Description of Alternating Quantities;Peak value or

amplitude (Vmax);Average value - (2/pi) *

Vmax;Root mean square (R.M.S) value ;Vmax/sqrt(2)
= 0.707 Vmax;Form factor = (R.M.S. Value)/(Avg
valu
= 1.11 for pure sine wave
Phase Angle
Two sinusoidal quantities having same frequencies
would maintain a constant angle between them at any
time
If this angle is zero then the two are said to be in
phase.
If the angle is pi radians or 180 degrees then they are
said to be out of phase
The quantity which is ahead in anticlockwise
direction is said to be leading and the other is said to be
lagging by the angle between then
Power in Purely Resistive Circuit
As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is
sinusoidally varying with double the frequency
Power is either positive or zero at every instance but
never negative
This indicates that the power always flows from
source to circuit and gets dissipated in the circuit (in the
form of heat)
This power is called as Active power (P)
Inductance
 Inductance is a coil. It has a capacity to store energy
in the form of magnetism
Inductance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in current
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by

The current lags behind voltage by 90 degrees

As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is

sinusoidally varying with double the frequency.
Power is both positive and negative and is symmetric
about time axis
This indicates that the power flows from source to
circuit and also from circuit to source with net value
being zero. As such it is called as reactive power (Q)
Capacitance
A capacitor has 2 plates which can store electrical
energy in the form of charge on the plates.
Capacitance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in voltage.
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by the
formula.
-For pure capacitance current leads the voltage by 90
degrees.
Power in Circuits Containing R, L and C
In such circuits both active power(p) and reactive
powers(q) are transferred
The two transfers are independent of each other.
 Resistance is responsible for active power transfer
from source to load. (P = Vr * Ir )
Inductor is assumed to absorb reactive power from
source.(Q = VL * I L positive)
Capacitor is assumed to deliver reactive power to the
source. (Q = VC* I C negative)
Components of Current
In case of circuits containing combinations of R L C
the total current drawn from the source can be divided
into 2 components
Component in phase with voltage
Component 90 degree out of phase
The first component is responsible for active power while
the other for reactive power
Causes of Low Power Factor
The most popular motor , the induction motor, works
on lagging p.f. and value is especially low when under
loaded
Chokes in lamps are having lagging p.f.
There are hardly any loads which work on leading
p.f. As such the reduced p.f. due to inductive loads cannot
be compensated
Disadvantages of Low P.F.
Large KVA rating of equipments like alternator,
transformer, switchgears etc)
Greater conductor size more current to be carried
for the same active power transfer
 Large copper losses in supply and distribution
system, resulting into poor efficiency
Reduced handling capacity of because reactive
component of current prevents the full utilization of
installed capacity
Supply company will charge the customer at higher
rate if the power factor is less
How to Improve P.F.
The most popular method is use of capacitor banks in
parallel to the load. The method is cost effective, efficient
and easy to apply
Synchronous motors when over excited, work on
leading power factor
Use of phase advancer for induction motor. It makes
the motor to work even on leading p.f. The method is
costly and as such used only for high rating motors
Description of Alternating Quantities
Peak value or amplitude (Vmax)
Average value - (2/pi) * Vmax
Root mean square (R.M.S) value
Vmax/sqrt(2) = 0.707 Vmax
Form factor = (R.M.S. Value)/(Avg value)
= 1.11 for pure sine wave
Phase Angle
Two sinusoidal quantities having same frequencies
would maintain a constant angle between them at any
time
 If this angle is zero then the two are said to be in
phase.
If the angle is pi radians or 180 degrees then they are
said to be out of phase
The quantity which is ahead in anticlockwise
direction is said to be leading and the other is said to be
lagging by the angle between then
Voltage, Current and Power
When the voltage is sinusoidal, the current is also
sinusoidal having the same frequency
Instantaneous power is the product of instantaneous
voltage and instantaneous current
It can be mathematically shown that the
instantaneous power is also varying sinusoidally but with
double the frequency
A.C. Circuit Components
There are three basic constituents of any A.C. Circuit
namely
Resistance
Inductance
Capacitance
-It is the opposition to flow of current
The instantaneous magnitude of current is given by
dividing instantaneous magnitude of voltage by value of
resistance in ohms
I = v / r ..(ohms law).
The current is also sinusoidal and is in phase with
voltage
Power in Purely Resistive Circuit
As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is
sinusoidally varying with double the frequency
Power is either positive or zero at every instance but
never negative
This indicates that the power always flows from
source to circuit and gets dissipated in the circuit (in the
form of heat)
This power is called as Active power (P)
Inductance
Inductance is a coil. It has a capacity to store energy
in the form of magnetism
Inductance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in current
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by
-The current lags behind voltage by 90 degrees

As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is

sinusoidally varying with double the frequency.
Power is both positive and negative and is symmetric
about time axis
This indicates that the power flows from source to
circuit and also from circuit to source with net value
being zero. As such it is called as reactive power (Q)
Capacitance
A capacitor has 2 plates which can store electrical
energy in the form of charge on the plates.
 Capacitance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in voltage.
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by the
formula.
For pure capacitance current leads the voltage by 90
degrees.

As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is

sinusoidally varying with double the frequency
Power is both positive and negative and is symmetric
about time axis
Net value of power transfer is zero
For the same supply the instantaneous power in
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction at any instance

As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is

sinusoidally varying with double the frequency
Power is both positive and negative and is symmetric
about time axis
Net value of power transfer is zero
For the same supply the instantaneous power in
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction at any instance
 As seen from the graph, the instantaneous power is
sinusoidally varying with double the frequency
Power is both positive and negative and is symmetric
about time axis
Net value of power transfer is zero
For the same supply the instantaneous power in
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction at any instance

In case of circuits containing combinations of R

L C the total current drawn from the source can
be divided into 2 components
Component in phase with voltage
Component 90 degree out of phase
The first component is responsible for active
power while the other for reactive power
Active and Reactive Power
The power drawn from source by a resistive element
is called as active power. The power transfer is
unidirectional from source to resistance
The power transaction in an inductive and capacitive
element is called as reactive power
The inductive power and capacitive power flows in
opposite direction at any point of time. When both are
present, the total reactive power would be difference of
two and in the direction of the dominant member
Apparent power (S) is vector sum of P and Q and is given
by the formula s2 = P2 + Q2

Power Factor
Power factor is the ratio of active power to apparent
power
It can be calculated by formula
P.F. = cos ( )
Power factor can be unity, lagging or leading
depending upon whether the load is resistive, inductive or
capacitive

Active Power = VI Cos

For given voltage, and the same power to be
delivered, the current drawn is inversely proportional
to p.f.
Power factor is very important for the supplier as
well as the customer

Power factor is the ratio of active power to

apparent power
It can be calculated by formula
P.F. = cos ( )
Power factor can be unity, lagging or leading
depending upon whether the load is resistive,
inductive or capacitive
Active Power = VI Cos
For given voltage, and the same power to be
delivered, the current drawn is inversely proportional
to p.f.
Power factor is very important for the supp How to
Improve P.F.
The most popular method is use of capacitor banks in
parallel to the load. The method is cost effective, efficient
and easy to apply
Synchronous motors when over excited, work on
leading power factor
Use of phase advancer for induction motor. It makes
the motor to work even on leading p.f. The method is
costly and as such used only for high rating motors
Why three phase? :
Generator size smaller that the equivalent single
phase generator
Copper saving in transmission
Three phase machines are generally less costly
that equivalent single phase machines

It is the sequence in which the voltage quantities

attain a particular value. The required phase
sequence is R - Y - B
It is absolutely necessary that the phase sequence
be properly maintained using color coding
 If the phase sequence reverses, problems like
motors moving in opposite direction, will occur

lier as well as the customer Inductance

Inductance is a coil. It has a capacity to store energy
in the form of magnetism.
Inductance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in current.
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by.

The current lags behind voltage by 90 degrees.

Capacitance
A capacitor has 2 plates which can store electrical
energy in the form of charge on the plates.
Capacitance has an inherent property to oppose any
sudden change in voltage.
Instantaneous magnitude of current is given by the
formula.

For pure capacitance current leads t What is switchgear ?

Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of
equipment concerned with switching and protection of
electrical circuit
Switchgear is an essential part of power system and also
that of any electrical circuit.
The switching devices are used to make or break the
circuits in healthy or in abnormal conditions
he voltage by 90 degrees

Switchgear components
Switches
Fuses
Circuit breakers
Relays
Isolators
Lightening arresters
Current transformers
Potential transformers

What is circuit breaker ?

ANSI American National Standards Institute.
Definition: A circuit breaker is defined in ANSI standards
as a mechanical switching device, capable of making,
carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions.
Also capable of making and carrying breaking currents
for a specified time under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of a short circuit.

Circuit breaker continued

Circuit breakers are switching and current interrupting
devices. CB comprises of a set of fixed and movable
contacts.

The contacts are separated by means of an operating

mechanism.

The separation of current carrying contacts produces an

arc. The arc is extinguished by a suitable medium and
circuit breakers are classified according to the medium
used for arc quenching.

Different types of circuit breakers

1. Miniature circuit breaker MCB

2. Molded case circuit breaker MCCB
3. Minimum oil CB MOCB
4. Bulk oil CB BOCB
5. Air circuit breaker ACB
6. Air Blast Circuit Breaker ABCB
7. Earth leakage CB ELCB
8. Sulphur Hexa Fluoride SF6
Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)
ADVANTAGES:
Reduced let through energy due to current limiting
principle results into:
Reduction in electrodynamic forces on the bus
bars resulting into increased spacing between bus
 bar supports and/ or decreased distances between
two bus bars
Reduction of thermal stresses.The welding of
contacts of the contactors can be avoided.
Higher rating of contactors can be avoided

Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)

Applications of MPCBs:
They can be used for switching, control and
protection of motor in machines with single motor
and not requiring remote switching
Can be used in machine incorporating multiple
motors as incomers as well as for protection and
control of individual motor
A contactor in conjunction with a MPCB enhances
system life, provides facility for remote switching
and also gives under-voltage protection
MPCBs are also suitable for DC switching
Fuse monitoring
Need for MPCB?
The MCCB has some limitations while used for
motor switching:
It cannot provide effective protection in overload
rage (100%-200%)
Ambient temperature compensation may not
available
The mechanical life is not very high
 Load line bios
And also TYPE 2 Co-ordination requires special
attention
Nuisance tripping during starting
AC 3 switching capabilities
Lightning arrestors- They divert the over voltages to
earth and protect the equipment from over voltages.
Isolators- Isolators are disconnecting switches that
are used for disconnecting the circuit in no load (no
current) condition. They are installed near circuit
breakers.

CT s and PT s- These are used for transforming the

voltage and currents to a lower value for the purpose
of measurement , protection and control.
Purpose of Earthing is to ensure at all times an immediate
discharge of electrical energy without danger.

Connect the switches and the fuses always in the phase

and not in the neutral.

Consider a machine which is not earthed.

Windings and coils inside the frame of machine carry

currents.
If insulation of the windings become weak, then current
may leak to the surface of frame.
Any person touching the frame, receives this current. This
current passes through his body , the circuit gets
completed through his body and if this leakage current is
high then it may prove to be dangerous.