38 Structural
Fabrication
Contents
38.1 Welding processes 38/3
References 38/11
Drive rollers
Electrode wire:
Some typical butt welds are shown in Figure 38.5; these are
Consumable generally for manual welding.4 The root-run is usually back-
Drive guide tubes grooved (except where a backing strip is used) so that clean weld
motor
metal from the previous root is obtained (Figure 38.6); this
Parent metal ensures homogeneity of weld metal at the root area. These same
preparations may be used for semi-automatic welding with no
root gaps where root gaps are shown, or with a root run of
manual weld to seal the root before applying any semi-automa-
tic process for the rest of the weld. The root run on the second
side does not generally require back-grooving since the penetra-
Stationary copper cooling tion is enough to ensure weld metal homogeneity.
shoes (both sides of joint)
Submerged arc welding is a high-deposition welding process
with deep-penetration characteristics although with a direct
current electrode negative power source the burn-off or deposi-
tion rate increases with a large diminution in penetration;
Figure 38.3 Electro-slag welding process multiple wires or electrodes may be used in the same weld with
Symmetrical Concave Asymmetrical
Figure 38.4 Fillet welds. Note: minimum length of both legs to be measured for L, for concave weld f^0.7 L
Single V butt the electrodes sharing, in parallel, the same power source or
each electrode connected to a separate power source. Weld
preparations for such a process are infinite and reference should
be made to the suppliers of electrodes and fluxes for their advice;
for notch ductile materials, basic fluxes and an increase in the
Backing strip number of runs may be necessary.
Double V or double U butt
38.3 Weld defects
Some typical weld defects are shown in Figure 38.7.
Undercut
Side wall
Inclusion Root
(penetration)
Figure 38.5 Typical butt welds. Note, angles and dimensions of
root gaps and root faces may be altered to suit welding technique Slag inclusions Lack of fusion
and position of weld, the above being suitable for flat-position
welding. Welding is carried out from both sides of all preparations
except where a backing strip is employed. To achieve complete
penetration, back-gouging (back-grooving) may be employed Side wall
Root
Linear porosity
First root run
Lack of fusion
Porosity (linear)
Figure 38.7 Some weld defects
'Undercut.' A groove melted into the parent metal at the toe of
Sound weld metal Back groove into a fillet weld or root of a butt-weld - produced by the arc but left
interface after first (root) run unfilled by the filler metal. Undercut may be due to incorrect
grooving
angle between the electrode and the workpiece, too high an arc
Figure 38.6 Butt weld back groove voltage or travel speed or scaled parent material.
'Porosity.' Due to dirty or rusty parent material surface, damp affected by the heat input of the weld and whose microstructure
consumables, arc instability (as evidenced by the stop or starting and physical properties might be affected by that heat. This zone
of the arc when using MMA), gas entrapment from air due to is rapidly cooled by the mass of the surrounding parent metal
inefficient shielding gas, grease on filler wires. When linear can and if this cooling rate is high enough a hardened (martensitic)
denote 'lack of penetration'. microstructure may be formed. Cracking may develop in this
hardened structure (see Figure 38.9) owing to: (1) the alloy
'Lack of penetration' for butt welds. Inclusive angle of pre- content of the parent material increasing; (2) high cooling rate;
pared faces too small to allow the electrode to get at the root, (3) restraint and therefore higher residual stresses resulting from
insufficient current to penetrate the landing or landing too small the weld contraction; (4) stresses within the microstructure due
for the set arc parameters or root gap too small to allow more to the transformation to a hardened structure; (5) the presence
penetration. of absorbed hydrogen from the weld diffusing into the HAZ
when that weld cools and contributing to the creation of micro
'Lack of fusion.' Incorrect manipulation and angle of electrode fissures; and (6) for fillet welds, where the fit-up is bad with root
to ensure side-wall fusion, or root fusion. gaps.
Weld Weld
1st weld
1
2nd weld