43 Demolition

T R Mills Ceng, MICE, FIDE

Chartered Engineer

Contents
43.1 Introduction 43/3 43.5 Demolition blasting 43/8

43.2 Organization and planning 43/3 43.6 Preferred methods of demolition 43/8
43.2.1 Insurance 43/3
43.2.2 Surveys and method statements 43/4 43.7 Salvage and recycling 43/9
43.2.3 Shoring 43/4
43.8 Health and safety 43/9
43.2.4 Weatherproofing 43/4
43.8.1 Fire and explosion risks 43/10
43.2.5 Hoardings 43/4
43.9 Environmental matters 43/10
43.3 Demolition by hand 43/5
43.3.1 Preweakening 43/5 43.10 Future developments 43/10
43.4 Mechanical demolition 43/5 References 43/10
43.4.1 Wire-rope pulling 43/6
43.4.2 Hydraulic excavators and tractor
shovels 43/6
43.4.3 Balling machines 43/6
43.4.4 Pusher arm 43/6
43.4.5 Impact breakers 43/7
43.4.6 Hydraulic shears 43/7
43.4.7 Heavy-duty grabs 43/7
43.4.8 Diamond drilling and sawing 43/7
43.4.9 Thermic lancing 43/7
43.4.10 Expanding cement 43/7
43.4.11 Cutting with water jets 43/7
43.4.12 Hydraulic bursting 43/8

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43.1 Introduction
The demolition industry has its origin among those small
contractors who specialized in the removal and resale of archi-
tectural items, building materials and structural components. In
the past, their operations were labour-intensive and time-con-
suming and often the salvaged items remained on their hands
for considerable periods.
Development over the years has determined that demolition
contractors organize their work and equip themselves to meet
critical programmes. The size of firms undertaking demolition
and associated fringe activities, such as excavation and tempor-
ary works, varies from organizations offering a complete pack-
age, through to small firms undertaking specialist works such as
concrete-cutting or demolition blasting.
The capability of contractors varies from those thoroughly
organized with managerial and technical facilities backing up a
skilled labour force, down to those who work in excess of their
capacity to the detriment of their clients in particular and the
industry in general.
It is important that demolition contracts or the demolition
phase of major projects, should receive the same careful con-
sideration as those for rebuilding and civil engineering.
Much can be done to eliminate delays to works by ensuring
that obligations to third parties and statutory undertakings are
negotiated before commencing work.
Details of the buildings or structures to be demolished or
altered, together with a careful assessment of the restraints
imposed by location, should be discussed by clients and pros-
pective contractors at an early stage to permit realistic and fair
tendering.
'Demolition' embraces a wide spectrum of activities - from
simple cottage demolition to the dismantling and removal of
industrial complexes. No broad boundaries are found between
demolition styles in different localities. Certain types of struc-
ture lend themselves towards a preferred method, but of the
many techniques available few can be applied individually and
most successful jobs employ a combination of one or more
methods.
43.2 Organization and planning
The person inviting tenders or negotiating for demolition work
should ensure that it will be undertaken by experienced contrac-
tors who have an awareness of the problems likely to be
encountered on and off the site.
Forms of contract normally used for building or civil engi-
neering may consist of documentation made unnecessarily com-
plex by alterations, omissions and additions. A simple form of
contract such as that published by the National Federation of
Demolition Contractors in London may be acceptable.
The specification should be as simple as possible while
adequately defining the work required. Items such as shoring,
weatherproofing and accommodation works may be impossible
to determine until parts of the redundant building or structure
have been removed and assessments made with the professional
adviser(s) appointed by owners of the adjoining premises.
Where this is the case, 'provisional sums' should be included.
In partial demolition or refurbishment, the structural detail
may have a critical effect on the proposals. Even though original
drawings may exist, it is prudent to open up relevant parts of the
superstructure to confirm what has, in fact, been built. This
preliminary work will often be needed by the consulting engi-
neers charged with modifying the structure, but in any event the
structural survey should be done prior to inviting tenders for
demolition in order that prospective contractors may have the
benefit of seeing the structural detail.
Where original drawings exist an allowance must be made for
alterations and additions which have not been formally
recorded.
Parts of the premises which are inaccessible should be care-
fully opened up. It should not be a prospective contractor's
responsibility to survey below the surface; indeed, the practi-
cality of a number of such contractors bringing equipment on to
a site which is not formally in their responsibility normally
precludes this.
The likelihood of toxic or hazardous material either being
built in to the structure or arising from previous use should be
assessed and the information forwarded to tenderers. It may be
prudent to decontaminate premises prior to the start of demoli-
tion works or carefully phase a programme so that demolition
does not produce a hazardous environment by scattering resi-
dues. The discovery of toxic and hazardous material at a late
stage can have the serious result of closing down work until
residues are removed.
The specification should state, and drawings should clearly
indicate, the levels to which buildings are to be demolished. If
ground slabs and foundations are to be removed, approximate
quantities with provisional sums for excesses, or a schedule of
rates, should be included for an item which is basically excava-
tion. Any architectural features or sections of the building which
are to be retained should be defined clearly and removed early in
the job if possible.
Once the decision to demolish has been taken, there are many
matters that can be put in hand alongside preparation of
contract documents.
The so-called party wall awards, with their very specific
details of what can and cannot be done to adjacent properties,
need considerable time for practical assessment and preparation
of documents. Whilst it may be impossible to agree fully the
extent of the party wall award prior to opening up and exposing
an adjacent property, it is better to have made some progress,
thus allowing a demolition contractor to work normally and
logically rather than be prohibited from approaching a site
boundary.
The removal of statutory undertakings' equipment should be
organized as soon as the premises become vacant, in order to
avoid delays to the works and accidents caused by live services.
Demolition work may involve the diversion or protection of
services where there is a wayleave across the site and such
matters should be considered early, as sometimes extremely
complex planning has to be done to avoid disconnecting adjoin-
ing premises.
In industrial premises which have existed harmoniously with
their neighbours, demolition, even over a short time, can cause
concern to residents, or hazards to adjoining premises. There
needs to be liaison between the client and concerned neighbours
in order that prospective contractors are aware of restraints
upon their methods of work.
43.2.1 Insurance
Clients and their professional advisers should make certain that
specified insurance requirements are adequate, but at the same
time realistic, for the risks arising from their projects.
Policies on behalf of the client, the contractor and sometimes
jointly, should be in force prior to commencement of the works.
The amount of cover required can vary considerably, depen-
dent upon location. Demolition work on an active mainline rail
terminal, for example, would require considerably more cover
than work on a remote and disused factory premises.
Employer's liability insurance is a statutory requirement, the
premium reflecting the hazardous nature of demolition work
and the record of the contractor.
43.2.2 Surveys and method statements
The object of a demolition survey is to establish sufficient detail
about the premises to allow a decision on the method of
demolition and to identify any restraints affecting proposed
activities on the site.
Problems may arise due to characteristics of the building or
structure, or to the previous use of the premises or the location.
Drawings of the building are not always available, and even
where they are, the survey should be comprehensive enough to
determine the extent of alterations from, and additions to, the
original plan.
The sequence of building or erection, together with an
assessment of any temporary works or equipment used, can be
usefully compared with the proposals for demolition.
The need to provide shoring either on adjacent premises or
within the structure being demolished should emerge from the
survey; also, the need for weatherproofing either temporary or
permanent (see sections 43.2.3 and 43.2.4).
On any type of building or structure, the condition can, to a
greater or lesser extent, determine the method of demolition to
be used.
Traditional brick, masonry and timber structures left unat-
tended and open to the atmosphere, may have deteriorated to
the extent that they cannot be relied upon to provide safe access.
Industrial uses producing corrosive atmospheres and long-
term lack of maintenance may have affected structural steel-
work, particularly connections, to the extent that preweakening
of a structure would be hazardous.
Persons undertaking demolition surveys should be aware of,
and experienced in, finding such conditions.
In addition to surveying the building, the adjoining buildings
should be assessed in terms of structure and equipment con-
tained to determine any restraints. For example, in urban areas
the increase in use of computers, which are very sensitive to
vibration, has added to the problems traditionally arising from
dust and vibration.
Following the demolition survey, a detailed method state-
ment should be prepared prior to the start of work.
The presentation of this statement has been widely debated:
BS 6187:1982 Code of practice for demolition* recommends that
a programme should be drawn up in which the proposed
sequence and the method of operation is indicated clearly. The
Health and Safety Executive Guidance Note GS29/12 goes
further by advising that a detailed method statement should
identify problems and their solutions and form a reference for
site supervision.
The degree of difficulty in the work must determine the detail
on the method statement, but in any event, it must be in terms
that can be understood by the supervisor and labour force. It
may be written with annotated drawings, or instructions may be
painted on to the structure.
43.2.3 Shoring
The need for shoring-up adjacent buildings or, on occasions, the
temporary shoring of the structure being demolished, should be
investigated prior to the start of demolition. In cases where this
is not possible a procedure for checking the requirements as the
job progresses should be formalized.
The simplest approach is to leave parts of adjacent walls or
part of the structural frame as buttresses if they are in an
acceptable condition - provided their retention would not
hinder subsequent building.
If it is decided that raking shores are necessary, it is some-
times acceptable to erect them after demolition, but if the
durability of the exposed wall is suspect in the short term, the
shores may have to be inserted prior to demolition, with all the
attendant difficulties of preparing the foundation block and
handling the sections in confined spaces.
When a free area of land is required, and where there is a
convenient support, a flying shore can be connected horizont-
ally to an adjacent and sufficiently robust premises, provided the
owner of the supporting building agrees.
On flying shores of long spans a central prop may be
necessary and, although this to some extent defeats the object of
obtaining a clear area, it can be less inconvenient in the centre of
a site, where it may interfere only with floor construction, than
raking shores at the edge, interfering with walls.
Raking and flying shores are inserted to prevent a sideways
movement of a wall. It is sometimes necessary to effect vertical
support to a wall, either because its foundations have failed, or
it is to be underpinned, or is to have additional openings made
in it.
In these circumstances, needle shores, in which short hori-
zontal members are placed through a wall and given their own
support, are used. Vertical support is referred to as 'dead
shoring'.
The loading on the shoring must be assessed and the system
designed and detailed in a manner which takes into account the
circumstances of its erection and later dismantling.
Shoring was traditionally of timber, but examples from
scaffold tubes and fittings, and from fabricated steelwork are
more common today, with the use of traditional carpentry skills
becoming uneconomical.
For dealing with dangerous structures, say a building which
has been hit by a vehicle or suffered a severe fire, shores made
from scaffolding are normally used, often erected not by the
demolition contractor but by scaffolding companies who have
arrangements with the authorities for rapid turnout to deal with
such emergencies.
For retaining facades, scaffolds may be used, but fabricated
steelwork providing quick erection and a compact design is
popular, particularly in congested city areas.
43.2.4 Weatherproofing
Walls previously protected by buildings which are being demol-
ished, will quickly absorb moisture and deteriorate if weather-
proofing is not provided.
Walls exposed on a long-term basis can be rendered or
skimmed with brickwork if this is desirable from a visual
viewpoint. Walls in good condition can be treated with water-
repellent compounds.
It is more usual for bitumen or polythene sheeting to be used
on a temporary basis to stand until the new adjacent walls
provide protection. Such sheeting must be fixed to the wall with
vertical and horizontal battens in a regular pattern and in a
workmanlike manner if it is not to be torn by the wind and
become ineffective. It is both annoying and costly to have to
return to repair small areas of weatherproofing as the access
from the original building may not be available and scaffolds or
elevating platforms will have to be obtained. The sheeting must
be overlapped and horizontal faces must be weatherproofed to
ensure that the arrangement is completely watertight.
43.2.5 Hoardings
It is usual for the contractor to provide a hoarding, sometimes
to his own design, sometimes to that of others.
As a precaution against trespassers, it is in the contractor's
best interests to secure the site at all times, but this may not be
practicable, particularly during the early stages of work.
The provision of a hoarding can be a substantial item.
Erection should be done by experienced personnel in order to
ensure that it will resist overturning by the wind, and be robust
enough to resist the ravages of subsequent building activity
where it will be cut about to complete sight lines or have panels
removed to give access for materials.
Hoardings should not go across manholes and valve covers.
Any openings or doors which are at ground level should not
open on to open basements or trial holes.
43.3 Demolition by hand
Hand demolition involves workmen using pneumatic or hand
tools to remove part of a building or structure prior to comple-
tion by mechanical means (Figure 43.1), or all of the structure
where mechanical means cannot be used.
This work may involve opening up floors to allow debris to be
dropped to the lowest hard level. Opening up must not be
allowed to make the building unstable and material must be
cleared to avoid lateral pressure on lower walls.
If material is being dropped inside, it will be deflected a
considerable distance if it hits other parts of the structure.
Windows and apertures should be boarded up, or sheeting
erected, to prevent debris being ejected outside.
Suitable working platforms must be provided where work
cannot be done safely from the structure. These can be formed
from scaffolding or the use of man-riding skips or hydraulic
elevating platforms.
Scaffolds should be sheeted and fans provided over adjacent
public areas. As the height of the building is reduced the scaffold
should follow; ties should not be removed because this would
render the scaffold unsafe.
It is normally preferable to demolish floor by floor. To
preserve adjacent properties, shoring may have to be built either
before or during demolition. The removal of roofs will normally
be done by hand prior to other activities.
43.3.1 Preweakening
Preweakening is the removal, cutting or partial cutting of
structural members as an activity prior to final collapse being
achieved by some other means.
The preweakening of structures has for many years been a
preliminary to wire-rope-pulling, but more recently the use of
explosives has involved preweakening to reduce the amount of
Figure 43.1 Manual demolition work using pneumatic breakers
on a city centre roof
explosive needed or to form 'hinges' to encourage structures to
collapse in a predictable manner, thus allowing economic re-
moval of debris.
There is argument about the relationship between the need
for expert engineering advice and reliance on experience and
intuition to decide the style of preweakening.
It is accepted that most structures, when relieved of sheeting,
industrial plant and bulk material, can be considerably pre-
weakened. Most engineered solutions use simplifications of the
structure to arrive at the selected procedures.
There is a school of thought which encourages the retention
of loads at height in order to provoke movement once the
structure is, by whatever means, made unstable. This method
requires very careful analysis and supervision.
Notwithstanding an empirical or an engineered approach
after any surplus load has been removed, a number of cuts will
be made to finally preweaken the structure.
Cuts that allow members to 'sit', or 'hinge', have characteris-
tic styles, but great care is required to monitor movement as
preweakening progresses to ensure that the structure is behaving
as intended and not about to collapse prematurely from inbuilt
stresses, wind or impact.
Failure of structures to respond to the final drama of remov-
ing the key parts can produce extremely complex problems
involving time and expense.
43.4 Mechanical demolition
There are comparatively few machines which are specifically
designed for demolition, equipment generally being obtained
through the normal plant markets. With few exceptions, demoli-
tion attachments to base machines designed primarily for exca-
vation and material handling are used.
Demolition duties impose considerable wear and tear on
machinery. Good maintenance procedures therefore need to be
provided if the machinery is not to deterioriate until it becomes
unsafe and beyond economic repair.
Some contractors elect to improve the durability of their
machinery by fitting heavy-duty buckets and protection to cabs
and engines to guard against damage by debris.
43.4.1 Wire-rope pulling
This apparently simple and effective method of demolition
requires careful planning and organization if it is to be success-
ful, especially when used on tall structures.
Static winches or vehicle recovery trucks may be used to effect
the pull, as may the drag rope of an excavator or a winch 'dozer.
The distances available must be such that there is no risk of
the resultant debris falling or being projected on to the winch or
pulling vehicle.
The pulling ropes must be of steel wire, be in good condition
and have proper fittings at their ends.
Workmen and spectators must be well clear of the area in
which a breaking rope may whip.
More than one rope should be attached in advance, in order
to avoid the risk of approaching the structure which may be
unstable or partially collapsed after the first pull.
The load should be applied gradually, and it will become
apparent at an early stage if the equipment has sufficient pulling
capacity.
In the event that it has been decided to preweaken the
structure in advance of ordering final collapse by pulling, expert
engineering advice may be necessary to ensure that structural
stability is retained. An unsuccessful pull may weaken a struc-
ture.
43.4.2 Hydraulic excavators and tractor shovels
Most demolition sites will eventually reach the stage where a
hydraulic excavator or a tractor shovel will be used for digging
out basements or loading debris.
These machines may be used successfully for pulling or
pushing over low-level buildings by using their buckets. Brick
and masonry structures will collapse readily, but steelwork may
need some preweakening if the section resists the capacity of the
machine.
A Ripper tooth attachment can be used to drag down low-
level steelwork and industrial plant.
When adopting this approach, there is a tendency to start on
the structure before the building has been properly stripped out,
the result being mixed debris (containing brickwork, masonry,
Figure 43.2 A balling machine working in a confined area
steelwork, trunking and fittings) which is unsaleable and which
may need sorting prior to dumping.
43.4.3 Balling machines
This well-publicized method is popular with demolition contrac-
tors because it is economic, quick and safe, provided certain
simple precautions are taken.
Balling machines need space in which to operate and should
be outside rather than within the confines of the building being
demolished (Figure 43.2).
It may be necessary to remove roofs by hand prior to balling,
and it is sometimes necessary to remove storeys to bring a
building within the capacity of a balling machine. Areas of
floors may need to be removed to facilitate the dropping of
debris.
If vibration is likely to be a problem, a split should be made
between the building being demolished and adjacent properties.
The demolition ball should generally not be allowed to swing
free on the hoist rope, but should at all times be tethered by a
drag-rope. In order to bring the ball into contact with the
building, it may be dropped, pulled and released in line with the
jib, or slewed. Slewing the jib is particularly hazardous as an
excessive slew angle, rotational acceleration, and braking can
impose excessive stresses encouraging jib failures.
Balling at heights in excess of 30 m, known as 'high balling' is
now undertaken regularly. Great skill and experience is required
for this work, and it does not follow that a good crane driver is a
good balling-machine operator.
It is important to ensure that the ball does not become
trapped or that the machine becomes overloaded by sudden
collapse of large parts of the structure. A technique of 'little-
and-often' is preferred.
Many recommendations concerning the use of balling
machines and other mechanical methods are given in BS
6187:1982.'
43.4.4 Pusher arm
These devices were formally rigid arms fitted to hydraulic
excavators which exerted a horizontal thrust to demolish walls
or structures. More recently, a telescopic demolition arm allow-
ing a pushing or pulling motion has become available, consider-
ably extending the adaptability of this method.
Some preparation may be necessary, either in removing the
roof, reducing the height or isolating the building from adjacent
premises. The building should be attacked in a logical manner
without leaving slender sections free-standing. Walls should not
be pushed more than 600 mm below their top level and, once
again, a 'little-and-often' technique is required both to bring the
building down safely and avoid the necessity of breaking-up
large slabs of brickwork or masonry as a secondary operation.
Pusher arms are not effective against steel-framed or heavily
reinforced concrete structures although they may be used to
remove infill panels or sheeting.
43.4.5 Impact breakers
This tool is essentially a larger development of the traditional
'jack hammer'. It may be pneumatic, but is more regularly
hydraulically operated from the power pack of the excavator on
which it is mounted. These devices will achieve considerably
better and more economical output than hand-held tools.
Large impact breakers are normally used for breaking mass
concrete or old foundations. When used on reinforced concrete,
it is sometimes necessary to cut manually the reinforcement
enabling the pick of the impact breaker to remove the fractured
concrete prior to restarting work on a fresh area.
Alongside the development of small and mini hydraulic
excavators has been the development of the so-called mini
breaker. These machines can be lifted or manoeuvred into
buildings for breaking floors or be placed in confined areas for
breaking basements and foundations, which would previously
have required handwork.
43.4.6 Hydraulic shears
Large hydraulic shears mounted on the boom of an excavator
and powered from the machine can be used instead of manual
cutting methods. These machines have the advantage of reduc-
ing the risks associated with hot cutting, be it of fire or risks to
health by lead fumes from paint or heated chemicals.
Some shears have the ability to both elevate and swivel
allowing them to be used for cutting down structures rather
than simply reducing to pieces the structures that have been
felled by other methods.
When working on areas of steelwork, it is important to
establish a sequence which maintains the stability of the struc-
ture by leaving braced bays in position until a collapse can be
engineered and the shear used to complete cutting at ground
level.
The shears should always be worked in an attitude which
allows cut sections to fall free without overloading the base
machine. The shears can, by careful manipulation, pick and
load cut sections directly into skips or vehicles.
43.4.7 Heavy-duty grabs
Heavy-duty multi-reeved rope-operated grabs are normally
used for rehandling debris at ground level. They can be used
directly to remove brick and masonry structures, but this
method is not popular in the UK. The rate of production is
often determined by the availability of transport which, particu-
larly in urban locations, can be unreliable.
43.4.8 Diamond drilling and sawing
Diamond drilling and sawing or a combination of both may
have to be used to remove parts of structures where other
Figure 43.3 A small 'skidsteer' rubber-tyred loader working on an
intermediate floor
methods, which would produce a nuisance through dust, noise
or vibration, are not acceptable. It should always be borne in
mind, however, that if mains power is not available, diesel prime
movers in themselves produce noise and exhaust fumes.
Tipped-core drills can be used to stitch drill, i.e. form overlap-
ping holes around a section to be moved, be it horizontal or
vertical, but it is necessary to ensure that there is no movement
before the work is complete, as this may stop the core.
Cores may have to be taken out at the start and finish of
sawcut lines to accommodate the crescent left by the circular
blade.
Great care and experience is required to ensure that prema-
ture movement of parts being cut away does not stop the
rotating sawblades.
Accurate work with some judicious angle cutting is necessary
to ensure that a piece, especially the first one of a pattern, will
move clear without jamming once the cutting is complete. For
large blocks or slabs inside buildings, complex systems for
moving pieces both vertically and horizontally may be needed.
43.4.9 Thermic lancing
Thermic lancing is a process in which a reaction between oxygen
and iron is used to generate an intense heat at the point of a
lance which is used to cut through, for example, heavy sections
of concrete, and is useful where noise and vibration are pro-
hibited. The volume of fumes given off in confined spaces can be
a problem, as can the heat and the need for the slag to be
drained away without causing a fire hazard. In the open,
however, it is used regularly where time is 'of the essence', e.g. in
an alteration to busy public areas during nights or at weekends.
43.4.10 Expanding cement
The drilling of holes, filling them with a cement which expands
on setting - thus breaking off pieces of concrete - is sometimes
advocated as a method of demolition. It is used regularly in
quarrying and rock excavation, but has not found favour with
demolition contractors in the UK.
43.4.11 Cutting with water jets
The cutting of concrete using high-pressure water jets is offered
as a service by a small number of specialist firms, but it has not
been seen in general use alongside more traditional methods.
43.4.12 Hydraulic bursting
Mass or lightly reinforced concrete can be broken by drilling a
series of holes near an open face and inserting a burster from
which plungers are forced out by hydraulic pressure, thus
cracking the concrete.
A more recent application of this technique is the removal of
a core into which a small hydraulic jack is placed. When the jack
is operated, the concrete will crack from the core to the open
face.
Bursting techniques are relatively quiet, but tend to be slow.
In an effort to speed the process, large areas of concrete may be
broken out, but their subsequent removal, particularly if in
awkward areas inside the building, may be a problem.
43.5 Demolition blasting
The use of explosives for demolition attracts a great deal of
publicity, but it should be considered as another demolition
method requiring careful selection based on suitability, location,
competent practitioners and careful planning.
For all demolition blasting, good protection and carefully
selected clear zones must be achieved. Brick, masonry or mass
concrete, when drilled and charged with explosive, will rupture
or disintegrate when detonated. The effect will vary and be
dependent upon the amount and type of explosive, the weight of
material charged in relation to the amount of explosive, the
pattern and position of the charges in relation to open faces and
the integrity of the material.
Taking these many variables into account, successful blasts
can be achieved and used to remove key parts to fell structures
or simply fracture banks of material to allow removal by
mechanical excavation.
With reinforced concrete, the problem becomes more com-
plex. It is easy enough to disintegrate the concrete but bursting
open the steel and thus allowing the debris to disperse is not
quite so simple. The firing of test shots may be necessary, and
the manual cutting of reinforcement will (subject to advice from
engineers) assist towards a successful demolition.
Recent years have seen more use of explosives on the demoli-
tion of steel structures. The cutting of steelwork was done
traditionally by using substantial charges to blast a section apart
a procedure which tended to have a limited application due
to noise and the risk of shrapnel. However, the development of
linear or cutting charges, previously well established for military
or underwater operations, with the proviso that proprietary
products are available, has meant that such charges, coupled
with the careful use of delay detonators and propellant charges
to shift cut sections, are now regularly used to fell substantial
steel structures.
With all types of demolition blasting, no matter what type of
structure, it is essential that those personnel involved under-
stand or have access to advice concerning the 'mechanism of
collapse'. A structure which has failed to respond to the use of
explosives, or has partly collapsed, can be extremely dangerous
with all the attendant problems of safe access for completion of
the task.
43.6 Preferred methods of demolition
Some types of structures lend themselves to particular methods
of demolition, subject, of course, to local restraints. The basis of
these methods is that the sequence of work retains the stability
of the remaining part of the structure.
Simple examples of preferred demolition methods concern
arches which, if demolished by hand, should be in strips parallel
to the rings forming the span of the arch. Likewise, reinforced
concrete floors should be demolished in strips parallel to the
main reinforcement.
When working on a filler joist floor, it should be tackled
progressively by releasing individual filler joists, whilst ensuring
that the workmen have the protection of a well-secured tempor-
ary deck spanning the main floor beams.
The principle of removing as much deadload as possible also
should be applied to bridges, bearing in mind that temporary
support may be necessary to support the skeleton before re-
moval by crane or dropping on to a prepared area.
The procedures for demolishing chimneys by explosives re-
volve around leaving the chimney standing on pillars created by
taking 'windows' out of the base in a pattern arranged to
encourage a particular direction of fall when the pillars are
blasted clear. If chimneys are to be demolished by hand, access
must be provided to the top. This is normally by a laddered
scaffold on the outside. It is normal for material to be dropped
inside the chimney and removed through a doorway cut in the
side of the base. The debris must be cleared to avoid pressure on
the walls of the chimney, and regular checks must be made to
ensure that material has not arched inside the flue.
Brick or reinforced concrete chimneys can be treated as
described, but in prestressed and post-tensioned structures,
expert advice from engineers should be sought to deal with the
particular problems.
On sites in confined spaces it will be necessary to dismantle
pylons and masts by hand, but in open areas, these can be felled
accurately by preweakening the legs against the direction of fall,
cutting the rear legs and pulling over the structure with a
previously secured steel-wire rope.
For steel flues, the guylines at 45 on plan against the line of
fall should be maintained or, if absent, provided and made taut
prior to cutting the remote guys and severing the base of the flue
in a pattern which allows it to hinge over.
Above ground, storage tanks must be free of fire and explo-
sion risks before structural dismantling takes place. If the tank is
too large for the roof to be lifted clear as one piece, then the
plates should be removed exposing the structural steel 'spider'
which should be removed in a regular pattern until a simple
cruciform exists which finally can be cut down.
Some tanks have roofs which float on the contents. Such
roofs should be lowered to their supports and removed once the
tank shell has been dealt with. Tank shells should be removed in
horizontal bands rather than vertical strips as the behaviour of
platesxcut down vertically is unpredictable.
British Standard 6187:1982' includes a guide to typical meth-
ods of demolition from which it can be noted that on the more
widely found buildings and structures, more than one method
may be applied successfully.
There is little experience to date with the demolition of
prestressed concrete. There is, however, a recognition that
uncontrolled release of stressed wires, cables or bars may
provoke the ejection of anchorages, particularly if the stressed
member is unbonded or the bonding is faulty.
Pretensioned members are rarely a problem during demoli-
tion. This is not the case with post-tensioned members, which
are sometimes incrementally tensioned as successive loading is
applied. Most post-tensioned members are bonded by grouting,
but some unbonded examples must remain and it is difficult to
identify the difference other than by physically exposing the
stressing wires. Expert engineering advice should be sought
when dealing with such members, as uncontrollable release of
the tension can lead to catastrophic collapse and/or ejection of
debris from anchorages which will fly a considerable distance at
great speed.
Incorrect unloading of incrementally tensioned beams with-
Figure 43.4 Example of temporary steelwork supporting a
five-storey fagade
out partial release of the stressing can lead to hogging and/or
bursting with unpredictable results.
The technology for dealing with prestressed concrete exists,
but it is important to recognize the problem at the outset. It is
also important to realize that, complex as the problems may be,
the actual method for destressing and removing prestressed
concrete beams, say, may pall into insignificance in comparison
with the problems posed by their location (which is likely to be
permanently encapsulated in working structures).
43.7 Salvage and recycling
On some premises, particularly those of historic interest, archi-
tectural items, such as weathercocks, clocks, door porticos and
boundary marks may have to be recovered ahead of the
demolition work for restoration and later repositioning.
Internal fittings, staircases and banisters may also be of
interest, particularly in listed buildings. The demolition contrac-
tor has traditionally been interested in metal, be it nonferrous or
ferrous scrap. During demolition, these will need to be graded
into type and size for marketing to processors for resmelting or
export. The removal and resale of builders' items, doors,
window frames, flooring and china is no longer attractive as it is
time-consuming and prohibited by tight schedules.
The practice of recycling debris to produce a single-size
crushed concrete or an all-in material has developed in recent
years. Although it has proved difficult to maintain a specific
grading because of the variable raw material, these materials are
often acceptable as backfill, subgrade for estate roads or car
parks.
Research aimed at producing a specification for crushed
concrete and subsequently a wider acceptance of its use is
currently being undertaken. In the UK this is at an early stage,
but in Europe it is more advanced, boosted in part by a lack of
acceptable landfill sites and in some areas by a lack of roadmak-
ing aggregate.
The recycling of timber as a fuel has been developed in The
Netherlands where charcoal is obtained with some gas produc-
tion. Such plants are extremely expensive and do not, as yet,
exist in the UK.
43.8 Health and safety
For the demolition industry, the risks to health and safety range
from those generally associated with construction through to
chemical hazards normally found on manufacturing plants.
Logical work planning, an analysis of the structural condition
of buildings or structures as they are being dismantled, and the
provision of good access and working platforms can greatly
reduce the risks from premature collapse, falling materials and
falls from heights. Such measures are specified for particular
circumstances in UK legislation.
Items needed in ensuring personal protection against physical
injury such as safety helmets, goggles, ear muffs and dust and
fume respirators are, in many circumstances, required by legisla-
tion. However, no matter how rigidly the use of such equipment
is enforced, much needs to be done to improve its design.
Although it may prove satisfactory in manufacturing con-
ditions, it very quickly becomes uncomfortable when used for
the manual tasks and long duration of use associated with the
work.
The standard of respiratory protection during burning of
lead-painted steelwork or cleaning of lead dust will depend on
the natural ventilation around the workman. The use of an auri-
nasal mask may be sufficient in the open air, whereas a full
facepiece with a high-efficiency filter or even airline breathing
apparatus may be needed indoors. The difference in comfort
and visibility is apparent, and workmen have a tendency to
discard uncomfortable equipment.
The shrouding of work areas, the full respiratory protection
and the decontamination procedures required for asbestos
removal have to be maintained stringently; most workmen take
seriously the publicity given to the risks from this material.
Apart from these two well-documented hazards, the demoli-
tion contractor often encounters others associated with the
structure or its previous use. Timber used for building may be
treated with preservative requiring its removal to a licensed tip,
as burning will produce a toxic smoke. Heavy metals such as
cadmium or mercury may be found engrained in slabs or even
the subsoil of factory premises. Sometimes these contaminants
surface from processes used many years prior to the final use of
the premises.
43.8.1 Fire and explosion risks
Flame-cutting through structures and within buildings can
create a serious fire hazard if precautions are not taken to isolate
areas and clear burnable debris from underneath working areas.
When bonfires are lit they should be carefully sited, of modest
size and be extinguished before the end of the shift.
At the other end of the scale is the devastation caused by
explosions due to the ignition of vapours from small quantities
of residues in closed vessels.
Residues in petroleum, oil, gas or chemical tanks, pipes and
vessels remain almost indefinitely after the tanks have been
drained and abandoned. Even when containers have been
degassed, pockets of residues may remain and vaporize.
If it is proposed to dismantle such containers using flame-
cutters or tools which produce sparks, such as abrasive disc
cutters, the contents must be made inert.
Water can be used to fill a tank to exclude vapour, but it does
not render the contents inert; indeed, flammable liquid may
float on top of the water. Nitrogen, an inert gas, is recom-
mended in BS 6187:1982' for purging tanks. Nitrogen is, how-
ever, an asphyxiant and should be handled carefully by special-
ists. 'Dry ice' - frozen carbon dioxide - can also be used as an
inhibitor.
As well as the problems of neutralizing fuel tanks, contractors
are increasingly involved with the dismantling of factories which
have used chemicals in their working processes. On some
occasions, the plants which produce or convert such chemicals
are themselves demolished.
Notwithstanding the operator may have purged the process
equipment, pipework, tanks and vessels, they may nevertheless
have accumulated volatile residues over a considerable period
which present health risks from toxicity or irritants.
These problems will be anticipated by experienced contrac-
tors who will know where to seek the necessary expert advice.
43.9 Environmental matters
The demolition contractor's activities will attract the attention
of the authorities required to look after the interests of the
public both physically and environmentally. Local authorities
will be concerned particularly about: (1) noise; (2) vibration;
and (3) dust.
Restrictions on working hours, e.g. placing limits on early
starts or imposing early finishes, or the enforcement of silent
periods through the day, can seriously affect site production.
The level of noise acceptable at a site boundary may be settled
in advance by agreement with the local authority, but few
developers opt for this procedure, preferring to leave the nego-
tiations to the contractor once the job has started.
The careful siting of diesel-driven plant, shielding of static
items and use of electrically driven equipment (if mains power is
available) can reduce noise considerably. Good maintenance of
engines and bodywork, and the avoidance of unnecessary
dropping when loading, can also contribute to this.
Vibration may be impossible to avoid; indeed, efforts to
eradicate it by changing methods may produce other problems.
However, the intermittent use of a demolition ball may be more
acceptable to neighbours than the constant noise of pneumatic
breakers.
The demolition method quite obviously must take into ac-
count the susceptibility of adjacent or neighbouring structures
to damage from vibration, and the increasing use of sophisti-
cated office equipment - which is highly susceptible to vibration
- means that work must be organized to provide as early as
possible a gap between occupied buildings and the building
being demolished. Even then, there may be a problem if office
equipment is in basements, picking up vibration from falling
debris or moving plant and vehicles.
The major problem is dust. Sheeting and dampening down
can reduce the inconvenience but not eliminate it completely.
Contractors face an increasing number of complaints about
blocked filters which purify the air circulation to computer
rooms; air-conditioning units are also affected. Much can be
done to relieve this problem if the contractor allows for the time
and cost of additional sheeting or occasionally the use of a
prefilter at the installation.
In general, the contractor can do much to prevent environ-
mental difficulties by good housekeeping around his sites,
responding to complaints from the authorities and individuals,
and keeping local people informed of the reasons for temporary
inconviences.
43.10 Future developments
The demolition industry, as conservative as any section of the
construction industry, watches new techniques and machinery
with interest as it continues to move toward greater mechaniza-
tion, encouraged both by economics and legislation, effectively
bringing about methods which allow a reduced workforce.
On a broader front, contractors recognize that their manager-
ial and supervisory skills will be assessed thoroughly prior to
obtaining a share of the markets becoming available, e.g.
decommissioning offshore oil installations and nuclear power
stations. Many governmental policy decisions will affect the
procedures.
References
1 British Standards Institution (1982) Code of practice for demolition,
BS 6187. BSI, Milton Keynes.
2 Health and Safety Executive, Health and safety in demolition work,
Part I: 'Preparation and planning'. Guidance note, GS29/1, HSE,
London.