Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Systematic reviews of explanatory risk factors for violence, offending,

and delinquency
David P. Farrington , Hannah Gaffney, Maria M. Tto
Institute of Criminology, Cambridge University, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The main aim of this article is to identify systematic reviews of explanatory risk factors for violence, offending,
Received 25 July 2016 and delinquency. Explanatory risk factors are factors that are clearly measuring an underlying construct that is
Accepted 7 November 2016 different from antisocial behavior. Based on searches for articles published between 2000 and 2016, 216 relevant
Available online 14 November 2016
studies were located and screened, and 42 systematic reviews were included in the analysis: 11 concerned with
crime or violence, seven with delinquency or youth violence, eight with sex offending, and 16 with dating or in-
Keywords:
Systematic reviews
timate partner violence. Twenty systematic reviews included meta-analyses, but few of these reviewed a wide
Explanatory risk factors range of risk factors. These meta-analyses show the strength of relationships between risk factors and outcomes.
Violence More systematic reviews and meta-analyses of risk factors are needed to advance knowledge. It is highly desir-
Offending able to have reviews of longitudinal studies, reviews that focus on explanatory risk factors, and reviews that re-
Delinquency port both overall effect sizes and effect sizes after controlling for other risk factors.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The main aim of this article is to identify systematic reviews of ex-
planatory risk factors for violence, offending, and delinquency. Explana-
tory risk factors are factors that are clearly measuring an underlying
construct that is different from antisocial behavior. They include indi-
vidual factors such as low intelligence, low achievement, high impul-
siveness, low empathy, and attention decit; family factors such as
poor child-rearing, poor parental supervision, broken homes, and child
abuse or neglect; and social factors such as low socioeconomic status,
low family income, large family size, poor housing, and living in a
high-crime neighborhood (see Farrington, 2015).
Non-explanatory risk factors are those that could be measuring the
same underlying construct as antisocial behavior. For example, an ag-
gressive attitude is a risk factor for violent behavior, but both an aggres-
sive attitude and violent behavior could reect the same underlying
construct (of, for example, an antisocial personality). Similarly, bullying
and gang membership are viewed as non-explanatory risk factors. The
most contentious risk factor is peer delinquency. Some researchers
argue that peer delinquency is an explanatory risk factor (e.g. that delin-
quent peers could cause a person to commit delinquent acts), while
others argue that, because delinquency is usually a group activity, delin-
quent adolescents will inevitably have delinquent peers. In the Pitts-
burgh Youth Study, Farrington, Loeber, Yin, and Anderson (2002)
found that changes in peer delinquency from one assessment to the
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dpf1@cam.ac.uk (D.P. Farrington).
next did not predict changes in a boy's delinquency from one assess-
ment to the next, whereas changes in parental supervision from one as-
sessment to the next did predict changes in a boy's delinquency from
one assessment to the next. They therefore concluded that parental su-
pervision might be a cause of delinquency (or an explanatory risk fac-
tor) but peer delinquency was not.
Systematic reviews have explicit objectives, explicit criteria for inclu-
sion or exclusion of studies, and searches for studies that are designed
to reduce potential bias. They may include a meta-analysis, which is a
quantitative summary of effect sizes and their variances. There were rela-
tively few systematic reviews in criminology before the foundation of the
Campbell Collaboration in 2000 (see Farrington & Petrosino, 2000). There
were even fewer systematic reviews of risk factors; most systematic re-
views and meta-analyses in criminology, both before and after 2000,
have aimed to review the effectiveness of interventions (but see
Gendreau, Little, & Goggin, 1996). A recent book edited by Weisburd,
Farrington, and Gill (2016) assessed systematic reviews of a variety of
types of interventions, including developmental prevention, situational
prevention, community interventions, policing, sentencing, correctional
programs, and drug interventions. However, the present article is the
rst effort to assess systematic reviews of risk factors in criminology.
2. Method
Systematic literature searches were conducted in order to identify
systematic reviews and meta-analyses of risk factors for violence,
offending, and/or delinquency. Several online databases, including
Web of Science, PsychINFO, PsychARTICLES, Google Scholar, Scopus,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.11.004
1359-1789/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436 25

Table 1
174 Excluded studies.

Reference Description

(A) Narrative/theoretical reviews (41)

Ali and Naylor (2013) Narrative review of studies exploring the biological and psychological explanations of intimate partner violence.
Baldry, Farrington, and Sorrentino (2015) Narrative review of cyberbullying and cyber victimization.
Barnett and Mann (2013) Theoretical overview of empathy decits between different types of sexual offenders, and how they vary according to
offender typology.
Baxendale, Cross, and Johnston (2012) Narrative review of gender differences in adolescents' perpetration of violence.
Benton (2007) Narrative review of the relationship between diet and various violence-related behaviors.
Black, Heyman, and Slep (2001) Narrative review of risk factors for sexual abuse in heterosexual relationships.
Buker (2011) Theoretical review of the application of self-control in relation to criminal behavior and offending.
Chambers (2010) Narrative review of the main personality traits typically associated with violent offending.
Corvo and deLara (2010) Theoretical review of the similarities between domestic violence perpetrators and bullies. Implications for an integrated
theory of relational violence risk factors.
Deptula and Cohen (2004) Narrative review of the relationship between peer friendships and delinquency, aggression and antisocial behaviors in children.
Duncan and Miller (2002) Narrative review of literature on the association between experiences of familial childhood abuse with violence and
animal cruelty in adulthood.
Eisenbraun (2007) Narrative review of risk factors associated with violence in schools.
Eme (2009) Narrative review of neuro-developmental risk factors associated with persistent adult male antisocial behavior.
Eme (2013) Narrative review of the association between genetic conditions, MAOA syndrome, and male antisocial behavior.
Houtepen, Sijtsema, and Bogaerts (2014) Narrative review of characteristics of child pornography offenders and contact child sex offenders. Also reviews the risks
associated with cross-over from online pornography offending to contact offending.
Ioane, Lambie, and Percival (2013) Narrative review of individual, family, and community level risk factors of youth offending in Pacic Island region.
Jennings, Piquero, and Reingle (2012) Narrative review of the overlap between victimization and offending.
Kaukinen (2014) Narrative review of risk and protective factors associated with dating violence in college and University student samples.
Kwako et al. (2011) Narrative review of the association between traumatic brain injury and intimate partner violence.
Leen et al. (2013) Narrative review of the literature surrounding dynamic risk factors, prevalence and prevention of adolescent dating violence.
Liu (2011) Narrative review of the impact of early health risk factors, including child sexual abuse, and outcomes in adulthood,
including juvenile delinquency, violence, and engagement in criminal behavior.
Markowitz (2003) Narrative review of the association between socioeconomic status (SES) particularly low SES, and violence.
McGrath, Nilsen, and Kerley (2011) Narrative review of the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and later delinquent behavior; no clear method of
searches outlined, or inclusion/exclusion criteria provided.
McPhedran (2009) Narrative review of the relationship between empathy, violence and cruelty against animals.
van der Merwe and Dawes (2007) Narrative review of risk factors, causal pathways and effective interventions for youth violence perpetration.
Morgado and da Luz Vale-Dias (2013) Narrative review of the literature concerned with antisocial behavior in adolescents, and its related correlates.
Moskowitz (2004) Non-systematic review of the role of dissociation in violent behavior.
O'Brien, Daffern, Chu, and Thomas (2013) Narrative review of the risk and motivational factors associated with various criminological outcomes, specically youth
gang afliation, but also delinquency, violence and criminal activity.
Ostrowsky (2010) Narrative review of the relationship between self-esteem and violent behavior.
Ouzir (2013) Narrative review of the link between impulsive behavior and schizophrenia.
Pinto et al. (2010) Narrative review of the biological and neurological factors associated with the perpetration of intimate partner violence.
Piquero, Jennings, and Barnes (2012) Narrative review of life-course violent offending, including the associated risk factors.
Proctor (2006) Narrative review of the outcomes for children exposed to community violence.
Raine (2002) Narrative review of studies exploring the biosocial risk factors associated with antisociality and violence in both children and adults.
Reidy et al. (2015) Narrative review of the relationship between psychopathy and violent behavior.
Sappington (2000) Narrative review of the relationship between childhood experiences of abuse and violence-related outcomes.
Savage (2014) Non-systematic review of the literature surrounding the relationship between attachment/parental bonding and
aggression and violence in children.
Taillieu and Brownridge (2010) Narrative review of the prevalence and risk factors associated with intimate partner violence perpetrated against
pregnant women.
Tyler (2002) Narrative review of the social, behavioural, and emotional outcomes related to childhood experiences of sexual abuse. No
relevant criminological outcomes are included.
Varker, Devilly, Ward, and Beech (2008) Narrative review of the relationship between empathy levels and sexual offending in adolescents.
Zagar, Busch, Grove, and Hughes (2009) Narrative review of methods and instruments used to predict violent recidivism.

(B) Biological/neurological risk factors (15)

Allely, Minnis, Thompson, Wilson, and Gillberg (2014) Systematic review of case study reports of neurodevelopmental factors such as traumatic brain injury, head injury,
Book, Starzyk, and Quinsey (2001)
Farrer, Frost, and Hedges (2012)
Fazel, Philipson, Gardiner, Merritt, and Grann (2009) Systematic and meta-analytic review of the association between neurological disorders, specically epilepsy and
Gow and Hibbeln (2014)
Grant et al. (2013)
Hosseini, Adha, Zainol, Isahak, and Nemati (2014)
Joyal, Beaulieu-Plante, and de Chantrac (2014)
Kim-Cohen et al. (2006)
Lorber (2004)
Ortiz and Raine (2004)
Portnoy and Farrington (2015)
Shiroma, Ferguson, and Pickelsimer (2012)
Vassos, Collier, and Fazel (2014)
Yang and Raine (2009)
autism-spectrum disorder and suspected neuro-developmental disorder, in convicted serial and mass murderers.
Meta-analysis of the association between testosterone and aggression.
Meta-analysis of differences in the prevalence of traumatic brain injury between perpetrators of intimate partner violence
and the general population.
traumatic brain injury, and the perpetration of violence.
Review of the relationship between omega-3 fatty acid deciency and neuro-developmental outcomes related to ADHD
and violent behaviors in children and adolescents.
Meta-analysis of the effects of exposure to e-waste on several outcomes, such as low birth weight and premature birth,
but also criminal behavior and violence.
Systematic review and meta-analysis of neighborhood stress and circadian cortisol.
Meta-analysis of 23 studies reporting neuropsychological factors in sexual offenders.
Review of the interaction between the MAOA gene and child maltreatment, and resulting outcomes, such as child mental
health difculties and antisocial behavior.
Meta-analytic review of the relationship between heart rate and aggression, psychopathy and conduct problems.
Meta-analytic review of the relationship between resting heart rate and antisocial behavior.
Meta-analytic review of the relationship between resting heart rate and antisocial behavior.
Meta-analysis of the prevalence of traumatic brain injury in a sample of offenders.
Systematic and meta-analytic review of the association between genes and violence and aggression.
Meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies and ndings concerning prefrontal structural abnormalities in antisocial,
violent, and psychopathic individuals.

(continued on next page)

26
Table 1 (continued)
Reference
(C) Psychiatric/clinical risk factors (23)
Bjrkly (2009)
Bjrkly (2013)
Boonmann et al. (2015)
Bragado-Jimenez and Taylor (2012)
Bundock et al. (2013)
Carr, Martins, Stingel, Lemgruber, and Juruena (2013)
Chang et al. (2015)
Cornaggia, Beghi, Pavone, and Barale (2011)
Douglas, Guy, and Hart (2009)
Fazel and Yu (2011)
Fazel, Lichtenstein, Grann, Goodwin, and
Lngstrm (2010)
Gadon, Johnstone, and Cooke (2006)
Harris, Oakley, and Picchioni (2014)
Harris and Picchioni (2013)
Iozzino, Ferrari, Large, Nielssen, and de Girolamo
(2015)
Jackson, Sippel, Mota, Whalen, and Schumacher
(2015)
Lamsma and Harte (2015)
Nederlof, Muris, and Hovens (2013)
Reagu, Jones, Kumari, and Taylor (2013)
Sands, Elsom, Gerdtz, and Khaw (2012)
Theunissen et al. (2014)
Witt, van Dorn, and Fazel (2013)
Yu, Geddes, and Fazel (2012)
(D) Risk factors for recidivism or desistance (17)
Basto-Pereira et al. (2015)
Bonta, Blais, and Wilson (2014)
Cottle et al. (2001)
Gendreau et al. (1996)
Gerhold, Browne, and Beckett (2007)
Gutierrez, Wilson, Rugge, and Bonta (2013)
Hanson and Morton-Bourgon (2005)
Helmus, Hanson, Babchishin, and Mann (2012)
Kennedy, Vale, Khan, and McAnaney (2006)
Kreis, Schwannauer, and Gillings (2014)
Kuijpers, van der Knaap, and Lodewijks (2011)
Mallie, Viljoen, Mordell, Spice, and Roesch (2011)
McCann and Lussier (2008)
Piquero, Jennings, Diamond, and Reingle (2015)
Sheehan, Thakor, and Stewart (2012)
van Vugt et al. (2011)
Walker, Bowen, and Brown (2013)
(E) Reviews with irrelevant outcomes/populations(44)
Azeredo, Rinaldi, de Moraes, Levy, and Menezes
(2015)
Card and Little (2006)
Davis and Petretic-Jackson (2000)
Egan, Tannahill, Petticrew, and Thomas (2008)
Fowler, Tompsett, Braciszewski, Jacques-Tiura, and Meta-analytic review of the impact of exposure to community violence on child and adolescent mental health outcomes.
Baltes (2009)
Garca-Sancho, Salguero, and Fernndez-Berrocal
(2014)
Gonalves, Gonalves, Martins, and Dirkzwager
(2014)
Hogh and Viitasara (2005)
Hong, Lee, Grogan-Kaylor, and Huang (2011)
Horn, Joseph, and Cheng (2004)
Hosseini et al. (2014)
Hughes and Cossar (2016)
Hyder and Malik (2007)
D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436
Description
Systematic review of dynamic risk factors for violence in individuals with Asperger's syndrome.
Systematic review of the association between impulsivity and violence in psychotic individuals.
Meta-analytic synthesis of the relationship between mental disorders and juvenile offending, particularly sexual
offending.
Systematic review of the relationship between empathy and violence perpetration in schizophrenic individuals.
Systematic review of the association between eating disorders and experiences of intimate partner violence victimization.
Systematic review of the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in adulthood according to types of early life stress (i.e.
physical/sexual abuse or emotional/physical neglect), experienced in childhood.
Systematic review of risk factors for violence in young people presenting with psychosis in Hong Kong.
Systematic review of risk factors associated with aggression on psychiatric wards.
Meta-analytic review of psychosis as a risk factor for violence perpetrated against others.
Systematic and meta-analytic review of the association between psychosis and repeat offending.
Systematic review of the risk of violent crime in bipolar disorder.
Systematic review of risk factors for violence perpetrated against other patients and staff in institutional settings.
Systematic review of the evidence for an association between attributional bias and violence in individuals with
schizophrenia and psychosis.
Systematic review of the association between empathy and risk of violence in individuals with mental disorders.
Meta-analytic review of the prevalence and associated risk factors for violence in psychiatric inpatients.
Systematic review of the evidence for borderline personality disorder as a risk factor for intimate partner violence.
Structured narrative review of the impact of risk factors on violence in psychotic psychiatric patients.
Systematic review of the impact of risk factors for understanding the link between schizophrenia and violent behavior.
Systematic review of the role of anger in violent behavior among individuals with psychosis.
Systematic review of the literature exploring mental-health related risk factors for violent behavior.
Systematic review of elements of psychopathology in hearing-impaired children, and their impact on outcomes such as
delinquency and attention decit.
Meta-analysis of risk factors associated with violence in psychosis.
Synthesis of the association of personality disorders and risk of violent outcomes.
Systematic review of longitudinal studies assessing predictors of desistance in juvenile delinquents.
Meta-analytic review of risk factors associated with general and violence-specic recidivism in mentally disordered offenders.
Meta-analytic review of risk factors associated with recidivism in juvenile offenders.
Meta-analytic review of predictors of adult recidivism, published before 2000.
Systematic review of the factors that predict recidivism in adolescent sexual offenders.
Meta-analytic review of the predictors of recidivism in Aboriginal offenders.
Meta-analysis of risk factors associated with recidivism in sexual offending.
Meta-analytic review of the ability of offending-supportive attitudes to predict recidivism in sexual offenders.
Systematic review of risk factors that predict recidivism in child and adolescent resetters.
Systematic review of the relationship-related risk factors associated with female offenders' reoffending.
Systematic review of victim inuence on intimate partner violence revictimization.
Meta-analytic synthesis of the inuence of childhood sexual abuse on adolescent sexual reoffending.
Meta-analysis of the role of antisociality and sexual deviance in adolescent sexual reoffending.
Systematic review of the effects of sex, age, ethnicity and race on violent recidivism.
Systematic review of the factors that predict turning points in perpetrators of intimate partner violence.
Meta-analysis of the relationship between empathy and recidivism in juvenile and adult delinquents.
Review of the literature on risk and protective factors associated with desistance in violent offenders.
Systematic review of contextual-level risk factors associated with school bullying.
Meta-analytic review of several variables, including delinquent and ADHD-related behaviors, and their relationship with
both proactive and relational aggression in children and adolescents.
Review of studies exploring the impact of experiencing child abuse on several different outcomes of adult interpersonal
functioning. No violence-, offending- or criminal-related outcomes.
Meta-analytic systematic review on the relationship between psychosocial environmental factors, such as exposure to
community violence or antisocial behavior, and mental health outcomes.
Systematic review of the relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression.
Meta-analytic synthesis of risk factors associated with violence in prison populations.
Systematic review of longitudinal studies on risk factors associated with workplace violence; however, focuses on staff in
healthcare and psychiatric institutions.
Systematic review of risk factors, including parenting factors and socio-economic status, for adolescent substance use in
South Korea.
Systematic review of the outcomes, including aggression, ghting, and antisocial behavior, associated with non-abusive
corporal punishment of African-American children.
Review of the association between neighborhood-induced stress and circadian cortisol levels.
Systematic review of retrospective studies evaluating the impact of experiences of abuse and/or neglect in childhood on
later parenting outcomes.
Systematic review of predictors of violence against children in Pakistan, e.g. child labor, child neglect/abuse.
 D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436 27

Table 1 (continued)

Reference Description

(E) Reviews with irrelevant outcomes/populations(44)

Impey and Heun (2012) Systematic review of the prevalence of suicidal ideation, attempt and suicide in adolescents with attention
decit-hyperactivity disorder.
Isen (2010) Meta-analytic review of intelligence of various antisocial behavior populations.
Larzelere and Kuhn (2005) Meta-analytic comparison of the outcomes of physical punishment and alternative disciplinary methods for children.
Lindert et al. (2014) Systematic review of studies investigating the association between experiences of childhood sexual/physical abuse with
depression and anxiety.
Lozon and Bensimon (2014) Systematic review of the associations between preferred music genre and negative outcomes, including violent, impulsive
and delinquent outcomes, but does not report the results for different outcomes separately.
Maguire et al. (2015) Systematic review of the long-term outcomes, such as impulsivity, inattention and attention decit, of child neglect.
Maniglio (2010) Systematic review of the association between deviant sexual fantasy and the perpetration of sexual homicide.
Maniglio (2012) Systematic review of systematic reviews that evaluate the relationship between experiences of childhood sexual abuse
and anxiety disorders.
Maniglio (2014) Systematic review of the prevalence of experiences of childhood sexual abuse in children diagnosed with conduct
disorder.
Maniglio (2015) Systematic review of the association and nature of the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and mental health
outcomes such as depression and anxiety.
Neal, Stone, and Ingham (2016) Meta-analytic review of the relationship between exposure to violence in conict-affected areas and sexual/reproductive
health in adolescent females.
Nikkelen, Valkenburg, Huizinga, and Bushman Meta-analysis of the relationship between violent media consumption and ADHD-related behaviors.
(2014)
Norman et al. (2012) Systematic and meta-analytic review of the association between experiences of emotional and physical neglect/abuse
during childhood and various health outcomes, such as substance abuse, mental health disorders, and obesity.
Paolucci and Violato (2004) Meta-analysis of the relationship between experiences of corporal punishment in childhood and several later outcomes
including antisocial behavior and aggression.
Piotrowska, Stride, Croft, and Rowe (2015) Systematic and meta-analytic review of the association between antisocial and socioeconomic status behaviour in
children/adolescents.
Rothbaum and Weisz (1994) Meta-analysis of the relationship between parenting factors and child externalizing behavior outcomes, which do not
include violence, delinquency, or offending. Published before 2000.
Schneeberger, Dietl, Muenzenmaier, Huber, and Systematic review of the health-related outcomes of childhood experiences of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse in
Lang (2014) sexual minority populations.
Schumacher, Slep, and Heyman (2001) Systematic review of risk factors associated with male-to-female intimate partner violence, but outcomes of interest are
psychological abuse, rather than physical violence against the partner.
Scorgie et al. (2012) Systematic review of the socio-demographic and behavioral risk factors associated with HIV infection in African female
sex workers.
Sharma, Markon, and Clark (2014) Systematic review of self-report and behavioral studies of impulsivity, but no associations with violence-, delinquency-, or
offending-related outcomes are included.
Toumbourou and Rowland (2015) Systematic and meta-analytic review of community factors, for example, community violence or neighborhood
socio-economic status that are risk factors for adolescent depression.
Thornberry, Knight, and Lovegrove (2012) Systematic review of the relationship between childhood experiences of maltreatment and adulthood maltreatment of
children.
Tippett and Wolke (2014) Systematic review and meta-analysis of socioeconomic status versus bullying.
Vachon, Lynam, and Johnson (2014) Meta-analytic review of the relationship between empathy and aggression.
Voisin, Hong, and King (2012) Review of risk factors associated with risky sexual behaviors (e.g. STIs), including parental monitoring and family
violence.
White, Hindley, and Jones (2015) Systematic review of risk factors associated with recurring child maltreatment.
Williams and Ross (2007) Systematic review of mental health outcomes related to prenatal toxin exposure.
Wilson and Rosenthal (2003) Meta-analytic review of the relationship between exposure to community violence and prevalence of psychological
distress in adolescents.
Wojcicki (2005) Systematic review of the role of socioeconomic status in risk of HIV infection in women globally.
Wolfe, Crooks, Lee, McIntyre-Smith, and Jaffe Meta-analysis of the effects of children's exposure to domestic violence on outcomes such as internalizing and
(2003) externalizing problems.
Yan, Chan, and Tiwari (2015) Systematic review of risk and protective factors associated with elder abuse in Asia.

(F) Non-explanatory risk factors (13)

Bennett, Holloway, and Farrington (2008) Meta-analysis of the relationship between drug use and engagement in criminal activity.
Bowes and McMurran (2013) Systematic review of the association between violence-supportive cognitions and perpetration of violent behavior.
Branas, Han, and Wiebe (2016) Systematic review of studies which explore the impact of alcohol consumption on rearm violence.
Deering et al. (2014) Systematic review of the covariates of violence, such as substance use, previous convictions and risky sexual behaviors,
perpetrated against female sex workers.
Derzon (2001) Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies exploring youth antisocial and substance use behaviors as risk factors for later
criminality and violence.
Dowling et al. (2016) Meta-analysis and systematic review of the association between problem gambling behaviors and intimate partner
violence.
Farb and Matjasko (2012) Systematic review of the relationship between participation in extracurricular school activities and a series of variables,
including delinquency.
Pyrooz, Turanovic, Decker, and Wu (2015) Meta-analytic review of the association between gang membership and offending.
Rosenfeld (2004) Meta-analysis of the relationship between violence in stalking/harassment and risk factors such as psychotic disorder,
psychiatric illness and substance abuse.
Spruit, van Vugt, van der Put, van der Stouwe, and Meta-analytic review of sports participation as a protective, not risk, factor for juvenile delinquency.
Stams (2016)
Tto, Farrington, Lsel, and Loeber (2011) Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies on the association between school bullying and later
offending.
Tto et al. (2012) Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies on the association between school bullying and later
violence.
Vives-Cases, Gil-Gonzlez, and Carrasco-Portio Systematic review of the risk factors associated with intimate partner violence, specically male domination and marital
(2009) conict.

(continued on next page)

28 D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436

Table 1 (continued)

Reference Description

(G) Other (21)

Buehler et al. (1997) Meta-analysis of the effect of interparental conict (separated or divorced parents) on youth internalizing and externalizing
behaviors. Published before 2000.
Campbell, French, and Gendreau (2009) Meta-analytic review of the predictive validity of several different risk assessment instruments for violence in adults.
Cassidy, Inglis, Wiysonge, and Matzopoulos (2014) Systematic review of neighborhood risk factors but based on intervention studies.
Heerde et al. (2014) Systematic review of the prevalence of violence perpetration and victimization amongst homeless youth.
Heerde and Hemphill (2016) Systematic review of the prevalence of property offense perpetration and victimization amongst homeless youth.
Jennings and Reingle (2012) Systematic review of developmental trajectories of violence, aggression, and delinquency.
Ji and Finkelhor (2015) Meta-analysis of the prevalence of child abuse in China.
Jones et al. (2012) Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and risk of violence against children with disabilities.
Laulik, Chou, Browne, and Allam (2013) Systematic review of the association between personality disorders and parenting behaviors, but no relevant child outcomes.
Lees-Warley and Rose (2015) Systematic review of the prevalence of resetting offenses in adults with low intellectual functioning.
Simpson and Hogg (2001) Systematic review of studies exploring the prevalence of offending in individuals with intellectual disability.
Stoltenborgh, Bakermans-Kranenburg, and van Meta-analytic synthesis of the prevalence of child neglect and explanations for variations of prevalence rates across studies.
IJzendoorn (2013)
Taylor, das Nair, and Braham (2013) Meta-ethnography approach, reviewing factors relating to male perpetration of intimate partner violence, such as social
disadvantage and biological determinism.
Vives-Cases et al. (2007) Systematic review of the relationship between socio-economic status and intimate partner violence. However, article not
published in English.
Wells and Rankin (1991) Meta-analysis of the relationship between broken homes and delinquency, but was published before 2000.
White and Satyen (2015) Systematic review of cross-cultural comparisons of the associations between intimate partner violence and depressive
disorders.
Wu, Chen, and Xu (2012) Meta-analytic review of violence as a risk factor for postpartum depression in mothers.
Yancey and Hansen (2010) Review of the interaction effects of family and individual level factors that impact outcomes in abused children.
Yarcheski and Mahon (2016) Review of the relationship between various predictors, including academic achievement and violence, and adolescents'
feelings of hope.
Young, Moss, Sedgwick, Fridman, and Hodgkins Meta-analysis of the prevalence of ADHD in incarcerated populations.
(2015)
Young et al. (2015) Meta-analytic review of the comorbidity of ADHD in incarcerated populations.

ERIC, and Criminal Justice Abstracts, were searched using Boolean oper-
ators and the following search terms: systematic review or meta-anal-
ysis; and delinquen* or offend* or violen*. In addition, the following
terms were included as key words: attainment; achievement; attention
decit; broken home/separation; child rearing; child abuse/neglect/mal-
treatment; community; empathy; family income; family size; impulsive*;
intelligence/IQ; neighborhood; parental supervision/parenting style; risk
factors; and socioeconomic status. These searches covered the period
from January 2000 to April 2016. Furthermore, hand searches of the
journal Aggression and Violent Behavior during this time period were
also conducted.
These searches returned 1993 results, the abstracts of which were
screened for eligibility. The following inclusion criteria were employed
in order to identify eligible studies for the present review:
1. The study must be a systematic review or a meta-analysis.
2. Measured outcomes must include violence, offending, or delinquency.
3. The study must review psychosocial explanatory risk factors for the
above outcomes.
4. The study must be based on community samples.
5. The study must be published from January 2000 to April 2016 in En-
glish and in peer-reviewed journals. Chapters in edited books (e.g.
Jolliffe & Farrington, 2009) were excluded.
6. The study can be longitudinal or cross-sectional but not an interven-
tion study.
outcomes of recidivism or desistance (n = 17) were also excluded (e.g.
Basto-Pereira, Comeanha, Ribeiro, & Maia, 2015; Cottle, Lee, &
Heilbrun, 2001). Of the remaining studies, most were excluded because
they assessed the relationship between relevant risk factors and out-
comes that did not include violence, offending, or delinquency (n =
44). For example, Maniglio (2015) conducted a systematic review of
the mental health-related outcomes of childhood experiences of sexual
abuse.
Thirteen studies were excluded because they reviewed non-
explanatory risk factors for violence, offending, or delinquency. For ex-
ample, Tto, Farrington, and Lsel (2012) evaluated school bullying as
a predictor of violence in adulthood. The article by Bowes and
McMurran (2013) was also excluded for this reason, as violence-
supportive cognitions may measure the same underlying construct as vi-
olence. Other studies (n = 21) were removed for other reasons, such as
not published in 20002016 (e.g. Buehler et al., 1997; Wells & Rankin,
1991), not published in English (e.g. Vives-Cases, Gil-Gonzlez,
Carrasco-Portio, & lvarez-Dardet, 2007), or employing non-
community samples (e.g. Heerde & Hemphill, 2016; Heerde, Hemphill,
& Scholes-Balog, 2014; Lees-Warley & Rose, 2015). Further details
about all 174 excluded studies are presented in Table 1. We cannot
claim that all of the categories in Table 1 are covered exhaustively. We
were searching for included studies, not for excluded studies. The studies
in Table 1 were identied using the specic search criteria for the current
review and were later determined to be excluded.

A total of 216 studies passed the initial screening and were obtained
and read. The inclusion criteria meant that narrative and theoretical re-
views (n = 41) were excluded as they do not employ rigorous and
clear inclusion/exclusion criteria. For example, Leen et al. (2013) carried
out a narrative review of dynamic risk factors for adolescent dating vio-
lence. Systematic and meta-analytic reviews of biological or neurological
factors associated with violence, offending, or delinquency (n = 15)
were also excluded, such as Ortiz and Raine's (2004) review of the asso-
ciation between resting heart rate and antisocial behavior in children and
adolescents. Reviews of psychiatric and clinical risk factors (n = 23)
were also excluded. For example, Harris and Picchioni (2013) reviewed
empathy in individuals with mental disorders. Studies employing
3. Results
Table 2 shows the 42 systematic reviews or meta-analyses of risk
factors that were included in our analysis. Eleven were primarily con-
cerned with crime and/or violence, seven with delinquency or youth vi-
olence, eight with sex offending, and 16 with dating or intimate partner
violence. The relatively large number of reviews concerned with dating
or intimate partner violence is noteworthy. Some reviews focused only
on one risk factor (e.g., empathy in the review by *Jolliffe & Farrington,
2004), while others focused on a variety of risk factors (e.g., family fac-
tors by *Derzon, 2010). Some reviews included fewer than 10 studies
(e.g., *Murray, de Castro Cerqueira, & Kahn, 2013), while others
Table 2
42 included studies.

Reference Review type Longitudinal?a Risk factor(s) Outcome(s) Description

(A) Crime and violence (11)

*Derzon (2010) Meta-analysis Yes Various Criminal and violent Meta-analytic review of 119 prospective studies of various risk factors versus current or later
behaviour reports of criminal, violent and antisocial behavior.
*Hoeve et al. (2014) Systematic Yes Financial debt Crime Systematic review of 36 studies exploring the association between adolescents' nancial debt
review and criminal behaviors.
*Jolliffe and Farrington (2004) Meta-analysis No Empathy Offending Meta-analytic review of 35 studies assessing the association between empathy, both cognitive
and affective empathy, and offending.
*de Jong, Alink, Bijleveld, Systematic Yes Child sexual abuse Offending Systematic review of 51 articles on outcomes of child sexual abuse, including 5 with offending
Finkenauer, and Hendriks review outcomes.
(2015)
*van Langen et al. (2014) Meta-analysis No Empathy Offending Meta-analysis of 38 studies evaluating the relationship between empathy and offending.

D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436

*Leschied et al. (2008)
*Murray et al. (2012)
*Murray et al. (2013)
*Ogilvie et al. (2014)
*Pratt et al. (2006)
*Walker and Bright (2009)
Meta-analysis No Childhood and family factors Adult criminality Meta-analysis of 38 prospective and longitudinal studies exploring childhood factors, such as attention
problems and attention seeking, and family factors such as negative parenting strategies and family
structure variables, that predict involvement in the criminal justice system in adulthood.
Meta-analysis Prospective/retrospective/ Parental incarceration Crime Meta-analysis of 16 studies of the relationship between parental incarceration and child
cross-sectional outcomes, primarily antisocial behavior, but results for crime are reported separately.
Systematic No Various Violence, delinquency, Systematic review of 9 studies evaluating the relationship between individual, family and
review and crime community level risk factors (e.g. family income/wealth, number of siblings, maternal smoking
in pregnancy, mother's marital status) and offending outcomes in Brazil.
Meta-analysis No Attachment style Violent offending Meta-analysis of the relationship between attachment style and violent offending across 30
studies.
Meta-analysis No Maternal smoking during Criminal behavior Meta-analysis of 18 studies assessing the link between maternal smoking during pregnancy and
pregnancy later criminal activity.
Systematic Yes Self-esteem Violence Systematic review of 19 studies investigating the link between self-esteem and violent behaviors.
review

(B) Delinquency (7)

*Assink et al. (2015) Meta-analysis No Various Delinquency Meta-analysis of 55 studies exploring risk factors associated with life-course persistent
delinquency and adolescent-limited delinquency.
*Gerard, Jackson, Chou, Systematic No Various Juvenile homicide Systematic review of 16 studies on the relationship between various risk factors, including low
Whiteld, and Browne review socioeconomic status and being physically abused by a parent, and juvenile homicide offending.
(2014)
*Hoeve et al. (2009) Meta-analysis No Parenting Delinquency Meta-analytic review of 119 independent studies on the relationship between parenting styles
and delinquency.
*Hubbard and Pratt (2002) Meta-analysis No Various Delinquency Meta-analysis of risk factors associated with delinquency in female adolescents, including
socioeconomic status, family factors and childhood abuse (97 effect sizes).
*Irner (2012) Systematic No Maternal substance use during Delinquent behavior Systematic review of 25 studies exploring the outcomes for children exposed to alcohol and drug
review pregnancy in utero, including delinquent behavior (1 study).
*Sarkadi et al. (2008) Systematic Yes Broken home, socioeconomic Delinquency Systematic review of 24 longitudinal studies exploring the effects of father presence on child
review status outcomes, including delinquency.
*Stams et al. (2006) Meta-analysis No Moral judgment Delinquency Meta-analysis of 50 studies evaluating the relationship between moral judgment in juvenile
delinquency and moderators such as socioeconomic status and IQ.

(C) Sex offending (8)

*Babchishin et al. (2015)
*Bhm, Zollner, Fegert, and
Liebhardt (2014)
*Gannon and Alleyne (2013)
Meta-analysis No Various Sexual offending against Meta-analysis of 30 studies of the differences between child pornography offenders, sexual
children, child offenders against children and mixed offenders on several different variables, including, empathy,
pornography offenses impulsivity, employment, education, relationship attachment style, childhood experiences of
abuse, and self-esteem.
Systematic No Static risk factors Child sexual abuse Systematic review of 10 reports regarding sexual abuse against children committed between
review 1981 and 2013 within the Catholic Church. Discusses static risk factors such as sexual interest
and personality factors.
Systematic No Empathy Female sexual offending Systematic review of 13 studies exploring the relationship between offense-supportive
review cognitions, including victim empathy (3 studies), and female sexual offending.

29
(continued on next page)
 30
Table 2 (continued)

Reference Review type Longitudinal?a Risk factor(s) Outcome(s) Description

*Jespersen et al. (2009)
*McPhail et al. (2013)
*Seto and Lalumire (2010)
*Tharp et al. (2012)
*Whitaker et al. (2008)
Meta-analysis No Child sexual abuse Adult sexual offending Meta-analytic comparison of the prevalence of childhood abuse histories in adult sex offenders
and adult non-sex offenders, as reported in 17 studies.
Meta-analysis No Emotional congruence with Sexual offending against Meta-analysis of 30 studies on the relationship between emotional congruence with children
children children and sexual offending against children.
Meta-analysis No Various Male adolescent sexual Meta-analysis of 59 studies assessing the relationship between various risk factors, including
offending victim empathy, impulsivity, and experiences of childhood physical and/or sexual abuse, with
male adolescent sexual offending.
Systematic No Various Sexual violence Systematic review of 191 studies that examine the community, relationship, and
review perpetration individual-level risk factors associated with sexual violence perpetration.
Meta-analysis No Family factors, self esteem, Sexual offending Meta-analysis of 89 studies assessing the relationship between family risk factors (including
empathy history of abuse, poor family functioning, and poor attachment/bonding), self-esteem, empathy,
and attachment, and perpetration of sexual offenses against children.

(D) Dating and partner violence (16)

*Baugher and Gazmararian Systematic No Masculine gender-role stress Violence towards Systematic review of 20 studies exploring the relationship between masculine gender-role
(2015) review women and homosexual stress and violence committed against women and homosexual males.

D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436

men
*Beyer, Wallis, and Hamberger Systematic No Neighborhood environment Intimate partner Systematic review of 36 articles on the relationship between residential and neighborhood
(2015) review violence environmental factors and intimate partner violence in adult samples.
*Capaldi, Knoble, Shortt, and Systematic Yes Various Intimate partner Systematic review of 228 studies investigating risk factors, including demographic, family,
Kim (2012) review violence community and neighborhood level factors, for intimate partner violence in adult and
adolescent samples.
*Costa et al. (2015) Systematic Yes Various Domestic violence Systematic review of 25 longitudinal studies exploring the relationship between domestic
review violence perpetration and victimization in adults with several risk factors, including
socio-economic status, parenting variables, IQ, impulsivity, education attainment, childhood
neglect and maltreatment.
*Fry, McCoy, and Swales (2012) Systematic No Child maltreatment Intimate partner Systematic review of 106 studies, conducted in the East Asia and Pacic region that explore the
review violence relationship between childhood maltreatment and various outcomes, including intimate partner
violence perpetration in adulthood (3 studies).
*Garthe et al. (2016) Meta-analysis No Peer risk factors Adolescent dating Meta-analytic synthesis of 27 studies on the relationship between peer risk factors (i.e. peers'
violence violent dating behaviors, peers' aggressive and/or antisocial behavior, and peer victimization) on
adolescent dating violence.
*Gil-Gonzlez, Vives-Cases, Systematic No Child neglect/abuse Intimate partner Systematic review of 10 studies on the relationship between childhood experiences of violence
Ruiz, Carrasco-Portio, and review violence and intimate partner violence perpetration as adults.
lvarez-Dardet (2007)
*James et al. (2013) Meta-analysis No Education level, Domestic violence Meta-analysis of risk factors associated with domestic violence against pregnant women,
socioeconomic status including low education level and low socioeconomic status, across 55 studies.
*Johnson, Parker, Rinehart, Systematic No Neighborhood factors Adolescent dating Systematic review of 20 studies evaluating the association between neighborhood factors and
Nail, and Rothman (2015) review violence adolescent dating violence.
*de Jong et al. (2015) Systematic No Childhood sex abuse Offending Systematic review of 51 studies exploring the impact of childhood sexual abuse on various adult
review outcomes, including offending-related outcomes such as intimate partner violence perpetration.
Schumacher, Feldbau-Kohn, Systematic No Various Intimate partner Systematic review of risk factors for male-to-female partner physical abuse.
Slep, and Heyman (2001) review violence
*Shamu, Abrahams, Systematic No Low socioeconomic status Intimate partner Systematic review of 19 studies investigating risk factors associated with intimate partner
Temmerman, Musekiwa, and review violence violence against pregnant women in African countries.
Zarowsky (2011)
*Smith-Marek et al. (2015) Meta-analysis No Childhood experiences of Intimate partner Meta-analytic review of 124 studies of the effect of childhood experiences of violence, both
violence violence between parents and against children, on adult intimate partner violence perpetration and
victimization.
*Stith et al. (2004) Meta-analysis No Income, employment Intimate partner Meta-analysis of 85 studies exploring risk factors associated with intimate partner physical
violence abuse perpetration and victimization.
*Van der Ende et al. (2012) Meta-analysis Yes Community-level Intimate partner Meta-analysis of 17 studies assessing community-level correlates of intimate partner violence
violence against women in global populations.
*West (2016) Systematic No Economic stress, male Intimate partner Systematic review of 7 studies assessing risk factors associated with intimate partner violence
review dominance, male privilege violence against female African immigrants.
a
Does the study present results independently for longitudinal studies.
 D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436 31

Table 3
Main results of 20 meta-analyses.

Reference Results

(A) Crime and violence (7)

*Derzon (2010)
*Jolliffe and Farrington (2004)
*van Langen et al. (2014)
*Leschied et al. (2008)
*Murray et al. (2012)
*Ogilvie et al. (2014)
*Pratt et al. (2006)
Predictors of criminal behavior: broken home (r = 0.095), child rearing (r = 0.257), discipline (r = 0.171), socioeconomic status (r = 0.129),
family size (r = 0.110), family stress (r = 0.214), home discord (r = 0.110), child maltreatment (r = 0.213), parent antisocial behavior
(r = 0.150), urban housing (r = 0.133), parental warmth (r = 0.177)
For empathy versus offending, d = 0.28; for cognitive empathy, d = 0.48; for affective empathy, d = 0.11
For cognitive empathy versus offending, d = 0.43; for affective empathy versus offending, d = 0.19
Early childhood predictors of adult criminality: family structure (d = 0.16), adverse family environment (d = 0.16)
Parental incarceration predicted criminal behavior (OR = 1.6), even after controlling for parental criminality (OR = 1.4)
Attachment security was negatively related to offending (d = 0.44)
Maternal cigarette smoking predicted criminal behavior (Zr = 0.098)

(B) Delinquency (4)

*Assink et al. (2015)
*Hoeve et al. (2009)
*Hubbard and Pratt (2002)
*Stams et al. (2006)
Risk factors for persistent delinquency: school/employment (d = 0.295), family (d = 0.250)
Relationships with delinquency: parental support (r = 0.19), authoritative control (r = 0.12), physical punishment (r = 0.10),
inconsistent discipline (r = 0.20)
Associations with female delinquency: family relationships (r = 0.17), school relationships (r = 0.25), physical or sexual abuse (r = 0.21),
IQ (r = 0.16)
Juvenile delinquents have a lower stage of moral judgment (d = 0.76)

(C) Sex offending (5)

*Babchishin et al. (2015)
*Jespersen et al. (2009)
*McPhail et al. (2013)
*Seto and Lalumire (2010)
*Whitaker et al. (2008)
Compared with child pornography offenders, sex offenders against children have lower victim empathy (d = 0.53), greater emotional
identication with children (d = 0.20), a detached approach to romantic relationships (d = 0.28), and greater childhood difculties and
abuse (d = 0.26)
Adult sex offenders are more likely to have a history of sexual abuse than adult non-sex offenders (OR =3.36)
Compared with non-sex offenders, extra-familial sex offenders have greater emotional congruence with children (d = 0.58)
Male adolescent sex offenders are more likely to have experienced sexual abuse (d = 0.62), physical abuse (d = 0.19), and emotional
abuse or neglect (d = 0.28)
Sex offenders against children differ from non-sex offenders in family risk factors (d = 0.329), cognitions (d = 0.507), history of sexual
abuse (d = 0.70), history of physical abuse (d = 0.49), anxiety (d = 0.28), and low self-esteem (d = 0.25)

(D) Dating and partner violence (4)

*Garthe et al. (2016)
*James et al. (2013)
*Smith-Marek et al. (2015)
*Stith et al. (2004)
Peer dating violence (r = 0.30), peer aggressive/antisocial behavior (r = 0.20), and victimization by peers (r = 0.22) are all related to
adolescent dating violence perpetration and victimization
Domestic violence during pregnancy was associated with victims who were single (OR = 2.27) and had a lower educational level
(OR = 2.56) in developed countries
Adult intimate partner violence perpetration was predicted by witnessing interparental abuse (r = 0.24) and experiencing child abuse (r = 0.22)
Intimate partner violence perpetration was associated with low income offenders (r = 0.08), poorly educated offenders (r = 0.13),
unemployed offenders (r = 0.10), and depression (r = 0.23)

included more than 100 studies (e.g., *Hoeve et al., 2009). Some reviews
were restricted to prospective longitudinal studies (e.g. *Derzon, 2010;
*Sarkadi, Kristiansson, Oberklaid, & Bremberg, 2008), while other re-
views presented results separately for longitudinal studies (e.g. *Van
der Ende, Yount, Dynes, & Sibley, 2012). It is easier to draw conclusions
about possible causal effects from prospective longitudinal studies than
from cross-sectional studies (see e.g., Murray, Farrington, & Eisner,
2009). Table 2 shows key features of each systematic review.
Some reviews were only systematic reviews, while others also car-
ried out a meta-analysis and reported weighted mean effect sizes.
Table 3 shows the main results from the 20 reviews that included
meta-analyses. The most commonly reported effect size was Cohen's d
(10 reviews), followed by the product moment correlation r (6 re-
views), and the Odds Ratio OR (3 reviews). One review (*Pratt,
McGloin, & Fearn, 2006) converted r to z(r) using the Fisher transforma-
tion, on the grounds that the sampling distribution of z(r) was normal,
whereas the sampling distribution of r was skewed. These 20 systematic
reviews will now be described in more detail.
*Derzon (2010) carried out one of the most impressive meta-
analyses, relating numerous family risk factors to criminal, violent, and
other types of antisocial behavior. His meta-analysis was based on pro-
spective longitudinal studies, but many predictions were over short
time periods (less than four years in 55% of cases), many outcome vari-
ables were measured at relatively young ages (up to age 15 in 40% of
cases), and many studies were relatively small (less than 200 participants
in 43% of cases). The strongest predictors of criminal or violent behavior
were low parental education (r = 0.30 for criminal behavior), poor pa-
rental supervision (r = 0.29 for violent behavior), poor child rearing skills
(r = 0.26 for criminal behavior), parental discord (r = 0.26 for criminal
behavior), and large family size (r = 0.24 for violent behavior). Notably
weak predictors were young parents, broken homes, and low socioeco-
nomic status.
*Leschied, Chiodo, Nowicki, and Rodger (2008) reviewed numerous
childhood and adolescent predictors of adult criminality, but unfortu-
nately they combined individual risk factors into larger categories,
such as parental management, family structure, and adverse family en-
vironment. All of these categories predicted adult criminality. The other
meta-analyses of risk factors for crime and violence were more specic,
focusing on empathy (*Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004; *van Langen,
Wissink, van Vugt, van der Stouwe, & Stams, 2014), parental incarcera-
tion (*Murray, Farrington, & Sekol, 2012), attachment (*Ogilvie,
Newman, Todd, & Peck, 2014), and maternal cigarette smoking during
pregnancy (*Pratt et al., 2006).
The researchers sometimes compared overall effect sizes with effect
sizes after controlling for other risk factors. For example, *Jolliffe and
Farrington (2004) found that affective empathy was not related to
offending after controlling for intelligence or socioeconomic status,
but cognitive empathy continued to be related to offending after con-
trolling for these other risk factors. *Murray et al. (2012) concluded
that parental incarceration predicted criminal behavior even after con-
trolling for parental criminality, suggesting that incarceration had an ef-
fect over and above the intergenerational transmission of criminality.
*Hoeve et al. (2009) carried out a very impressive meta-analysis of
parenting risk factors versus delinquency. They reported results for
both general categories such as low parental support and for individual
risk factors such as low parental affection and low parental involve-
ment. Numerous parental categories and individual parental risk factors
were signicantly related to delinquency. In contrast, *Assink et al.
(2015) reported the relationship between 14 risk domains and persis-
tent delinquency, but not results for individual risk factors. Similarly,
32 D.P. Farrington et al. / Aggression and Violent Behavior 33 (2017) 2436
*Hubbard and Pratt (2002) reported meta-analytic results for risk factor
domains versus female delinquency. The fourth meta-analytic review of
delinquency, by *Stams et al. (2006), was more narrowly focused on the
moral judgment of delinquents.
*Babchishin, Hanson, and Van Zuylen (2015) reported a very wide-
ranging review and meta-analysis comparing risk factors for child
pornography-only offenders, (ofine) sex offenders against children,
and (mixed) offenders with both child pornography and contact sex of-
fenses against children. They concluded that child pornography-only of-
fenders had greater psychological barriers against sex offending, such as
greater victim empathy. *Whitaker et al. (2008) also reported a wide-
ranging review and meta-analysis of risk factors for child sexual
abuse, while *Seto and Lalumire (2010) presented an extensive review
and meta-analysis of risk factors for adolescent male sexual offending.
The other reviews in the sex offender category were more specic, fo-
cusing on risk factors for child sexual abuse (*Jespersen, Lalumire, &
Seto, 2009) and on emotional congruence with children (*McPhail,
Hermann, & Nunes, 2013).
*Stith, Smith, Penn, Ward, and Tritt (2004) carried out a wide-
ranging review of risk factors for intimate partner physical violence per-
petration and victimization. Among the most important risk factors for
perpetration were illicit drug use, low marital satisfaction, and attitudes
condoning marital violence. *James, Brody, and Hamilton (2013) also
carried out a wide-ranging review, of risk factors for domestic violence
during pregnancy in developed and developing countries. The other
two reviews in this category were more specic, focusing on peer risk
factors (*Garthe, Sullivan, & McDaniel, 2016) and childhood experiences
of family violence (*Smith-Marek et al., 2015).
4. Conclusions
Perhaps rather surprisingly, it was possible to locate relatively few
(only 42) systematic reviews of risk factors for violence, offending,
and delinquency. Even fewer (only 20) reviews have carried out
meta-analyses or reviewed a wide range of risk factors, as *Derzon
(2010) did. However, systematic reviews and meta-analyses of individ-
ual risk factors, such as low empathy or child abuse, are also extremely
valuable. It is clear that more systematic reviews and meta-analyses of
risk factors are needed to advance knowledge. Some of the existing re-
views report the strength of relationships between risk factors and out-
comes, but more information about this is needed. Information about
relative effect sizes is important in developing and testing theories. It
is highly desirable to have reviews of longitudinal studies, reviews
that focus on explanatory risk factors, and reviews that report both
overall effect sizes and effect sizes after controlling for other risk factors.
These types of reviews should signicantly advance knowledge about
possible causal risk factors for violence, offending, and delinquency. In
turn, they should help in designing the next generation of intervention
studies that target important risk factors.
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