Guide on How to Develop a Small

Hydropower Plant
SUMMARY OF THE BASIC CONCEPT

Andriyan Saputra | 22 September 2016

Guide on How to Develop a Small Hydropower Plant
There are many aspects which have to be taken into consideration:

1. Business
2. Engineering
3. Financial
4. Legal
5. Administration

Resource potential

Kyoto Protocol (December 1997)

Third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention and Climate Change

European Union target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 8% in 2010 from 1990 levels and 5% for
other industrialised countries.

Conventional hydro require:

1. Flooding of large areas of land

2. Enviromental & Social consequential

Run-of-river schemes for small hydro plants

Relatively small water storage or none of water storage capability. The turbine only produce power
when the water is available and provided by the river.

Not all of the plants able to supply energy, unless their size is such that they can be operate whatever
the flow in the river. Most cases in Europe, the electricity generated is connected to the grid.

(Example small-hydropower stand alone system & connected with grid)

In that cases, this problem can be overcome by using existing lakes or reservoir storage that exist
upstream of the plant.

Grid Connection

Advantage: easier control of the electrical system frequency of the electricity

Disadvantage: Being tripped off the system due to problems outside of the plant operators control

Grid connected systems to sell either all or some of their energy to supply company. However, the price
paid for this energy is generally fairly low (in Europe). In addition to support the development, RES-e
Directive an in some cases National Government legislation enhanced payments.
Small hydropower

The objective of a hydropower scheme is to covert the potential energy of a mass of water, flowing in a
stream with a certain fall to the turbine (head), into electric energy at lower end of the scheme, where
powerhouse is located.

Site configuration

Classification according to the Head:

1. High head: 100

2. Medium head: 30-100 m
3. Low head: 2-30 m

Another classification:

1. Run-of-river schemes
2. Powerhouse location at the base of a dam
3. Schemes integrated on a canal or in a water supply pipe

Run-of-river
Medium-high head scheme use weir to divert water to intake, it is then conveyed to the turbines via
pressure pipe or penstock. Penstocks are expensive and consequently usually uneconomic.

The alternative issue to convey the water with low-slope cannal running alongside the river to the
pressure intake or forebay and then then in a short penstock to the turbines. If the topography and
morphology of the terrain does not permit the easy layout of a canal, a low pressure pipe can be
economical option.

High head scheme

Low head scheme with penstock

Low head scheme integrated in the dam

Powerhouse location at the base of a dam

If the reservoir has already been built for other purposes, such as flood control, irrigation, water
abstraction for a big city, recreation area, etc. it may be possible to generate electricity using discharge
compatible with its fundamental use or the ecological flow of the reservoir. The main issue is how to link
headwater and tail water by a waterway and how to fit the turbine in this waterway.

If the dam is not too high, a siphon intake can be installed. Integral siphon with heads up 10 metres and
for units up to about 1000 kW. The turbine can be located either on top of the dam or on the
downstream side.

Example : Norfork Dam Siphon

A siphon through Norfork Dam is improving the North Fork and White rivers trout habitat by sending a
constant flow of cooler water downstream. The 42 inch-diameter pipe moves from Norfork Lake in
Baxter Country, Ark., carries it through the dam and down the structures face, and discharge it into the
Norfork tailwater (North Fork River). This cooler flow provides a stable condition for the cold-water fish
habitat, which contributes to the areas world-class fishery. Norfork Dam provides flood control and
produces hydroelectric power. However, because the dam only generates electricity during periods of
the peak energy use, water does not regularly flow through the penstocks and turbines. The ultimately
impacts the ability for fish to thrive downstream. Adding siphon system to the dam ensures that the tail
water is continually fed, even when the generators are unused.

Low head scheme using an existing dam

Two types of schemes can be designed to exploit irrigation canal:

 1. The canal is enlarged to accommodate the intake, power station, tail race, and the lateral by
pass. This scheme with a submerged powerhouse equipped with a right angle drive Kaplan
turbine. To safeguard the water supply for irrigation, the scheme should include a lateral bypass,
in case of shutdown of the turbine. The scheme must be designed at the same time as the canal
2. If the canal already exist, additional work whilst the canal is in full operation can be a very
expensive option. The suitable option is the canal should be slightly enlarged to include the
intake and spillway. To reduce the width of the intake to a minimum, an elongated spillway
should be installed.

Example: Elongated spillway scheme

Bypass valve
In some water supply systems the turbine discharges to an open air pond. The control system maintain
the level of the pond. In case mechanical shutdown or turbine failure, the bypass valve system can also
maintain the level of the pond. Occasionally, if the main bypass valve is out of operation and
overpressure occurs, an ancillary bypass valve is rapidly opened by counterweight. All the opening and
closing of these valves must be slow enough to keep pressure variations within acceptable limits.

Planning a small hydropower scheme

Fundamental steps to be followed before deciding if one should to a detailed feasibility study or not.

1. Topography and geomorphology of the site

2. Evaluation of the water resource and its generating potential
3. Site selection and basic layout
4. Hydraulic turbines and generators and their control
5. Enviromental impact assessment and mitigation measures
6. Economic evaluation of the project and financing potential
7. Institutional framework and administrative procedures to attain the necessary contents
Begin with evaluating the water resource existing at the site. The energy potential scheme is
proportional to the product of the flow and the head. To select the most appropriate hydraulic
equipment and estimate the sites potential with calculation of the annual energy output, a flow-
duration curve is most useful.

Measuring gross head requires a topographical survey

Flow-duration curve on gauged site easier than producing a curve at ungauged site.

Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering

In hydropower, hydraulic engineering is applied to:

1. Optimise the performance of waterways to reduce energy loses

2. Design spillways and structure for floods prevention
3. Design adequate energy dissipation works downstream of spillways
4. Control erosion and manage silt transportation

Control phenomena such as:

1. Instability in waterways due to dynamic effects

2. Air entrance into closed conduits
3. Surges in long waterways
4. Surge pressures in closed conduits
5. Cavitation of structures and equipment
6. Prevent reservoir sedimentation, intake obstruction and sediment related damage to the
hydraulic circuit and the equipment

Water flow in pipes

Bernoulli equation

The energy head in the water flowing in a closed conduit of circular cross section, under a certain
pressure.
1 2
1
1 = 1 +
+ 2

The total energy head at point 1 is the algebraic sum of potential energy h1, the pressure energy P1/y,
and kinetic energy V1/2g (Velocity head)

Laminar flow and Turbulent flow

The characteristic of flow from water due to the velocity of water in a long, straight, glass pipe of small
bore.
Laminar flow

If the water flow very slowly inside the pipe, the water would appear as straight line all along the pipe.
The velocity distribution has the form of a parabola with maximum value near the center of the pipe.

Turbulent flow

If the flow rate is gradually increased, the particles close to the wall mix up with the ones in the
midstream, moving higher speed, and slow them. The transition from laminar flow to the turbulent flow
depends, not only on the velocity, but also on the pipe diameter, viscosity of the fluid, and ratio of the
inertia force to the viscous force.
The ratio is known as Reynolds number:

D is pipe diameter (m), V is average water velocity (m/s), and v is the kinematics viscosity of the fluid
(m2/s)

The critical Reynold number from experimentation is about 2000.

Energy lose

Water loses energy as it flows through pipe :

1. Friction against pipe wall

Depends on the wall material roughness, and the velocity gradient nearest to the wall

2. Viscous dissipation as a consequence of the internal friction of flow

Reynold number >> Friction loss >> turbulence flow - mixing of particles higher viscous dissipation =
Energy lose in flow in the pipe
 Hydraulic gradient and Energy gradient

HGL : the friction of water against the pipe wall

EGL : the internal friction of the flow

Moody diagram

1. Laminar flow zone (shaded area in the diagram)

2. A badly defined critical zone (shaded area)
3. A transition zone, starting with the smooth pipes and finishing the dashed line where, in
between, f depends both of Re and e/D
4. A developed turbulence zone where f depends exclusively of e/D
Local Head losses

1. Trash rack (or screen) losses

A screen is required at the entrance of both pressure pipes and intakes to avoid the entrance of
floating debris. The flow water through the rack also gives rise to head loss.

If the grill is not perpendicular but makes an angle with the water flow, there will be an
additional head loss.

Additional trash rack losses for non-perpendicular approach flows

2. Loss of head by sudden contraction or expansion

When the pipe has a sudden contraction there is a loss of head due to the increase in velocity of
the water flow and to the large-scale turbulence generated by the change of geometry. The
head loss is estimated by multiplying the kinetic energy in the smaller pipe by coefficient Kc that
varies with ratio of the contraction d/D. The ratio, Kc is substituted by Kex, the coefficient used
for a sudden expansion.
The head loss can be reduced by using a gradual pipe transition, known as a confuser for
contraction or diffuser for expansion. In case of entrance of reservoir to a pipe is an extreme
case of a sudden contraction.
 Kc and Kex values as a function of d/D

Entrance loss coefficients

3. Loss of head in bends

The head loss produced in these circumstances depends on the radius of the bend and on the
diameter of the pipe. In a bend, pipe flow experience an increase of pressure along the outer
wall and a decrease of pressure along the inner wall. This pressure unbalance and causes a
secondary current.
 4. Loss of head through valves
Valve or gates are used in schemes to isolate a component from the rest, so they are either
entirely closed or entirely open. The loss of head produced by water flowing through an open
valve depends on type and manufacture of the valve.
Typical loss coefficients for flow through valves

Water hammer or surge phenomenon

When a sudden change of flow occurs, for instance when the plant operator, or governor system, open
or close the gates too rapidly, the sudden change in velocity occurs can cause dangerous high and low
pressures. This pressure wave is known as Water hammer or surge, and its effects can be dramatic.

The penstock can burst from overpressure or collapse if the pressure reduced below atmospheric.
 (a) Water flows at a velocity (Vo)
(b) When the gate is closed, the water flowing within the pipe has a tendency to continue flowing
due to its momentum. It plies up behind the gate, the kinetic energy of the element of water
nearest the gate is converted to pressure energy.
(c) This action is repeated by following elements of water
(d) The wave front of increased pressure travels the length of the pipe until the velocity of water Vo
is destroyed, the water is compressed and the pipe is expanded over its entire length
(e) At this point, water kinetic energy has all been converted to strain energy (under increased
compression) and strain energy of the pipe (under increased tension). Because there is
differences in pressure between water in pipe and reservoir, the flow reverses and is forced
back into the reservoir again with velocity Vo
(f) As the water under compression starts flowing back, the pressure in the pipe is reduced to
normal static pressure
(g) A pressure unloading wave travels down the pipe toward the gate until all strain energy is
converted back to kinetic energy
(h) Water now flowing in the opposite direction and because of its momentum the water again
tries to maintain the velocity
(i) This happens with successive elements of water and a negative pressure wave propagates back
to the reservoir until entire pipe is under compression and water under reduced pressure

Mitigating the water hammer

1. Reduce pressure of water supply to the building by fitting the regulator

2. Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing charts for some applications
recommend flow velocity at or below 1.5 m/s
3. Fit slowly closing valves
4. High pipeline pressure rating
5. Good pipeline control
6. Installation Surge tank with considerable distance between the water source and power unit,
necessitating a long penstock
7. Air valves often remediate low pressure at thigh points in the pipeline
8. Shorter branch pipe lengths
9. Shorter lengths of straight pipe
10. Pumping station bypass

Water flow in open channels

A channel flow is considered steady when the depth at any section of the stretch does not change with
time, and unsteady If it changes with time.
 Illustration of various types of varied flow represents different kinds of flows; Steady uniform flow,
Steady gradually variable flow and Steady rapidly variable flow

Unsteady flow occurs if either the flow depth or discharge, over the length of the canal, changes as, for
instance, in the case of upstream propagation of a small perturbation wave due to closure or opening
valve, or in the case of the discharge increase in a collector channel.
Chapter 3
Evaluating Stream Flow

Hydropower plant configuration need to consider:

1. Dam type
2. Water conveyance system
3. Installed generating capacity
4. Location at various structures

First: Topographic condition suitable for hydropower

Second: Availability of an adequate water supply

Ungauged watercourse, the observation of discharge involves:

1. Hydrology
2. Study of rainfall
3. Stream flow
4. Measurement of drainage basin
5. Catchment area
6. Evapotranspiration
7. Surface Geology

The objective: reduce construction costs while conserving the maximum amount of power
available to rotate the generator.
Since there is lack of information about stream flow from developing places. Evaluating stream flows with
discharge measurement. Methodologies to measure discharge are available:

1. Velocity area method

Area: Measuring the cross-sectional area
Divided into a series of trapezoids and sum up each of area from that areas.
Velocity: Measuring water velocity at a number of points to obtain a mean value
1. By float
Using a floating object is located in the center of the stream flow. The time (seconds)
elapsed to traverse a certain length (meter) is recorded. To estimate mean velocity,
the value must be multiplied by correction factor that may vary between 0.6 0.85.
It is depending on the watercourse depth and their bottom or riverbank roughness.
 2. By mechanical current-meter
Current-meter is a fluid velocity measuring instrument. They are classified into two
types; Vertical axis rotor with cups and Horizontal axis rotor with vanes (propeller)

Vertical-axis Horizontal-axis
These instruments will rotate about the suspension axis. The vertical axis operate in
lower velocities than the horizontal axis. The observation are converted into water
velocities from a calibration curve for the instrument. In the case medium to large
rivers, observation are made by lowering the meter from a bridge. The gauging site
should be in straight and uniform a reach of the river as possible. By moving the
meter vertically-horizontally to a series of positions, a complete velocity map of
cross-section can be drawn and the discharge through it calculated.
Depths should always be measured at the time of velocity observation since a profile
can change appreciably during flood discharges. The observation for the stage should
also do before and after the discharge measurement. Observation the water slope
by accurate levelling to pegs at the water level up to 500 m in each direction
3. By electro-magnetic current-meter
An electrical induction-measurement instrument, with no moving parts, mounted in
a totally enclosed streamlined probe.
Advantage:
Wider measurement range than propeller
Useful at very low velocities when propeller meters become erratic
Useful at heavy polluted or weedy streams
4. By dilution methods
The method involves the injection of a chemical into the stream and the sampling of
the water some distance downstream after complete mixing of the chemical in the
water has occurred. The chemical can either added by constant-rate injection until
sampling the sampling downstream reveals a constant concentration level. The
concentration of chemical in the samples is used to compute the dilution and hence,
the discharge of the stream can be obtained. The samples using solution of salt (NaCl)
in the stream water and measure the electrical conductivity.
2. Weir method
A low wall or dam across the stream/river to be gauged with a notch through which all the
water may be channeled. A simple linear measurement of the difference in level between the
upstream water surface and the bottom of the notch is sufficient to quantify the discharge. It is
important to measure the water surface level some distance back from the weir (at least four
times depth over the base of the notch (4D))
Several types of notches:
1. Rectangular
2. V-notch
 3. Trapezoidal

Another accurate method is to construct a Flume. Flume is where a stream is channeled

through a particular geometrically shaped regular channel section for some distance before
entering a length of different cross-section.

3. Slope-area method
This method useful for high flows where other methods are impractical.
Manning formula:
2 1
3 2
=

A : Area
S : Water slope
R : Radius of section

Typical values of Mannings n for watercourse

Watercourses n
Natural stream channels flowing smothly in clean conditions 0.030
Standard natural stream or river in stable conditions 0.035
River with shallows and meanders and noticeable aquatic growth 0.045
River or stream with rods and stones, shallows and weedy 0.060

The method is depends on the value of n. Natural streams is about 0.035, an error in n of 0.001
gives an error in discharge of 3 percent. This error may partially reduced by plotting n against
stage for all measured discharges. The choice of n for high stages is not arbitrary but is taken
from such a plot.
Stream flow characteristics
1. Hydrograph

Record of river discharge (the level of water flowing down a river channel) over a period of time,
they show how certain rivers respond to a rainstorm.
Objective:
1. To find out discharge patterns of a particular drainage basin
2. Help predict flooding events, therefore influence implementation of flood prevention
measure
Rainfall shown in mm, as a bar graph. Discharge in m3/s, as a line graph. Rising limb, the normal
(base) flow of river starts to rise when run-off, ground and soil water reaches the river. Peak
discharge, maximum discharge in the river, the time when the river reaches its highest flow.
Recession limb, shows that water is still reaching the river but in decreasing amounts. Lag time,
the time it takes for the water to find its way to the river. Base flow, normal discharge of the
river.

2. Flow Duration Curves (FDC)

FDC shows for a particular point on a river the proportion of time during which the
discharge there equals or exceeds certain values.
 Example of flow duration curve (FDC)

Example of flow duration with logarithmic scale

3. Standardised FDC curves

The discharged firstly by the contributing catchment areas and secondly by weighted
average annual rainfall over catchment areas.
The method for standardizing FDC is to express Q in terms of Q/Qm (Qm = mean flow). If
sufficient records are available from neighboring rivers of similar topographical character in
similar climate, these methods can be very useful in evaluating stream flows at ungauged
sites.
Estimating the mean annual flow Qm
The long term average annual runoff can be assumed to be equal to the difference between
standard average annual rainfall (SAAR) and actual evaporation (AE).
SAAR and potential evaporation area estimated from the rainfall and potential evaporation
(PE) maps. The average runoff depth (AARD) over the catchment area (AREA in km2) is
converted to mean flow in m3/s
 ( )
=
31536

4. FDC with particular months or other periods

There are another important information to know, during the year when considering the
economics of scheme in those networks where tariffs, paid by utilities to independent
producers, vary with the season of the year.
FDC can be produced for particular periods of time as well as for particular years.
5. Water pressure or head
1. Evaluation of gross head
The vertical distance that water falls through in giving up its potential energy. Gross
head are usually carried out using surveying techniques.
2. Estimation of net head
The losses from trash racks, pipe friction, bends, and valves. The gross head minus sum
all of the losses equals the net head, which available to drive the turbine.

Head loss:
No Name of Equation Equation Description
2 Energy head in water flowing
1 1
1 Bernoulli 1 = 1 + + closed conduit of circular cross
section
The transition from laminar flow to
the turbulent flow depends on:
2 Reynold numbers =
ratio of the inertia force to the
viscous force
2
3 Darcy and Weisbach = Head loss due to friction

6 6
4 = = Friction factor (f) in laminar flow

1
5 Von Karman = Friction factor (f) is not affected by
51 the surface roughness of the pipe
1
= 3 High Reynold number
(Turbulent)

3 12
1
6 = 2
Manning 3
1
3 2 2
=
2 1 3

1
6 Pipe larger than 5 cm diameter and
7 Hazen Williams =
1 1 veolicities under 3 m/s
Local head loss:

Local Head losses

Trash rack
3 2
The flow water through the rack
8 Kirschmer = also gives rise to a head loss
Sudden contraction or expansion
2
2
9 = Contraction

2
10 =0 1 For ratio up to d/D = 0.76
2
2 2 2
1 2 1
11 = = 1 Expansion
2
Water hammer or surge
Time that need to open or close the
= gate before the pressure surge
12 Critical time (Tc)
travel to the reservoir and back to
the gate

= The speed with which the pressure
13 Wave velocity
1+ surge travels along the pipe

= If the valve is already closed, t < Tc

14 Overpressure If the pressure wave reaches the
= valve before the valve is completely
closed, t > Tc

Residual, reserved, or compensation flow

Uncontrolled abstraction of water from a watercourse even if it is returned to the stream close to the
intake, could lead to sections of the watercourse being left almost dry with serious impacts on aquatic
life. To avoid this condition, permission to divert water through a hydro turbine or a license to abstract
from a river or stream will almost specify that a certain residual flow should remain. Residual flow
sometimes called other names, reserved flow, prescribed flow, and compensation flow.

Estimation of plant capacity and energy output

Design flow net head estimated suitable type of turbine.

The energy production can be calculated by dividing useable area into vertical 5% incremental strips
starting from the origin. The final strip will intersect the FDC at Qmin which ever is larger. For each strip,
Qmedian is calculated, the corresponding hturbine value is defined for the corresponding efficiency curve.
The average annual energy production is then sum of the energy contribution for each strip. The capacity
of each turbine (kW) will be given by the product of their design flow (m3/s), net head (m), turbine
efficiency (%), and specific weight of the water (kNm-3)

Q median = flow in m3/s for incremental steps on the flow duration curve
W = strip width = 0.05 for all strips except the last one that should be calculated
= Turbine efficiency
= Generator efficiency

= Gearbox efficiency

= Transformer efficiency

= Specific water weight (9.81 KN/m3)

h = Number of hours in a year
Minimum technical flow of turbines

Turbine type Qmin (% of Qdesign)

Francis 50
Semi Kaplan 30
Kaplan 15
Pelton 10
Turgo 20
Propeller 75
 1. Variation of head with the flow and its influence on turbine capacity
Depending on the river flow and the flow admitted to the turbines
The upstream water level
This depends on flow weir that control with or without gates. If intake pond is controlled by
an overflow weir without any gates, the water level will rise with the flow. However, if the
intake pond is controlled by gates in order to operate at specified reservoir level, the water
level may remain constant even during high flow periods
The head losses in the adduction system
Low flow seasons with low turbine flow head loss in the adduction system can be reduced
The downstream water level may vary with the flow
This depends on the water body into which the water is discharged. If discharging directly
into a headwater pond controlled by gates in a downstream development, the water levels
may remain constant. If the water is discharged into a natural stream, the water levels again
may vary considerably.

In condition medium and high head schemes the head can be considered constant, because
variations in the upper and lower surface levels are small compared with the head.

2. Peaking operation
Electricity prices at peak hours can be substantially higher than in off-peak hours, hence the
interest in providing an extended forebay or pound, big enough to store the water
necessary to operate, at maximum during peak hours.
= 3600 ( ( ))

( )

( )
= >

= river flow (m3/s)
= rated flow (m3/s)
= flow needed to operate in peak hours (m3/s)
= flow needed to operate in off-peak hours (m3/s)
= daily peak hours
= daily off-peak hours (24-tp)
= reserved flow (m3/s)
= minimum technical flow of turbines (m3/s)
H = head (m)

Firm Energy
The power that can be delivered by a specific plant during a certain period of the day. A run-of-
river scheme has a low firm energy capacity. A hydropower with storage does, however have
considerable capacity for firm energy.
If the hydropower scheme is connected to an electrical network, the firm power capacity of
singular plants, may not be important. If small hydro scheme has been developed as the single
supply to an isolated area, the firm energy is extremely important.

Floods
The stream flow in the form of floods is also a potential threat to all structures built in rivers. Therefore
the hydrological investigation must address not only water availability for production, but also frequency
and severity of floods so as to design flood protection and control into the scheme.

1. Flood control design

Risk high floodwater is usual to consider into:
1. Maximum inflow design flood
The flood is defined as Probable Maximum Flood (PMF). Using this criteria, the
facilities should be able to accommodate the floodwater.
2. Normal operation design flood
The flood defined as a flood with a specific return period. The facilities should be able
to accommodate floodwater without exceeding normal conditions of operation.

Whereas for low and medium hazard dams, the spillway capacity shall exceed the peak flow
of a flood with a specific return period, typically between 100 1000 years.

Typical design flood criteria

Structure Design flood

Maximum inflow design : PMF, Probable
Maximum flood or similar
Alternatively 10.000-year flood
High Hazard

Normal operation design flood:

1000-year flood
Medium Hazard 100 - 1000 year flood
Typically 100-year flood although in some contries
Low Hazard
no formal requirement exist

Probability occurence

Life span frequency 10 50 100 200

(return period) years years years years
0.01 9.60% 39.00% 63.00% 87.00%
0.001 1.00% 5.00% 9.50% 18.00%
0.0001 0.10% 0.50% 1.00% 2.00%
There are two ways of arriving at a design flood:

1. Statistical analysis of stream flow records

Frequency analysis Is a statistical method to calculate the probability of an even based on a
series of previous events. The technique for estimating the return period of flows is
straightforward and based on records of annual maximum flows. In analytical method, the
mean value, standard deviation as well as the skew coefficient of logarithmic value of the flow
record is calculated. Based on the desired frequency, a frequency factor is read from diagram.
The logarithms of floods corresponding to certain frequencies are then calculated as the mean
value plus the standard deviation multiplied with the corresponding frequency factor. The
logarithms are then converted to actual flow values.
2. Hydrological modelling of catchment area
The object arrive at Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) to be used for dam and spillway design.
The design rainfall is combined with other critical factors such as soil moisture content,
snow melting, ground water magazine, etc.

Example of hydrological model

Chapter 4
Site Evaluation Methodologies
The selection of the most appropriate technical solution for the site will be the result of a lengthy,
iterative process, where topography and the environmental issues for a particular site, are most
important. That is why a through knowledge of the principles is needed to avoid dangerous failures in
the operation of the plant.

Cartography

The scale map for topography is 1:5000. Aerial photographs of topography can be substituted for maps
if they cannot be found at the required scale. Aerial photographs can be viewed stereoscopically or in
three dimensions. The stereoscopic effect enables the geologist to identify rock types, determine
geologic structures, and detect slope instability and the engineer is able to gather data necessary for a
dam, open channels, and penstock construction.

Stereoscopic photographs

Geochemical studies

Hydraulic structures should be founded on level foundations, with adequate side slopes and widths, not
subject to stability problems. The problem is especially acute in high mountain schemes, where the
construction may be in weathered surface zone, affected by different geomorphologic features such as
soil creep, solifluction, rotational, and planar soil slides and rock falls.

Along the open channel many geomorphologic features can be adversely affect its selected line, which
together with a steep slope of the terrain, may lead to potential instability. Drainage treatments, bench
construction, and gunnite treatments, may be recommended. The powerhouse foundation poses
problems that many times only can be solved by using techniques as Jet Grouting.

Methodologies to be used

Geomorphologic techniques that can be used including the most common:

- Photogeology
Photogrammetry at scales from 1:10.000 1:5000 allows geologist to identify rock types,
geologic structures, and detect slope instability.
- Geomorphologic maps
This map based on topographic one and is drawn at scale between 1:10.000 1:5000,
should show all the surface formations affecting the proposed hydraulic structures.
- Laboratory analysis
Soil grading and classification, triaxial consolidation facilitate the surface formation
classification.
- Geophysical studies
A geophysical investigation will contribute to better knowledge of the superficial formation
thickness, the location of landslide, the internal water circulation, and the volumetric
importance of potentially unstable formations. Seismic refraction could define the modulus
of dynamic deformation of the rock massif in depth can be recommended in the case of
High dams.
- Structural geological analysis
Where hydraulic conduit must be tunnels in rock massifs. The stability of the rock and
seepage in the foundation of hydraulic structures are problems that can be solved by this
methodology
- Direct investigation Borehole drilling
When the dam or weir has to be founded in unconsolidated strata, a drilling program,
followed by laboratory tests on the samples extracted is essential, including;
Permeability test in boreholes, such as Lugeon or Low Pressure Test, to define the water
circulation in the foundation
Laboratory tests to determine the compressive strength of the samples to define their
characteristic

The cases from geomorphologic condition

The weir

If there is a potential for direct shear failure or whenever sliding is possible along the joints or
faults, rock foundation must be analyzed for stability. When necessary additional rock
excavation may be required.

The open channel

The foundation of the channel should meet two requirements:

1. Stable. Channels are rigid structures and do no permit deformations.

2. Permeable. Channels do not support thrusts or uplift pressure.

The geologic studies should aim to avoid settlements in the channel and provide adequate
drainage to hinder the thrust and uplift stresses.

The channel in tunnel

The tunnel construction should meet two requirements:

1. The excavation must be traverse, either a rock massif or superficial formation

2. The tunnel, being hydraulic channel should be stable and watertight

The concrete lining is filled by injecting grout. The injection not only filled the empty space but
enclosed the supporting structure. If the terrain is very permeable so to avoid lateral pressure
and uplift pressure a draining system was put in place.

The construction tunnel through rocky massifs should take into account two important geologic
characteristics:

1. The lithologic variation, along its trace can decisively, influence the construction method to
be used
2. Structural stability. Even if massif is lithologically coherent the distribution of the potential
discontinuities in stratification planes, joints, fissures, will be far from homogenous.

The powerhouse

Powerhouse should located at sound rock as foundation. If the powerhouse is to be located on

fluvial terraces near the riverbanks that do not offer a good foundation then the ground must be
reinforced.

Jet grouting

Replacing alluvial sediments by an injected curtain.

The technique, widely used to cut the seepage in
the underground storage reservoir.
Chapter 5. Hydraulic Structures
Homogenous dam

Embankment Dam Zone embankment dam

Embankment dam with membrane

Gravity dam
Dam
Concrete Dam
Buttress dam

Arch and Cupola dam

Masonry dam

Other Dam types Timber dam

Hydraulic
Sharp-crested weir
Structures
Board-crested weir
Weir

Ogee weir Rectangular canal

Flat gate
Ogee weir
Gated spillway
Rectangular canal
Sectoror radial
Ogee weir
Spillway

Flashboards

Inflatable weir
Other type spillway
Fuse gate

Siphon spillway

Shaft spillway

Labyrinth weir
 Power intake
Lateral intake
Intake
Frontal intake
Conveyance intake
Drop intake

Submerged intake
Position
Exposed intake Oleohydraulic cylinder
Hydraulic
Structures Component of Intake Trashrack Raker
Telescopic hydraulic cylinder
Smolt screen

Bell mouth

Gates

Trash Boom

Silt control

Sediment
Trap
 Stoplog

Sliding gate
Gates &
Valves
Flap gate

Sleeve

Globe

Rotary
Valves
Hydraulic
Structures Sphere

Butterfly
Bituminous + Drainage layer

Material Rock blocks + mortar

Open channel protection
Rock blocks + Geotextile

Penstock

Tailrace
 Homogenous dam Low embankments (<4 m) and as secondary dams

Zone embankment dam Dam height > 4m. Components; core, transitional
Embankment Dam zone (filter) surrounding the core and drainage
capacity of the dam toe.
Disadvantage; sensitive
with overtopping,
leakage, and erosion Embankment dam with membrane The membranes can be of different types and be located
either at the upstream front of embankment or vertically
in the center on embankment. Membranes can be made
of concrete, asphalt, or geomembrane.

Gravity dam These area dependent on their own mass for stability. Design issues;
stability analysis (sliding and overturning), stress control, temperature
Concrete Dam control, uplift pressures.

Advantage; suitable for most
topography, a spillway can be
placed at crest, powerhouse
can be placed right the toe
Buttress dam These dams consist of a continuous upstream face that is supported
by buttresses at regular intervals.
Arch and Cupola dam These dams function structurally as horizontally laid out arches that
transfer water pressure on the upstream face into the abutments.
They require a narrow valley topography and strong foundation rock
in the abutments

Masonry dam The masonry structure functioned as the load bearing structure and
water tightness was provided by either vertical timber sheeting on the
Other Dam types upstream face or by filling impervious soils upstream of the masonry
Timber dam
structure.
 Sharp-crested weir

It easy to construct and relatively low-cost. Special attention has to be

paid to the shape of downstream face of the upper part of the weir in
order to obtain sufficient aeration between lower nappe (sheet of
water that flows over the weir) of the jet and the structure

Board-crested weir

Its often applied for temporary structures or for the structures of

secondary importance, such as flow diversion.

Ogee weir

It Is hydraulically the most ideal solution giving the highest discharge

coefficient.

Weir Configuration
 Gated Spillway

The installation on dams or weirs allows control of the flow conditions

without changing of water level. Depending on the type of at gate, the
possible gate movements are rotating, sliding, or turning. The discharge
through the gates depends not only on the type of the gate and the
relative gate opening and get lip angle, but also on the shape of the
supporting weir.

Other spillways

Flashboards

In order to raise water level slightly behind the weir to ensure adequate
depth of water at the intake, without endangering the flooding of the
upstream terrain. The flashboard could remove manually during the flood.
 Inflatable weir
In effect sheet-rubber bladder inflated by air or water, anchored to a
concrete foundation by anchor bolts embedded into the foundation. The
weir raised when filled with water or air under pressure. An air compressor
or a water pump is connected, via a pipe, to the rubber bladder. When the
bladder is filled the gate is raised, when it is deflated the weir lies flat on its
foundation.

Fuse gate

In the event of a major flood, when water reaches a pre-set level, one or
more of fusegates will tilt to increase the section of the spillway.

Siphon spillway

A siphon spillway is basically a curved enclosed

duct. When water level rises above the elbow of
siphon, water begins to flow down the conduit
just as in an overflow, but it is when it rises further
that the siphon is primed and increased the
discharge considerably. Multiple siphons with
differential crest height is better option to prevent
de-primed and reducing discharge siphon
condition.
 Shaft spillway

The shape is just like a funnel. Water drops through a vertical shaft in a
foundation material to a horizontal conduit that conveys the water past
the dam. Lower end of shaft is turned at right angle and then water taken
out below the dam horizontally.

Labyrinth weir

The U shape or labyrinth weirs should help to obtain a higher discharge in

the available length.

Intake

A water intake as transition between stream and a controlled flow of water both in quality and quantity.

The intake should equipped with;

1. a trashrack to minimize the amount of debris and sediment carried by incoming water

2. a settling basin where the flow velocity is reduced

3. sluicing system to flush the deposited silt, sand, gravel and pebbles with a minimum of water loss

4. spillway to divert the excess water

Conveyance Intake

Lateral intake

Using a gravel deposition channel. The intake applies the presence of a strong secondary
current along the outer bend of the curved river. The lateral intake uses a gravel deposition
canal in front of the intake in order to prevent both bed and suspended load from entering
the intake. The channel makes use of a gravel weir of minimum 1-1.5 m. Slope should at
least 2-5 %. The channel bottom has to be protected against abrasion (using high quality
concrete, etc). A partially submerged wall (0.8-1 m) is installed in order to prevent debris
from entering the intake.
 Frontal intake

The intake is equipped with a gravel deposition tunnel and is well adapted for rectilinear river reaches. A major advantage of this type of intake its ability to handle
large quantities of both bead and suspended load.

Drop intake

The drop intake is essentially a canal built in the streambed, strecthing across it and covered by a
trashrack with a slope greater than the streambed slope.

The drop has been developed that is adapted to very steep torrents in high mountainous regions with difficult access, called the Tyrolean intake. The water is
transferred under pressure and for sediments are much less able to enter the intake. The pressurized intakes with low pressure heads contain the risk of vortex
formation at their entrance
 Trash rack
A trash rack is wooden or metal structure, that prevents water-borne debris (such as logs, boats, animals, masses of cut waterweed, etc.) from entering the intake
of water mill, pumping station or water conveyance. The trash rack is designed so the approach velocity (Vo) remains between 0.6 m/s and 1.5 m/s. The maximum
possible spacing between the bars is generally specified by the turbine manufactures. Typical values are 20-30 mm for Pelton turbines, 40-50 mm for Francis
turbines and 80-100 mm for Kaplan turbines.

The trash rack should be removable for repair and maintenance and provided with
facilities to clean it. The mechanical raker con be designed to be operated through oleo-
hydraulic or telescopic cylinders.
 Head loss & Vorticity
Vorticity produce non-uniform flow condition, with unfavourable results on the turbines; vibration, cavitation, unbalanced loads, increase head losses and
decrease efficiency. This phenomenon is occur in entrance intake from:

1. Asymmetrical approach conditions

2. Inadequate submergence
3. Flow separation and eddy formation
4. Approach velocities greater than 0.65 m/s
5. Abrupt changes in flow direction

Lack of sufficient submergence and asymmetrical approach seem to be the most common causes of vortex formation. The minimum degree of submergence
is defined as submersion (ht). The following formulas express the minimum values of ht :
 Sediment trap

The main objective of such a trap to avoid sedimentation of downstream structures (canal, shafts, etc) as well as to limit the possible damage of sediments on
the hydro mechanical equipment.

Gates and valves

For low pressure the simplest type of gate is Stoplog; timber placed horizontally and
Stoplog supported at each end in grooves.

Gates of the sliding type are generally used for control the flow through open-
Sliding gate canals or other low pressure applications. Gates of sliding type are seldom used in
penstocks because they take too long to close.

When used a high-pressure conduit the water pressure that forces the stopper
Wedge-shaped against its seat makes the valve difficult to operate. The difficulty is overcome with
a wedge-shaped stopper.

The valve is easy to manoeuvre and close rapidly. Butterfly valve used as the guard
Butterfly valve valves for turbines and as regulating valves. The efficiency is rather low because of
shaped disk remains in the flow and causes turbulence.
 Globe & rotary The Globe and rotary valves have lower head losses than the slide and butterfly
valve valves. Their price is much higher.

The radial gates are a method of forming a moveable overflow crest and allow a
Radial gate close control of headwater and tailwater.

Open channels
The flow conveyed by a canal is a function of its cross-sectional profile, its slope and roughness. The flow on channels is in general in the rough turbulent
zone and use Manning equation. According to the equation, the section with the least wetted perimeter (P) is the most efficient hydraulically. Semicircular
sections are consequently the most efficient. However, built with prefabricated material is expensive to build and difficult to maintain. The most efficient
trapezoidal section is half hexagon, where side slope is 1 and 0.57.

To prevent water level fluctuation overspilling the banks, minimum freeboard for lined canal is about 10 cm, for unlined canal should be one third of the
designed water depth with minimum of 15 cm. To prevent overflow of the canal is to provide spillways at appropriate intervals.

5 1
1.49. 3 . 2
= 2
. 3

Q = Discharge (ft3/s)

A = Canal cross-section area (ft2)

P = Wetted perimeter (ft)

 Penstock
Penstock can be installed over or under the ground, depending on factors such as the nature of the ground itself, the penstock material, the ambient
temperatures and environmental requirements.

Small diameter penstock can be laid above the ground, do not need anchor blocks and expansion joints. Variation in temperature are especially important if
the turbine does not function continuously, or when the penstock is dewatered for repair, resulting thermal expansion or contraction. Penstock with
concrete blocks at each bend and with an expansion joint between each set of anchors. In case penstock lay the straight sections of the penstock in steel
saddles. The movement can be accommodated with expansion joints, or by designing the pipe layout with bends free to move.

Penstock material for large diameter: Fabricated welded steel and for high heads, steel or ductile iron

Penstock material for small diameter: Manufactured steel pipe, supplied with spigot and socket joints and rubber O gaskets, 2. Welded-on flanges, bolten
on site; 3. Plain spun or pre-stressed concrete; 4. Ductile iron spigot and socket pipes with gaskets; 5. Cement-asbestos; 6. Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP)l 7.
PVC or polyethylene (PE) plastic pipes.

Plastic pipe, PE, are very attractive solution because of it is often cheaper, lighter, and more easily handled than steel and does not need protection against
corrosion. PVC pipes, due to their low resistance to UV radiation they cannot be used on the surface unless painted, coated, or wrapped. Concrete penstock,
featuring an interior steel jacket to prevent leaks, and furnished with rubber gasket spigot and socket joints. Unfortunately, their heavy weight makes
transportation and handling costly but not affected by corrosion. Wood-stave, steel-banded pipe have advantage include flexibility to conform to ground
settlement, ease of laying on the ground with almost no grade preparation, no requirement for expansion joints, no necessity for concrete supports.
 Penstock Headloss

Penstock characteristic by materials, diameter, wall thickness, and type

of joint:

1. Material is selected according to the ground conditions,

accessibility, weight, jointing system and cost
2. Diameter is selected to reduce frictional losses within the
penstock to an acceptable level
3. Wall thickness is selected to resist the maximum internal
hydraulic pressure, including transient surge pressure

Penstock Diameter = Surge tower

P = power loss (m) H = net head (m) A sort of large tube connected at its base to the penstock and open to the atmosphere. When
3
Q = discharge = weight of water (kN/m) open channel is substituted by a pressure pipe all along the race. It is necessary to consider
= hydraulic losses and closure time of the valve. When by a sudden closure of the valve the
pressure in the penstock rise abruptly, the water in the penstock tends to flow into the tower,
.1 5
1 . . 2 2. raising the level of water above the level in intake. The level in the tower then begins to fall as
=
the water flows from the tower into the penstock, until minimum level I reached. The flow then
Manning equation : Diameter
penstock
If limit loss is 4% reverses and the level in the lower rise again and so on.
.1 5
2 2 .
= . 9 In instances, when the closure time of the turbine must be rapid, a relief valve placed in parallel
D = diameter (m) L = length of pipe (m) with the turbine, such that it opens as the turbine wicket the gates close. This has effect of
H = net head (m) n = Manning coefficient slowing down the flow changes in the penstock.

.
Wall thickness =

e = wall thickness (mm) D = internal diameter pipe (mm)

P1 = Hydrostatic pressure (kN/m) = kN/ 2)