J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther (2009) 27:5165

DOI 10.1007/s10942-008-0081-x

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

REBT Used with Children and Adolescents

who have Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
in Educational Settings: A Review of the Literature

Tachelle Banks Paul Zionts

Published online: 24 May 2008

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract This article discusses the need for a comprehensive intervention strategy
for students who experience difficulty managing self-defeating emotions and
behaviors in educational settings. The review of the literature identifies related
research and describes how the application of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
(REBT), as a comprehensive educational intervention, has been implemented with
children and adolescents who have been identified as having emotional disturbance
in various educational settings.

Keywords Cognitive emotive behavior intervention
Children and adolescents

Educational application

Introduction

Conservative estimates from both educators and mental health professionals

indicate that approximately 10% of children and adolescents experience emotional
and behavioral problems that are serious enough to require professional attention
(Kauffman 2004). These estimates do not include those students who exhibit
periodic emotional and behavioral problems that affect their success in school (and
the success of others). To receive services in the public schools, individuals need to
be either identified as having an emotional disturbance (ED) qualifying them for
special education or they need to be identified as having a psychological disorder
that is not covered under a special education category (e.g., conduct disorder) which

T. Banks (&)
Department of Teacher Education, Special Education,
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
e-mail: t.i.banks@csuohio.edu

P. Zionts
School of Education, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA

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will qualify them for services under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. Sadly,
less than 2% of the school-aged population receives the support that they require.
Students identified as having ED exhibit poor interpersonal and social skills, have
extraordinarily high dropout rates and experience a high probability of encounters
with the juvenile system (Cullinan 2004; Tankersley et al. 2004).
Teachers of students who have ED must not only meet the challenge of helping
them manage their emotions and behaviors, but, are also under significant pressure
to teach academics. Consequently, it is critical that a practical, comprehensive
intervention be utilized so that these students can learn. One such strategy that holds
promise is the application of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). While
there is a paucity of research with students who have been identified as having ED
and are receiving special education services, there are studies that suggest that
REBT may be particularly effective with this population (Balter 1997; LaConte
et al. 1993; Morris 1993; Patton 1995; Rudish and Millice 1997). Educational
derivatives of REBT applications with special populations will be reviewed.

Comprehensive Intervention

The comprehensive nature of REBT is well suited for teachers. As early as 1974,
Meichenbaum and Cameron pointed out that if psychologists can influence
cognitions and behaviors of their clients with relatively little exposure, one can
speculate on the more pervasive influence that teachers, who are with students most
or all of the day, might have on their students. Although the research on REBT in
the schools is relatively new, cognitive-behavioral intervention programs have
demonstrated positive results in the public schools (Barnes 2000; Flanagan et al.
1998; Sapp and Farrell 1994; Zelie et al. 1980). Further, they seem to work
regardless of the socio-economic status of the students (Sapp 1996; Sapp and Farrell
1994; Sapp et al. 1995; Shannon and Allen 1998; Ellis and Bernard 2006; Kendall
and Braswell 1982).
REBT embodies psychology, philosophy, and education. It is psychological in
that it examines how thoughts cause emotional problems; it is philosophical in that
it suggests that the individuals view of life strongly influences emotions; and it is
educational in that it provides a model that shows how people can manage their
problems (Zionts 1996). It is an intervention that incorporates cognitive restruc-
turing with behavioral techniques in order to reduce self-defeating emotions and
behaviors (Ellis 1991). The management of children and adolescents using REBT
strategies are similar to those in adult treatment, although the methods vary
depending on the cognitive-developmental status and intelligence level of the
student (Bernard 2006a; Ellis and Bernard 2006; Vernon 1997). REBT is directed at
bringing about a reduction in the intensity of inappropriate and negative emotions of
students (Zionts 1996). The theoretical conceptualization of REBT suggests that
extreme emotional distress is a consequence of the thinking process (DiGiuseppe
1990).
Similar to adults, children may present irrational beliefs that can lead to
emotional disturbance. It is important that children and adolescents learn the

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difference between the thinking that leads to goal attainment and the thinking that
interferes with achieving their goals in the classroom. This cognitiveemotive
behavioral approach is designed to help students solve current presenting practical
problems by reducing extreme levels of anger, anxiety, and depression (Bernard
1990).

Rational vs. Irrational Beliefs: Differentiating between Thinking that Leads

to Goal Attainment vs. Thinking that Interferes with Achieving Educational
Goals

Emotions result from ones beliefs or perceptions of events. For example, in the
presence of bad events in a students life, rational beliefs will lead to appropriate
negative emotions that may range from strong (but controllable) to mild, whereas
irrational beliefs will lead to inappropriately strong negative emotions and
disturbance. According to REBT, irrational beliefs lead to significantly disturbed
emotions such as depression, excessive anxiety, extreme guilt, and anger. Irrational
beliefs also lead to negative behavioral responses including aggression, withdrawal,
impulsivity and lack of emotional and academic resilience (Bernard and Pires 2006;
Vernon 2007; Vernon and Bernard 2006). Rational beliefs, on the other hand,
generally result in moderate emotions that help achieve goals and satisfaction with
life (Smith 1982). Thus, helping students change their irrational beliefs is a major
focus of REBT in educational settings.
An Irrational Belief (IB) or thinking that does not lead to goal attainment is a
type of reasoning that may predispose children to arrive at illogical conclusions
when assessing typical problem situations (Lamarine 1990). Waters (1982) adapted
the 12 irrational beliefs as related to adults and applied them to children, developing
the 10 irrational beliefs of children:
Irrational Beliefs of Children
1. It is necessary to be liked by everyone you meet.
2. Worthwhile people do not make mistakes.
3. Life should be fair and justice must be equitably administered.
4. Life should always be as one wants it to be.
5. Others are to blame for our unhappiness.
6. The world is full of dangers that necessitate great personal concern.
7. Procrastination makes life easier.
8. Children should be dependent upon adults.
9. Every problem has one correct solution that must be found.
10. People should disguise their feelings.
REBT principles have been taught to children and adolescents and found to be an
effective intervention with many commonly occurring difficulties. REBT has been
found to be successful in reducing anxiety (Rosenbaum et al. 1991); increasing
frustration tolerance and improving academic performance (Sapp 1996; Shannon
and Allen 1998), reducing depression (Wilde 1994); improving social skills
(Flanagan et al. 1998) and improving self-concept and coping capabilities (LaConte

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et al. 1993; Morris 1993). Hajzler and Bernard (1991) examined research studies to
determine the efficacy of educational derivatives of REBT with various populations
of school-aged children (e.g. non-clinical; learning disabled; high risk; low self-
esteem; anxious; and a mixed group of single subject studies). Interestingly, the only
special education disability described in their review was learning disabilities (not
those having ED). The following section will describe several empirical studies that
provide promise for the use of REBT in educational settings with children and
adolescents who have ED.

Empirical Investigation of REBT as an Educational Component

Educational REBT programs have been implemented in various educational settings

ranging from traditional classroom environments (LaConte et al. 1993; Knaus 2001;
Rosenbaum et al. 1991; Sapp 1994; Sapp et al. 1995; Wilde 1996, 1999) to non-
traditional educational settings with special populations such as after school
programs, Upward Bound programs, school programs housed in a psychiatric
hospital and day treatment settings (Banks 2006; Morris 1993; Patton 1995; Rudish
et al. 1997; Shannon and Allen 1998). A number of studies have supported Elliss
theory that cognitions can modify behavior and are related to emotional disturbance
(Flanagan et al. 1998; Knaus 2001; Morris 1993; Rosenbaum et al. 1991; Shannon
et al. 1998; Wilde 2001). From a REBT perspective, an effective mental health
program should increase rationality and thereby reduce emotional disturbance.
Educational REBT programs have been taught to groups of children as young as 8
who learned to accept responsibility for their emotions and to use cognitive,
behavioral, and affective techniques in order to reduce self-defeating attitudes,
feelings and behaviors.
Sapp et al. (1995) employed a randomized pre-test posttest design with 60
at-risk African American middle school students. The purpose of this study was
to determine if there was a relationship between cognitive-behavioral intervention
and improvements in selected school variables of African-American middle school
students. The authors argued that there is a direct correlation between how students
believe that they will perform academically and the grade they actually earn. For
example, if students believed that they were not capable of doing well in a math
course, it may have been directly related to the grade that is earned for the course.
Sapp and colleagues (1995) hypothesized that increasing at-risk students academic
self-concept through cognitive-behavioral interventions should improve academic
performance. The results revealed a significant increase in their grade point average
and reduction in the number of days absent and tardy following their participation in
REBT sessions. Sapp (1996) suggested that difficulties African American middle
school students experience academically is connected to their philosophies of life
and that student philosophy of life and irrational belief systems need to be
considered when attempting to work with at-risk African American students.
Flanagan et al. (1998) compared the effectiveness of two treatments, problem-
solving and problem-solving plus REBT. Forty-four public school students, 17

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males and 27 female, between the ages of 9 and 11 years old participated in the
12-week group intervention to enhance and improve social skills. A pre-test posttest
design was used with criterion measures being the Social Skills Rating System
(SSRS) and the Child-Adolescent Survey of Irrationality (CASI). That data
indicated that the effect sizes of .32, .52 and .61 for social skills and Self-Downing
and Rebelliousness subscales of the CASI respectively were larger for the group
receiving the combined treatment. The authors identified methodological flaws such
as pre-test posttest designs and violations of statistical assumptions as significant
limitations. The sample size of this study was a substantial number when compared
to previous psychotherapy outcome research. They also addressed the issue of the
control group receiving no intervention. All participants engaged in problem-
solving sessions addressing any ethical concerns and treatment integrity checks
were employed. Although moderate effect sizes were reported the researcher
demonstrated that cognitive behavioral interventions could be integrated in school
settings as pullout programs.
Kachman and Mazer (1990) conducted a study designed to assess the efficacy of
rational emotive education (REE) as a mental health prevention program for
adolescents. The students included 109 eleventh- and twelfth-grade students
enrolled in 4 introductory psychology courses, and who were divided into
experimental and control classes. Students who were part of the experimental
group participated in 12 biweekly REE sessions. The instructional strategies used
with students exposed to REE were informal lecture, group discussions, worksheets,
and role-playing. Pre-tests and posttests were administered 1 week before the start
of treatment and during the second and third days following the conclusion of
treatment. In addition, grade point averages, performance grades and number of
detentions were examined as a posttest only to determine the effects of REE on
school behavior. Results indicated that REE did not significantly increase rationality
and that REE was not an effective treatment for increasing rationality among a
sample of normal adolescents. The authors indicated that the surveys used to
measure rationality may not have been sensitive enough to pick up changes in
rationality.
Shannon and Allen (1998) investigated the efficacy of a REBT-based skill-
training program on the mathematics performance of economically disadvantaged
African American eleventh graders enrolled in Upward Bound. Fifty-six students
were randomly assigned to either the Perception Analysis Training (PAT) or an
attention control group. The groups met at the same hour each week for 8 weeks.
Pre-tests results confirmed a relationship between beliefs and mathematics
achievement. Three measures of problematic beliefs were highly correlated with
high school math grades and performance on the California Achievement Test-Math
(CAT). A two-way ANCOVA revealed significant differences between the post
measures on the CAT between the PAT group member and the attention control
group member (F = 5.41; df = 1; p \ .02), indicating that participants in the PAT
training were less committed to self-defeating beliefs as compared to the attention
control group. The PAT group members displayed significantly different and
improved grades in math in their traditional school setting (F = 17.52; df = 1;
p \ .0001). Their grades increased by almost one-half grade point (.46). The PAT

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group members also differed significantly in the Upward Bound math program
(F = 12.84; df = 1; p \ .0008). This study provided evidence that REBT used in a
classroom format can play an important role in facilitating achievement and
therefore may serve to be useful in other aspects that contribute to educational
success and goal attainment.
Rosenbaum et al. (1991) hypothesized that the effects of a REE program with
students would increase their level of understanding rational concepts and their
perception of emotional and behavioral self-control, thus enhancing internal locus
of control. Consequently, a REE program would decrease anxiety. Thirty-six
students were randomly assigned to two unequal classes. Intact classrooms were
randomly assigned to intervention conditions. The students who participated in the
REE sessions comprised of 22 students and the control group had 14 students. The
intervention consisted of 10 weekly sessions for duration of 14 weeks with REE
sessions being presented once a week for 55 min. The remaining weeks were
devoted to data collection procedures.
The program provided structure lessons and included a wide range of activities,
strategies and procedures. It emphasized student involvement and group interaction
as essential components of learning. Students were instructed as how to evaluate
their feelings using the feelings thermometer. Subsequent sessions focused on the
connection between thinking and feelings. Pre-tests indicated no significant
differences between groups. ANCOVA of posttest measures indicated a significant
main effect for the intervention for locus of control F (2, 32) = 5.01, p \ .05 and a
significant main effect for time F (2, 33) = 7.47, p \ .01. ANCOVA results
for irrationality also indicated a significant main effect for intervention F (2,
32) = 11.41, p \ .01, time F (1, 33) = 21.34, p \ .01. Tukeys post hoc analysis
was employed to determine which groups differed. The results revealed that only
the second experimental group was significantly different from the attention control
group and were maintained during follow up analysis.
The findings support that the REE program was effective in increasing internal
locus of control. The main effects for time and intervention reveal that it is
important to allow sufficient time to acquire and practice cognitive behavioral skills
in order to obtain significant difference. In addition to time, counselors with
previous expertise in REBT were utilized to employ the rational education program.
This notion was supported in Hajzler and Bernards (1991) review of REE outcome
studies. The researchers found in their review of REE studies that the effectiveness
of such programs may be moderated by the experience and background of the
counselor-educator who conducts the sessions (Hajzler and Bernard 1991).
Rudish and Millice (1997) used a cognitive restructuring program with student
who attended classrooms housed in a psychiatric hospital for children and
adolescents ranging from 10 to 17 years of age. Students attend the classroom
based on the length of their stay in the psychiatric hospital. The average length of
stay in the hospital is 12 days. This educational environment is constantly changing
and varies based on in-take diagnosis, ranging from an overnight stay to as long as
3 months. The authors use of cognitive behavior interventions in an educational
setting was to teach the skills of acquiring clearer beliefs, affective stability and
decisive acts to work against the heightened psychiatric problems that their students

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present. The authors presented a systematic approach to integrating cognitive

behavioral interventions into their current therapeutic curriculum. A variety of
strategies were presented including social skills, relaxation techniques, diagnostic
teaching, art therapy and reality therapy. The stated objective was to develop a
comprehensive psycho-educational program for children and adolescents by
teaching students terminology used in their curriculum, Clear Thinking (Nichols
1999), which is based on combined tenets of REBT and cognitive therapy (see also,
Nichols and Shaw 1999).
Hajzler and Bernard (1991) conducted a meta-analysis of affective education
programs to determine their efficacy with school-aged children. In their review, they
found that programs that included a more comprehensive component by providing
opportunities for students to practice within and outside of treatment sessions
enhanced the likelihood of observing positive differences. Practice can be presented
as reviewing skills previously learned, homework, role-play and other methods that
provide students with the opportunity to rehearse and master skills. Automaticity is
supported through rehearsal and the desired outcome of student ownership of the
skills learned will increase the probability of students using cognitive skills in
different settings (Harris and Pressley 1991; Kendall and Choudhury 2003; Kilstrom
1987). Thus, the practice of REBT in educational settings should include a
component that allows for reinforcement of skills via practice, rehearsal and
homework.
LaConte et al. (1993) investigated the effects of participation in a develop-
mentally appropriate affective education program for high risk middle school
students who had ED. No significant differences were found between the control
and experimental groups on total self-concept, components of self-concept and
grades Despite the results of the study, LaConte and colleagues (1993) provided a
list of factors that could have contributed to lack of positive results including (a)
insufficient amount of time to produce significant results, (b) outside circum-
stances that could have negated the impact of affective education groups such as
detrimental influences of home, school or peers, characteristics of the student
group, (c) small sample size that resulted in insufficient power to detect
differences, (d) supervision and training during implementation of affective
programming that may have yielded more positive results, (e) the characteristics
of the student group itself could have weakened the affective education group and
(f) that this affective program method might not have been effective as another
method of affective education.
Despite the associated difficulties measuring the impact of REBT, the literature
is replete with suggestions for how to implement it in various classroom settings.
When successful implementation in classroom environments has been supported
the researchers utilized a systematic integration of REBT principles and included
activating tasks that promoted student engagement. Many have described various
ways to implement REBT educational programs in classroom settings with school
aged children and adolescents (Banks 2006; Barnes 2000; Bernard 2001; Knaus
2001; Laramine 1990; Morris 1993; Patton 1995; Rudish et al. 1997; Sapp and
Farrel 1994; Vernon 1990; Vernon 2006a, b; Wilde 1996; Zionts and Zionts
1997).

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Suggestions for Practice: How REBT Can Be Introduced in Educational

Settings

The literature described in this section will provide practical suggestions for
implementation. For example, Zionts and Zionts (1997) contended that affective
programming needs to be integrated as part of classroom curriculum. They
suggested that teachers should teach the basic principles of REBT including
distinguishing fact from opinion, identifying and understanding feelings and
recognizing and identifying irrational thinking patterns. They recommended the
following sequence for teachers who would like to integrate the affective program:
REBT principles ? problem solving ? ABC model.
Sapp and Farrell (1994) described how cognitive-behavioral interventions can be
employed to help at-risk and special education students improve academic
achievement. The authors described how special and general education teachers
who teach academically at-risk students can apply REBT educational strategies to
help students improve academic self-concept, control anger, reduce anxiety and
stress, and reduce test anxiety. Sapp (1996) outlined how procedures for
implementing a 7 session REBT curriculum were implemented, based on 7 of the
12 irrational beliefs. In sessions 1 and 2, students learned the meaning of academic
self-concept and how irrational beliefs can be internalized and result in low
academic self-concept. Students were introduced to and directly taught the ABCs of
REBT in sessions 3 and 4. Age appropriate examples were used to teach students
how to apply the ABCs and D of REBT. In sessions 5 and 6, rational emotive
imagery were used to improve students academic self-concept and for cognitive
restructuring.
Wilde (1996) proposed that elementary students could learn rational thinking
skills in a short-term developmental guidance program. A total of 95 fourth-grade
students participated in the study. Two 30-min weekly lessons were conducted for a
2-week period. Each of the students in five fourth-grade classrooms received a total
of four lessons for 120 min. The procedures were completed in a 10-day period.
Lesson 1 was designed to establish the link between thoughts and feelings. Students
were taught how to distinguish between rational and irrational beliefs in lesson 2.
Lesson 3 served as a review of skills learned in from the previous lessons. Active
student participation was encouraged in lesson 4. Students were randomly divided
into two groups and they played a board game, Lets Get Rational. Wilde (1994)
found that these activities, utilized in either group or individual sessions, decreased
the endorsement of irrational thoughts and depression in high school students. Wilde
(1996) also established that fourth grade students could learn the content of REBT
in a short amount of time. The effectiveness of this comprehensive, short-term
intervention supplies educational professionals with a mental health curriculum that
is efficient and cost effective.
Morris (1993) investigated the effects of a 12-week treatment program, based on
Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) with 12 adolescents who were identified as
having conduct disorders (CD) and 12 adolescents with attention-deficit hyperac-
tivity disorders (ADHD). The findings revealed that students identified as having
CD and ADHD responded differently to the intervention. The results of Morris

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study (1993) indicated that the students with CD significantly reduced their
irrational thinking, depression and symptoms of anger. The participants with ADHD
did not demonstrate any significant changes in the specified dependent variables
(e.g. irrational thinking, depression and anger). Morris proposed that students
identified with ADHD demonstrated thinking that may be linked to biological/
physiological factors inherent in adolescents with ADHD. Consequently, students
identified as having ADHD attributed their behavior to a chemical imbalance.
Therefore, cognitive restructuring had little to no influence as the problem is
deemed to be out of their control.
The first two weeks of the intervention focused on assessment, relationship
building and personal issues relevant to the participants. Learning to deal with self-
defeating thoughts that lead to emotional disturbance was the focal point for the
following eight weeks. Special attention was paid to anger and depression.
Participants also learned to identify concepts related to irrational beliefs, automatic
thoughts, and emotional responses reflective of thoughts and beliefs. The program
was presented using various strategies including lectures, discussions and watching
videos. Morris (1993) suggested that intervention programs based on lecture,
discussion and video might be appropriate not only for students with CD but also for
other dysfunctional behavioral patterns. Students identified as having ED may also
require programmatic modification to suit the characteristics of the population.
Banks (2006) conducted a study to determine if students with ED could
understand the content of REBT. The purpose and duration of the study,
implementing REBT as a pullout program in a day treatment setting covered a
span of approximately 8 months of the school year. The researcher introduced
REBT to the students in phases, and provided REBT readiness activities in an effort
to remediate skills associated with understanding the content of the cognitive-
emotive-behavioral intervention, such as identifying and rating feelings. The
objective of the first phase was cognitive preparation. The goals of the sessions were
to (a) build a rapport with the group, (b) set behavioral expectations regarding
participation, (c) help students identify, measure and connect feelings to thinking
and (d) define and determine the difference between facts and opinions. Phase two
was designed to teach students how to identify the ABCs of the REBT model. The
third phase focused on the function of the model by applying skills learned and
participating in group discussions that focused on a practical problematic situation
or event. Students were also encouraged to challenge or dispute thinking that did not
lead to goal attainment in the classroom.
Bankss (2006) study led her to suggest that it is imperative that professionals
consider the characteristics of students with ED in educational settings. The
individual and group dynamics need to be carefully analyzed before introducing
strategies that could actually increase emotional distress. REBT should be
implemented in a manner that reinforces skills learned, teaches students new skills,
and allows students opportunity to master and own the skill to promote the use of
skills in various settings. The disputation component of REBT can be presented in a
fashion that is less confrontational while reinforcing previous skills learned and
encouraging generalization of skills (Banks 2006).

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Barnes (2000) found that students responded well to REBT principles when
introduced in a traditional classroom environment. It was suggested that teachers
become trained in the principles of REBT and encourage them to integrate in their
classroom environment. In this study, Barnes developed a board game, Mrs.
Miggins Room, to introduce REBT concepts in the classroom that were designed to
foster discussion and use of skills. A case-based qualitative research methodology
grounded in reflection on practice in conjunction with collaboration with teachers
was utilized to develop the procedures for Mrs. Miggins Room. The researcher
observed the teachers working with two students and developed a game that was
based on REBT principles. The purpose of the game was to introduce questions to
encourage appropriate play through discussion. Student participation was encour-
aged by rewarding them with a preferred tangible item. Anecdotal evidence indicated
that the students were able to identify which components of the game were helpful.
Also, the students were able to discuss principles of REBT, identify challenging
events, and dispute personal beliefs. The game provided an educational context and
interpretation in which REBT could be introduced to students and used by teachers.
Vernon (1990) argued that teachers are often required to help students deal with
problems. Consequently teachers frequently are not equipped to assist students with
challenging events that ensure sustainability over time and across settings. Vernon
(1990) offered a systematic approach for school psychologists to work in
partnership with teachers in order to improve student classroom behavior. First,
school psychologists should focus on helping teachers understand benefits of using
preventative approaches in the classroom and introduce REBT as a preventative
classroom strategy. Vernon (1990) outlined a specific format for conducting REBT
lessons. Similar to that of a traditional teaching lesson plan, REBT lessons should be
goal oriented and contain objectives relating to the core REBT concepts. Each
lesson should include an activity designed to spark the interest of the students and
involve the student in the concept being introduced. Students can participate in role
plays, games, reading, writing or art activities, feeling games, group assignments, or
dramatizations. Vernon (1990) suggested that 1525 min be reserved for activating
the interest of students. After increasing student interests, students can engage in
discussion and ask content related questions and talk about how the strategies can be
used when presented with a challenging event or situation. The discussion
component is essential. Vernon recommended that 1620 min be allocated for
discussion, depending on the age of the child and the nature of the activity. REBT
lessons should be presented a logical order to encourage practice and reinforcement
of skills (Vernon 1990).
Educational derivatives of REBT have been developed into classroom, small
group and individual instructional curriculum. Most recently, Vernon (2006a, b)
developed a developmental emotional behavioral curriculum for students in grades
k-6 and 712. The curriculum is designed to assist students in developing critical
thinking skills, develop rational emotive vocabulary, identify and assess feelings,
understand the relationship between feelings, thinking and behaving, problem
solving and goal setting.
Thinking, Feeling and Behaving is based on the tenets of REBT for classroom
use. Educational tasks include games, stories, role plays, writing, drawing, and

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brainstorming. The activities are categorized into five domains: self-acceptance;

feelings; beliefs and behavior; problem solving and decision making; and
interpersonal relationships.
Bernard, the author of You Can Do It! (YCDI), developed an educational
program based on the theoretical underpinnings of REBT (Bernard 2001). YCDI is a
three-volume curriculum designed to assist students in challenging negative habits
of the mind (irrational beliefs) and teaching positive habits of the mind (rational
beliefs). Bernard (2006a) defined habits of mind as automatic tendency to defer to
positive or negative thinking patterns. Bernard (2006b) argued that emotional
characteristics of learners effect student success in the classroom. For example,
educational underachievement may serve as an indicator of negative habits of mind
while achievement and student success is indicative of positive habits of mind.
YCDI integrates emotional resilience skill building and REBT methods to increase
the social and emotional capabilities in children including academic confidence,
work persistence, organization, work cooperation and emotional resilience (Bernard
2001). The curriculum is designed to be taught to small or large groups.
Patton (1995) offered an educational sequence for the introduction of REBT in an
educational environment for teaching students with ED. Patton stated that the
challenge for many special education teachers who have students identified as
having emotional and behavioral disorders is to determine what instructional model
will meet the individual needs of these students and positively impact their thinking
patterns and improve student behavior in the classroom. Patton (1995) described a
seven-session sequence for teaching rational behavior skills to students identified
with EBD in a middle school setting. As with previously described programs, Patton
presented the lessons in a sequential manner that promoted learning, practicing and
the reinforcement of skills. In addition, she included scripted goals of the sessions
and learning activities. In Pattons sequence, students learned how the brain works
to create emotions, to define the ABCs of emotions and how to describe emotions
related to a challenging situation or event. Students also learned how to define
REBT terminology. They learned five rules for rational and irrational thinking and
how to evaluate emotions using the five rules. Analyzing personal responses and
establishing rational and behavior goals were considered critical components of the
teaching sequence. In addition, active engagement of students was encouraged by
having them write a description of an event, develop rational alternatives, create
positive emotional goals and use a prescribed format to practice positive self talk.
Students applied and practiced skill sets using situations that were relevant to them.
Pattons sequence also encouraged the use of rational imagery and self-monitoring
where students visualized themselves using positive self talk when presented with
challenging events. Next, they conducted a self-assessment with regard to their
application of rational thinking and behaving. Patton (1995) recommended REBT as
a teaching model and that academic skills are embedded to assist students in their
learning of rational behaviors. Further, that a systematic scope and sequence of
instructional use of REBT activities is amenable to classroom intervention.
Knaus (2001) shared his own personal experience integrating REBT into the
general curriculum and proposed that REBT can be interpreted into a teaching
design to build positive mental health concepts and problem solving activities that

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can be understood by teachers and students. Further, if concepts are introduced in a

systematic fashion, students will learn concepts and gain experience using skills
learned. Similar to that of previously described REBT teaching sequences, Knaus
(2001) suggested that the teaching sequence should begin with a stimulating task
followed by REBT content. One of the primary skills that students need to acquire
and practice before learning the cognitive model is understanding feelings. For
example, Knaus incorporated a pantomime game to foster student understanding.
The Expressions Guessing Game was designed to show different ways feelings can
be expressed. Students were encouraged to think for themselves, to determine the
facts of an event, and to assess how their thinking impacts feelings. Knaus (2001)
integrated discussions, stimulating activities and took advantage of teachable
moments to maintain student motivation throughout the teaching sequence. Most
importantly, he contended that REBT lessons do not have to be a separate
curriculum and can be integrated into the general classroom curriculum. Teacher
understanding of REBT concepts is critical to successful integration of mental
health programming.
Laramine (1990) proposed that educational programs based on the tenets of
REBT should include three categories: self-acceptance, understanding feelings, and
examining personal beliefs. Central to a REBT educational program is the notion of
exploring feelings and understanding the relationship between the affective,
cognitive and behavioral constructs. Laramine (1990) also stated that REBT can
be introduced using a variety of methods but the methods should be strategic and
systematic. Lessons should activate student interests and include students as active
learners. This experiential component of REBT will enhance the likelihood that
students will understand and apply REBT concepts to their daily experiences.
Laramine (1990) suggested specific teaching strategies that can be used in various
educational settings including discussions, role playing, simulation games, and
bibliotherapy, reading and discussing rational stories.

Conclusion

REBT is a comprehensive intervention that incorporates cognitive restructuring

techniques containing emotive and challenging behavioral aspects (Ellis 1974).
REBT is directed at bringing about a reduction in the intensity of inappropriate,
negative emotions of students. As in adults, children may present irrational beliefs
that can lead to emotional disturbance. Differentiating between rational and
irrational beliefs is important because irrational beliefs, according to REBT, lead to
disturbed emotions (depression, excessive anxiety, guilt and anger) and negative
behavioral reactions (aggression, withdrawal, impulsivity) (DiGiuseppe and
Bernard 1990).
Students who have emotional disturbances are woefully underidentified and
underserved by public schools. Consequently, there is a need to support both special
education and general education teachers with interventions that can be integrated
with an academic curriculum so that they can better help these students. While there
is an abundance of literature that provides teachers with the guidance to implement

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REBT in the classroom, there is a paucity of actual research with students who have
been identified as having emotional disturbances.
From a REBT perspective, an effective mental health program should increase
rational thinking and thereby reduce emotional disturbance. An integral component
of the REBT model is disputing irrational beliefs that contribute to ED. This review
of the educational applications of REBT suggests that with developmentally
appropriate modifications, it can be effective in disputing the irrational beliefs with
children and adolescents in classrooms. Moreover, research strongly suggests that
the concepts of REBT needs to be taught in a systematic, multi-modal approach and
integrated within academic setting. Further research with students who have ED
needs to be conducted so that this successful intervention can be competently
applied in various educational settings.

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