Interest Groups

Introduction
A much maligned party of our
political system…
„ But before we can determine if
groups are good, bad, or irrelevant,
we need to understand:
‡ What is an interest group?
‡ What is their role is in our system?
Introduction
Interest groups (igs) have been around
a long time.
„ Some are as old as our nation.
„ Others started last week.

† Madison says they are the price we

pay for having a democracy.
„ Since we govern by majority, groups
will form to persuade representatives
towards their point of view.
‡Remember Federalist #10
Introduction
Madison was right about a few things…
„ Americans do join groups as a means of participating
in the political process.
„ In our system, combining as a group is more effective
than acting out as an individual.
‡ The founders knew this because they formed interest
groups to protest the heavy handedness of British rule.
„ There are many groups in our system representing
broad & narrow issues.
‡ BUT there has yet to become one group that represents
the majority of the population on all issues.
„ Therefore, Madison’s fears have not materialized.
Introduction
Robert Dahl, a prominent political scientist,
includes interest groups as a
requirement for democracy.
„ Citizens must have “a right to form relatively
independent associations or orgs in order to achieve
their various rights.”
‡ These groups include political parties and interest
groups.
† Without igs and associations or the freedom of people to
form them, Dahl believes a system cannot be fully
democratic!
† Igs are not only inevitable (Madison). They are
necessary (Dahl).
Why worry about them?
If igs are not new, and are necessary to
democracy, why is there concern about
their presence within our system?
† Growth- since the late 1950s and 1960s there has been
an enormous proliferation in # of active igs in our
political system.
„ The 60’s were a time of growth for liberal groups.

‡ We saw these groups engaging in a lot of political

activity—from grassroots demonstrations to court
battles & lobbying.
‡ Group openly fighting for policy change!
Why worry about them?
† During the 1970’s, the number of conservative
groups grew.
† If we extend Madison’s thinking, this is a good
thing. Right?
„ More groups means less chance of one group
dominating the system.
‡ But it also means more narrow interests
exerting pressure and pulling our
representatives to view things locally rather
than globally.
Introduction
† Another consequence is that more groups are giving
money to candidates and pressuring gov’t on all kinds of
issues, big and small.
„ This way candidates & gov’t officials are cross-
pressured and pulled in different directions.
† Candidates and officials will pander to groups for enough
money to win the media game during elections and
ensure re-election next time around.
One question remains…Should this worry us?
„ To answer this we need to know what IGs are, how they
form, what do they do and what they gain.
What are interest groups?
† Text definition: “an organized group of people who
share some goals and try to influence policy”.
„ Another definition: “an assemblage of people who share
common attitudes and interest and who try to influence
the political system by shaping public opinion”.
† These definitions may be a but limited because
they only address one function of igs: influencing
the political system.
„ Winning in political terms…
† This doesn’t address all the groups that make up
the interest group universe.
What are Interest Groups?
† A better definition: “groups are comprised of individuals
acting together to obtain goals beyond individual reach in
complex societies” (Scott 1987).
„ This definition is not limited to only those groups trying to
influence public policy or opinion.
„ Goals can be political but they don’t have to be.

‡ Not all groups try to influence policy.

„ Ex: the Boy Scouts, United Way or Habitat for Humanity.
† Some groups try to inform & help their constituency.
They act locally to change things globally.
„ Sometimes these groups lobby, but lobbying isn’t their
primary function.
‡ The ig universe is vast and diverse. We can’t say that
all do X or y.
Types of Interest Groups

Private or Economic Interests:

† Purpose: to promote the economic interests of the
members.
„ Ex: Business, labor and agricultural interests have
historically been the big three.
† They exist to make profits or ensure profits and to obtain
economic benefits for their members.
„ i.e. National Association of Manufacturers lobbies
Congress to prevent the production of counterfeit
goods that cut into the profits of its members.
 Types of Interest Groups
Private Interests – subgroups:
† Trade Associations: groups that represent business interests or business in
general.
„ i.e., the Belgian Draft Horse Corporation of America, or the American
Nursery & Landscape Association.
† Professional Associations: Their membership is limited to those people who
are members of the profession & the groups that work to promote the
interests of the profession.
„ Every professor on this campus has at least one professional association
he or she can join.
‡ I have held memberships in the following professional associations:
„ The American Political Science Association, the Midwest Political Science
Association, the Southern Political Science Association, the Western Political Science
Association, American Statistical Association, American Sociology Association.
„ i.e.: American Medical Association, the American Correctional Chaplains
Association, or the American Catholic Correctional Chaplains
Association.
Types of Interest Groups

Private Interests – subgroups:

† Unions
„ work to promote interests of the workers in specific
areas.
‡ i.e., Major League Baseball Players Association or
United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of
America.
Types of Interest Groups
Public Interest Groups / Citizen Groups
† Public interest groups try to achieve a public or collective
good.
„ A collective good is a good that can’t be shared
selectively with only members of the group but all
members of a society can benefit.
‡ i.e., Clean air or water.
† This doesn’t mean everyone agrees with their
assessment of a collective good but it just means this
group is trying to achieve a good for the entire society.
† These are usually non-profit groups.
† i.e., Sierra Club, Children’s Defense Fund, Human Rights
Watch, Americans United for Life
Types of Interest Groups
Single Issue versus Multi-Issue groups:
† This a different way to classify groups…
„ All groups can be classified as either single or multi-
issue.
† Most groups deal with more than one issue. They work
on any and all issues that affect the welfare of their
members.
„ So, Common Cause fights for responsible government
program regardless of the substantive issue area.
„ or National Organization Women represent the interests
of women on all fronts, from discrimination to equal pay.
Types of Interest Groups
† Single Issue groups are fairly recent.
„ They are also a public interest group but they focus on
one issue or one part of a larger issue.
„ NOW tends to fight for all women’s issues, but NARAL
only works on the pro-choice issue.
† This focus can sometimes lead to more extreme views or
protest lobbying.
„ These groups are usually less willing to compromise.
Types of Interest Groups

Latent Interest Groups:

† These are potential groups that could be
organized but don’t either because no one has
organized them or because there is no way to
organize the group.
„ The elderly were a latent group but then the AARP
formed.
† The homeless could be one but they are still
latent/unformed.
„ And are likely to remain so…
Why do Interest Groups Form?
† We know that some groups form and some groups don’t.
„ There are potential groups all over!
„ But they haven’t become active or organized.

† So, why do some form and others don’t?

„ This question is more important to most people.
‡ Most have a sense of what an interest group is, but they
can’t understand the explosion of groups.
„ Scholars and the poublic find it a bit disturbing…
† Several theories…
„ We will cover two BIG ones…
Why do Interest Groups Form?

First Theory: Disturbance Theory

† Developed by David Truman in the 1950’s prior to the
explosion of IGs.
„ Truman thought that igs were good for our system.

‡ Igs promote pluralism!

„ Pluralism: gov’t responds to groups of citizens. Citizens
form groups that represent their interests. Enough people
belong to groups so that everyone is heard & no group
loses all the time. Balance is achieved.
† Pluralists believe groups help with democracy…
„ without groups masses of people with common interests
would not be represented in front of their gov’t!
Disturbance Theory
† Start with the status quo.
„ Everyone is ok with representation they are getting
„ Then there is a disturbance.
‡ Gov’t deregulates or regulates a new area and the new
laws affect one group adversely.
‡ Or a foreign company enters as a new competitor so
profits and wages go down.
„ Now, a group of people find themselves at a disadvantage
after the disturbance.
† So, latent group organize in response to the disturbance.
„ This formation means another area might not be
represented so they form a group and so on.
† This will happen until an equilibrium is reached and the
different groups no longer feel disadvantaged.
Disturbance Theory
† Government is usually the instigator of the disturbance.
„ When government expanded in the 1930’s and entered all
sorts of new areas with new regulation, there were oodles
of disturbances!!!
„ The disregard for minority rights in the 1960s also created
a disturbance which caused the formation of many
groups.
† Government is also the equalizer.
„ It is usually government action that creates the new
equilibrium.
‡ Groups work to regain balance and do so by lobbying
government.
† Sum: groups form in waves after a disturbance until
equilibrium is reached again.
Disturbance Theory
† Truman’s theory seemed to work
„ But, then some people noticed that groups still formed
when there didn’t seem to be any kind of disturbance.
‡ After all, what kind of disturbance could cause the
formation of an association for every medical specialty?
Wouldn’t the AMA cover and lobby against such
disturbances?
† So, an alternative or complementary theory was
needed….
Why Interest Groups Form
† Second Theory: Robert Salisbury
„ Accounts for group formation when there was a
disturbance but also for group formation when there
wasn’t a disturbance.
† Exchange theory of Interest Group Formation-
„ political entrepreneurs (who see the benefits of forming
a group) will pay the start up costs for organizing a
group and producing benefits as long as they can sell
the goods produced to the membership.
‡ People will join group because they wish to gain the
good without paying to produce the good.
Why Interest Groups Form
† It is basically a supply and demand argument. The
entrepreneur supplies the private or public good as long as
the membership demand it.
„ i.e.: AARP- the elderly used to be a latent group.
„ Then, some entrepreneurs saw the need for
representation among the elderly.
‡ So they formed a group and the over 55 crowd joined in droves
‡ The members get discounts off dinners, hotels, rx’s, etc. and
representation before the government without bearing the full
costs themselves.
† People who want to belong will pay the dues and the political
entrepreneurs do the fighting.
„ The entrepreneurs get clout in Washington, get paid for
helping a group they identify with, and the members gain
benefits by writing their checks.
Why Interest Groups Form

† Once a group forms, there is always a

problem with maintenance.
„ Free-riding can create a problem…folks
getting benefits without paying dues…
„ So, these groups offer selective benefits
(benefits you get only if you are a member)
as an incentive to continuing a
membership with the group.
‡ The group forms and survives
Why Interest Groups Form

† This theory works with Truman’s…

„ It is easier to get people to join the group
when there is a disturbance & you keep
them with the benefits.
„ Think about it…when do people open their
wallets to charity?
‡ How much was donated immediately after the
Tsunami in Dec. 2004?
„ How much do you think was donated to the
relief effort this month?
Why People Join

† Our next topic follows readily from the

first.
„ Once we understand why groups form, the
next question is why do people sign up?
„ There are competing theories here as well.
‡ Theories of formation by Truman and
Salisbury suggest that people join groups
to gain benefits.
„ This idea underlies the main theories of why
people join as well.
† But, what benefits drive joining?
Why People Join

†Mancur Olson & The Logic of

Collective Action.
„ Claims people are out to maximize their
material gain with minimal effort.
‡ This is their main goal
‡ It drives behavior just like obtaining office
drives the behavior of the party in
government.
„ In order to maximize gain, you want to
minimize effort.
Why People Join

† The implications of this theory were disturbing.

„ Suggests that folks will only join economic groups
because they offer selective benefits (you must be a
member to gain the benefit).
„ Folks won’t join large public interest groups because
if the group succeeds, you still gain.
‡ The maximum gain with NO effort!!!!
„ It’s a cynical view because it assumes people will
free ride.
Why People Join

† Free riding: Gaining without paying or doing

anything.
„ i.e., Have you ever worked on a group project?
What happens when one person doesn’t do any
work? Does someone else pick up the slack? This
is the free rider problem!
† It is also cynical because he believes people
only want to gain material benefits—tangible
benefits.
„ When large public interests groups began to form
and increase in the 1960s & 1970s, some
questions were raised about this theory.
 Why People Join
† Clark and Wilson (1961):
„ Challenged Olson’s idea by identifying three types of
benefits people may want to maximize.
‡ Material- selective and tangible benefits like information,
insurance, prescription services or a change in policy that
directly affects their members.
‡ Solidarity- benefits gained by working with others,
associating with like-minded individuals in a political
struggle. Social incentives. Vietnam Veterans of
American offers a place for people with similar
experiences to meet and work through their issues.
‡ Purposive or Expressive: These are benefits gained by
fulfilling your civic duties beyond voting. The benefits from
working within the political system.
„ These types of benefits are usually associated with public
interest groups.
Why People Join
† Igs try to use a mix of these types of benefits.
„ At different times, they may stress one type of
incentive over another.
‡ If a group is just starting out, and forming due
to a disturbance, purposive benefits may be
stressed. Folks feel the crisis and want to
participate.
‡ After the crisis abates, the group may stress
material or solidarity benefits to keep
members in the fold.
„ i.e. AARP plays this game well. It stresses
the fight for senior citizens and social security
when Congress considers changing benefits.
When the crisis is over, they sell their
prescription drug plans, health insurance, and
discounts.
What They Do
† We know what they are, why they form, and
why people join.
„ The next question is “What to igs do?”

† Well, they lobby…a process by which igs

attempt to assert their influence on the policy
process
„ Lobbyist: a representative of a group who attempts to
influence a policy maker.
‡ Lobbyists can work directly for the IG or can be a member
of a lobbying firm hired by the group.
‡ Lobbyists try to assert their influence in the political
process by forming PACs to help the election goals of
office seekers or educating people and politicians.
How do they exert influence?
† There are a variety of strategies groups
use when trying to persuade Congress
or the bureaucracy.
„ Your book talks about some broad tactics
like forming PACs or education.
„ Let’s be a bit more specific…
† Two main categories
„ Inside Lobbying: lobbying government
directly.
„ Outside Lobbying: Indirect lobbying—
going public. Protests, grassroots activity,
media blitzes etc.
Inside Lobbying
† Again, this is lobbying the agency or
congressperson directly.
„ Trying to persuade the member of
Congress that the ig’s position is in the
best interest of their constituency or the
nation…that their position is the correct
position.
† The key to inside lobbying is ACCESS.
„ Can you get in to see the Senator or the
White House staff person? Do you have
the right type of case for the courts?
Inside Lobbying
† And, the key to access is credibility.
„ Lobbyists need credibility.
„ If a lobbyist misrepresents an issue or lies and it
costs the congressperson votes, the lobbyist loses
credibility and access.
„ Without credibility, you can’t form good
relationships.
‡ If you are cut off from access you are cut off
from influence.
„ Information may be provided from the group’s
perspective, but the lobbyist always considers the
needs of the person being lobbied.
Outside Lobbying
† Grassroots mobilization of constituents, demonstrations,
protests, etc.
† These tactics are often used when you do not have
access to inside strategies.
† These tactics can be particularly effective when used in
conjunction with inside strategies.
„ The grass roots efforts shows the breadth of public
support and helps the inside lobbyist claim broad
support.
† Violent protests are the ultra-outside strategy and is not
often used in the U.S.
„ You need radical and committed members to use this
strategy. i.e., Insurgents in Iraq, the IRA in Northern
Ireland, or Basque separatists in Spain.
What They Do
† If you are wondering what
percentage of groups use specific
tactics, we can take a quick look at
this study from the 1980s. (Schlozman &
Tierney 1986)

„ It is old, but based upon updates, is still accurate

† I have added information to the chart—
„ Note which tactics are inside and outside…
„ Note which tactics are more popular…
 Summary of Inside and Outside Strategies

Testify at hearings 99 IN Consult with Government officials to 85 IN

plan legis. strategy
Contact government officials directly to 98 IN Attempt to shape the implementation of 89 IN
present your point of view policies
Present research results or technical 92 OUT Talk with people from the press and the 86 OUT
information media
Help to draft legislation 85 IN Help to draft regulations, rules, or 78 IN
guidelines
Alert congressmen to the effects of a bill 75 IN File suit or otherwise engage in 72 IN
on their districts litigation
Make financial contributions to electoral 58 IN Do favors for officials who need 56 IN
campaigns assistance
Send letters to members of your 92 OUT Inspire letter-writing or telegram 84 OUT
organization to inform them about your campaigns
activities
Mount grassroots lobbying efforts 80 OUT Have influential constituents contact 80 OUT
their congressman's office
Attempt to influence appointments to 53 OUT Publicize candidates' voting records 44 OUT
public office
Run advertisements in the media about 31 OUT Contribute work or personnel to 24 OUT
your position on issues electoral campaigns
Make public endorsements of candidates 22 OUT Engage in protests or demonstrations 20 OUT
for office
What They Do
† In sum:
† Igs try to frame issues, represent issues not
advocated by the parties, provide information to
legislators, and supply re-election resources.
† All of these activities affect the policy outputs of
government and help individuals with common
interests be heard by their members.
„ Whether this activity reflects the pluralist ideal—
that no one loses all the time and everyone is
represented by one group or another—is a
question you must ask yourself.
What Do They Gain?
† There has been quite a bit of research on this topic.
„ After all, the idea that interest groups can buy
representation is abhorrent.
† First, a reminder…
„ There are a tremendous number of groups out there.
„ There are groups on all sides of most issues.
‡ Losing support from one group likely means gaining
from another.
„ Members of Congress & the bureaucracy develop
expertise. This expertise keeps groups in line
(credibility).
‡ If a group tries to pull the wool over the eyes of a
Representative or Senator, there are checks…
„ Members look to the experts in their chamber & party
when voting, so they would know if they are on the wrong
side.
What Do They Gain?
†Several ideas float around
about what groups gain by
giving $$$ to candidates…
„ Buying Votes?:
‡ There has been very little evidence that a
campaign contribution leads directly to a
favorable vote.
‡ The answer to the question is much more
complicated than that.
What Do They Gain?
„ Time and Effort:
‡ There is evidence that a campaign
contribution influences the amount of time
and effort a legislator spends on a bill or
policy.
„ What is time & effort?
‡ Research shows a Member of Congress will
not vote against their constituency.
„ Such a vote would hurt chances for re-election
(their main goal).
‡ So, a vote against their constituency in
exchange for a campaign contribution won’t
be worth the trouble.
What Do They Gain

† But, contributions may affect the level of activity

a member puts into bills.
„ If a member supports the group then we see that
member writing more legislation, attending more
committee hearings, etc.
‡ They put in more time and effort on behalf of
the legislation.
† If the member is an opponent then we see this
person avoiding committee sessions or votes
dealing with these bills.
„ They will exert minimal effort to fight the proposal.
‡ They don’t act as an impediment.
What Do They Gain
† Constituents are concerned with the final vote!
„ The legislators can still be on the right side for the
voters.
‡ They just didn’t fight hard against the proposition.
† Let me repeat- the contribution may get you more effort
into the details of the legislative process but that doesn’t
mean that you will vote against your constituency.
„ Money isn’t buying a vote
What Do They Gain
† Rewards:
„ Others show that campaign contributions are a reward
for past votes.
‡ Not payment for future ones…

† Access:
„ Campaign contributions are given in the hopes of
gaining access to the representative or senator.
„ Money does not ensure access.
‡ Access is only gained and kept when the issue the
group and member is involved in, is recurring and can
help with re-election.
‡ In other words, you need $$$ and grassroots support to
gain and keep access.
What Do They Gain

†Evidence shows that Interest

Groups:
„ Usually lobby their friends—folks that
already agree with them.
‡ When they are lobbying their opponents it
is usually a counter offensive.
† Groups are always more effective when
they have a strong base in the member’s
constituency.
Should we worry?

† Is there a problem with all of these groups?

„ If groups can’t buy votes and have difficulty
persuading anyone to vote against their
constituency, is there a problem?
† Some say yes!!!
„ The array of groups pulls politicians and
bureaucrats in too many directions at once.
‡ i.e., Clinton & healthcare
„ When Clinton tried to pass his major
healthcare legislation, he failed.
„ The proposal was doomed by
hyperpluralism—an excess of representation
and a fragmentation of political ideas that stall
the system of government.
Should we worry?

† In this example, groups used inside and

outside strategies to fight/change the
proposal.
„ They ran ads, funded campaigns, provided
information to members, etc.
‡ The groups didn’t agree on the different parts
of the plan, so they formed coalitions to
change or prevent the specific parts of the
plan that hurt their interests.
„ The broader concept was lost.
Should we worry?

† Maybe not a problem…

„ Maybe you didn’t like Clinton or his
healthcare plan, so this doesn’t bother
you…
‡ Do you see the same thing happening to
Bush’s plan to reform social security?
„ We could also look at this example from
the perspective of Founders intent.
‡ The founders wanted ideas to percolate.
They didn’t want large scale change to
happen quickly.
Should we worry?

† But the issue remains…

„ Does the fragmentation of our interests
into a vast array of groups with narrow
interests prevent “good government” or
“big ideas”?
„ Or is this simply a reflection of pluralism
with some folks winning sometimes, and
no one winning all the time?