EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE

Exploration Method Ore Reserve Estimation

Sample Collection Estimation involves the evaluation of the
Underground excavation tonnage and grade of a deposit but also
o Exploratory shafts and drifts consideration of the technical and legal
Drilling aspects of mining the deposit, of
o Diamond drilling, rotary drilling, beneficiating the ores, and of selling the
percussion drilling product.
Drilling
Diamond Core drilling Resource Estimation
For acquiring core samples, hard rock. 1. Size, shape, and continuity of ore zones
Sample shape is preserved 2. Frequency distribution
Impregnated bits flat 3. Spatial variability of grade
Surface bits higher quality for
drilling Resource Development
Rotary Data Collection compilation of the
Removal of overburden geologic and assay data into maps (laying
For soft rocks exploration out of data)
Tricone bits for higher depths Assay data
Oil and well Coordinates/location of data (range of
influence)
Deep excavation
Geologic data (properties/structures)
Rotary Percussion
Cross-sections and plan map of
Non-coring; powdered
mineralization
Punching in one area

Optimizes efficiency Volume

Brazed bits tungsten carbides Tonnage factors/SG, TF=
Mass
Cross bits small diameter Surface topography
X bits larger diameter Geologic Interpretation Delineation of
Button bits faster drilling the physical limits of the deposit based on
Pneumatic/ Hydraulic geologic interpretation of the mineralization
controls at a reasonable range of mining
Drilling Parameters cutoff grades
Geological information available Type of mineralization must be
Costing considered (ore body/ type of ore)
Spacing Geologic Features
Unconventional drilling Receptive and non-receptive host
rocks
Logging Alteration types that accompany
to analyze the geologic formations mineralization or create problems in
penetrated by a drill hole benefication
Core logging Faulting, folding, and other structural
Checking of properties of the ore modifications
Borehole logging Multiple phases of mineralization
Indirect data; geophysical Post-mineral features such as
Resistivity, radioactivity, density through oxidation and leaching
self-potential methods Compositing compositing of samples into
larger units such as mining bench height,
Metallurgical Testing seam thickness, or minable vein width
Done when reserves are already proved (averaging of grades larger area)
Averaging irregular intervals uniform
Mineralogic and petrographic analysis
To reduce sample points
Analytical determination
Techniques for Compositing
Screen analysis
Bench Compositing
Crushing and grinding studies
Incorporate model of open pit
Gravity and heavy media separation (initial)
Bench height (intervals) wrt a
reference line
Down-Hole
Assign a certain consistent
interval value
Ore-zone
Waste must be excluded

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EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE
Variograms
Grade Distribution modeling of the grade To determine the range of influence of a
distribution based on histograms and data
cumulative frequency plots of grades Does not start at zero because of natural
Why study grade distribution? errors
Detect high-grade ore and low-grade Applies only at 1 direction (some
outlier values minerals have a distinct direction of
Evaluation of the favourability of mineralization)
different lithology as host rocks Angular tolerance for disseminated
Differentiation of complex grade minerals
distributions into simple populations Fixed distance minerals with one
Identification of highly-skewed or highly direction
variable distributions that may be
difficult to estimate Resource Estimation Techniques
Polygon Method
Evaluation of Average Grades evaluation 1 drill hole : area of influence
of the spatial variability of grade using gA
experimental variograms g=
Grade Interpretation A
Difference 1. Find range of influence
Grade populations that do 2. Intersect
not usually require 3. Define boundaries
0 25 % *ideal : hexagonal
differentiation for resource
modelling Triangle Method
Grade populations that 3 drill holes to define an area
require differentiation for Cross-sectional Area
resource modelling if divided ore-zone
25 100% Nearest Neighbor
by a discontinuity such as a
fault, or if variograms or small blocks
gradce trends are dissimilar Block Modelling
Grade distribution must be different from geologic interpretation
separated for modelling. grades are assigned per block
Differences of 100% or more Inverse Distance Method
Above 100% may be observed when
barren, mineralized and/or
dipower
W i= i
high grade populations are d ipower
present

Evaluation of Coefficient of Variance

selection of a resource estimation method
and estimation of quantity and grade of the
mineral resource
Co V Interpretation
Simple, symmetrical grade
distribution;
0 25 %
Resource estimation is easy,
many methods will work
Skewed distribution with
moderate difficulty in
25 100% resource estimation;
Distributions are typically
lognormals

100 200%

Highly erratic, skewed data,

multiple populations;
Above 200%
Local grades are difficult or
imposible to estimate

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EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE

SURFACE MINING

Aqueous Mining extraction technique

that include methods that employ water or
liquid solvent to recover minerals from the
earth.
Placer Mining
Mechanical Excavation alternative
recovery of heavy minerals from alluvial
surface mining method usually utilized for
or placer deposits using water to
large-scale production compared to
excavate, transport, or concentrate
aqueous methods. Utilizes mechanization
Hydraulicking
for transport of ore.
For weakly consolidated placer deposits
Uses high pressure stream of water
Monitors materials canals sluices
(gravity sep)
Dredging
For underwater sand deposits
Carried out by floating vessels (dredge)
Bucketline Dredge (Bucketwheel)
Series of rotating buckets
conveyors
Tails are removed
Concentrate + gold
Suction Dredge
Vacuum-induced
Gold Dredge
Bucket-line conveyor
Solution Mining
Applicable to soluble or leachable ore
deposits
Recovery of minerals through
dissolution, leaching, slurrying and
melting processes
Borehole
In-situ leaching process
Extraction through injection of
fluids and raising the pregnant
soln using boreholes
Frasch
Melting of Sulfur
Water (steam) high
pressure air
Product: water-sulfur
solution (to be extracted)
ISL Borehole-multiple well
Uranium, gold
Oxidizes Uranium
pumped to extraction wells
Optimum pattern: hexagon
(area of influence)
Leaching
Leachates pregnant solution
Secondary mining process
For relatively low grade deposits
Accomplished by percolation of
the lixiviant through broken ore
mass
Takes months (pregnant solution)
Wastes crush/grind
Common lixiviants:
Au NaCN
Ag NaCN
Cu H2SO4

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EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE

Box or Drop Cut

Initial entry for any surface opening Drilling
Purpose: grade control (for sampling)
blasting (bore holes)
Charging
Charging of explosive medium/ agent
(ANFO)
Subdrill line ANFO Ammonia Nitrate and Fluid Oils
o Extra depth drilled below the
grade level to assure that the full
face of the rock can be broken
down to the desired excavation
level
o Dulo ng drill hole
o Minimize hard foes
(unfragmented mat.) Loading
Two Cutting Paths trucks, conveyors
Lumilipat yung excavator (2 positions) Dumping
Smaller box cuts wastes and ore
Along Centreline oxidized and non-oxidized
Bigger box cuts
Excavator is stationary at the centerline
cyclic/conventional (Drill-Blast-Load-
Main Haul-Dump)
Open Pit
operations continuous (Excavation-Transport)
Plan view: crests and toe, ramps
Ramps:
Spiral greater distance traveled Strip Mining
Switch back/zigzag minimize For stratified deposits (coal, laterites)
distance Expands sideways. Direct Casting is
employed in the mined-out strips
Developed for coal mining
Process:
1. Removal of vegetation
2. Series of strips
3. Removal of overburden (direct
casting)
4. Excavate coal
Equipments:
Dragline
Large excavator with a bucket
pulled in by a wire cable
Pit Stability Scrapes off overburden
Dependent on the geology of Bucket wheel excavator
surrounding are Series of buckets na umiikot
Geological structures
Stresses, discontinuities Terrace Mining
Types of Failures For highly dipping, deep-seated (thick
Circular failure overburden), or multiple seam coal
Soil types, unconsolidated deposits. **nickel laterites
Cause: accumulation of water A modification of strip mining
Plane failure Combination of open pit and strip mining
Process:
Happens when there is mas mababang
1. Removal of overburden
joint sa bench face parallel to toe/crest
2. Excavation of coal
Wedge failure
3. Expansion of 1st level
Intersecting planes line of failure 4. Advance downward
Toppling failure
Can form columnar structure separated Auger Mining
by steeply dipping discontinuities For unmined coal seams exposed by
Mukhang sliced bread (loaf) previous excavations

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2 variations of auger mining:
Traditional Cyclic Operations
Uses traditional auger drilling to
extract coal from walls. After each
extraction, hauling is necessary
Auger screws
Highwall Systems
Continuous mining method
Coal is extracted from a scraper
or auger
Directly transports ore to pile
(conveyors)

Quarrying
On marbles, limestones, granites, etc.
Dimension stone quarrying requires
special techniques on cutting, wedging
blocks of stones
Vertical walls (benches)
Cutting Techniques:
1. Plug and Feathers
drill a line of butas
ilagay plug & feathers
pukpok at the same time
2. Wire Saw
Tungsten carbide on
wires/industrial diamonds
1. drilling
2. insertion of wire
3. Line Drilling
Closely spaced drilling (3-4 drills
in 1m)
Introduce high pressure water

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EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE

UNDERGROUND MINING Declines/ spiral

Shaft
Factors affecting UG development Vertically oriented
1. Ore and rock strength Slope-decline
2. Presence of groundwater dewatering Tunnel
3. Temperature gradient ventilation Horizontal; access at both sides

Types of Openings: Secondary

Primary connected sa surface Drift
Secondary connected to primary Horizontal; parallel to the strike of veins
Tertiary Entry
Non-metallic (coal mines) adit
Definition of Terms: Incline / Decline
Slope
Capping Raise
overburden/ oxidized deposits Vertical; overhand
Country Rock and Wall Rock Winze
waste rocks Vertical; underhand
Crosscuts
C General; perpendicular to the strike of vein
Ore
R Production
WR Bell
Structures that support storage of ore
Chute
Entrapment sa openings; controls flow of
Strike
material
azimuth wrt N
Drawpoint
Dip
Where excavation happens
angle from horizontal to inclination
Orepass
Back or Roof (walls)
Daanan ng ore
Bottom or Floor
Usually inclined
Rib
Finger raise
Sides of the opening
Transfer point
Hanging wall and Foot wall
Change in material handling
Hanging Grizzly
Slot
Footwal wall
Starting point of openings
Level / Sublevels
Pillar Stopes
Natural columns in a mine site Mining area
Crown Pillar Haulage way
Found above the head of miners Dinadaanan ng facilities/equipment
Sill Pillar Near horizontal openings
Directly below the miner Manway
Gob Vertical openings
Areas that have caved Sump
Goaf Collects water
Material that caved down Portal
Connects the shaft and atmosphere
Directional
Breast Mine Plant Lay-out
Horizontal advancement o Surface Plant
Overhand o Shaft Plant controls ventilation; mat
Pataas na advancement handling
Underhand o Underground plant
Pababa na advancement UG Materials Handling
Face o Hoisting by skips (elevators)
Dead-end o Conveyance inclines; slopes
o Truck Haulage decline
Kung saan nagdidrill
o Track Haulage mine cars/ carts/ trains
Inby
UG Entries
Papasok face
o Vertical
Outby
o Incline
Palabras face
o Decline
o Adit
Primary
Adit
Shaft Development
Horizontal opening, access at the surface
*conventional shaft sinking
Ramp

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1. Drilling and Blasting operations on bottom
of shaft
2. Mucking operations by cactus grab,
clamshell or overhead loader
3. Shaft lining operations
drill load/blast muck pour
concrete
*blind boring
1. Uses boring machine that can operate
continuously
2. Only applicable to soft-moderately hard
rocks (coal)
*conventional drifting
1. Traditional Drill-Blast-Muck operations
2. Low development cost
Raise Development
*raise climber (Alimak raise)
1. Uses a track mounted machine for
conventional advance
2. Conventional drill-blast methods are
employed
*raise boring
1. Small-diameter hole is drilled from above
to an opening below
2. A reaming head is attached to the drill and
the raise is bored upwards
Unsupported Underground
Room and Pillar Mining (Bord and
Pillar)
Uniform horizontal or nearly horizontal
ore formations (coal)
Openings are developed orthogonally at
regular intervals leaving rectangular or
square pillars as natural support
Cyclic or continuous
Pillars may be recovered (pillaring)
Cycle of operations (conventional for
coal)
1. Cut coal faces are cut to improve
breakage
2. Drill rotary drag bit drills
3. Blast utilizes permissible
explosives ( low heat)
4. Load arm loaders are commonly
used
5. Haul shuttle cars are commonly
used
Cycle of operations (conventional for
noncoal)
1. Cut not applicable
2. Drill hydraulic percussion
3. Blast ANFO high intensity
4. Load front end loader
5. Haul Trucks or LHD
Cycle of operations (continuous; only for
coal)
1. Mine (rolling drum) continuous
miner to excavate coal
2. Haul shuttle cars
Chain pillars support at the entry
Pillaring/Caving
- to improve production
- recovered per section/panel; retreat
mining process
- pillars are not recovered 100% and
left as stumps or fenders
*outside lifting technique
*wing and pockets
- for large pillars
- room and pillar within a pillar
- only certain areas are extracted
(pockets)
Advantages:
Moderate high productivity
Fair good recovery (70-90%) with
pillaring
Suitable to mechanization
Ventilation enhanced with multiple
openings
Disadvantages:
Caving and subsidence
Poor recovery without pillaring
Extensive development
Risks
Stope and Pillar Mining
open stoping, breast stoping, bord and
pillar
- metallic deposits
- irregular horizontal
- irregularly shaped pillars
- usually cyclic
Benching Techniques
- Front benching breast
Mining Thick deposits
- Breast stoping then benching (front
benching)
- Breast stoping then benching
(vertical benching)
- Breast stoping then overhand
stabbing
Advantages:
Moderate high productivity
60-80% recovery w/o pillaring
selective and highly flexible
suitable for mechanization
Disadvantages:
Extensive and continuous GC
Poor ventilation
Recovery of pillars are difficult
Ore may be left in pillars
Calculation of % recovery
tributary areaarea of pillar
recovery =
tributary area
Shrinkage Stoping
Vertical overhand stoping method
Fairly steep to almost vertical
Ore must not pack, oxidize
Development in 2 phases:
Stoping
Drawing
1. Develop haulage level / production level
2. Undercut
3. Overhand slabbing (pataas)
Advantage:
Small-moderate scale
Simple: drawn by gravity
Few ground support in stopes
Fairly good recovery (75-85%)
Disadvantages:
Low-moderate productivity
Labor intensive

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EM 10 SUMMARY 2ND LE
Rough footing on stope; dangerous
Most ores are tied up in stope and
subject to oxidation
Sublevel Stoping
Vertical stoping method that uses large
stopes
Fairly steep - almost vertical ore bodies
Thicker deposits
Development in 2 phases
For drawing and interlevel raises
*raises-footwalls
Undercut or slot for initial stoping;
paggawa ng sublevels
Cyclic: 2 parts:
Stoping
Drawing
Sublevel : blasthole
Fan drilling na pababa
Ring drilling
Sublevel : open-ending
- Gagawa ng slots
- Parallel drilling
Sublevel : vertical crater retreat
- Mass blasting
- 1-2 blasts for whole slope/sublevel
- restriction: ore body
Advantages:
Mechanization (sublevel drifts)
Moderate high productivity
Simultaneous drawing and stoping
Fair recovery (75%)
Disadvantages
Fairly complicated and expensive
devt
Inflexible in mining plan
Longhole drilling requires precision
Large blasts may cause significant
vibration
Air blast and structural damage
Supported Underground Mining
Cut and Fill Stoping
Vertical stoping method that replaces
extracted ore with backfill
Irregular and discontinuous ore
formations
Moderately weak ore bodies
Undercut and drawbells are unnecessary
and are replaced by an ore pass
Cyclic: 2 parts:
Extraction (conventional: d-b-l-h)
Backfilling
*extension of ore pass pag tumataas or
bumababa
Advantages:
High recovery (90-100%)
Surface waste can be used as fill
Versatile, flexible, and adaptable
Moderately good safety record
Disadvantages:
Fairly high mining cost
Filling cost may interfere w/
production
Stope access needed for mechanized
equipment
Labor intensive; may require skilled
miners and close supervision
Stull Stoping
Individual timbers as main ground
support
Thin vein deposits; nearly horizontal-
vertical
Simple conventional stoping; small-scale
Cyclic:
Conventional
Ground control (timbering)
Gravity dependent
Weak walls
*by levels yung pagbaba
Timbers serve as platform for workers
Overhand advancement
Advantages:
Simple: adaptable
Little mechanization
Low capital and initial devt cost
Good recovery: 90% pag nasusundan
yung ore
Disadvantages:
Low productivity
High mining cost
Labor-intensive and slow
Heavy timber requirements and cost
Limited applications are available
(thin veins)
Square-set timbering
Small-scale stoping: extracted ore are
replaced by a framework of timbers
Small deposits of any shape
Haulage drift and crosscuts are
developed to access the ore, min. initial
openings
Cyclic:
Conventional
Ground control (timbering)
*post vertical timbers
*cap horizontal; perpendicular to the vein
*girt horizontal; parallel to strike of vein;
usually
non-loading
Floors and walls: storage, platform,
access sa stopes, cross-cuts
Overhand stope out timbering
filling
Fill as an additional support to prevent
caving
Haulage level (yun lang necessary)
Advantages:
Flexible; versatile; adaptable
Suitable for worst ground conditions
when caving and subsidence are not
permitted
100% recovery (nacacave out yung
irregular)
low capital and devt cost
safety in terms of ground control
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Disadvantages: Low production cost
Low productivity Safer than room&pillar retreat
High mining cost pillaring
High fire risk because of timbers Disadvantages:
Dust control bec of shearers
Caving Methods Delay between production of each
panel
Longwall Mining Subsidence may occur bec of 100%
a long wall is developed and advanced; extraction
roof of the voids are allowed to cave in High initial investment
stratified tabular ore formation
coal and metalliferous Sublevel Caving
longwall is developed and advanced by a Fragmentation is done by induced caving
continuous miner and ore is detonated with ascending fans
main entries; main gate and tail gate Uses blasting methods
main gate daanan ng ventilation (clean Weak, dipping vein deposits
air), workers, Underhand development
equipments Cave: waste
tail gate labasan ng dirty air; coal Cyclic: conventional
*shearer scrape *walang drawpoints sa baba
supports *kung saan nagso-stope out, may naghahaul
gumagalaw pag nagcacave *drift - acts as drawpoint
protects longwall (roof support) Loosening ellipsoid
develop slot for equipment Zone where there is movement
main entries entries for equipments Waste (lahat)
ventilation shafts develop longwalls Ellipsoid of extraction
Target na makuha para makuha lahat
Pattern is based on the ellipsoid of
extraction
Goal: ore lang ang makuha; let waste
rock cave

Advantages:
High recovery
High productivity

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