Theories of Stress and Strain

Mechanics of Materials for Civil Engineers
CHAPTER 1
THEORIES OF STRESS AND STRAIN
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Mechanics of materials is a fundamental course in civil engineering that deals with
the mechanical behaviour of materials subjected to various types of loading as regards
to stresses, strains and displacements. Other names of this subject are strength of
materials, mechanics of deformable bodies and mechanics of solids.
This subject is a vast field of study which covers the materials not only in civil
engineering but other disciplines of engineering. However, the selected chapters in
this book essentially provide the fundamentals to civil engineering students for their
higher level of studies such as theory of structures, structural analysis, soil mechanics
and some other design courses.
The understanding of the mechanical behaviour of materials is essential for
civil engineers to provide safe design of buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls and
other civil engineering structures. In other words, structures that are designed with a
good understanding of mechanics of materials will not undergo excessive stresses,
strains and displacements. That is why this subject is an important fundamental
course to most of the analysis and design subjects in civil engineering.
In order to understand the mechanical behaviour of materials, both theoretical
equations and experimental results are equally important. Most of the theoretical
equations were developed based on experimental observations or investigations, and
these equations are used to predict the bahaviour of materials in other events. This
kind of practice is most commonly carried out in the design of civil engineering
Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 1

structures, as it is not feasible to build the prototype and test it to failure in order to
describe the behaviour in the actual event. Therefore, readers should bear in mind
that we are only using the estimated mechanical behaviour of materials in our design,
and the actual mechanical behaviour of materials in the built structures is never
precisely known.
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
We need to understand the condition of equilibrium before we discuss the details of
stresses and strains developed in the structure. In civil engineering, most of the
structures are in static equilibrium. Therefore, this state of equilibrium is of particular
interest here.
Equilibrium of a Particle
When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle is in
equilibrium as shown in Fig. 1.1.
P P
Fig. 1.1 A particle in equilibrium
This equilibrium condition is not limited to two forces acting in the opposite
directions. Three or more forces acting on a particle may create an equilibrium
condition as well.

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium when the external forces acting on it form a
system of forces equivalent to zero. In a two-dimensional rigid body, the three basic
equilibrium equations of the rigid body as shown in Fig. 1.2 can be written as
F x =0 (1.1a)
F y =0 (1.2b)
M a =0 (1.1c)
in which Fx = force component of each forces, F1, F2, F3, and F4, in the x Cartesian
coordinate direction; Fy = force component of each forces, F1, F2, F3, and F4, in the y
Cartesian coordinate direction; and Ma = moment at point a.
y
F2 Note: c.g. = centroid
a l2
F3 c.g.
l4
F1
F4
x
Fig. 1.2 Free-body diagram of a two dimensional rigid body

In a three-dimensional rigid body, there are six basic equilibrium equations to
be satisfied. Since this subject has no particular interest here, the readers may refer to
any other books on the subject in statics.
1.3 STRESS AND STRAIN
Elasticity
Whenever a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it undergoes some
deformation and the molecules offer some resistance to the deformation. A little
consideration will show, that when the external force is removed, the force of
resistance also vanishes; and the body springs back to its original position. However,
this is only possible if the deformation caused by the external force is within a certain
limit, which is known as the elastic limit. The material property of returning back to
the original position after the external forced has been removed is called elasticity.
Stress
Every material is elastic in nature. Therefore, whenever some external system of
forces acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. As the body undergoes
deformations, it sets up some resistance to deformation. This resistance per unit area
to deformation is known as stress, that is,
P
= (1.2)
A
where = intensity of stress (normally known as stress); P = load of force acting on
the body (see Fig. 1.3); and A = cross-sectional area of the body.
It should be noted that the intensity of stress is only uniform when the load of
force is acting exactly at the centroid of the cross section of the body. If the force is
eccentric, that is, not acting at the centroid, the intensity of stress is then non-uniform.

Strain
As discussed earlier, whenever a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it
undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as strain,
that is,

= (1.3)
L
where = strain; = change in length of the body; and L = original length of the body
as illustrated in Fig. 1.3.
P P
Fig. 1.3 Deformation of a body under load
Types of Stresses
Although there are many types of stresses, yet the following two types are important
from the subject point of view:
(a) Tensile stresses when a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as
shown in Fig 1.4(a), as a result of which the body tends to lengthen. The stress
induced across the cross section mn as shown in Fig. 1.4(b) is called tensile stress
and the corresponding strain is called tensile strain, where A is the cross-sectional
area of the body.
(b) Compressive stress when a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes
as shown in Fig. 1.5(a), as a result of which the body tends to shorten its length.
The stress induced across section pq as shown in Fig. 1.5(b) is called compressive

stress and the corresponding strain is called compressive strain, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the body.
P P
n
(a) Tensile forces
m
P
P
A
n
(b) Tensile stress across section mn
Fig. 1.4 A body subjected to tensile force and the cross-sectional stress
P P
q
(a) Compressive forces
p
P
P
A
q
(b) Compressive stress across section pq
Fig. 1.5 A body subjected to compressive force and the cross-sectional stress
Hookes Law
Hookes Law states that, when a material is loaded, within its elastic limit, the stress
is proportional to the strain, that is,
Stress
= =E (1.4)
Strain

in which E is the material constant defined as Youngs modulus or modulus of
elasticity, and quite often spoken of as stiffness in ordinary technical conversation.
Fig. 1.6 shows a typical stress versus strain curve of a material. Within the
elastic limit, that is, part OA of the curve which is straight, the Youngs modulus E is
given by the slope of the curve. The values of E for some common engineering
materials are shown in Table 1.1. A material with high Youngs modulus is regarded
as stiff, otherwise it is said to be floppy.
Stress,
B

E=

O Strain,
Fig. 1.6 A typical stress versus strain relationship
Table 1.1 Modulus of elasticity of common engineering materials
Modulus of elasticity/ Youngs modulus

Item No. Material
(GN/m2 or kN/mm2)
1. Steel 200 to 220
2. Wrought iron 190 to 200
3. Cast iron 100 to 160
4. Copper 90 to 110
5. Brass 80 to 90
6. Aluminium 60 to 80
7. Timber 10 to 20

Strength
The strength of a material is the stress required to break a piece of the material
itself. It will generally be the same regardless of the size for a given solid material.
In a material, we are most often concerned with the tensile strength, or sometimes
called the ultimate tensile stress, which is the maximum stress at point B of the stress
verses strain curve in Fig. 1.6 before the material breaks.
The tensile strengths of some engineering materials are given in Table 1.2. A
material with high tensile strength is regarded as strong, otherwise it is said to be
weak.
Table 1.2 Tensile strength of common engineering materials
Tensile strength
Item No. Material
(MN/m2 or N/mm2)
1. Steel 250 to 2000
4. Copper 140
5. Brass 120 to 400
6. Aluminium 70
7. Timber 3 to 100
A Summary on Stress, Strain, Strength and Stiffness
After we have gone through the basic properties of materials, stress should not be
confused with strain; and strength should not be confused with stiffness.
In common terms, stress can be regarded as how hard the atoms at a point in a
solid material are being pulled apart or pushed together by a load. In a like manner,
strain can be expressed as how far the atoms at a point in a solid material are being
pulled apart or pushed together.

Strength on the other hand can generally be regarded as the maximum stress
that a material can sustain before it breaks; and stiffness can be expressed as the
resistance to deformation under load. For instances, a cookie is stiff and weak; a
steel bar is stiff and strong; nylon is flexible and strong; and butter is flexible and
weak.
Deformation of a Body due to Axial Force
It was discussed earlier that a body will deform under load and stress will be induced.
Substituting Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3) into Eq. (1.4), the elongation of the body under load
is given as
PL
= (1.5)
AE
where = elongation if P = tensile force; and = shortening if P = compressive
force.
Deformation of a Body Due to Self Weight
Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Fig. 1.7. Let L =
length of the bar; A = cross-sectional area of the bar; E = modulus of elasticity for the
bar material; and w = specific weight (weight per unit volume) of the bar material.
The normal stress (tensile stress) over any horizontal cross section is caused
by the weight of the material below that section. The elongation of the element
thickness dx shown with reference to Eq. (1.5) is
( wAx)dx
d = (1.6)
AE
Integrating Eq. (1.6), the total elongation of the bar is given as

( wAx)dx wA L2 ( wAL) L WL
l
= = = = (1.7)
0
AE AE 2 2 AE 2 AE
in which W = total weight of the bar = w A L. Note that the total elongation
produced by the weight of the bar is equal to that produced by a load half of its weight
applied at the end.
dx
L
x
B
Fig. 1.7 A bar hanging freely and deform under its own weight
Example 1.1. A brass bar with cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2 is subjected to the
system of forces as shown in Fig. 1.8. Determine the total elongation of the bar. For
brass, assume E = 80 kN/mm2.
A B 140 kN 40 kN C D
80 kN 20 kN
450 mm 750 mm 900 mm
Fig. 1.8 System of forces on a single bar

Solution.
Given cross-sectional area, A = 1000 mm2; modulus of elasticity, E = 80 kN/mm2; and
let = total elongation of the bar.
Principle of superposition when the body is subjected to a number of forces
acting on its outer edges as well as at some other sections along the length of the
body, the forces are split out, and their effects are considered on individual segments.
The resulting deformation of the body is equal to the algebric sum of the deformations
of the individual segments. The relation for the resulting deformation is given as
PL 1
= = ( P1 L1 + P2 L2 + P3 L3 + .... + Pn Ln ) (1.8)
AE AE
where Pn = force acting in segment n; and Ln = length of segment n.
80 kN 80 kN
A B
60 kN 60 kN
B C
20 kN 20 kN
C D
Fig. 1.9 A single bar seperated into several segments in equilibrium and their internal forces
For the sake of simplification, the force of 140 kN acting at B may be split up
into two forces of 80 kN and 60 kN as shown in Fig. 1.9. Similarly, the force of 40
kN acting at C may be split up into two forces of 60 kN and 20 kN in the opposite
direction. Now it is clearly seen that segment AB of the bar is subjected to a tension
of 80 kN, segment BC is subjected to a compression of 60 kN and segment CD is
subjected to a compression of 20 kN. Using Eq. (1.8), the total elongation of the bar
is given as (with usual notations and using +ve for elongation and ve for shortening)

1
= ( P1 L1 + P2 L2 + P3 L3 )
AE
1
= (80 450 60 750 20 900)
1000 80
= 0.34 mm
Negative sign indicates that there will be net decrease in length of the bar, that
is, shortening of the bar under this system of forces.
Example 1.2. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2, P3 and P4 as
shown in Fig. 1.10. Calculate the force P2, necessary for equilibrium, if P1 = 45 kN,
P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN. Determine the total elongation of the member by
assuming the modulus of elasticity as 210 kN/mm2.
A2 = 2500 mm2
B C
D
A
P1 A1 = 625 mm2 A3 = 1250 mm2 P4
P2 P3
1200 mm 600 mm 900 mm
Fig. 1.10 System forces on a body with different cross-sectional area
Solution.
Given area A1 = 625 mm2; A2 = 2500 mm2; A3 = 1250 mm2; L1 = 1200 mm; L2 = 600
mm; L3 = 900 mm; and E = 210 kN/mm2.

From equilibrium, the magnitude of force P2 may be found out by equating the
forces acting towards right to those acting towards left,
P2 + P4 = P1 + P3
P2 + 130 = 45 + 450
P2 = 365 kN
Similar to the solution of Example 1.1, the body is again seperated into three
segments for the calculation of total elongation as shown in Fig. 1.11. In Eq. (1.8),
the cross-sectional area for the whole body is the same. With a little consideration,
Eq. (1.8) can be modified so that it can be used for a bar with different cross-sectional
area and is given as
1 P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3 PL
= + + + ..... + n n (1.9)
E A1 A2 A3 An
45 kN 45 kN
A B
320 kN 320 kN
B C
130 kN 130 kN
C D
Fig. 1.11 A body seperated into three segments in equilibrium and their internal forces
Using Eq. (1.9), the total elongation of the body is given as (with usual
notations and using +ve for elongation and ve for shortening)

1 P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
= + +
E A1 A2 A3
1 45 1200 320 600 130 900

= +
210 625 2500 1250
= 0.491 mm
Positive sign indicates that there will be net increase in length of the bar, that is,
elongation of the bar under this system of forces.
Example 1.3. A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar is
shown in Fig. 1.12. Assuming that the bars are prevented from lateral buckling,
compute the magnitude of force P that will cause the total length of the member to
decrease by 0.5 mm. Take Youngs modulus for steel and aluminium as 210 kN/mm2
and 70 kN/mm2 respectively.
Steel bar
450 mm
60 x 60
Aluminium bar
580 mm
120 x 120
Fig. 1.12 Composite bar connected in series

Solution.
Given area of steel bar, As = 60 60 = 3600 mm2; area of aluminium bar, AA = 120
120 = 14400 mm2; length of steel bar, Ls = 450 mm; length of aluminium bar, LA =
580 mm; Youngs modulus for steel, Es = 210 kN/mm2; and Youngs modulus for
aluminium, EA = 70 kN/mm2.
The composite bar may be separated into two segments and isolated as
separate free bodies as shown in Fig. 1.13.
In Eq. (1.9), the Youngs modulus for the whole body is the same. With a little
consideration, Eq. (1.9) can be modified so that it can be used for a bar with different
Youngs modulus and is given as
P1 L1 P2 L2 PL PL
= + + 3 3 + ..... + n n (1.10)
A1 E1 A2 E 2 A3 E3 An E n
Ps = P
PA = P
B B
Ps = P
PA = P
Fig. 1.13 A composite bar in series separated into two free bodies and their internal forces

Let P be the magnitude of the required force. So, by using Eq. (1.10) and P =
Ps = PA with usual notations,
L LA
= P s +
As E s AA E A
450 580
0.5 = P + 3
3600 210 10 14400 70 10
3
0.5 = 1.1706 10 6 P
0.5
P=
1.1706 10 6
= 427.1 10 3 N
= 427.1 kN
Statically Indeterminate Structures
As seen in Example 1.3, the compressive force in each of the segments can be
determined statically using just the useful equilibrium equation the equation for
summing forces in the vertical direction. Therefore the problem is classified as
statically determinate.
Most structures are more complex than Example 1.3, and their reactions and
internal forces cannot be found statically using the equilibrium equations alone. This
situation is illustrated by the bar as shown in Fig. 1.14(a), which shows a bar ABC
fixed at both ends. There are now two reactions, RA and RC, but only one useful
equation of equilibrium the equation for summing forces in the horizontal direction
(with self-weight of the bar neglected). Since this equation has two unknowns, it is
not sufficient for finding the reactions. Structures of this kind are classified as

statically indeterminate. Additional compatibility equations pertaining to the
displacements of the structure are required to supplement the equilibrium equations in
the analysis.
As discussed earlier, the reactions RA and RC cannot be found by static
equilibrium. From Fig. 1.14(b), we can only write one equilibrium equation, that is,
F horizontal = 0 : R A + P RC = 0 (1.11a)
The equilibrium equation may also be written based on the internal bar segment
forces from Fig. 1.14(c) at cross section B as
R A + Rc = P (1.11b)
An additional equation is needed in order to solve for the two unknown reactions, and
this equation will come from the compatibility of the displacements (elongation or
shortening).
A B C
P
LAB LBC
(a) Bar fixed at both ends
RA A B C RC
P
(b) Free-body diagram
RA A B RA
RC B C RC
(c) Bar segments and internal forces
Fig. 1.14 Statically indeterminate bar

From Fig. 1.14(c), it can be seen that segment AB is subjected to tensile force
RA and segment BC is subjected to compressive force RC. Therefore, segment AB
experiences elongation and segment BC experiences shortening. Using Eq. (1.5) with
the usual notations (+ve for elongation and ve for shortening),
R A L AB
AB = (1.12a)
AE
and
RC LBC
BC = (1.12b)
AE
Since both ends A and C are fixed, the total elongation should be equal to zero,
that is,
AC = AB + BC = 0 (1.12c)
Substituting Eqs. (1.12a) and (1.12b) into Eq. (1.12c) gives
R A L AB RC LBC
=0
AE AE
R A L AB RC LBC
= (1.13)
AE AE
which contains the two reactions as unknowns. Solving Eqs. (1.11) and (1.13)
simultaneously will reveal the unknown reactions.
Example 1.4. A square bar of 20 mm 20 mm is held between two rigid plates and
loaded by an axial force P with a magnitude of 300 kN and direction as shown in Fig.
1.15. Find the reactions at the ends A and C and the extension of the portion AB.
Assume E = 200 kN/mm2.

20 mm
A B C
P
300 mm 200 mm
Fig. 1.15 A loaded bar fixed at both ends
Solution.
Area of the bar, A = 20 20 = 400 mm2; force on the bar, P = 300 kN; length of bar
segment AB, LAB = 300 mm; length of bar segment BC, LBC = 200 mm; Youngs
modulus, E = 200 kN/mm2; let RA = reaction at A; and RC = reaction at C.
From Fig. 1.16, we can see that segment AB of the bar is subjected to tension
and segment BC is subjected to compression. Moreover, the elongation of segment
AB is equal to the shortening of segment BC according to Eq. (1.13).
A B C
P
A B
RA RA
B C
RC RC
Fig. 1.16 Free-body diagrams of the bar segments and their internal forces
From the equilibrium equation, that is, Eq. (1.11b),
R A + RC = 300 kN (a)
From the compatibility equation, that is, Eq. (1.12),

R A 300 R 200
= C
400 200 400 200
3
RC = RA (b)
2
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (b) gives:
3
RA + R A = 300
2
R A = 120 kN
and
RC = 180 kN
R A 300 120 300

AB = =
400 200 400 200
= 0.45 mm
Another type of statically indeterminate bar is a composite bar with two or
more materials arranged in a parallel configuration. Consider a bar made up of two
different materials as shown in Fig. 1.17(a) where P = total load on the bar; A1, E1, P1
= area, Youngs modulus and load shared by bar 1 respectively; A2, E2, P2 = area,
Youngs modulus and load shared by bar 2 respectively; L = length of the composite
bar; and = elongation of the composite bar.
From equilibrium of forces in Fig. 1.17(b), we know that
P = P1 + P2
and the stresses in bars 1 and 2 are given as
P1
1 =
A1

and
P2
2 =
A2
respectively.
1
P
2
n
L
(a) Deformation
P1 1
P
P2 2
n
(b) Forces at cross section mn
Fig. 1.17 Deformation of a composit bar and force in each bar in parallel under load
The corresponding elongations for bars 1 and 2 with reference to Eq. (1.5) are
given as
P1 L
1 =
A1 E1
and
P2 L
2 =
A2 E 2
respectively. Since both the elongations are equal, the compatibility equation for the
elongation (or shortening) can be written as

= 1 = 2 (1.14)
Therefore,
P1 L PL
= 2
A1 E1 A2 E 2
Eliminating L from the above equation gives
P1 P
= 2 (1.15a)
A1 E1 A2 E 2
A E
P2 = P1 2 2 (1.15b)
A1 E1
As shown earlier, P = P1 + P2 . Therefore,
A E AE
P = P1 + P1 2 2 = P1 1 + 2 2
A1 E1 A1 E1
Solving for P1, we have
A1 E1
P1 = P (1.16a)
A1 E1 + A2 E 2
Similarly,
A2 E 2
P2 = P (1.16b)
A1 E1 + A2 E2
From Eq. (1.16), we can find out the loads shared by the different materials.
From Eq. (1.15a), we get
1 2
=
E1 E2
Therefore,
E1
1 = 2 (1.17a)
E2
and

E2
2 = 1 (1.17b)
E1
The ratio of the Youngs modulus of material 1 to the Youngs modulus of material 2,
E1
E2
is normally known as modular ratio denoted by the letter m.
Example 1.5. A reinforced column with a dimension of 400 mm 400 mm is
reinforced with 4 steel bars of 25 mm diameter, one in each corner as shown in Fig.
1.18. The column is carrying a compressive load of 2000 kN. Find the stresses in the
concrete and steel bars. Given E for steel = 210 kN/mm2 and E for concrete = 21
kN/mm2. If the effective height of the column is 3 m, compute the elastic shortening
of the column due to the load.
400 mm
400 mm
Fig. 1.18 Cross section of a reinforced concrete column
Solution.
Area of column = 400 400 = 160000 mm2; area of steel, As =

4 25 = 1963 mm 2 ; area of concrete, Ac = 160000 1963 = 158037 mm2; height
4

or length of column, L = 3 m = 3000 mm; P = 2000 kN, Es = 210 kN/mm2, and Ec =
21 kN/mm2
Let s = stress in steel and c = stress in concrete. From Eq. (1.17),
Es 210
s = c = c = 10 c (c)
Ec 21
Now using the relation P = P1 + P2 ,
P = Ps + Pc = s As + c Ac
2000 = 1963 s + 158037 c (d)
Solving Eqs. (c) and (d) gives
s = 0.113 kN/mm 2 = 113 N/mm 2
c = 0.0113 kN/mm 2 = 11.3 N/mm 2
Let = elastic shortening of the column. From Eq. (1.14),
= c = s
Pc L PL
= = s
Ac E c As E s
c L 0.0113 3000
= =
Ec 21
= 1.61 mm
Direct Shear Stress
If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a shear
force or shearing force. The shear force, divided by the area over which it acts, is
called the shear stress or shearing stress, that is,

Fs
= (1.18)
A
where = intensity of shear stress (normally known as shear stress); Fs = shear force;
and A = cross sectional area of the plane passing through the body.
Let us consider a bar cut by plane a-a perpendicular to its axis, as shown in
Fig. 1.19. A normal stress is perpendicular to this plane. This is the type of stress
considered in the previous discussion.
A shear stress is one acting along the plane, as shown by the stress . Hence
the distinction between normal stresses and shear stresses is one of direction.
It is necessary to make some assumption regarding the manner of distribution
of shear stresses, and for lack of any more precise knowledge it will be taken to be
uniform in all problems discussed later in this section. Thus Eq. (1.18) indicates an
average shear stress over the area.
Fig. 1.19 Direction of shear and normal stresses on plane a-a
Now let us consider the deformation of a plane rectangular element cut from a
solid where the forces acting on the element are known to be shearing stress in the
directions shown in Fig. 1.20.
The faces of element parallel to the plane of the paper are assumed to be load
free. Since there are no normal stresses acting on the element, the lengths of the sides

of originally rectangular element will not change when the shearing stresses assume
the value . However, there will be a distortion of the originally right angles of the
element, and after this distortion due to the shearing stresses the element assumes the
configuration shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 1.20(b).
The change of angle at the corner of an originally rectangular element is
defined as the shear strain. It must be expressed in radian measure and is usually
denoted by .

(a) Shear stress (b) Deformation
Fig. 1.20 Shear stress and deformation of an element
Similar to the definition of modulus of elasticity in tension and compression,
the modulus of elasticity in shear is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain
, which is usually denoted by G. Thus,

G= (1.19)

where G is also known as the modulus of rigidity.
The dimension of G is the same as those of the shear stress, that is, in kN/mm2
or GN/m2, since the shear strain is dimensionless. The moduli of rigidity for some
common engineering materials are shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Modulus of rigidity for common engineering materials
Modulus of rigidity
Item No. Material
(GN/m2 or kN/mm2)
1. Steel 80 to 100
4. Copper 30 to 50
5. Brass 30 to50
6. Timber 10
Example 1.6. A single rivet made of steel is used to join two plates as shown in Fig.
1.21. If the diameter of the rivet is 20 mm and the load P is 30 kN, what is the
average shear stress and shear strain developed in the rivet? Assume modulus of
rigidity of steel as 90 kN/mm2.
Solution.
d 2 (20) 2
Cross-sectional area of rivet, A = = = 100 mm2. From Eq. (1.18), the
4 4
average shear stress,
P 30 1000
= = = 95.49 N/mm 2 or MPa
A 100
P
P
d = 20 mm
Fig. 1.21 Two plates joined by a single rivet

Modulus of rigidity, G = 90 kN/mm2. From Eq. (1.19), the shear strain,
95.49 10 3
= = = 1.061 10 3 radian
G 90
1.4 THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS
It is generally known that whenever there is an increase or decrease in the temperature
of a body, it causes the body to expand or contract. If the body is allowed to expand
or contract freely, with the rise or fall of the temperature, no stress is induced in the
body. However, if the expansion or contraction is restrained, some stresses are
induced in the body. Such stresses are called thermal stresses. The corresponding
strains are called thermal strains.
Thermal Stresses in Simple Bars
The thermal stresses or strains in a simple bar may be found out using the steps given
below:
1. Calculate the amount of deformation due to change in temperature with the
assumption that the bar is free to expand.
2. Calculate the load required to bring the deformed bar to the original length.
3. Calculate the stress and strain in the bar caused by this load.
The thermal stresses or strains may also be found by finding out the amount of
deformation due to change in temperature first. Then by finding out the thermal strain
due to deformation, the thermal stress can be determined from the thermal strain.
Now let us consider a body subjected to an increase in temperature. Let L = original
length of the body; t = increase or decrease in temperature; and = coefficient of

linear expansion. So, the increase or decrease in length due to increase or decrease in
temperature, t, as shown in Fig. 1.22 is given as
t = L t (1.20)
A B
Pushed back
L t =
(a) Temperature increases
A B
Pulled back
t =
(b) Temperature decreases
Fig. 1.22 Virtual deformation of a restrained body subjected to temperature changes
If both ends of the bar are fixed to rigid supports, that is, no displacement of
supports ( = t), then the compressive strain (due to increase in temperature) or
tensile strain (due to decrease in temperature) in the bar is given as:
t Lt
= = = = t (1.21)
L L L
and hence the stress is given as
= E = tE (1.22)
If one end of the support displaces by an amount of y as shown in Fig. 1.23,
then the net expansion or or contraction that needs to be brought back to the support is
= t y = L t y (1.23)

y
A B
Pushed back
L t
(a) Temperature increases
y
A B
Pulled back
(b) Temperature decreases
Fig. 1.23 Virtual deformation of a restrained body subjected to temperature changes and
displacement of support
Therefore the stain in the in the bar is given as
L t y y
= = = t (1.24)
L L L
and the stress is given as
y
= E = t E (1.25)
L
Several values of coefficient of linear expansion for some common
engineering materials are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Coefficient of thermal expansion for common engineering materials
Coefficient of thermal expansion,

Item No. Material
(C1)
1 Steel 11.5106 to 13106
2 Wrought iron, cast iron 11106 to 12106
3 Aluminium 23106 to 24106
4 Copper, brass, bronze 1710-6 to 1810-6
Example 1.7. Two parallel walls at 6 m apart, are tied up with a steel rod with a
diameter of 20 mm passing through metal plates and nuts at each end as shown in Fig.
1.24. The nuts are tightened in place at the temperature of 100 C. Neglecting the
thickness of the walls, determine the stress and the force in the rod when the
temperature falls down to 20 C, if
(a) the ends do not displace; and
(b) one end displaces by 1 mm.
Assume E = 210 kN/mm2 and = 12106 C1
6m
Fig. 1.24 Two parallel walls tied up with a steel road

Solution.
Length of rod, L = 6 m = 6000 mm; diameter of rod, d = 20 mm; area of rod,
d 2 (20) 2
A= = = 100 mm2; change in temperature (decrement), t = 100 C 20
4 4
C = 80 C; Youngs modulus, E = 210 kN/mm2; coefficient of linear expansion, =
12106 C1
(a) when the ends do not displace
Let 1 = stress in the rod; and P1 = force in the rod. From Eq. (1.22),
1 = tE = 12 10 6 80 200 = 0.192 kN/mm 2
= 192 N/mm 2 or MPa (tension)
P1 = 1 A = 0.192 100 = 60.32 kN
(b) when one end displaces by 1 mm
Let 2 = stress in the rod; P2 = force in the rod; and y = displacement of one end = 1
mm. From Eq. (1.25),
y
E = 12 x10 6 80
1
2 = t 200 = 0.159 kN/mm
2
L 6000
2 = 159 N/mm 2 or MPa
P2 = 2 A = 0.159 100
= 49.95 kN

Thermal Stresses in Composite Bars in Series with Varying Sections
Consider a bar ABC fixed at its ends A and C which is subjected to a temperature rise
as shown in Fig. 1.25. Let L1, 1, A1, E1 = length, stress, cross-sectional area and
Youngs modulus for segment AB respectively; L2, 1, A2, E2 = length, stress, cross-
sectional area and Youngs modulus for segment BC respectively; 1, 2 =
coefficients of linear expansion for segment AB and segment BC respectively; and t =
temperature rise.
A A1, E1 B
A2, E2 C
L1 L2
Fig. 1.25 A bar with varying section fixed at both ends
Bar ABC will tend to expand as a result of the temperature rise. Since the ends
A and C are fixed to rigid supports, the expansion is restrained and therefore
compressive stresses are induced (tensile stresses if temperature falls) in the bar. For
equilibrium, the force induced in segment AB must be equal to the force induced in
segment BC, that is,
P1 = P2 1 A1 = 2 A2 (1.26)
and the total deformation due to change in temperature assuming that the bar is free to
expand, which is broguht back by the rigid supports, is given as
P1 L1 P2 L2
= 1 + 2 = + (1.27a)
A1 E1 A2 E 2

1 L1 2 L2
1tL1 + 2 tL2 = + (1.27b)
E1 E2
Example 1.8. A composite bar made up of aluminium and steel is held between two
supports as shown in Fig. 1.26. The bars are stress free at temperature of 38 C.
Compute the stresses in the two bars when the temperature is 21 C if
(a) the supports are not displaced; and
(b) the supports move nearer to each other by 0.1 mm.
Take E for steel, Es = 210 kN/mm2; E for aluminium, EA = 74 kN/mm2; coefficient of
linear expansion for steel, s = 11.7106 C1; and coefficient of linear expansion for
aluminium, A = 23.4106 C1
A Steel bar, = 50 mm B Aluminium bar,

= 25 mm C
600 mm 300 mm
Fig. 1.26 Composite bar made up of steel and aluminium
Solution.
Length of steel bar, Ls = 600 mm; diameter of steel bar = 50 mm; area of steel bar,

As = 50 2 = 1963.5 mm2. Length of aluminium bar, LA = 300 mm; diameter of
4

aluminium bar = 25 mm; area of aluminium bar, AA = 25 2 = 490.87 mm2.
4

Change in temperature (fall) = 38 C 21 C = 17 C. Es = 210 kN/mm2; EA = 74
kN/mm2; s = 11.7106 C1; A = 23.4106 C1
(a) when the supports are not displaced
Let s = stress in steel bar; and A = stress in aluminium bar. From Eq. (1.26),
s As = A AA
As 1963.5
A = s = s
AA 490.87
A = 4 s (a)
Contraction of steel bar = Ls s t = 600 11.7 10 6 17 = 0.1193 mm. Contraction of
aluminium bar = L A A t = 300 23.4 10 6 17 = 0.1193 mm. Total contraction, =
0.1193 + 0.1193 = 0.2386 mm.
Now assume a force P to be applied at the ends of this composite bars so that
it may cause an extension of 0.2386 mm. From Eq. (1.27),
s Ls A L A
= +
Es EA
s 600 A 300
0.2386 = + (b)
210 74
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (b) gives
s 600 4 s 300
+ = 0.2386
210 74
s = 0.01251 kN/mm 2 = 12.51 N/mm 2 or MPa (tension)
A = 0.05004 kN/mm 2 = 50.04 N/mm 2 or MPa (tension)

(b) when the supports move nearer to each other by 0.1 mm
Now the total extension which the applied force P has to bring back,
= 0.2386 0.1 = 0.1386 mm
From Eq. (1.27),
s Ls A L A
= +
Es EA
s 600 A 300
0.1386 = + (c)
210 74
Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (c) gives,
s 600 4 s 300
+ = 0.1386
210 74
s = 0.00727 kN/mm 2 = 7.27 N/mm 2 or MPa (tension)
A = 0.02908 kN/mm 2 = 29.08 N/mm 2 or MPa (tension)
Thermal Stresses in Parallel Composite Bars
Whenever there is some increase or decrease in the temperature of a bar consisting of
two or more materials in parallel, it causes the bar to expand or contract. Due to the
difference in the coefficients of linear expansion, each of the material expands or
contracts with an amount different from the others.
Fig. 1.27(a) shows a composite bar consisting of steel and brass with the same
length at certain temperature where there is no stress in either bar. If the temperature
rises and the component members of the bar are free to expand, then no stress will be
induced in either member as shown in Fig. 1.27(b). The free expansion of the brass
bar is more than that of the steel attributed to a larger coefficient of linear expansion.
However, the two members are rigidly fixed and hence the composite bar will expand

by the same amount as seen in Fig. 1.27(c), which is less than the free expansion of
the brass but more than the free expansion of the steel. It this configuration, it is clear
that the brass is subjected to compressive force whereas the steel is subjected to
tensile force.
Steel Brass Steel Brass Steel Brass
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.27 A parallel composite bar made up of steel and brass
From the above discussion, we can notice that:
1. When temperature increases, the material with a larger coefficient of linear
expansion will be subjected to compression and the other subjected to tension.
2. When temperature decreases, the material with a larger coefficient of linear
expansion will be subjected to tension and the other subjected to compression.
To compute the stresses induced in both the component members of a
composite bar in parallel configuration, let us consider a one unit length composite
bar as shown in Fig. 1.28. The composite bar has material 1 with a larger coefficient

of linear expansion than material 2 and the deformations are shown in Fig. 1.28. Now
let 1, 1, 1, A1 = stress, strain, coefficient of linear expansion and cross-sectional
area of material 1 respectively; 2, 2, 2, A2 = stress, strain, coefficient of linear
expansion and cross-sectional area of material 2 respectively; and = actual strain of
the composite bar.
1t
2
2t
1
1 2
2
1 1 2
(a) Original bar (b) Virtual deformation (c) Actual deformation
Fig. 1.28 Deformation of a composite bar in parallel configuration
In equilibrium condition, the compressive force in material 1 must be equal to
the tensile force in material 2 vis--vis, that is, P1 = P2 1 A1 = 2 A2 , the same as
what is in Eq. (1.26). From Fig. 1.28, the strain in material 1, 1 = 1t , and the
strain in material 2, 2 = 2 t . Adding the two equations gives
1 + 2 = t ( 1 2 ) (1.28)
It should be noted that 1 and 2 in Eq. (1.28) should always be arranged in such a
way that 1 2 = 0, that is, 1 > 2.

Example 1.9. A steel rod of 20 mm diameter passes centrally through a tight fitting
copper tube of with an external diameter of 40 mm. The tube is closed with the help
of rigid washers of negligible thickness and nuts threaded on the rod as shown in Fig.
1.29. The nuts are tightened until the compressive load on the tube is 50 kN.
Determine the stresses in the rod and the tube when the temperature falls by 50 C.
Take E for steel and copper as 200 kN/mm2 and 100 kN/mm2 respectively; and for
steel and copper as 12106 C1 and 18106 C1 respectively.
Copper tube
Steel rod
Fig. 1.29 A composite bar consists of a steel rod passing through a copper tube
Solution.

Diameter of steel rod = 20 mm; area of steel rod, As = 20 2 = 100 mm 2 ; area of
4

copper tube, Ac = (40 2 20 2 ) = 300 mm 2 ; compressive load on copper tube,
4
thus tensile load on steel rod, P = 50 kN; decrease in temperature, t = 50 C; E for
steel rod, Es = 200 kN/mm2; E for copper tube, Ec = 100 kN/mm2; for steel rod, s =
12106 C1; for copper tube, c = 18106 C1.
Let s1 = stress in steel rod due to tightening and c1 = stress in copper tube
due to tightening. When the nut is tightened, the steel rod is subjected to tension
whereas the copper tube is subjected to compression. However, the magnitude of

these two forces must be equal to satisfy equilibrium. Therefore, the tensile stress in
the steel rod is
50
s1 = = 0.15915 kN/mm 2 = 159.15 N/mm 2 (tension)
100
and the compressive stress in the copper tube is
50
c1 = = 0.05305 kN/mm 2 = 53.05 N/mm 2 or MPa (compression)
300
When the temperature falls by 50 C, let s2 = stress in the steel rod; and c2 =
stress in the copper tube. As noticed previously that when the temperature falls, the
free contraction of copper will be larger than that of the steel rod because c > s. So,
the copper tube will be subjected to tensile stress and the steel rod will be subjected to
compressive stress. Since the tensile force in the copper tube is equal to the
compressive force in the steel rod,
s 2 As = c 2 Ac
Ac 300
s2 = c2 = c 2 = 3 c 2
As 100
From Eq. (1.28),
c 2 + s 2 = t ( c s )
c2 s2
+ = 50(18 10 6 12 10 6 )
Ec Es
c2 c2
+ = 300 10 6
100 200
c 2 3 c 2
+ = 300 10 6
100 200
c 2 = 0.012 kN/mm 2 = 12.0 N/mm 2 (tension)
s 2 = 0.036 kN/mm 2 = 36.0 N/mm 2 (compression)

Net stress in the steel rod (tension),
s = s1 s 2 = 159.15 36.0 = 123.15 N/mm 2
Net stress in the copper tube (compression),
c = c1 c 2 = 53.05 12.0 = 41.05 N/mm 2
1.5 PRESSURE VESSELS
Pressure vessels are structures of cylindrical and spherical forms containing fluids or
gases such as water tanks, gas tanks, boilers, etc. Generally, the walls of such vessels
are very thin as compared to their diameters. These vessels will be subjected to
atmospheric pressure internally and externally when they are empty. In such case,
there is no resultant pressure on the walls. However, when a vessel is subjected to
internal pressure, its wall will be subjected to tensile stresses. In general, if the
thickness of the wall of a pressure vessel is less than 1/10 to 1/15 if its diameter, it is
known as thin shell.
Failure of a Thin Wall Cylindrical Shell due to Internal Pressure
When a cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, its wall will be subjected to
tensile stresses. If these stresses exceed to permissible limit, the cylinder is likely to
fail in two modes as shown in Fig. 1.30.
The two modes of failure are namely:
(i) splitting into two troughs as shown in Fig. 1.30(a); and
(ii) splitting into two cylinders as shown in Fig. 1.30(b).
The failure of splitting into two troughs is caused by stresses acting in the tangential
direction of the circumference termed as circumferential stress. The failure of

splitting into two cylinders is caused by the stresses acting in the longitudinal
direction termed as longitudinal stress. In thin shell, these stresses are assumed to be
uniformly distributed across the section.
Crack line
Crack line
(a) Splitting into two troughs (b) Splitting into two cylinders
Fig. 1.30 Modes of failure of thin cylindrical shell
Circumferential Stress
Fig. 1.31 shows a cross section of a cylinder subjected to internal pressure. As
discussed earlier, the cylinder tends to fail in the mode of splitting into two troughs as
a result of the circumferential stress.
p
h h
X X d
h h
p
Fig. 1.31 Pressure and stress distributions of a thin shell in the failure mode of splitting into
two troughs

Let L = length of the shell; d = diameter of the shell; t = thickness of the shell;
p = intensity of internal pressure; and h = circumferential stress in the shell wall. As
a result of the internal pressure p, the shell is likely to be torn away along one of its
symmetrical axes, say X-X as shown in Fig. 1.31. Thus the total bursting force along
this symmetrical axis is given as
P = Intensity of stress Area = pd L
= pdL
and the circumferential stress in the shell is given as
Total bursting force

h =
Area of resisting section
pdL
=
2tL
pd
h = (1.29)
2t
This is the tensile stress across X-X and it is also known as hoop stress.
Longitudinal Stress
Consider a cylindrical shell similar to the one given earlier subjected to the same
internal pressure, the shell has a tendency to fail in the mode of splitting into two
cylinders as a result of longitudinal stress. Fig. 1.32 shows the longitudinal section of
the thin shell with the internal pressure and stress distributions.
Let L = length of the shell; d = diameter of the shell; t = thickness of the shell;
p = intensity of internal pressure; and l = longitudinal stress in the shell wall. As a
result of the internal pressure p, the shell is likely to be splitting into two cylinders,
say along the Y-Y plane as shown in Fig. 1.32. Thus the total bursting force along this
plane is given as

d 2
P = Intensity of stress Area = p
4
pd 2
P=
4
Y
l l
d p p
l l
Y
Fig. 1.32 Pressure and stress distributions of a thin shell in the failure mode of splitting into
two cylinders
Therefore, the longitudinal stress in the shell is given as
Total bursting force

l =
Area of resisting section
pd 2
= 4
dt
pd
l = (1.30)
4t
This is the tensile stress across the Y-Y plane and it is noted that the value is half of
the hoop stress.

Example 1.10. A steel penstock of 1 m diameter and 10 mm thick is subjected to 100
m head of water. Compute the hoop stress and longitudinal stress at the bottom of the
penstock.
Solution.
Diameter, d = 1 m = 1000 mm; thickness, t = 10 mm; head of water, h = 100 m; water
pressure, p = gh = 1000 9.81 100 N/m2 = 981000 N/m2 = 0.981 N/mm2 or MPa
( = density of water = 1000 kg/m3 and g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 N/kg or
m/s2).
Hoop stress:
From Eq. (1.29),
pd 0.981 1000
h = = = 49.05 N/mm 2 or MPa
2t 2 10
Longitudinal stress:
From Eq. (1.30),
pd 0.981 1000
l = = = 24.53 N/mm 2 or MPa
4t 4 10
Example 1.11. A gas cylinder with a diameter of 1.5 m is 30 0m in thickness. Find
the allowable pressure of the gas inside the cylinder if the tensile stress of the material
is not to exceed 100 N/mm2.

Solution.
Diameter, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm; thickness, t = 30 mm. As discussed earlier, the
circumferential stress or hoop stress h is two times the longitudinal stress l.
Therefore, the maximum allowable stress will be governed by the hoop stress h.
From Eq. (1.29),
pd
h =
2t
p 1500
100 =
2 30
25 p = 100
p = 4 N/mm 2 or MPa
Design of Thin Cylindrical Shell
From Example 1.10, we can see that the hoop stress is the maximum stress in the
material of the thin cylindrical shell. Therefore the design of thin cylindrical is
governed by Eq. (1.29). So, from Eq. (1.29),
pd
h =
2t
pd
t= (1.31)
2 h
Eq. (1.31) is the equation from which we can determine the required thickness of the
shell.

Example 1.12. A seamless pipe of 1 m in diameter is carrying a fluid under a
pressure of 12 MPa. Compute the necessary thickness of the pipe if the maximum
allowable stress in the pipe material is 110 MPa.
Solution.
Diameter, d = 1 m = 1000 mm; p = 12 MPa; and h = 110 MPa. From Eq. (1.31),
pd 12 1000
t= =
2 h 2 110
= 54.55 mm
60 mm

PROBLEMS
1.1. A round copper bar as shown in Fig. Q.1.1 is subjected to a tensile force of 30 kN.
Determine the total elongation of the bar. Assume E = 100 GN/m2.
[Ans. 0.374 mm]
25 mm dia. 20 mm dia. 25 mm dia.

30 kN 30 kN
150 mm 200 mm 150 mm
Fig. Q.1.1
1.2. A steel bar of 4 m long is subjected to a system of forces as shown in Fig. Q.1.2. Find
the load P and the total elongation of the bar. Assume E = 200 kN/mm2.
[Ans. 80 kN, 0.542 mm]
32 mm dia. 28 mm dia. 25 mm dia.

100 kN 2P P 20 kN
1m 1m 2m
Fig. Q.1.2
1.3. A reinforced concrete column 300mm 300mm has four reinforcing steel bars of 28
mm diameter, one at each corner. Find the safe axial load on the column, when the

concrete is subjected to a stress of 5 N/mm2. Also find the corresponding stress in the
steel. Assume Es/Ec = 18.
[Ans. 659.4 kN, 90 N/mm2]
1.4. A single bolt and nut made of steel is used to join two plates as shown in Fig. Q.1.4.
If the diameter of the bolt is 25 mm and the load P is 50 kN, what is the average shear
stress and shear strain developed in the rivet? Assume modulus of rigidity of steel as
90 kN/mm2.
[Ans. 101.6 N/mm2, 1.132103 rad]
P
P
d = 25 mm
Fig. Q.1.4
1.5. A composite bar made up of aluminium and steel is rigidly fixed between two
supports as shown in Fig. Q.1.5. The two bars are free of stress at 60C. Find the
stresses in the steel and aluminium bars when the temperature falls to 40C if: (a) the
supports do not displace; and (b) one of the supports move nearer to the other by 0.1
mm. Assume E for steel and aluminium as 210 kN/mm2 and 70 kN/mm2 respectively;
and the coefficient of linear expansion for steel and aluminium as 11.7106 C1 and
23.4106 C1 respectively.
[Ans. (a) 49.14 N/mm2, 32.76 N/mm2; (b) 31.64 N/mm2, 21.09 N/mm2]

Aluminium
Steel 200 mm2 300 mm2
600 mm 300 mm
Fig. Q.1.5
1.6. An aluminium rod 22 mm in diameter passes through a steel tube of 25 mm internal
diameter with 3 mm thickness. The rod and tube are screwed together at the ends at a
temperature of 150 C with no stresses. Find the stresses in the rod and tube when the
temperature falls to 30 C. Assume E for steel and aluminium as 200 kN/mm2 and 70
kN/mm2 respectively; and coefficients of linear expansion for steel and aluminium as
12106 C1 and 23106 C1 respectively.
[Ans. 61.43 N/mm2 (tension), 88.49 N/mm2 (compression)]
1.7. A seamless pipe of 1.5 m in diameter is carrying a fluid under a pressure of 15 MPa.
Compute the necessary thickness of the pipe if the maximum allowable stress in the
pipe material is 150 MPa.
[Ans. 75 mm]

Theories of Stress and Strain

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Mechanics of Materials for Civil Engineers

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Mechanics of materials is a fundamental course in civil engineering that deals with

the mechanical behaviour of materials subjected to various types of loading as regards

materials, mechanics of deformable bodies and mechanics of solids.

engineering but other disciplines of engineering. However, the selected chapters in

and some other design courses.

The understanding of the mechanical behaviour of materials is essential for

good understanding of mechanics of materials will not undergo excessive stresses,

strains and displacements. That is why this subject is an important fundamental

course to most of the analysis and design subjects in civil engineering.

In order to understand the mechanical behaviour of materials, both theoretical

equations were developed based on experimental observations or investigations, and

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 1

1.2 EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION

We need to understand the condition of equilibrium before we discuss the details of

structures are in static equilibrium. Therefore, this state of equilibrium is of particular

equilibrium as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 A particle in equilibrium

directions. Three or more forces acting on a particle may create an equilibrium

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 2

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

Cartesian coordinate direction; and Ma = moment at point a.

Fig. 1.2 Free-body diagram of a two dimensional rigid body

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 3

In a three-dimensional rigid body, there are six basic equilibrium equations to

any other books on the subject in statics.

1.3 STRESS AND STRAIN

Every material is elastic in nature. Therefore, whenever some external system of

forces acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. As the body undergoes

to deformation is known as stress, that is,

where = intensity of stress (normally known as stress); P = load of force acting on

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 4

as illustrated in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Deformation of a body under load

from the subject point of view:

area of the body.

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 5

cross-sectional area of the body.

is proportional to the strain, that is,

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 6

in which E is the material constant defined as Youngs modulus or modulus of

elasticity, and quite often spoken of as stiffness in ordinary technical conversation.

as stiff, otherwise it is said to be floppy.

Fig. 1.6 A typical stress versus strain relationship

Table 1.1 Modulus of elasticity of common engineering materials

Modulus of elasticity/ Youngs modulus

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 7

verses strain curve in Fig. 1.6 before the material breaks.

material with high tensile strength is regarded as strong, otherwise it is said to be

Table 1.2 Tensile strength of common engineering materials

A Summary on Stress, Strain, Strength and Stiffness

pulled apart or pushed together.

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 8

Deformation of a Body due to Axial Force

where = elongation if P = tensile force; and = shortening if P = compressive

Deformation of a Body Due to Self Weight

thickness dx shown with reference to Eq. (1.5) is

Integrating Eq. (1.6), the total elongation of the bar is given as

Chapter 1: Theories of Stress and Strain 9

applied at the end.

brass, assume E = 80 kN/mm2.

450 mm 750 mm 900 mm

Fig. 1.8 System of forces on a single bar