well definedand the sbearstrengthof anct, Nr', No' and Nr'are the bearingcapacitylactorsobtainedtioln Q',
the soil is not tully rnobilised.No heavingof soil takesplaceabovetheground
level. This type offailure is called local shearfailure. rvhcrrr, Q'= r an-(l3t." ) ...(11.8)
In very loose sandsand soft saturatedclays, a footing is often found to
virrually sink into the soil. No failure planeis formed at all. Sucira failure is Eqn. (1 1.5) is lncattllbr slrip foolings.Horvt:ver,for squareattdcircular
due to the shear thilure along'the vertical face around the perilneterof the lootings thtr follorvirrg nrodified equalionsshould be uscd,whic* take into
baseof the tbotilg. The soil beyond this zoneremainspracticallyunaft'ected' accountthe shapethclors:
Tltis type of failure is called puttchingsheartailure' For squarcfootings,
The type of shearfailure expectedto occur at a site has a direct bearing ...(11.e)
on the theoreticalcompulationof bearingt:apacity. Q u = 1 . 3c N . + t D N q + 0 ' 4 Y B N ,

11.4 Terzaghi's Theory: This theory is an extension of the concept For circular tbotirtgs,
originally developedby Prandtl. The mode of general shear failure of a Q n = 1 . 3c N . + Y D I ' ! n + 0 ' 3 Y B l { t ...(11.10)
footing is illustratedin Fig. 11.1 (a). Consideringthe critical equilibriurn of
where, ^B stattdstbr the widtb of a squaretboting or the diailreterof a
the.soil we dge xyz underthe forcesshown in Fig. 1 1.1 (b), Terzaghi derive.d
circular footing.
Thrrvaluesof Terzaghi'sbearingcapacityfaclorsaregivcn in Table 11.1.
286 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Beoring Copacity 287

Table 11.1: Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Factors e,, = cNrs,dri, + q N o s u d u i u + 0 . 5y B . l / r t y d , r \ ...(11.16)

where, q ='{D
a N. Nq 1gY N.' N; NY,
s., sg, sy are the shapefactors
0 5.7 1.0 0 5.7 1.0 0.o
dc , dq , 4 un the depth factors
5 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 r.4 0.2
10 9.6 2.7 1.2 8.0 1.9 0.5 ic, iq, i, arethe inclinationfactors.
15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9 The valuesof all thesefactorsare given i4 Tables 11.2through 11.5:
20 17.7 7.4 5.0 11.8 3.9 1.7 Table 11.2 Hansen's Bearing Capacity Factors
?5 N.1, 12.7 9.7 14.8 5.6 3.2 0 0' 5' 10" 1 5 ' 20" 25' 30' 35' 40' 45" 50"
30 37.2 22.5 19.7 19.0 8.3 5.7
N. . I 4 6.48 8.34t0.97 14.8320.72 30.r446.1 75.32133.89266.89
35 57.8 4r.3 42.4 25.2 12.6 10.1
N,I 1.0 r . 5 72.47 3.94 6.40 10.6618.4033.2964.18134.85]18.96
40 95.7 81.3 100.4 34.9 20.5 18.8
45 172.3 r73.3 297.4 5r.2 34.1 37.7 & 1.0 0.09 0.47 r.42 3.54 8 . 1 118.084n KC 95.41240.85 t81.84
50 347.5 4r5.1 1153.2 81.3 65.6 87.1
11.5 Skempton's Equation: This equation is applicable to tbotings Table ll.3: Shape Factors for llensen's Equation
tbundedon cohesivesoils.The net ultirnatebearingcapacilyof sucha tboting
is given by:
Shopeof footing Sa sq sy

Quu=7N. ...(11.I 1) Contiuuous 1.00 1.00 1.00

where, c = cohesion. Rectangular L + 0.2BIL L + 0.2BlL L -0.4BtL
= Bearing capacityfactor which dependson tle shapeof the
It
t'ooting as well as on the depth of foundation. Square 1.3 r.2 0.8
The ultimate bearingcapac'ityis given by:
Circular 1.3 r.2 0.6
qn = cN, + YD ...(rr.r2)
Skemptonsuggestedthe following valuesofy'{. :
Table 11.4: Depth Factors for Hansen's Equation
(i) yhef D = 0 (i.e.,when tlre footing is at the ground level)
for slrip footingslM. -!!l* dc dq dr
folguglg,aLd-circurar-fioorings' N-=*6 2a
| + 435 DlB Forq = y", dq=r.0 1.0
(ii) whenP.E:?j:-
(for all valuesof g) ForQ>25', dq=d, (for all valuesof g)
{; !! *YI+P/B) N' (sur,race) ...(11.13)
(iii) when DlB > 2.5:
ji.=1.5.xNc(surface) ...(11.14) Table ll.5: Inclination Factors for Hansen's Equation
(iv) For rec:tangular
footings: l6 tq ly
i/.=(1 +O.28/L)N,6 ...(11.ls)
11.6Brinch
".","#:rr#;;;ffi'#T J.Brinch
Hansen, the
,' - H
2cBL
| -o.s+ i?
ultirnatebearingcapacityof a footing 's given by,

{
l
I
, t
 288 Problems in Soil Mechonics and Foundation Enginecring Bearing Capacity 289

Validupto: H s V tanb - c5'BL . . .( 1 1 . 1 7 ) of the soil. When the soil is fully submerged,the submerged density 1ru6
wlrere, H attd V arethe horizontaland vertical courponelrtsof the rcsultant shouldbe usedin placeof 1. But if thewatertableis at the.baseof the footing,
load acting on thc footing. only tbe third term is atfected.The generalbearing capacity equatiou is,
= lengtlr of tboting parallelto H. theretbre,moditied as:
I
Qu = cNc + 7D1N.W1 + 0'5yBNrW2 "'(11'20)
c+ = cohesiottbetweetttboting and sc,il.
where, W1 and W2are the correction factors.
6 = angle of tiiction betwcentbotittg and soil.
For most soils, 1*6 is nearly equal to half tlre value of y' Hetrce,the
11.7 Bearing Capacity Equation as per IS Code: Hansen's bcaring
correctionfaclon are given by (Referto Fig. 11.2):
capacrityequationwas lalt:r modified by Vcsic. In IS:6403 - 1981, thc
following equalions were proposed,which incorporated Vesic's modifi- Wr = 0.5(I + 4/D) .,(rr.2t)
calions: Wr = 0.5
Whenthewatertableis at G.L.,
F o r g e n e r asl h e a rl a i l u r c : andwhen it is at the baseof footing,I4l1= 1-0

Q , ,= c N r s r d . i , + q N n s n d n i , + 0 . 5y B N . , s r d r i r W ' ...(11.1ti) Wz = 0.s (l + z2/B) ...(rt.22)

for local shearfailure. Whenthewatertableis at thebaseof footing, W2= 0.5
-) ; . ,
q,, = /y'.'t. dri, + qNq' tqdri, + 0 . 51 B N r s r d r t r ' v y '
...(11.1e)
The shape fac:torssc , .egand s, are thrr same as lhose used in Brinch
Hansen'sequationand canbe obtainedliorn Tablc 11.3.
The dcpth factorsare given by:

d,=l+{t.2(DtB\'$q
dn=dr=1tb rQ<1 0 '

d,r = d, = 1 + o'1(D/B)' fr, rct o ' 10' t I

-.t--
Fig.112
The inclinationfactorsaregivenby:

i, = iq = (l - s/g}f When it is at a depthI below the baseof fmting, Wz = L.O.

Here it is assurnedthat, if the water table is at a depth egual to or greater
. . 2 than B betow the base,tbe bearing capacityremains unaffected.
i I^ . = f r - g l IS : 6403-1981 recsmmendsthc usc of a singtc correction factor Iy' to
t\ a /l
be use.din rhe ftird rerm of equarions(11.18) and (11.19). The value of ly' is
rvhere, NO = ton2(45" + q/2)
as follows:
and c( = angle of inclination of the resultatrttbrce oIt the footing. (a) If the water table is at or below a depth of D + B beneaththe G.L.,
In eqns.(11;18)and (1 1.19),Iy' = correctionfa<rtor for water table. then ly' = 1-
The N. andNn - valuesaresirnilarto thosegiven in Table 11'2,while the O) If it is at a depth D or above, t{
' 0.5
{-values are sligli.tlyditterent. ("i rf O. depth of water table is such tiat, D < D n < (D+B), &e value
I I.8 Fffect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity: In Terzaghi's bearing of ly' sbould be obtainedby linear interpolation.
capacityequation,the secondand third termsaredependentorrthe unitweight

\
 291
Bearing CaPacitY
290 Problems in SoilMechanics and Fottndstion Engineering
dimensionof the
, In caseof single eccentricity (Fig' 11' a) the effective
7 e'
ll.gEccentricallyLoadedFootings:Afootingissaidtobeeccentrically fotrting in the direition of eccentricityis reducedby
thc cre[lreof gravity of
loaded if the resultantload on it is appliedaway from B ' = B - 2 e
i.e.,
theload.Suclrfootingsrnaytredesigrredbyeitlrerofthetbllowirrgrnetlrods: "'(11'23)
A' = L(B - Ze)
(alMetlwdl:[nthisrnetbodtheloadQofeccetttricityeisreplacedby
of magnitudeM = Q'e'
un .i*t concentricload Q and a balancingrnorneilt Incastlofttoubleeccentricitythe<limensionsinbothdirectionsare
load as well a.sthe
Stress distribution digrams due to the concentric: as fol lows:
rcttuct'.<I
maximum stressintensity of
balanc:ingmoment a." plotied (Fig' 11'3)' The. L ' = L - Z e t . a n c lB ' = B - Z e B
than the allowable bearingcapacity
the superlnposeddiagramstroutaU" less
- 2eBl "'$l'24)
of the footing. A' = L' x B' = (L - 2e7)(B

f--i= r-B

1.p
*f
t I -I I

I
. l I
_I
Ptan
n l
st'l t F i g1
. l'a
r+-t--_]
capacity of a footing
-{eF- Etevotion 11.10 Bearing Capacity from N'value: The bearing
irom ile N-value obtainedfrorn StandardPenetrationTe st
Eievot'ion FootinqUnden may be.de.ternrL"o
Loodinq
Eouivo-lent carried,out in the field from the following equalions:
J_
o/A For striP footings:
0riqinotFooting T- + tf1ow, + o'47rfi nw,
enu= a.785(100
"'(11'25)
J - l For squaretbotings:
M.e/l I
Qnu
* fi)owt + o.3rlt'fBW2 "'(tr'261
= 0.e43(1ry
J_
Q M e where, N = averagecorrectedblow count'
A . I D = depth of footing.
-f-
' P
ressurcDisltt-lgilg! f i = width of footittg.
Fig.I1.3 w'r wz = correction fataors[u; r'-:'dr table'

this method if a footilg is Qnu

= net ultimate bearing capacity in kN/m2'
(b) Methotl II (Meyertwf's method): In
a portion ofthe plan area ofthe footing is
"*polJaio an eccentric ioto, ooty
is termed as the effective area'
"o*ia*t"e to be useful' This area
 293
BearingCaPacitY
2gZ Problems in Soil Mecltnnics ttnd Fottndution Engineering
= 186.5 - (1'85)(1"s) = $t't/n]'
11.11 Bceri4 capacity frnrn P]ate Load Test: The bearing capacity of (iii) Net safebearingeaPacitY:
a footing to be placld ori a soil rnass may be assessedfrom the results of a
plate load test carried out at the site at the desireddepth. However, the process Q n " -- - 1 8 3 ' 7 = 6 l . Z t / m 2 .
Q^=\ 3.0
has got several limitations.
The method of computing rhe bearing capacity of a prototype footing (iv) Safe bearing caPacitY:
from the plate load te$tdata is illustratedin Problem 1l'10' Qs = Qns+ \Df
The iettlement of the prototype footing, when founded on granular soils,
is given by the following relationship suggestedby Terzaghi and Peck' = 612; (1'85)(1'5)= 64t/m2'
-/ beenfounded
Pr.oblemlil$,Asqnre footingof 2'5 m x 2'5 m sizehas
I Be@ + 0.3)l2 ...(rr.27) groond level in i soil
cohesive having a bulk densityof
Pp=PtB@.0t.| at !.2 mbelow tbe
;:8 rJ;;;r, uno]nnt .a comprcssive strengthof 5'5 t/rn'' Detenninethe
of safetyof 2.5,
where, Pp - seftlernentof the Plate' ultimateandsafebearingcapaciiyof thefootingfor a factor
by
p = Settlement of the prototype footing' (i) Terzaghi'stheory(ii) Skempton'stheory'
Bp = width of Plate' Solution: Cohesionof thesoil,
.B = width of the prototype foottng. 4u 5.5
c^ = T = _- T - =_L a. a<
t r t/nt?
l

EXAMPLES (i) Terznghi's soils($ = 0) we have'

tlrcory:Forcohesive
problem 1l.l/ A 2 m wide strip footing is founded at a deptb of 1.5 m N. = 5"7, Nq = 1'0, NY = o'
the
below the gtouM tevel in a hornogeneousbed of dense sand, having
Usingeqn.(11.9),
following properties:
qu = (t.3)(2.7s)(s.7)+ (1'8)(1'2)(1'0)
0 - 36', T = 1.85 1,/rn3.
Determine|heultimate,netultimate,nctsafeandsafebearingcapacity = 22.54t/ri
of the footing. Given, for E - 36"
/Vc - 60, Nq = 42' Nt= 47'
Qs
Assume a faclor of safetYof 3.0.
Solution: As 0 - 36', a general shearfailure is likely to occur'
= l}.3lt/rri'
(i) Ultimate bearing caPacitY:
(ii) SkemPton's methd:
4u n cN" + TDNo + 0'518/Vt 1 7
Here, D/B=#=o'4at2'5'
Here, c = 0, y = 1.85Vnt3,o = 1.5m, B =L}m'
Nq= 42 and N, - 47 Eqn.(11.13)is aPPlicable.
(1.8s)(2.0)(47)
4u - (l.ss) (1.s)(42) + (0,5) N" = (1 + 0.2D/8, ff.lsrrrace)
- = 6.N'
But for squarefootings, ffc (surtace)
786.5t/n]'
(ii) Net uttimatebearingcapacity:
4 = { t . r y a } t u . r o l- 6 ; e
4*-4n-lD
- 186.5 - (1.85)(1.5) = t83.7t/rt

I
 295
Bearing CaPacitY
294 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foandatian Eng'ineering
I issubjccttoa Sross
Problem LI{4. Asquare footingof 2m x 2msize
soil
is I m.Thefgynda{on
i. me o.,ptlof ioundation
Q^, = cN" ""r,i;;iffio?Yio
of 1.85Vm' attd an
coilsistsof a depositof densesandhavinga bulk densisty
= (2.75)(6'7s)= t8.67t/t# ,ngte or intcrnal friction of 3d. Determine the factor
of safety againstshear
=
e, = e* + 7D = 18.67+ (1.3)(1.2) 20'83t/n?
failure.
Solution: We havc, for Q = 36"
Qnu
Q" = 7- + \u N"=60, Nq=42,N\=47
, s
as c = 0'
1e 6't Using eqn.(11.9) and noting that the first term vanishes
= + (1'8)(r'2) = 9.63 t/m2. q, = (1'8s) (1'0) (42) + (0'4) (1'8s) (2.0)(47)
7
Problem llJ. Detennine the safe load that can be carried by a square = tql3t/n].
G'L' The
footitts of 2.2V x 2'2 m size, placed at a depth of 1'6 rn below - = 1455 t/mz'
foundition soil has the following properties: uuu = 147'3 (1's5)(1'0)
y = 1.65t/m3, s = l!l)/mz, 0 = 20', Now, actual bearing pressureat the baseof footing'
a factorof safetyof 2.5' GiCEn,for Q = /6',
Assume
qa = - t 8 o -= 4-J5 "t /'|'
o _ m 'z .
N, = 17.7, Nq = 7'4, ffr = 5'o T Ae>

? *,o,
lV.' = 11'8, Nq' = 3'8' NY' = 1'3 But, qb=
Solution: Thelow valueof unitweightof the soil suggeststhatthesoil
is in the loosestate,Moreovet,Q = Zff < 28"' Hencea local
shearfailure is
capacity of the o,, F,= =3'3i.
likely to occur.Using eqn.(11.26),the net ultimatebearing
footing-*Tit:
#i4=*-ffi#do
carryinga net verticalload of
Problenr tt$/Acoluntn of a building,
!.3c'N"'+ vD(N,- 1) + o.4vBN, 125;;;;;;. ,ffipor,"o by a squarefooting'The footingis to be^placed at
a hornogeneous bed bf soil having the followittg
, 2 ^--,,-^2 1.2 m below G'L. in
Here, " = j,=(2/3)(1.2)=0.8r/n} properties:
y=1.82grn/cr,O=30"
N"' = 11.8, ffq' = 3'8, xy' = 1'3 Detennine the rninimum sizeof the footingrequiredto havea factorof
qn,,= (r.3) (0.8)(11.8)+ (1.65)(1'6)(3'8- 1) safetyof 2.5 againstshearfailure'UseTerzaghi'sformula'
=
+ (0.a)(1.6s)(2.2)(1,3) Solution: Net loadon columnfrom superstructure t25t.
= 12.27+ 7.39 + 1'89 Addt07ofor the selfweightof the footing = t25 t
r37.5t
= 2t.55 t/rt
Grossload =137.5t= 138t(saY).
The safebearingcapacityof thefooting: soil
Now, the safebearingcapacityof a squarefootingon a cohesionless
Qnu 2l='25 (1.65)(1.6)= lr.?tt/mz is givenby
q " = F ; - + ' ,o = +
?.j 1 r
-
a , = i f t . s c l U .+ y D ( N n t) + O.aVafrl+ y D
Grosssat'eload to be carriedby fte footing'
=
- es X Areaof footittg Frorntable11.1,for 0 = 30', N" = 3'7.2,Nq = 22.5,N., 19.7
- {ll'76)(2'2f - 5a'51'
 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering BearingCapacity 297
296 ----a-1'^-'^

/(
1 Problem tt/.'en RC.C. column footing of f.8 m x 1.8 m size is
e, = zs t (1.82)(1.2)(22.s- 1) + (0.4)(1.82)(B) (1e.7)l founded at 1.5 m below G.L. The subsoil consistsof a loose deposit of siity
+ (1.82)(1.2) sandhaving the following properties:
= 18.78+ 5.748 + 2.18 = 2O.96+ 5.748 | = 1.75t/n3' q = 20", c = l.lvrt
Determine tbe ultimate bearing czpacity of the footing when the ground
The safeload that canbe carriedby the footing, water table is located at:
Q = Q " x A (i) ground level (ii) 0.6 m below ground level.
(iiD 2.0 m below the base of footing (iv) a.0 m below the base of
= (20.e6+ 5.7a4*
footing.
= 5 .7 4 f + 2 0 96r t Given,for Q = 20",fr.'= 1L.8,frr'= 3'8, fry'= 1.3'
5.7483 + 20.96Bz = 138, Solution: Assuming a local shearfailure, the ultimate bearing capacity
of a square footing is given by,
or, . f+3.6582=24.04
eu = 1.3c' N.' + I DNq W1 + a.4y BNi w2
Solvingthe aboveegrrationby trial anderror,we obtain,
B=Z.O6m=2.10m(say) Here, , ' = ? , = Q / 3 ) ( 1 . 1=)0 . 7 3 t / m 2 .
Hence, the reqyired size of the footing = 2'10 m
Problern [rd. If the size of the footing in Problem 11'5 has to be \ = 1 . 7 5 t / m, l D = 1 . 5 m ,B = 1 . 8 m
restricted to 1.7Ym x 1.75 m , at what depth the footing should be placed? s, = G3) (0.73) (11.8)+ (1.75) (1.s)(3.8)wl
' + (0.4)(1.7s)(1.8)(1.3)wz
Solution: The bearing capacity of a footing placed in a cohesionless
soil increases with depth. In Problem 11.5, the depth of the footing was olt Qu = ll.2 + 9.97W1 + t.64W2 ...(i)
specified as 1.2 m. The corresponding size required for supporting a gross
load of 138 t was found to be 2.45 m x 2'45 m' However, if the size of the (i) Whenthewatertableis at thegroundlevel, z1 = g.
footing has to be restricted to 1.75 m x 1.75 m (such restrictions are some- Usingeqn.(ll.2l), Wr = 0.5 (1 + 0) = 0.5.
times necessary for avoiding encroachment on adjacent land) and if the (i.e.,W, = 17.
W2is notapplicable
column still hastowithstand the samegrossload,its depthhastobe increased.
Let d be the required depth. Qu = ll.2 + (9.97)(0.5)+ 1.64

Now, q, = I[lo{ivu - rl + 0 . a V B N r ]+ \ D = L7.82t/mz

(ii) When the water table is at 0.6 m below the ground level,
(r.82)d (22.s- 1) + @.4$.82)(r.7s)(re.1)+ (1.82)d z1 = 0.6m,
Q"= 2.5
tYr = 0.50 + A.6/7'5) = 0'7
0f' Qs=77.472d+10'039
W2 is againnot applicable
Again,actualcontactpressure,A" = = 45.M1t/rt
ffi Qu = tl.2 + (9.97)(0.7)+ 1.64
=
17.472d+ 10.039 45.061 = 19.82t/m2
or, d=2.fi)m. (iii) Whenthewatertableis at 2.0m belowG.L.,
The footing has to be founded at a depth of 2'00 m belorv G'L' z2 = 2.0-1.5 = 0.5m
Wz = 0.5(1 + O.5/2.0)= 0.68
2g8 Problems in soil Mechanics tnd Foundotion Engineering, BearingCaprcity 299

Here 171is not agplicable er, Q=37.5t

Qu = lL'Z + 9.97 + (1.64)(0'625) Hence, tbe requiredsafeload on eachcolumn = 37.5 t'

= 22.19 t/mZ (ii) In this case,Brinch Hansen'sequationis expectedto yield a more

reliable result.We have tiom eqn. (11'16)'
(iv) when the ground water table is at 4 m below tbe baseof footing, no
stdttt
corr.ectiondue to ground water table is necessary.In other words, the ultimate 4 , , = c N r s r d r i . - + T D N u s n d n i o+ 0 ' 5 v B N r
bearing capacity is not affected by the ground water table' For Q = 10", referringto table 1L'2,
= 22'81 t/nz N. = 8.34, Nq = 2.47, Ny = 0.47
Qn = 11.2+9'97 +l'64
The shapefactors,cepth factors and inclination tactors are obtained trorn
It is evident from the aboveresults,that, thebearing capacityofa footing t a b l e sL L . 3 ,1 1 . 4a n d 1 1 . 5 '
increaseswith increasingdepth of the ground water table' For a rectangularfooting of 2.0 m x 3.5 m size,foundedat a depthof 1.2
prublern l\$/Twoadjacentcolurn's of a building, canyi^g a vertical m below G.L., we gct,
oeaclr, footing of 2 rn x 3.5 m
load of e torrne are supportedby a cornbi'ed s" = rs = 1 + (0.2)(2.0/3.5\ = l'll4
size., foundecl at 1.2 m below the ground level. Determine lhe maximurn
allowable value of Q if the foundationsoil consistsof a deep,homogeneous sY = 1 - (0'4) (2/3'5) = 0'77
strafutn of : d. = | + (0'35)(r'2/2'0) = r'71
(i) Saturatedsilty clay (f = 1'9 t/tn3 , c = 4'6 t:nh
when Q = 0", dq = 1.0and when$ = ?5', dq = dc = I'21
(ii) Partially saruratedinorganicsilt
(y = 1.e t/n3, $ = 10', c = l'6t/m2)
$ = lO", dq = 1.0 +
Bylinearinterpolation,for
{14;-1!} rtol
solution: Total c:olumnload to be carried by the combined footing :
= 1'084
( a ) l o a d f r o r n t h e c o l u t n n s= Q + Q = 2 Q
ib) self-weightof footing (say l0% of columnloading)
=O'ZQ Sincetheloadingis vertical, i, = iq = ty = 1
g r o s sl o a d = 2 . 2 Q .'. 17,= (1.6)(8.34)(1'114)(r.2r) (2.47)(r'rL4)
(1.0)+ (1'84)(1.2)
(i; t' tnis case,as the tbundatio^ soil is purely cohesive,Skempto*'s (1.084)(1.0) + (0.s)(1.84) (2.0) (0.77)(1'0)(1'0)
(0.47)
formula may be applied'
= 17.99+ 6.59 + 0.67 = ?5'?5t/m2
Here. DIB = t.22.A =O.6 <2.5
U s i n g e q n s . ( 1 1 . 1 1 ) ,( 1 1 . 1 3 )a n d ( 1 1 . 1 5 ) ,t h e n e t u l t i r n a t eb e a r i n g 25.25- (l'84)(1'2) + (1.8a)(1.2)= L1.42t/mZ
Qt ' ',
capacity of a rectangularlooting is given by, 2.5
* =='o'l.,',: Totalgrossloadon tboting= (11.42)(2.0)(3-5)=79'97t'

:'-T*]u.,i u,
i 0,,,,,,n
; :?'1,' or,
2.?Q = 7e.97t
A = 36.35t
= 29.51.
t/nz
a factorofsafetyof2'5, thesafebearingcapacity,
Considering Problem N.g/A rectangularfooting of 2.4 m x 3.5 rn size is to be
,o ql
n,=t#=rr.Bt/mz at t.YrnbelowG.i. in a c-g soilhavingthefollowingproperties:
coustrucrect
Y = 1.75VmT, 6 = ?1", c = l.at/mz'
Safe gross load on the footing = Q"'A The footing hasto carry a grossverticalload of 70 t, inclusiveof its
(2.0)(3.s)= 82.6t
= (11.8) self-weight.In addition,the columnis subjectto a horizontalload of 11 t
2.2Q = 82.6
300 Problems in SoiI Mechanics andFottndation Engineering
BearingCapacity 301

applied at a height of 3.3 m abovethe baseof the footing. Determine the factor
ofsafety ofthe footing againstshearfailure : (i) Brinch.H ansen'seqn:We havefrom eqn.(11.16)'
(i) using Brinch Hansen's method. eurt= cN.s"d.i" + yDNrsndnio + 0'5 yBN,tsy4\'
(ii) As per IS : UIJ3 - 1981.
For 0 = 20", N" = 14.83,Nq = 6.4, Ny - 3.54
solution: The loading condition of the column and the footing is shown
in Fig.11.5. Due to the presenceof the horizontal force, the rcsultant load on s" = sq - 1 + (0.2)(2.4/3.5\* 1.137
th" ilu-n is inclined, and the footing becor4eseccentrically loaded. Let e s' = 1 - (0.4)(2'4/3'5) = 0'7t4
be this eccentricitY' = L'219
dc = | + (0'35)(l5/L4)
(E%:P (20)- 1.262
For i = zot;'do = t.o *
'1.8
m
4=l'o'
i, = | - H/TcBL = 1 - lt/(2 x 1.0 x 2.4 x 3'5)
= 0.345

iq- | - o.t+- t - 0IlJlU= o.elr

e = 0'52m
\-it=$.szrf-0.&48
(0.34s)
(1.21e)
(1.137)
q, = (r.o)(14.83) (1.5)(6'4)(1'137)
+ (1.75)
Fig.11.5 (0.e21)
(1.262) + (0.s) (L4\
(r.7s) (3.s4\(0.7ro(1.0)(0.84t|)
= 33.79Vmz
Let R be the resultant soil reaction, applied at P, which can be resolved
into two components,Ry and Rg. ? Safe bearirqgcapacity,
2H = 0 gives, Rs 31.1t
2V=0gives, Rv=74"t o"=ff*to
summing up tle moments of all forces about tbe mid-point of the base
Q,weget,
G, n"=E2=#U? +(r.75)(r.s)
RvxPQ=LLxz.
Of' o"=ry+2.68
ort ,pvo -_( 1 1 L ( 3 ' 3 ) = 0 . 5 2 m
70
Actual contact pressuredue to the given loading'
e = O.52m 7n ,'
Q'-*g=ll'86t/m'
Effectivelengthof thefooting, L' = L - 2 e
= 3.5 - (2)(0.52)= 2'46m 3 t ' 1 g l+ L 6 l r - 1 1 . 8 6
-I"
Effectivewidth, B' = B - 2.4m
F" - 3'37
.'. Effectivearea A' - L' B' = (2#) (2.41= 5.gn?
Qfr

(ii) As per15:6403-1981:
 Problems in Soit lt[echttnicsttnd Foundation Engineertng Bearing CaPacttY

= 14.83, Nq = 6'40, ffv = 5'39 (i)Plottheloadvssettltnenlcurvearrrldeterrrrine,theultimatebearing

For S = 20", i/.
capat:ity
' of the Plate.
Valtresols',snallcls,aretlresarneasilroseobtainedtbrBrirrclr x 1'5 m' placed
(ii) Detenninetheultirnateloadwhich a iboting of 1'5 rn
Hansen'snrethod. samesoil, will ixrry if the allowablesettlernentis
at 1.2 m below G.L. in the
Now VFo = tan (45' + 20"/2) = r'428 2 rrnt.
11'6' In ordcr
Solution: (i) The load-settlenentcrulveis shown in Fig'
d,=1.@!#Jg=1.18 to <teterminethe'ultimate bearing capacityof the plate' two tengents were
in the figure' The load
drawn to the load-settlemeutcurve as showu
d q = d y =t . U T f @ = l'oe of these t*'o tangents is found to be
.-orr.:sponding1o the intersectioil point
3.75 kg/cnt-.
Anglc of inclinationof tht resultantload, = 37'5 t/m2
{a (plate)= 3'75kg/cntz
cr = tan-lE = tou-tft = s'n:' of the prototypelboting is given
(ii) Using eq. (11.27),the settletucltt
1 by'
i , = if^i = ( t - *9I0 = o'81i I B (8, + 30.5)l2
\- ) P=Ppl4iffio'j
(r-8'93\-=0.:oo
,' r = l . ' - Here, 2 c n r = 2 0 m m , B = l . 5 m = 1 5 0 c ' m 8o
= lQ gq1'
n ,|-v.Jw
(1'137)
i. Qu= (1.0)(14.83) it.rtt't(l.18)(0.811)+ (I.75)(1.s)(6'4) 2 A = P"
t 150(30 + 30.5)12 = f,.XO9 pp
(0'714)(1'0e)(0'306) (iso - 3o.t
(1.0e)(0.811)+ (0.5)(r'7s)(z'4\(s'3e) |-30 ]
= 35,72t/nt2 20 =
or, P p = 2.809 7 . 1 2m m .
3 s . 7 2- g . 7 s ) ( 1 5 )+ ( 1 . 7 5 ) ( 1 . s )
Sal'ebearing caPacitY, 4s = r"
or, n"=# +2'6?5
U
33.095 a
* 2.6L5= *s
o"_.--
t

L
or, F" = 3.Sg A
./ E "
problem ll.116. The following rc.sultswere obtainedfrom a plate load E g
dcpth of 1'2 m 'Efr
test perforne<! on a squareptate of :C cm x 30 cm size '1 2 GJ
belorv the ground level in a homogeneousbed ofsand: e12
o
Applied Load L tt-
c,
(ks/cm') u. j6
I
| 1?
Settlement (mrn) *' "
18
F i g .I 1 . 6
 Beoring,Copucity 305
3O4 Problemsin SoilMechanicsand FoundationEngineering

curvewe get, for a settlemetttof 7.12mrn of

From the load-settlement
loadon theplate
the plate,the corresponding
c , " =f + -++=B.zEt/rn2.
s z . )

= 3.7okg/artz = 37 t/m2. (ii) Computation of SettlementzAs the underlying soil is saturatedsilty

clay, only consolidation scttlcmcnt will take place. The zone of influcnce
below the brse of tboting is extendedto a tnaximum depth of twice the width
Ultimateload=J)7\L5) (15) = 83.25t. of the firoting, i.e., 4 m below the base.lnFig' ll.7,X-X is a horizontal plane
Preblern lft,ff. Determinethe allowablebearingcapacityof a 2 m x throqgh the rniddle of this consolidating laycr.
2 m squarefooting foundcdat a depthof 1.5 rn below the groundlevel in a Norv, initial cffcctive ovcrburdenpressuronX-X
deepstratumof silty clay havingthe following avrageproperties: pe - 'l zl + ^{subz2
y = 1.8t/rf, c = 3t/m2, 0 = 0o, Cc = 0.89, ea = 0'85 = ( 1 . 8 )( 1 . 0 ) + ( 1 . 8 - 1 ) ( 0 . 5 + 2 . 0 )
The maxirnurnpermissiblesettlementof the footing is 7.5 crn. The
highestposition of thewatertableatthesiteis at a depthof 1.0mbelowG'L' = 3.8t/n2 = 0.38 kg/cmz
Usirrg 2 : 1 dispcrsion method, stressincrement al X'X,
(8'28) (2'{J)(2'0)
' =
Lp = 2.07 t/ntl = 0.207kg/m2
(2.0 + 2.0)'
1m (assumingthc footing to bc loadectwith 8.28 t^n2).
"'. Consolidatiousettlerncnt,
C.. pn + Lp
Po Ap p, = H :po:
i__ "..togro
tLl __lJ l (0.259) '. ,^- 0.38 + 0.207
_ (400) logto = lu')d ctn'
tr + ossi oJ8
As the estimated settlernetttis greater than lhe uraximum permissible
limit of 7.5 cXr,the allowablebearingcapacityof the footing shouldbe less
Fig.1r.?
than 8.28 t/m-.
Let, q be the load intensity on the footing which results in a settlemenl
Solution: Fig. 11.7 shows the given footing.
ol'just 7.5 crn. Let A p be the stressiltensity onX-Xwhen the footing is loaded
(i) Computation of Bearing Cupacity: witb q t/m-'
We have, from Skernpton's equation, pn + L p
c- '-7;:
Qau = cNc H' logro = ,-t
| . "o'
wtere, N" n 5 ( r + 0,2D/Br(l + 0.28/L) (4o0)
(o.2se) Po + LP =
logro 7.5
Here, Q - 1 . 5m , B = L - 2.0m. 0ft
(1 + 0.85) Po
Nc - sf r . (o.?P)tt
''v
= 6.e
* (0.2)(o.r)) logro
P o + L P=
0.1339
\ l p0
4nu - 6.9c - (6.9) -
{31 ZOJt/mz Po+LP=
1.1433.
For a faclor of safety of.2.S,thc nct safe bearing capacity is givenby'
Oft
Po
306 Problems in Soil Mechanics ond Foundotbn Engineering Beuring Capacity 307

But the value ofpg atX-Xis constant,and is equal to 0.38 kg/."nz fridion of 28" anrt a bulk densityof 18 kN/mr. The water table is locatedat
a grcat depth. Dt:lerrnine the safebearing capacity of the footing' As-sumea
t+*^1 = L36r2 gJreral shear thilure' Given, tbr Q = 28" N. = 32'5' ff,
= 18'8 atd

Nv = 15.7.Thc faclorof safetyshouldbe takenas3.0. [AIs. 373.7kN/rn']

Solving,we get,
11.4. In Problern11.3,if thewater.tableriseslo the groundlevel due to
6,p = o.l3T2kg/crt = 1.372t/m2 noodiilg, detcrminethe percentchangeill the sal'ebearifig capaeityof the
lootirtg. [Ans: DecreasesbY l8.6Vol
But,
.
uP = sBL = qf I 1.5. A squarefooting of 2.2 m x 2.2 msize is foundedat a dpthof 1'2
@iAT;d @- zf
m bclow G.L. in a honogeneousbed ofdry sandhavinga unit weight of 1.95
the
q(*)^ Vrn3 aild an angle Of intemat tiictiou of 3d. Determinethe safe load
L'372= shear tailure.
(2 + 2)' footing .un ..rry with respectto a factorof safetyof 3.0 against
Givt:n, forq = 36', N. = 65.4, Nu = 49.4, Ny = 54'
or, 'be
Q=5.49t/m2-5.5t/ri foundedin a bed ol'
t 1.6. A 2.0 nr wide strip tboting is requiredto
Hence, a loading intensity of 5.5 1,1p2will result in a consolidatiott 4cnsc sa'el havi*g a bulk 4ensity of 2.0 Vm' and an angle of shearing
setflement of 7.5 cm. Therefore, the required allowable bearing capacity of rcsistanceof 35'. Plot thevariationof ultirnatebearingcapacityof the tbotittg
the footing = 5.5 Vrn2. wilh depth of tbunclatiou, Dp tbr 0 s Dy s 3.0m' Given, for q
= 35"'
EXERCNSE 11 N. = 58, Ns = 41.5, Ny = 42.q.
11.1. Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the following footings I1.7. De.rermine the safeloada Circularfootingof5 m diameterfouuded
placedat 1.2 m below lhe ground level in a homogeneousdepositof firm soil at a depth of 1.0 rn below G.L. can caily. The foundationsoil is a saturated
having y'= 1.8 t/nf , O = 20' and c = l.8t/n2. claV lraving att uucoutineclcolnpressivestrengthof 6 t/rn2 and a ulit weight
(i) a strip footing of 2 m width .rf i.fS t/nr5.Assumea faUorof iafety of 2.5.Use Skempton'sandTerzaghi's
(ii) a squarefooting of 2m x 2 m size nrelhods attd cotupare the results. State,givilg reasons'wltich one is more
(iii) a ci'cular footing of2 m diarneter. rcliable.
t, Skempton'smethod]
given,forE = 2g', N. = 17.'7, Nq ='7.4, ffy = 5.0 [Ans: Terzaghi:154-92t,Skenpton: 131.48
tln?l I I .8. A strip footing has to carry a grossload of 120 kN per tnetre run.
tAns.(i) 56.rrth# (ii) 6s.12r/mz liii; 62.80 Tht. footing is plat-edat l.?5 m below G.L. in a homogeneoussandstratun.
11.2. A2.5 m x2.5 m square tboting is founded at a depth of 1.5 m The unit *.ignt and algle of internalfriction of the sandare 19 kN/rn' and
below G.L. in a loose soil deposit having the following properties: 32' respectivily. Detennine the rninimum width of the footing required in
= 44,
,{ = r.65 t/m3, c = o.2kg/cmz, 0 = 15" or<ler to lrave a factor of sat'ety of 3.0. Given, tbr S = 32", N"
Determine: Nq - 29, Nt = 2a' [Ars:2;18m]
(i) the ultimate bcaring capacity
(ii) the net ultimate bearing capacity I 1.9. The size of squarefootingmustbe restrictedto 1'5 m x 1'5 m' The
(iii) the net safe bearing capacity footing has to cany a net load of 150 t coming from the superstructure.The
(iv) the safe bearing caPacity. tbundation soil has the following properties:
y = 1.91gm,/cc. c = 0, 0 = 36"
The factor of safety should be taken as 3.0. Given, for Q = 15',
N, = 12.9, Nq = 4.4, Nr = L5, N"' = 9.7, Nq' = 2,.7, fly' = 0.9. For I = 36', N' = 65, Nq = 49, ffY = 54'
Deterrnine the rninirnurn depth at which the footing has to be placed in
[Ans.(i) 24.s8t/n?QDzz.srtl# (lii)7.s0!n? (iv)9.98vrnzl ordertohaveatactorofsafetyof2.5againstshearfailure. [Ans: 1.10m]
11.3. A circular footing of 2.5 m diameter rests at 1.3 m below G.L' in
11.10. cornplete shear tailure of an RCC footing took place under a
a soil mass having an average cohesion of 10 kN/m', an angle of internal grossload ot6245}kg. The dirnensionsof the footing wetezE mx2.75 n
I

I
 Bearing Capacity 309

308 Problems in Soil Meclwnics and Foundation Engineering

I1.15. In order to assessthe bearingcapacityof a 2.5 m squarefooting,
a plate load test was conducteclat a site with a squareplate of 60 crmx 60 cm
and the depth of foundation was 1.4 m, The rubsoil consistedof r deepstretum
size.The tbllouritrgresultswere obtained:
of medium clay (y - 1.8 t/m3). Find out the average - unit cohesion of the
180 | 360 720 1080 144A 1800
clay. [Ars: c = 3.5 tlnzl
11.11. The fmting of a column is 1.5 m x 1.5 m in size, and is founded Seulement(mm) 0.82 1.78 3.62 5.40 9.30
at a depth of 1..25m belcnvthe ground level. The properties of the foundation
soil are: If the allowablesettlerneutofthetbotingbe 1.5crn,find outtheallowable
c - 0.1 kg/un2, 0 - 15', \ - 1.75 gm/cc' load on the footing. [Ans:284.4t]
Detennine tlc srfc load the footing can carry with a factor of safety of
2.5, when thc water tablc is at:
(t) 0.5 m below the ground level.
1iq O.Sm below the base of fmting. [Ans: (i) 24.99 t (it) 28'29 tl
11.12. The subsoil at a site consistsof a homogeneousbed of ilormally
consolidated soil having the following properties:
y = 1.85 t/m3, c = 3.5 t/m?, 0 = 10'
AZ m x 3.5 m footing is to be foundedon this soil at a depth of 1'5 m'
Detennine the safc load the fcroting can cary with a factor of sat'ety'of 2.5.
Use Brinch Hansen's method.
Given, for $ = 1g', N. = 8.34, Nq - 2.47, Ny = 0'47'
[Ans:152.44t]
11.13. Redo Problem 11.12 using the method recommended by IS:
= 10', N. - 8.35, Ns - 2'47' NT = l'22'
6403-1981. Given, for $
[Ans: 152'0$ tl
11.14. Detennine the factor of safcty against shear failure of a 1.5 rn
wide strip footing located at a depth of I m below the ground level in a bed
of dense sand having Y = 1.9 t./m3 and 0 = 40", if it canies a uniformly
distributed load of 22tpet metre run. Use Terzaghi's equatiou. Given, for
- 64.18, and flr - 95'et'
0 - 40o, N, = 75.32, Nq [Ans:2'61]

11.15. An R.C.C. column is subject to a vertical force of 900 kN actittg

through its centrc line and a horizontal thrust of 120 kN actingat2.T m above
G.L. ihe column is supportedby a squarefooting of 2.5 m x 2.5 m size, placed
at a depth of 1.2 rn below G.L. The foundation soil bas an angle of internal
friction of 35' and a bulk density of 18'5 kl'I76'' Assuming a factor of safety
of 3.0. detennine the safe load. Use:
(i) Brinch Hansen's method
(Nc - 46'12, Nq = 33'3' /VY - 4[.69)
(ii) Recommendation of IS: 64O3- 1981
(N. = 46'12, Nq = 33'3, IVY = 48'03)
[Ans: (i) 3458 kN (ii) 2687 kNl
 Pile Foundotions 3tl

The bearing capacity of an individual pile may be determinedby the

following methods:
(i)bynamic lbrrnula
(ii) Staticlormula
(iii) Pile load test
L2 12.5 Dynanric Forrnulae: The dynamicformulaearebasedon the conct:pt
rhar a-p=il-e-jerj-\,-i;lG5;fiingcapacity from the energy spent in driving il.
The following dynamic formulaeare most widely used:
PILE FOUNDATIONS ,IrEfigineering News Formuls:
ol'a pile is given by:
According to this fonnula, the safe
bearYng capacity
According to Terzaghi, a foundation is called a de.ep-
12.L Introduction:
fcrundationif its width is less thin its depth (i.e., DIB > L)'
Various types of Er,u.r
=#r a=#+4 ...(12.1)

deep foundations are: where, g = safHoad in kg

1. Pile foundations W = weight of hammer in kg
2. Well tbundationsor opell caissons'
H = fallofhamrnerinctn
3. Pier foundations or drilled caissons'
thc load of a s = averagepenetrationof the pile in the last n blows in cm
l2.2 Pile Foundations: Piles are generally used to trhnst'er
The other applications of piles For drop hamrners, n = 5
structure to a deep-seated,strong soil stratum'
are as follows: for steam hamnters,n = 2A
(i) to compacr a loose soil layer (compaction piles) c = additional penetratiou of the pile which would have taken
subject to uplift or overturning forces
1ii) to nori down structures placehad therebeenno loss ofenergy in driving the pile.
(tension Piles) For drop hatntners, d = 2.5 cm.
(iii); provide anchorage against borizontal pull applied on earth- for steam hammers,g= 0.25 cm'
retaining structures(anchor piles)
vessels Equ. (12.1) gives the general fonn of the Engineering News Fonnula.
(iv) to protect waterfroni structures from the impact of tnarine
The specific fonns of this fonnula for dift'erent types of harnrters are given
(fender Piles)
below:
(v) L resisioblique compressiveloads (batter piles)'
h
|2.3C|assificationofPilesAccordingtol-oadDispersalCharacterktics: (i) For drop hammerI A = -J = ...(r2.2)
classified into the 6 (s + 2.5)
on the basis of the rnode of load dispersion, piles can be
following two categones: =
wh ...(12.3)
(ii)ForsingleactingsteamhammertQ OG r
but its tip )
(i) Bearing piles. when a pile passesthrough a iveak stratum
the pile transfers the
p"n"ii.Gilrrtoa stratum of substantialbearing capacity, (W + a p) h
a pile is called a bearing pile. (iii) For doubleactingstean hammer:n - n2.4)
ioad imposed on it to the stronger stratum.Such 6 (s + 0.25)
(ii\-Fri9!ion!!9When a pile is extendSdto a considerable depth in a where, a = eft'ectiveareaof thepistonin cm2
sratumTt poii66riirg -tn.rt capacity, it derives ia load carrying capacity from
p = meaneffectivesteampressurein kg/cm2.
the friction-of the soil on ihe sides of the pile. Such a pile is called a
friction pile. ;filoatfUa Hiby Formula: IS : 2911(Part1) - 1964recommends the
of a pile may be following formulabasedon an expressionoriginallyderivedby Hiley:
12.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles: The bearing capacity
by a pile without
defined as the maximum load which can be sustained
producing excessivesettlement'
 Pile Foundations 313
312 Problems in SoilMeclmnics and Foundotion Engineering

t l f t' W ' H ' " t 1 s The value of F" shouldlie between2and3.

^ ...(12.s)
9"= ,*u, 12.5 Static Forrnulac: The strtic formulae are based on the concept that
the ultimate load bearingcapacity(0,) of a pile is equal to the sum of the
where, O - ultimate load on pile (kg) total skin friction acting on the surfacearea ofthe ernbeddedportion ofthe
W, H, s and c have the samemeaningas in eqn' (12'1) I pile (p1) and the end bearingresistanceacting on the pile tip (pb), as illuslrated
Il - et-ficieucYof hamtner'

rla ' efficiencYof hammerblow

I
I
in Fig. 12.1.
Q"=Q1+Q6 ...(12.13)

- thc ratio of energy after impact to the striking energy of the ? -1?r But, Q1 = Qf. Af alndQ6 = qb.Ab
ratlr.
w +3P "'(12'6) Q1 = q''+S + Qa'At ...(12.14)
When ff > eP, \b = w--;;
wbere, ql - aver;r+euniiskin frihion
when W < eP, t t b -w- +we-zl -PF l-wl w
-eP12
-r .,(r2.7)
qO = poittt bearing resistanceofthe
1
where, P = weight of the pile alongwith anvil, helmet, etc Pile tiP
e = co-efficient or restitution,the value ofwhich may vary between A/ = surfacearea ofthe Pile on
0 and 0.5, dependingon the driving systemas well as the which the skin friction acts.
material of the Pile' Ab = c/s area of the pile at its tiP'
In eqn. (12.5), C representsthe temporaryelasticcornpressiou,wltich is
given by, 9u
...(12.8) The methodt of evaluating Qy and q6are
C=Cr+C2+C3,
Fig.12.1 explainedbelow:
where, Cl,CZand c3 representtheelasticcompressionsof the dollyand
l. Colrcsive Soils:
picking, the pile and the soil respectively. Their values may be
obtainedfrom: Average unit skin friction, 4y = a c ,..(r2.ts)
/-l
where. c= unitcohesion
c,' = t.77Y!
A p
...(rz.e)
cr = adhesionfactor, which dependson the consistencyof the soil
and mav be determinedfrom Table 12.1
c, = o.ostQiL
Ap
...(12.10) Average point bearing resistance
.,
I
Q b= c N " ...(12.16)
/',
q =3.ssfr .4rLrl) According to Skemptou, for deep foundations,lV"= 9
qb = 9c .'(12.r7)
where, Ap = cross-sectionalareaof the pile, cm
Qu=scAl+9cA6 ...(12.18)
I = length of pile, m
The safe load on a pile may be obtainedfrom: For a pile of diarneter^Band embeddeddepthD'
eu ...(r2.r2) Ou=X* andAy=nBD
V s = \
 315
314 Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Foundstion Engineering Pilc Foundotions

to:
Eqn.(12.14)thercfort:reduces , the point bearingrcsistanceis
For a purcly cohesionlesssoil, c = 0. Henc:e
given by,
e,, =-F(B D cJ,+225 x 82 c ...(r2.re) qb = lDNrso + YBNrst ...(r2.22)
Table 12.1:AdhesionFactors whcrtr, No. N, = Bearingcapacityfactors'
Pile moterial Consistency Colrcsion (tlm2) Adltesion foctor
Jq. sY = ShaPetactors
ct
B = width or diatneterof Pile
Timber & soft o -3.75 1 - 0.90
nrediurn 3.75-7.50 0.90- 0.60 D = length of Pile
Concretc
stiff 7.50- 15.0 0.60- 0.45 For a squareor rcctangularpilc, sy = 0'5

Steel solt 0 - 3.75 1.0-0.80 tbr a circular pile, sv = 0'3

ntc:diurn 3.75-7.50 0.80- 0.50 For piles of snrall dianrcteror width, the sec:orrd ternr of eqn. (12.22) is
tenn. Tltus, t'orall practicalptt4loses,
sriff 7.50- 15.0 < 0.50 negligitrleas cornpared to the first
e u= , t D N o s o ...(12.23)
2. CohesionlessSoi/s: For piles driven in cohesionlesssoils,
The value of Nomay be detenninedby the tbllowing methods:
q, = fir u K,tan6 ...(12.24)
(i) Vesic'smethodiAcc'ordingto Vesic:,tq = 3'
,t

where, Qa= averageou.rffi

and, N q = u 3 ' 8 { t a n o ' t u ng25 " + Q / 2 )
i.e., qa= v"z ...(12.21)
Hence, qr=3QNq "'(12'24)
K " = co-efticient of elrth pressure,thevalue of which tnay
The valuesof Nn for variousvalucsof Q aregiven in Table 12'3'
" frorn-0.5 for loosesandto 1.0 for densesand.
varv
0 = tiictionangiEof-GE6iiloithepilEl\ilEiC[?EpiiGon Table 12.3: Bearing Capacity Factors
the a:rgleof internalfriction Q of the soil. Nq
Q @egrees) Nq $ (degrees)
The value of 6 mav be obtainedfrom Table 12.2.
0 1.0 30 9.5
Table 12.2: Friction Angle
5 t.z 35 18.7
10 1.6 40 42.5
15 2.2 45 115.0
20 3.3 50 422.4
Smootb (polished) 0.54 0.64 ,q 5.3
Rough (rusted) 0.76 0.80
Parallelto grain 0.76_ 0.85 (ii) Berezantsev's methodi According to Berezantstu-tl: Nn values
Perpendicularto grain 0.88 0.89 Aependon the D/B ratio of the pile and the angle of internal friction of the
soil. TheN4value may be obtainedfrorn Fig. 12.2'
Smooth (maciein metal form work) o.76 0.80
Grained (made in tirnber tbrrn work) 0.88 0.80
Rough (cast on ground) 0.98 0.90
 3r6 Problems in Soil Meclmnics qnd Foundation Engineering
Pile Foundations 317
200
piles is generally less than the product of capacityof a single pile and the

150 I numter of piles in the group. In or4er to determine the bearing capacity .f a
pile group, 9g, a correctionfactorrl, is requiredto be used.

Qr - nQut1, ...(t2.28)
I| whe.rc, n - number of piles in the group

re
100
rt
z.
Ou - ultirnate bearing capacity of eachpile
, rls - efficiencY of the Pile grouP

50
f;/ The value of 11,may be obtainedfrom the following empirical formulae:
(i) Converse-Lttbtrre' Formula:

, r g = 1* [ W ] ...(r2.2e)
20 25 30 35 /.0 /.5
S(Degrees)* where, tn = nunrber of rows of pile in the group

Fig.12.2 ,t = numhr of piles in each row

12.7 Pile Capacity frorn Penetratfun Tests: The pile capacity czn also be g = tan-l 4
detennined from the results of the standard Penetration Test or statie cone
Penetration Test performed in the field, using the following equations: where, d - diameterof eachpile
(i) Standard Penetration Test: s = spacingofthePiles
(ii) LosAngelesformula:
Qr=4NAu+O.OZNA1 ...(r2.2s)
. a | , ,r;--: -
where, Oa - ultimate bearing capacity of pile in kg ,lr o -;#, -r) + n (m-r\ +,/T@:11@-r11 ..'(12.30)
L^ln
l{ - blow count (witboul overburden correction)
12.9 Dcsign of a Pile Group: The piles in a group are conttectedto a rigid
Aa = base area of pile in crn2 pile cap so that the group of piles behavesis a unit. The group capacitymay
te derirmined by rhe efficiency equation (eqn. 12.24). A more rational
A/ = tutfu". area of pile in cmZ
r---B
fI
However, for a bored pile,
Qu=1.33NA6+0.O2NAf ...(r2.26)
(ii) Statb cone penetration test:

m
L
Qu = Q"Ab + ...(r2.27)
l,u"o,
Where, Qc= Co11.e resistanceat tip.
12.t Group Action ln Piles: A pile foundation consists of a number of L
I
closely spaced piles, known as a pile group. Due to the overlapping in the
stressedzone ofindividual piles, the beariug capacityofa group offriction r]-f r ll S e cA - A

SoftSoit Fig.12.3

tt-
 Pile Foundotions 319
318 Problems in Soil Meclranics ond Foundatian Engincering

melhod is the rigid block method recontutendedby Terzaghi and Peck. (ii) The load o1lthe pile group is ett-ectivelytransmittedto the soil at
According to this method the ultimatebearingof a pile group cqualslhe suru this lower one-thirdpoitrt.
of tlre ultirnate bearing capacity of block occupied by the gronp and the (iii) The presence.of pile below this level is ignored'
shcaring resistancenrobilised along the perimeter of the group. With (iv) The tratrsrnittedload is dispersedas 60" to the horizontal'
referenceto Fig. 12.3. With referenceto Fig. 12.4,the settlementof the group is given by:
Qs = Q,BL + DIQB + 2l)s - yDSBL ...(12.31) o6 + Ao
where, Qg ultimate bearingcapacityof the pile group.
P= H # " ' r o s r o o6
...(r2.34)

eu ultirnatebearingcapacityper unit areaof the stressed

areaat a depth D1
B, L = width and lengtb of pile group
Y = unit weight of soil
s = averagcshearingresistanceof soil per unit areabetwt:t:lt
ground surfaceand the bottom of pile
D/ = depth of enrbedtnentof piles.
The safeload on the pile group is given by,

0rr=? ...(r2.32)

The rninirnurnvalue of F" shouldbe takenas 3.0.

Tbe aboveequationsarc applicablelo coltesivesoils. For crtd hearing
piles on hard rock (inespective of the spacing) and ort deusc sand (with
spacinggreaterthan 3 timcs pile diamt:tt:r)thegroup capacrityt:qualslht: sum
of individualcapacities.i.e.,
Rock
Fig.12.4
Qr = N'Q, ...(12.33)
12.10 Spacing of Piles: As per thc reccrtuurcudatious of IS : 2911 @art where, I/ = thic-kness
of lhc layer
1)-1964,the spacingof pilcs n'raybe oblainedfrorn lhr: following gcneral C. = cornpiessionittdex, eo = ilitial void ratio
rules:
oo = initial stressat the ceutreofthe layer
(i) tbr triction piles, s f 3 d
( i i ) t b r e n d b e a r i n g p i l e s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h c o n r p r c s s i b l es o i l , A o = stressinc:rement
due to pilt:s
s ]2.5d
(iii) tbr endbearingpilespassingthroughcornpressiblesoil but restitg = A%
<rnstiff c:lay, s * 3.5 d
(iv) tbr compactionpiles, s = 2 d A' = areaover which the load is distributedat the centre
of tlre layer.
l2.ll Settlementof Pile Group: The colsolidationicttlenrentof a pilt:
group in clay is detenninedon the basisol the Lbllorvingassutnptions: 12.12 Negative Skin Friction: Thc downwarddrag actingott a pile due to
the relativemovementof the surrounding soil tnassis c-alledthe negativeskin
(i) The soil urassbetweenthe top of tbe piles and their lorver tliiril
poiut is incornpressiblc.
 Pile Foundations 321
320 Problems in Soil Mcchonics and Foundation Engineering

Solution: Frorn equ. (12.5),the ultimateload on pile,

friction. This tcnds to reduc-ethe load canying capacity of the pile. Its
magnitude can be dctermined from: 1 1 ' wH ' n 5
vu = --rll7l-
(i) for cohesivesoils: Q6 ' P' r' Lf ...(r2.3s)
Here, W = 3.0 t, H = 91 crn, Tln = 757o = 4.75
soils: O^f = | 4 Oy K tan6
(ii) for c.ohesionless .,(t2.36) s=10mm=1-.0cm

where, p = perimeterofrhepilc N o w , e P = ( 0 . 5 s ) ( 1 . s )= 0 . 8 2 5 t
c - averagecohesion ofthe soil W > eP
I/ = thickness of soil layer which tends to move downwards Using eqn. (12.6),

Y = unitweightof soil w * &p = -2.0+ (o.ss2)(l.s)

7.0+1.5 = 0.7
rlb=
K = co-efficientoflateral pressure (Ko s K s Ko) w+P
6 = friction angle, (6 s Q) In order to find out the value of Q, assutneas a first approximation,
c = 2.5 cm.
EXAMPLES
,
Protrlem tU{. e dmber pile is being drive n with a drop hammer e , = W &l.O
Q +- $2.5/2
I=42.47t
weighing 20 kN and having a free fall of 1 m. The total penetrationof the pile
Now, using eqns.(12.9) through (l2.ll),
in the last five blows is 30 rnm. Detenninethe load carrying capacily of 1he
pile using the Engineering News formula. - \ft\@z'!) = o.1o6crn
cr = r.779"
Solution: Using eqn. (l2.lr, Ap I x (30)2
wH 4
o
Y =
6(s + c)
,r=94JJ2,/9)J4J. = 0.868
Here, I,I/ - weight of hammer = 20 kN. I x (30)2
I/ = height of free fall = I m =" 100 crn' 4
c = 2.5cm (3.ss)(42.47)=
= penetrationfor the last 5 blows
w-3 _= - ,
/, 0.213cm
s ave.rage
x (30)2
3[l Z
= ? = 6mm = 0.6crn
) C = Ct + C2 + Cs = t.187 cm < 2.5cm.

O= f f i = 1 0 7 ' 5 k N Let Qu= Sot, :. c = tt'tat/:l+tot

= L.397cm
Problem 12.2. Determine the safe load that can be carried by a pile
having a grossweight of 1.5 t, using the modified Hiley's formula. Given, e,=PffiP=56.2st
weight of hamtner = 2.4 t
height of free fall = 91 cIn Let Qu=55t,.'.c=W=L.537
hanmerefficiency =75Vo
averagepenetrationunder the last 5 blows = 10 mm
length of pile = 22 n Q,=ffi=sot
diatnr'tt:rof pile = 3iX)rum.
co-efficicntofrestitution= 0.55
322 Probletns in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Pile Foundatians 373

In the third iteration fhe assumedand computed values of Q, are quite Here, d = arerageoverburdeupressure
close. Hence, the ultimate load bearing capacity of the pile is 54 t' ,tH
= \ ! 7 = L
Consequently, the safe bearing capacity a
a

1 1=
g' -Qu =4=rr.ur. = {!ggq = rzt/m2
7." z.)
t1
Problem l?^3ftiurRcC pile of 18 m overall length is driven into a dee;r For loose sand,Ks = 0.5
stratumof soft c*f having an unconfinedcompressivestrengthof 3'5 Vm". The value of 6 may be obtainedfrorn Table l2.2.For a srnoothRCC pile
The diameter of the pile is 30 cm. Determine the safe load that can be carried embeddedin dry sand,
by thc pile with a factor of safety of 3.0. 6/q = 9.76, or, 6 = (0.76)(25') = 19'
Solution: From eqn. (12.L4),
ey = $2) (o's) (tan1e")
Q , = e 1 . 4 1 +e u - A u . =2.A66tln?
As the pile is driven into a cohesivesoil, Using eqn.(12.24),
Q f= a ' c qt=3eNq
The value of adhesion factor cr may be obtained from Table 12.7-Fot a
= (3)(1.6)(1s)(s.3)
= 38r.6t/mz
q,, i-5 1
softclayhaving, = = = 1.75t/m"crmaybetakenas0.95.
; t Af = xBD = r(0.4t))(15)= 18.85m2
Again,wehave, % = 9c
n, = f,az = @/41(0.40\= o.r?sm2
Ab = c/s area of pile tip
go = (2.066)(18.8s)+ (381.6)(0.126)
n )
= - x l - - /. E
=Ol t2=0.07m' = 38.94 + 48.08
4 U0o/ = 87.02t = 87 t
At = surfaceareaof the Pile
= r(0.30)(18) = L6.g6ilf e,=+=Y=2gt f s J
(16.%) + (e) (1.?s)(0.07)
gu = (0.e5)(1.7s)
Problem l&.ff{bored concretepile of 400 mrn diameter and havirqg
= 2f..2 + l.l = 29.3t an overall length of 12,5 n is embeddedin a saturatedstratum of c - S soil
having the following properties:
P" =
.'.safeload, - - s.ter.
? ff c= 1 5 k N . / m 2 ,Q = 2 0 " , yr*-18kN/m3
Problem 124/Asmooth RCC pile of 40 cm diameter and 15 m length Derermine the safe bearing capacity of the pile. Given, for Q = 20", the
is d;iven into a d/eepsratum of dry, loose sand having a unit weight of 1.6 bearing capacity factors are:
t/mi and an angle of internal friction of 8". Determine the safe load which N"=26, Nq=10, Nt-4.
can be carried by the pile. Given, for Q - 25", Vesic's bearing capacity
fectoriVo - 5.3. Assume reasonablevalues for all other factors.

Solution Using eqn. (12.20r, Solution: For piles embeddedin a c - f soil,

qf=dK"tanE 4b = cN" + \'D 0ro - tl + 0.5y'B,lV,,
 325
Pile Foundations
Engineering
324 Problems in SoilMeclwnics and Fottndation a
= (0'80) (5\ = 4 t/n-
For tlre secondlayer, Qf, = nc,
= (1s)(26\ + (18 - 10)(12's)(10 - 1) a

+ (0.5)(1s - 10)(0'40)(4) and' Af, = n (0'5) (3'0) = 4'71m'

= 390 + 900 + 6.4 For the third layer, the skin triction rnaybe neglected'
= 1296.4 Again, using equ' (12'24),
=(3)(1.85 x 5 + 1'9 x 3 + 1'8 x 2)(9'5)
Qf=ac+flK"tan6' eu = 3qNq
Assume, cr = 0.5, K" = 1, 6/$ = 0.80' = 528.67r/nz
6 = (0.s0)(20') = 16" Ir ,^-" 1
- (125/2) (1'0)(tan16") a r r < . 1e u = i ' ( 0 . 5 ) ' = 0 . 1 9 6 m -
a1 = (0.s)(15) + (1s 10)
(0'196)
+ (4)(4'7r)+ (5?f-67)
= 21.84kN,/m2 Q, = Q.4)(7.85)
= 18.84+ 18.84+ 103-62
Again Af = n(0.4)(12.5)= r5'71m?
= 141.3|
and, '7,
-D = \(0.40)2 = 0.126m2 -s l4l'3 = 47.rt - 4it.
4. n
E 3
gu = (2r.s4)(1s,71)+ (r2e6'$ (0'126)
P roblem ly'{'ra ft [o undation i s supported Ot I OU"t-t-t:-ul,::is.tiit *
300
= 343.1 + 163.3 of ti pit", "no-ng"a in 3 rows' The diarneterand lengthof eachpile are
the piles t: ft'
= 506.4kN. mm and 15 m respectively'The spacingbetween ^t'?,*l
having g = 3'2 t/m' and
foundation soil consists or a sori clay layer
ty kr{ s 168kN.
= 168.8
O" = y = 1.9 t,/rn3'Detenninethe capacityof the pile
group'
of piles:
p-Ul"- tZ.l fl"colurnn of a footing is founded
at a deplh of 1'5 m Solution: (i) Consideringindividualaction
10
b"b;;I.;,Mrupp-,.d by a number of piles each having a length of Q 1= a c
the properties of which are given
m. The subsoil consists of thiee layers' = (0.9) (3.2) [Assuming c
= 0'901
below:
= 2'88t/mz'
rll=6'5m
I-ayerlzc=3t/rT?., 1=1'85t4t3' 0=0"'
rl=3m Ar = n(0'30)(15) = l4'I4mz
LayerIII c=st/r&, \=t'go;/nr3' 0=0"
= ? (3'2\ = ?l,3t/m2
kyertrI i c = o, 1 - 1'80t'/m3' 0
= 30" rI = 15m Qo = 9 c

Determinethesafeloadoneachpileifthediameterofthepilesbe500
25' Assume' adhesion factor
eu = i(o'302)= o'o?lm2
mm and the required factor of safety be
ct = 0.80. of eac.h
IndividualcaPacitY Pile,
piles in the three layers are
Solution: The depth of embedmentof the Q, = Qff) (14'14) + (28'8)(0'071)
respectivelY,5 m, 3 m and 2 m' = 42'77t
Forthe firstlayer' Qf, - oc1 = (0'80) (3't = z'atltt' =
i Qus = (15)(42'77) 641'55t
Groupcapacity,
and, Af, = n(0'5) (5) = 7'85 m2
l>
I
I
I
I
A
 PiIe Foundutions
3n
326 Problems in Soil Mechanics and Foundatibn Engineering

= 17757kN
(ii) Considering group action of piles: Assuming a block failure, the
a block failure'width
(ii) Consideringgroupactionof pile-s:.Assuming
capacity of the pile group may be obtained from eqn. (12.31):
- YDTBL ofUloct<, B=2(1.25) + 2(0'50/2)
Qs = QaBL + D/28 + 2L)s
= 3m.
With refercnce to Fig. 12.3,
lengthofblock, L =3(1'25) + 2(050/2)= 425m
width of the block, B = Z(I.2) + 2(0.15) = 2.7 m
depthof block, D/ = 30 *'
length of the block, L = 4{1.2) + 2(0.15) = 5.1 m
= 337'5kN/m2
deptlr of the block, Df = 15 n 4f = lOkN,/m2,%
GroupcapacitY,Qs = (337.5) (3)(4'25)+ 3A(2x3 +2 x 4'25)(30)
qb = 9c = (9) (3.2) = 28.8r/n2
- (11)(30)(3) (4.2s)
s = q f = c r c = ( 0 . 9 ) ( 3 . 2 )= 2 . 8 8 t / m 2 = 13145.6kN < 17757kN
.'. Qs = Qs.8) (2'7) (5.1) + r5(2 v 2'7 + 2 x 5'1) (2'88) Hence,groupactiongovernsthecapacityof thepile group'
- (1.e)(1s)(2.7)(s.1) O, = 13145.6
kN.
= 678.05 t > 641.55 t
a, = ry - 5x8kN.
= S?;i8.ZkN
Hence, the ultirnate bearing capacity of the pile group is 641'55 L
Safe bearing capacity w.r.t. a factor of safety of 2.5' of 40 mm
Problern 12.9/ Agroup of 20 piles,eachhaving a diameier
+ rows at a spacing1'0 m c/c' The capacitvof
Q,c=ry=:x6'62t-r,6t' ""d i0;i;;; ,i(-^"^ierdin
the piles'
each pile is :g0 kN. Determinethe group capacity of
.,..
problem qr{ egroup of 12 piles,eachhavinga diameterof 500 rnm Solution: Using eqn. (12.28), the capacity of the
pile group'
and 30 m long,-supportsa raft foundation.The piles are arrangedin 3 rows
Qc = n' Qu'rls'
andspacedatl.?s m c/c.Thepropertiesof thefoundationsoil areasfollows:
'l|kN/m2, Here, n = 20, g, = 380 kN.
y' = 11 kN,/m3, Qu - 0 = 0"'
by either of the
The efficiency of the pile group' Ie may be determined
Assumingcr = 0.80 andF" = 2.5, determinethe capacityof the pile
following formula:
group. (i) Converse- Labarre Formula: Using eqn' (12'29)'
Solution: (i) Consideringindividualactionof piles:
=
Qf = dc = (0'80)(75/2) 30 kl'[/m2
,rr=,Xlffi
Here, m=4, n=5,
qb = 9c = (9) (75/2) = 337'5kN,/m2
o = tan-r4s = arr-rf94q'l = 2t'8'
Af = x(0'50) (30) = 47'Dt# \ l'ui
- t) + + ( 4 - t) s l - 0.624 = 62.4To
eu = X(o.sd)= 0.1e6
m2 ' r 8= , - 2 L'8[( s
e ol - 1 o t trl I
Capacityof eachPile, (ii) I.os Angeles fonnula: Using eqn' (12'30)'
g, = (30)(47.12)+ (337.5)(0.196) d + n(n-1) + {T@:TJ6:T I
,1"= t -
;-,*Im{n-1)
= 1479.75kN
Groupcapacity= (I2) (1479.75)
 329
Problemsin SoilMeclnnicsandFoundationEngineering Pile Foundations
328
pile group with a
t/# a'd an effective unit weight of 0.9 Vm3. Design the
y 6 y ( r ) t 4 ( s -+15) ( 4 - 1 )+ y ' 2 1 + - 1 1 6 - X ,
= .' - ; 1 a0.40 factor of safety of 3 against shearfailure'
piles in a squale
= 0.771= 77.r% solution: Let us use 16 Nos. of 400 rnm o R.C.C.
formation. Let the spacings be equal to 3 d,
The lower valueshouldbe used.Hence,the capacityof the pile group s = (3) (0'40) = 1'2 *
i.e.
Q8 = Qo) (380)(0'624)
Let I be the length of each Pile'
= 4742.4kN - 4742kN.
Problern l?.lf It is proposedto drivea goup of pilesin a bedof loose Now, ,=t=+=2.4t/mz
sandto suppoflvrafl Thi group will consistof 16 piles, eachof 300 mm J .
=
Oiameterani 12m length.Theresultsof standardpenetrationtestsperformed qf = ac = (0'9)(2'4) = 2'l6t/mz' [Assumingcr 0'901
at the site at various depths are given below: =
at = 9c - (9)(2.4\ X.16t/n?
Af = nBL = (0.40)nL = l'?57 LttJ

1'5 4 = I ' (40 . 4 0 ) 2 = o . L 2 6 r r ?

Estirnate the capacity of the pile group' if the spacing of the piles be
m c/c. CapacitYof each Pile,
8 + 10 + 8 + 11 + 9 = 9 . 2 o 9 L) + (21'6)(0'126)
gu = (2.16)(r.2s7
Solution: Average N-value =
or, Qu = 2.715L+ 2'722
Using eqn. (12.6),the capacityof a driven pile,
ofeachPile,
SafebearingcaPacitY
Qu=4NAt+O.02NAS n
Here, the averagevalue of N = 9 Ot = 7 = o'eos
L + o'eol
n,=f,{lo)Z =7n.86cm2 = 15'6?5t'
Actualloadto becarriedby eachpift = #
Af - u(30) (12) = 1130'97cm2 0'905t+0'907=15'625
(1130'97)ke
Q, = (4) (9) (706.86)+ (0'02)(e) or, L = I6.2''lm- 16'5m
= ?5650k8 = 25.65t' Checkforgroupaction:Consideringtheshearfailureofablockof
dimension, BxLxD,
Asthespacingofpilesisashighas5D,itcanbeassumedthatthereis
no overlappingof stressedzones. B = L = 3 s + d = 3 ( 1 . 2 )+ 0 ' 4 = 4 m
GrouPcaPacitY,Qs = n'Qu D = 16.5m
(2'16)
= (16)(25.65)t .'. Capacityof the pile grolrp' Qs = Qr'6) (*) + $o's) (4 @ + 4)
= 4101 - (o.e)
(r6.il(4)
Prpblem 12.1L A raft foundationhas to be supportedby a group of = 894.24t
concreiepiles.Thegrossloadto be carriedby thepile groupis 250t' inclusive Sar'ebearingcapacityof thepile group
of
or tnewegnt of the pile cap.The subsoilconsistsof a ?5 m thick stratum
clayhavinganunconfined compressive strengthof 4.8
normallyJonsolidated
ii
 33t
Problems in Soil Meclnnics and Fottndatian Engineering Pile Foundations
330

^ 894.24 Assurningtheloadtobedispersedalorrgstraight|inesinclinedtothe
Q,t=T=298t>250L horizontal at 60", the area over which tf e grossload is distributed at the rniddle
of thc first layer,
block
Hence the designedg4onpof piles is safe from the considerationof
At = Q + 2H/2'tan30') (B + 2H/2'tan30')
failure. ,/
Pr.oblen n.d e'rcn footing founded at a depth of 1'5 m below G'L' = (B + FI, tan30';2
a dense
in a 19.5 thick stratum of normally consolidated clay underlain by
16 piles oflength L2 m and dia- = (4 + 3 tan30")2= 32.86rt
sand layer, is to be supportedby a'groupof
The gross load to be carried 350
^ o = for = 3 L s' -6 10.65t/mz
rneter 400 mm arrangid in a squari fonnation.
The piles are
by the pile group (including the self-weight of pile cap) is 350 t'
*uter rable is located at rhe ground level. The
;;"""d at r.2 m "/". tn. (300)(0.27e) ,-- e.e-tlq4l = 14'32cn'
propertiesofthe foundation soil are:
r'",= f1 frffi'' losto tr
w =32Vo, G=2.67, L.L= 4tVo
Estimate the probable consolidation settlementof the pile group' of thesecondsub-layer:
Settlement
,,
Solution:WithrefererrcetoFig.L2.4,theloadfromthepi|egroupis os = (0.90)(1.5 + 8.0 + 3'0 + 3'O/2) - I7'6t/m'
point,
assumedto be transmitted to the foundation soil at the lower one-third
)"t" A2 = (4 + 2 x 4.5 x tan30")2= 84'57ri
i.e., at a depth of tZ = 8 m below the pile cap and 8+ 1'5 = 9'5 m below
= oo=*=#h=4.r4t/m2
G.L. The tirickness of the clay layer undergoing consolidation settlement
three sub-layers of thickness3 m, 3 m and
10 m. Let us divide this zone into
(300)(0.27e) ,^- 12'61]!-! = 5'57cm
4 nr resPectivelY.
P",= fr'dffi' losto
tr
The settlementof eachsub-layermay be obtainedfrom:
Settlementof the third sub-laYer:
p, = H' f; 'tor,oo 0 + Ao
o6 o6 = (0.90) (1.5 + 8.0 + 6.0 + 4'0/2\ = 15'75t/r]
wG
Now. we have, w G = se, or' e = A3 = (4 + 2 x 8 x tan30')2 = 175'?3m2
s
lo = ffi = r.997t/mz
eo=
ryP=08s4 (400)(0.279)' 15.75+ L99J - 3.12cm
v c - (II - 10) = 0.009(41 - t0) = 0'279
0.0@09 'pca - roglo
1SJS
1 + 0.g54

Ysar=
(1)= l'eotzm3 =
Totalsetflement,Pc P., * Pc, Pr.+
AgaiIr, ?#r*=Ti..,'s1
= 14.32+ 5.5'7+ 3.12
- 1'00 = 0'90 t/m3
and, Ysub= 1'90 = 23 cm.
Settlenrentof the fint sub-laYer:
EXERCISE12
oo = initial overburdenpressureat the middle of the layer
l2.l. Determincthesafeloadcarryingcapac:ityof an RCCpile drivcn
= \' z = (0.90)(1.5 + 8.0 + 3.02) -- g'st/^z by a drophammerweighing3 t andhavinga freefall of 1.5rn, if theaverage
Ditnetrsionsof the block of piles, p.n.nrtion for thelastfiveblowsbe 12mm' [Ans'20'3t]
L = B = 3 s + d = 3 ( 1 . 2 \+ 0 . 4 = 4 m
332 Problems in Soil Mechnttics and Fottndation Engineering JJJ
PiIe Foundations
of 10 rn
12.2. An RCC pile having a diarneterof 400 rnrn and a length friction angle =16.
30 kN, with a height of free tall
is bei.g driven with i Orop natruner weighi*g
for q = 20', Nc = ?.6, Nq = 10, Nv = 4' [Ans. 279 kN]
penetration for the last few blows has been recorded
of 1.2 rn. The average
an RCC pile of 500 mm
as 9 rnrn. If the ettlciency of the hammer be 7O% aud the
co-efficient or 12.8. Deterrninethe ultimate load capacityof
using lnoditied of a colutnu' The sub-soil conditions are
restitution 0.50, detenninettre safe load the pile can carry diarneter supporting the tboting
= Assume a factor of skt:tchcdin Fig. 12.5. Given'
Hiley's fornula. Given,unit weight of RCC 24 kN/m''
I Ans' 200 kN] adlrcsiontactor tbr soft clay = 0'9
safetyof 3.0.
and that t'or claYeY silt = 0'7
into a
12.3. A22 m lorrg pile having a diameterof 500 mm is driven capacity factorNu for 0 = 30' is 9'5' The water table is
compressive strength of 5.6 Vt'sit"s bcaring
deep straturn of sofl clay having ai unconfined neglected' [Ans' 232 t]
capacity of the pile with respect to a lrx nlcrl rtt il gr(raldcpth.Skin friction iir sandmay be
t/#. Detennine the staticload bearing
tAns' 40 tl
facror of safety of 2.5.
Soft CtoY
l2.4.Aconcretepileof30cndiameterisernbedd-edinastratunrofsoft
clay straturnis
clay lraving 1 = 1.7 t/rn3, Qu= 4'2 t/mz'Thethickness of lhe
g m and the pild penetratesthrough a distance of 1.2 m into the underlying Ctoyey Sitt
= 36"' Detennine the sat'e
straturnof de;rsesand,havilrg Y = 1'85 t'lm3 and Q 1 y = 1 . Et /5n F ) , c= 6 l l m 2
of safety of 3' 10m
load carrying capacityof the pile with a lactor
=
Given, O O.gOQ and for Q = 36', Vesic's bearing capacity faclor
[Ans.32.3 t]
I
Nq=23,c[=1,K"=1.
12.5. A stnoothsteelpile of 8 m length and 400 rnm diameter
is driven
J Ssnd
properties: 2.0m (t=1.75t/m3,@=30o)
into a cohesionlesssoil masshaving the following
= 30'
T Fig.12.5
Y"ar= 1.8t,zrn3' Q
6 rows wi-th a
The water table is locatedat the ground level' If 6
= 0'60 Qand Vesic's 12.g. A pile group consists of 42 piles anan$ed in
the safecapacityof Each pile is 22 rn long
bearingcapacity faciorNn for 0 = 30" be 9'5' determine centre-to_centiespacing of 1,5 rn in each direction.
of the pile using: -
rhe pil! with a iactor of sifety of 2.5. Given, Ks = 0'7. [Ans' 12'1 t] and 500 mm in diameter.Find oul tbe group capacity
at a (i) Convene-Labane formula
12.6. A 12 m long pile having a diameterof 300 mm is cast-ih-situ
(ii) tns Angeles formula'
site where the sub-soilconsistsof the tbllowing strata:
= 10kN'/m2 Given, load bearing capacity of each pile = 78 t'
StratumI: thiclness =5 m, Y' = 10kN,/m3, 0=30" c [Ans. (i) 2142 t (ii) 2624
q
= = kN'/m2
Stratun II: thiclness= 16 m, Y'= 9 kN'/m3, 0 0', c 60 I 12.10. A pile group consistingof 25 piles anangedin a sqlare fonnation
are L5 m and
Detenninethesafeloadonthepilewithafactorofsafetyof2.0.Assume is to support a iaft iooting. The length and diameterof eachpile
ieasonablevalues for all other data'
of 500 mm is
i 300 mm respectively,wiile their spacingis 85ocmc/c Thg-foynfation
a normally consotiAatedclay having c = 5 t/mt and y - 1'85 VT''
soil is
Determine
12.7. A 16 m long bored concretepile having a diameter = F" = 3'g'
having the following properties I the safe load bearing ""p""ity of thi pile group' Take cr 0'85 and
ernbeddedin a saturatedstratum of sandy silt
[Ans' 527 t]
I

'Yru,= 19'5kN'/m3' c = rlkN'/m2' 0 = 2o' placed

12.11. A multistoried building is to be supportedby a raft footing
with a factor of raft consists of 96 piles
Detennilte the safe load canying capacity of the pile on a pile foundation. The pile group supporting the
of 2'0 m c/c'The water
safety of 3.0. Given, of 26'm length and 400 mm diameter,with a spacing
adhesionfactor = O'75 table is located near tle ground surfaceand the propertiesof the foundation
co-efficient ofearth pressure = 0'85 soil are as follows:
334 Problems in Soil Meclwnics snd Foundation Engineering

Y " . r = 2 . 0 t / r n 3 c, = 3 . 6 1 / m 2 , O = 0 ' .
The adhesionfactor may be taken as 0.95.
Determinethe capacityof the pile group with a factor of safetyof 3.0.
12.12. Designa pile groupto supporra raft footing of 8 m x 12 m size
and carrying a gross load of 760 t. The self weight of the pile cap rnay be
assumedas 20o/oof tlre gross load on footing. The subsoil consists of a
homogeneouslayer of soft clay, extendingto a great depth and having the
following properties:

y' = 0.85 t/nr3, qu = 5.7 t/m2

Design the pile group with a factor of safety of 3 againstshearfailure.
Given. a = 0.85.
12.13. It is required to drive a group of piles in order to support a raft
footinqof 10 m x 10 m plan area,and subject to a gross pressureintensity of
15 Vm". The subsoil consists of a 12 m deep layer of soft clay (y = 1.8
t/rn3 , qu = 4.5 Vm2) which is underlainby a densesand layer (y = 2 tlnr3 ,
0 = 35'). The raft is founded at 1.5 m below G.L. In order to utilize the
bearing resistanceofthe sand layer, each pile should penetratethrough it at
least 4 D. The adhesionfactor for clay = 0.90. Vcsic's bearing capacity factor
.lfu for 0 = 35' is 18.7. Design a suitable pile group with a factor of safety of
2.5 againstsbearfailure.
Assume that the self weight of pile up = 25Voof pressureintensity on
the raft.
12.14. A raft footing is founded at a depth of 3.5 m below G.L. in a ?A
rn thick stratum of soft clay having the following properties:

y""1= 2.05 t/m3, C, = g.3

The gross load to be carried by the pile group, including the self weight
of the pile cap, is 8O0L The group consistsof 81 piles of 400 mm $, arranged
in a square formation, and extended to a depth of 12 m below the pile cap.
The spacingof the piles is 1.25 m. The water table is located at the ground
level. Cornpute the probable consolidation settlement of the pile group.
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